The relationship between physical activity and general self-efficacy: a three-way interaction model

The relationship between physical activity and general self-efficacy: a three-way interaction model | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Article The relationship between physical activity and general self-efficacy: a three-way interaction model Chong Liu, Zifan Ding, Zongchen Sun, Hanwen Chen, Tianci Lu, Jun Yan This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-4422173/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract General self-efficacy is crucial for university students who are about to enter the workplace and society. However, the association between physical activity, a widely recognized and convenient way to promote various psychological qualities, and general self-efficacy or other aspects of self-efficacy is often overlooked. Through psychological measurements of 480 university students, this study found that social comparison orientation and perceived social support jointly moderate the impact of physical activity on general self-efficacy among university students. Specifically, under conditions of high social comparison orientation and high levels of perceived social support, physical activity has a significant predictive effect on individuals' general self-efficacy. These findings suggest that universities and social institutions should pay attention to the importance of physical activity for university students' general self-efficacy. By encouraging their participation in physical activity and providing appropriate social support, they can help them establish positive self-evaluation and confidence to better cope with future challenges and difficulties. Biological sciences/Psychology Biological sciences/Psychology/Human behaviour Physical activity Social comparison orientation Perceived social support General self-efficacy Three-way interaction. Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Introduction Self-efficacy is defined as individuals' beliefs in their own abilities to exert influence over events that affect their lives 1 . Since its introduction by Bandura in 1977, this concept has gradually become an important research topic in fields such as psychology and sociology. Regarding the study of self-efficacy, some scholars argue that self-efficacy is domain-specific, meaning that individuals possess different levels of self-efficacy in different domains. On the other hand, some scholars propose the existence of a general self-efficacy, which represents an overall confidence characteristic in individuals' assessments and perceptions of their overall abilities 2 . This confidence characteristic is crucial for university students who are about to enter the workforce and society. A confident attitude and belief can help them overcome challenges and pursue goals with motivation. When they believe in their ability to cope with various challenges, they will have the courage to try new things, accept new challenges, and learn and grow from them. Existing evidence also suggests that general self-efficacy is closely related to university students' life satisfaction and happiness 3 . Physical activity, as a healthy lifestyle, has been increasingly recognized by the public. To enhance health and reduce the risk of chronic diseases and depression, the World Health Organization recommends that adults engage in 150-300 minutes of moderate-intensity physical activity per week 4 . Most of the existing research in the field of physical activity typically views self-efficacy as exercise self-efficacy 5-6 , while neglecting the association between individuals' physical activity behavior and general self-efficacy or other aspects of self-efficacy. However, can we definitively say that there is no association between individuals' physical activity and general self-efficacy or other aspects of self-efficacy? Currently, we cannot provide a definite answer. Relevant studies have shown that the level of physical activity among university students is a predictor of positive factors such as psychological resilience 7 and happiness 8 , both of which have been confirmed by numerous evidence to be closely related to individuals' general self-efficacy 9-10 . Therefore, it is reasonable to proposes Hypothesis 1: Physical exercise can predict individuals' general self-efficacy. Social comparison theory suggests that when individuals evaluate their abilities and opinions without an objective physical basis, they tend to compare themselves to others 11 . From the perspective of social comparison direction, it can be divided into upward comparison and downward comparison 12 . Additionally, some scholars argue that individuals may choose to compare themselves with individuals who possess specific attributes related to their behavioral performance, which is known as parallel comparison 13 . Under this prevalent social phenomenon, comparing oneself to others can have various effects on an individual's psychological state and self-efficacy 14 . However, the impact of different directions of social comparison on individuals' self-conceptual changes is not always consistent. In certain situations, upward comparison may also lead to positive evaluations, while downward comparison may lead to negative evaluations, depending on individual differences 15 . Therefore, based on existing evidence, it can be concluded that different directions of social comparison can influence individuals' self-efficacy, but the underlying mechanisms of this influence have not yet reached a consensus. However, it is evident that the impact of social comparison on individuals' self-efficacy is moderated by individual differences, which Gibbons and Buunk define as social comparison orientation 16 , a variable that reflects inter-individual differences in social comparison. Meanwhile, research has reported a close relationship between inter-individual social comparison differences and aerobic physical activity 17 . It has also been found that social comparison orientation can moderate college students' motivation for physical activity after viewing fitness posts 18 , and individual physical activity is closely related to their self-efficacy. Based on the above analysis, it is reasonable to speculate that the interaction between social comparison orientation and physical activity may influence college students' general self-efficacy. Therefore, the present study proposes Hypothesis 2: Social comparison orientation moderates the process by which physical activity influences general self-efficacy. Bandura's triadic reciprocal determinism theory posits that an individual's process of survival and development is a mutually influencing and determining process involving internal factors, behavior, and the environment 19 . Social support, as one of the external influences on individuals, plays an important role in their process of survival and development. Cohen defines social support as the psychological and physical resources provided by social networks to individuals, which can come from their families, friends, and other sources 20 . Social support can be categorized into two types: objective social support and perceived social support. Objective social support refers to the actual support received by individuals, which includes the help provided by people around them when they face stress 21 . Perceived social support, on the other hand, refers to individuals' subjective perception and evaluation of the external support they receive 22 . In practical application, objective social support includes various forms of tangible support in different aspects. Due to privacy concerns, individuals may not accurately report this type of actual social support. Perceived social support, as individuals' subjective experience of such support, better reflects their psychological reality, and psychological reality can more significantly influence their behavior and development 23 . Therefore, in this study, social support specifically refers to individuals' perceived social support. Physical activity, as an individual's behavior, and social comparison orientation and self-efficacy as individual factors, when social comparison orientation moderates the process by which physical activity influences individuals' general self-efficacy, the level of perceived social support can affect individuals' social comparison orientation and level of physical activity 24-25 . Therefore, it is reasonable to speculate that the level of perceived social support can moderate the process of social comparison orientation regulation. Hence, the present study proposes Hypothesis 3: Perceived social support moderates the process by which social comparison tendencies moderating physical activity influence general self-efficacy among college students. The hypothesized model Figure 1 is shown below: Methods Participants A convenience sampling method was used to distribute an electronic questionnaire to 509 college students at a university in Jiangsu Province, China. The students in this university come from various regions across the country. Prior to the distribution of the electronic questionnaire, each participant signed an informed consent form. Additionally, this study received guidance and assistance in questionnaire design and data collection from professionals in the field of psychology who were not directly involved in the study. Questionnaires were excluded from analysis if they had more than two-thirds of the questions unanswered or if all selected options were the same (e.g., all options selected as "satisfied"). A total of 480 valid questionnaires were included in the analysis, which were completed in their entirety and correctly answered the control questions. The sample consisted of 262 male students and 218 female students, with an average age of 19.16±1.07 years. Instruments Physical activity rating scale The Chinese version of the Physical Activity Rating Scale (PARS) was developed in collaboration with Koshio Hashimoto and Deqing Liang 26 . The single dimension has 3 entries of exercise intensity, exercise time, and exercise frequency. The scoring formula is: physical activity = physical activity intensity × (physical activity time-1) × physical activity frequency, and the higher the score, the greater the amount of physical activity of the individual. Perceived social support scale The Perceived Social Support Scale developed by Zimet et al 22 and translated and revised by Qianjin Jiang 27 , which consists of 12 entries and consists of 3 dimensions: support within the family, support from friends, and other support. Likert 7-point scoring, 1 (totally disagree) - 7 (totally agree). The formula is calculated by summing the total scores, with higher scores indicating a higher level of perceived social support for the individual. General Self-Efficacy Scale The General Self-Efficacy Scale developed by Schwarzer et al 2 and translated and revised by Caikang Wang et al 28 , which has 10 entries in a single dimension and is scored on a 4-point Likert scale, 1 (not at all correct) - 4 (completely correct). The formula is to add up the total scores, and the higher the score, the stronger the individual's general self-efficacy. Social Comparison Orientation Scale Social Comparison Orientation Scale developed by Gibbons and Buunk 16 and translated and revised by Mingji Wang et al. 11 entries consisting of two dimensions: viewpoint social comparison and ability social comparison. Likert 5-point scoring, 1 (not at all) - 5 (fully). The formula is calculated by summing the total scores, with higher scores indicating that individuals are more inclined to make social comparisons. Statistical analysis plan The reliability of the research instrument was measured using Smartpls 3.2.9, and the data were analyzed by Harman's one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) using SPSS 27.0, and then first- and second-order moderated effects were analyzed using Model 1 and Model 3 in the Process plug-in of the macros program prepared by Hayes. P < 0.05 was set as statistically significant. Results Reliability and validity tests of research instruments Cronbach's alpha coefficient is a commonly used measure of internal consistency reliability. However, Cronbach's alpha only considers the internal consistency of the measurement tool and does not account for other factors that may influence measurement results. Therefore, in this study, we comprehensively assessed the measurement tool used by examining the Average Variance Extracted (AVE) and Composite Reliability (CR) coefficients, as well as the discriminant validity based on the Fornell-Larcker criterion. Building on previous research recommendations and experiences 29-30 , we reduce the the dimensionality of high-order variables of "perceived social support" and "social comparison tendency" in Smartpls for measurement. The results in Table 1 and Table 2 indicate that the research instruments used in this study demonstrates good reliability and validity. Common Method Biases The data in this study were obtained from self-administered questionnaires, so common method bias needed to be controlled and tested. The measured experimental data were included in SPSS 27.0, Harman one-way method was used, and the maximum variance rotated principal axis method was used to extract six factors with eigenroots greater than 1. The 1st common factor variance explained was 31.73%, which is less than 40%. It suggests that there is no serious common method bias. Moderating effects test We utilized Model 3 from Process 4.1 to test the moderation effects among variables. Prior to conducting the moderation analysis, all variables were standardized to mitigate issues of multicollinearity between the interaction terms and the independent and moderator variables. We employed a bias-corrected percentile bootstrap method with 5000 resamples to test the moderated mediation model. The results are presented in Table 3. First, in Model 1 (M1), it was found that physical activity had a significant main effect on general self-efficacy. College students' physical activity significantly predicted their general self-efficacy ( β =0.165, p <0.001), supporting H1. In Model 2 (M2), utilizing Model 1 in the Process plugin, we tested the moderation effect of social comparison orientation on the relationship between physical activity and general self-efficacy. The results indicated that the second-order interaction term between physical activity and social comparison orientation was not significant in predicting general self-efficacy ( β =0.053, p >0.05), thus failing to support H2. In Model 3 (M3), using Model 3 in the Process plugin, we tested the three-way interaction effect among physical activity, social comparison orientation, and perceived social support on general self-efficacy. The results showed that the three-way interaction term was significant in predicting general self-efficacy ( β =0.077, p <0.05), indicating that perceived social support moderated the moderation effect of social comparison orientation, thus supporting H3. Furthermore, the results obtained from M1 and M2 were consistent with the findings in the M3 analysis. To further understand the moderating effect of second-order adjustment on the impact of physical activity on general self-efficacy among college students, a simple slope analysis was conducted and a moderation effect graph (Table 4 and Figure 2) was plotted. According to Table 4, when social comparison orientation is at a lower level (M-1SD), regardless of the level of perceived social support, there is no significant main effect of physical activity on general self-efficacy. Similarly, when individual's perceived social support is at a lower level (M-1SD), there is also no significant main effect of physcial activity on general self-efficacy. However, in other situations, the main effect of exercise on general self-efficacy is significant. Discussion Main effects analysis of physical activity and general self-efficacy This study found that physical activity in college students is a predictor of their general self-efficacy. By engaging in physical activity, individuals can improve their physical health and fitness levels, and gain a sense of achievement in their physical endeavors. This sense of achievement can translate into a general self-efficacy, which refers to an individual's confidence and belief in their abilities in other areas. Additionally, research has shown that achievement motivation is an important variable influencing college students' general self-efficacy 31 . Achievement motivation refers to an individual's motivation to pursue goals, achieve success, and experience a sense of accomplishment. In the process of engaging in physical activity, individuals can set specific exercise goals, and as they consistently strive and ultimately achieve these goals, they experience a sense of accomplishment and satisfaction. This psychological achievement and satisfaction further contribute to their self-efficacy. Moreover, overcoming difficulties and fatigue, persisting in exercise, and achieving personal goals also cultivate positive qualities such as perseverance and resilience in individuals 10 . The enhancement of these positive qualities can have a positive impact on individuals' lives and work, enabling them to face various challenges and difficulties outside the realm of physical activity with confidence and competence. Furthermore, social identity theory posits that an individual's self-identity and sense of belonging are based on their connection and identification with social groups. Within the campus context, physical activity provides college students with a platform for social interaction, which can facilitate the establishment and strengthening of interpersonal relationships, thereby increasing individuals' sense of identification and belonging within the social group. Additionally, in this process, individuals perceive support and encouragement from others who share similar interests, and it has been found that these positive influences from external social sources and the enhancement of identification have a positive effect on individuals' general self-efficacy 32 . Nedeljkovic conducted a 12-week randomized controlled trial utilizing Taiji, a form of leisure physical activity derived from traditional Chinese martial arts, and confirmed that this form of physical activity can indeed enhance individuals' general self-efficacy 33 . Therefore, based on the above analysis, this study suggests that the influence of physical activity on individual self-efficacy is not limited to specific domains but can extend to various aspects of individuals' lives. Physical activity can enhance individuals' general self-efficacy by increasing their self-confidence, resilience, cultivating perseverance and determination, as well as promoting the development of social and teamwork skills. This, in turn, enables individuals to approach challenges and achieve goals with greater confidence and competence in various universal domains. Moderated analysis of moderating effects Although the current study did not confirm social comparison orientation as a first-order moderator of the relationship between physical activity and general self-efficacy, it did find a significant three-way interaction effect of physical activity ×social comparison orientation×perceived social support on the dependent variable. Specifically, under conditions of high social comparison orientation and high perceived social support (M+1SD), the interaction effect ( β =0.266, p <0.001) was greater than the main effect ( β =0.165, p <0.001) of physical activity. This suggests that the impact of social comparison orientation on the main effect may only manifest under certain specific conditions. Therefore, the second-order moderation effect of social comparison orientation×perceived social support is the focus of discussion in this study. As evident from the results in Table 4, when individuals have low levels of social comparison orientation, the main effect of physical activity on general self-efficacy is not significant, regardless of the level of perceived social support. Social comparison is a common phenomenon in daily life, constantly influencing individuals' behavior and efficacy, including during physical activity. For example, during running activities, individuals may consciously or unconsciously compare their speed with their peers or others. In the gym, both men and women may engage in comparisons related to physical appearance 34 . Research has indicated that male college students who engage in positive social comparison at the gym experience a sense of confidence that extends beyond the exercise environment, and social support can buffer the negative effects of negative comparisons 35 . However, it is important to note that these research findings are based on the premise that these individuals have a tendency for social comparison or are actively engaging in social comparison. If individuals have a low social comparison orientation, they may not compare themselves with others during physical activity, and they may not even participate in physical activities that involve strong comparisons. Therefore, the impact of any type of physical activities on their general self-efficacy is minimal. And perceived social support refers to the support and encouragement individuals perceive from others in their social environment. For individuals with low social comparison orientation, they are more focused on their own internal standards and values and are less inclined to compare themselves with others. Therefore, for individuals with low social comparison orientation, the influence of high or low levels of external social support on the relationship between physical activity and general self-efficacy is relatively small. However, this does not mean that we can neglect this group; appropriate support and guidance are still necessary. When individuals have a moderate to high level of social comparison orientation and simultaneously perceive a moderate to high level of social support, the main effect of physical activity on self-efficacy is significant under these conditions. According to the simple slope analysis graph (Figure 2), it can be observed that under the conditions of high perceived social support and high social comparison orientation, for every unit increase in physical activity, general self-efficacy increases by 0.27 units, which is significantly higher than the 0.17 units in Model 1. It is understandable that individuals who tend to engage in social comparison are more likely to compare themselves with others during physical activity, and they compare themselves in various aspects. For example, during various types of physical activity, they may compare who runs faster, who lifts heavier weights, or who has a better physique 34 . In the process of comparison, the perception of high levels of social support from others can help them establish a reference for social comparison. When they perceive encouragement and recognition from others, they may have more confidence in their abilities and feel satisfied with their performance. This sense of identification and satisfaction further enhances their general self-efficacy. However, it is important to acknowledge that individuals with high levels of perceived social support themselves may already have high levels of general self-efficacy 32 . This is why, under the interaction of high social comparison orientation and high perceived social support, the main effect of physical activity on general self-efficacy is higher than its main effect in non-conditional situations. Although there is limited research specifically focused on individuals with high social comparison orientation, in a few studies examining individuals with different levels of social comparison orientation, it has been found that individuals with high social comparison orientation can mitigate the negative effects through downward social comparison 36 . This finding has sparked new considerations: Do individuals with high social comparison orientation selectively engage in downward social comparison when comparing themselves to others? (Because downward social comparison is often easier and can effortlessly boost individuals' self-confidence). The findings of this study also have implications for universities and government institutions in assisting college students in facing future societal challenges, such as cultivating their self-confidence and resilience. Increasing investment in their physical exercise may be a convenient and effective approach. However, it is important to provide appropriate guidance for individuals with different social comparison orientations. Particularly for college students who may be more inclined towards introspection and self-evaluation, offering suitable social support and recognition is crucial. Limitations Like other cross-sectional studies, this study collected data at a single time point, which limits the ability to establish causal relationships between variables. Additionally, while the data collection in this study included students from universities across the country, it is important to acknowledge that the sample may not be fully representative. Nevertheless, this study confirms the significance of physical activity, a behavior closely related to people's lives, as an important predictor of general self-efficacy. Furthermore, it is the first study to comprehensively consider social comparison and social support, two important variables associated with individuals' well-being and development, within a single framework. Future research could further explore the mediating mechanisms through which physical activity influences general self-efficacy and investigate whether the second-order interaction of social comparison and social support also plays a role in other studies. Conclusion Physical activity is a significant predictor of college students' general self-efficacy and is co-regulated by individual social comparison orientation and levels of perceived social support in this process. Declarations E thics approval All procedures performed in studies involving human participants were in accordance with the ethical standards of the institutional and/or national research committee and with the 1964 Helsinki Declaration and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards. The study was approved by the Bioethics Committee of the Medical College of Yangzhou University (No. YXYLL-2023-139). Informed consent Informed consent was obtained from all individual participants included in the study. C onflict of interest All authors certify that they have no affiliations with or involvement in any organization or entity with any financial interest or non-financial interest in the subject matter or materials discussed in this manuscript. Data availability The datasets generated during or analysed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request. Funding No funding was used to support this research and/or the preparation of the manuscript. Acknowledgments We thank the teachers and principals who helped us in this study. A uthor Contributions Chong Liu drafted and wrote the manuscript, participated in data collection, reviewed and edited the manuscript. Zifan Ding participated in the design of the study and assisted in data collection. Zongchen Sun assisted in data collection. Hanwen Chen participated in the design, reviewed the manuscript. Tianci Lu assisted in the submission of the ethical and R&D applications. Jun Yan conceptualized the idea and participated in the study design and reviewed the manuscript. References Bandura, A. Syntax of referencing in Self-efficacy (ed. Ramachaudran.) 71-78 (Academic Press, 1994). Schwarzer, R., Bäßler, J., Kwiatek, P., Schröder, K., & Zhang, J. X. The assessment of optimistic self ‐ beliefs: comparison of the German, Spanish, and Chinese versions of the general self ‐ efficacy scale. J. Applied psychology, 46, 69-88 (1997). Van Zyl, Y., & Dhurup, M. Self-efficacy and its relationship with satisfaction with life and happiness among university students. J. Journal of Psychology in Africa, 28, 389-393 (2018). Bull, F. C., Al-Ansari, S. S., Biddle, S., Borodulin, K., Buman, M. P., et al. World Health Organization 2020 guidelines on physical activity and sedentary behaviour. J. British journal of sports medicine, 54, 1451-1462 (2020). Pauline, J. Physical activity behaviors, motivation, and self-efficacy among college students. J College Student Journal, 47, 64-74 (2013). Joseph, R. P., Royse, K. E., Benitez, T. J., & Pekmezi, D. W. Physical activity and quality of life among university students: exploring self-efficacy, self-esteem, and affect as potential mediators. J Quality of life research, 23, 659-667 (2014). Yu, J. J., & Ye, J. C. Resilience is associated with physical activity and sedentary behaviour recommendations attainment in Chinese university students. J Complementary Therapies in Clinical Practice, 101747 (2023). Zhang, Z., He, Z., & Chen, W. The relationship between physical activity intensity and subjective well-being in college students. J Journal of American College Health, 70, 1241-1246 (2022). Tong, Y., & Song, S. A Study on General Self-Efficacy and Subjective Well-Being of Low SES College Students in a Chinese University. J College Student Journal, 38, 637-642 (2004). Mei, X., Wang, H., Wang, X., Wu, X., Wu, J., et al. Associations among neuroticism, self-efficacy, resilience and psychological distress in freshman nursing students: a cross-sectional study in China. J BMJ open, 12, e059704 (2022). Festinger, L. A theory of social comparison processes. J Human relations, 7, 117-140 (1954). Gibbons, F. X., & Gerrard, M. Effects of upward and downward social comparison on mood states. J Journal of social and clinical psychology, 8, 14-31 (1989). Goethals, G.R., & Darley, J. Syntax of referencing in Social comparison processes: Theoretical and empirical perspectives. (eds. Suls, J. M & R.L. Miller.) 259–278 (Hemisphere Publishing,1977). Steyn, R., & Mynhardt, J. Factors that influence the forming of self-evaluation and self-efficacy perceptions. J South African Journal of Psychology, 38, 563-573 (2008). Suls, J., Martin, R., & Wheeler, L. Social comparison: Why, with whom, and with what effect?. J Current directions in psychological science, 11, 159-163 (2002). Gibbons, F. X., & Buunk, B. P. Individual differences in social comparison: development of a scale of social comparison orientation. J Journal of personality and social psychology, 76, 129 (1999). Arigo, D., & Butryn, M. L. Prospective relations between social comparison orientation and weight loss outcomes. J Behavioral Medicine, 45, 249-254 (2019). Pasko, K., & Arigo, D. The roles of social comparison orientation and regulatory focus in college students’ responses to fitspiration posts on social media: cross-sectional study. J JMIR Mental Health, 8, e26204. (2021) Bandura, A. Human agency in social cognitive theory. J American psychologist, 44, 1175 (1989). Cohen, S., & Wills, T. A. Stress, social support, and the buffering hypothesis. J Psychological bulletin, 98, 310 (1985). Junjie, Y. Perceived Social Support,Enacted Social Support and Depression in a Sample of College Students. J Psychological Science, 29, 1141-1143+1131 (2006). Zimet, G. D., Dahlem, N. W., Zimet, S. G., & Farley, G. K. The multidimensional scale of perceived social support. J Journal of personality assessment, 52, 30-41 (1988). Thoits, P. A. Syntax of referencing in Psychosocial stress: Trends in theory and research (ed. Kaplan, H. B.) 33–103 (Academic, 1983) Glozah, F. N., & Pevalin, D. J. Perceived social support and parental education as determinants of adolescents’ physical activity and eating behaviour: a cross-sectional survey. J International journal of adolescent medicine and health, 27, 253-259 (2015). Du, X., Zhou, M., Mao, Q., Luo, Y., & Chen, X. Positive aging: social support and social well-being in older adults-the serial mediation model of social comparison and cognitive reappraisal. J Current Psychology, 42, 22429-22435 (2023). Deqing, L. Stress level and its relationship with physical exercise of college students. J Chinese Mental Health Journal, 8, 5-6 (1994). Qianjin J. Syntax of referencing in Handbook of Mental Health Assessment Scales (eds. Xiangdong, W, Xilin, W., & Hong, M) 131-133 (China Journal of Mental Health Press, 1999) Caikang, W., Zhongfeng, H., & Yong, L. Evidences for reliability and validity of the Chinese version of general self-efficacy scale. J Chinese Journal of Applied Psychology, 7, 37-40 (2001). Sarstedt, M., Hair, J. F., Jr., Cheah, J. H., Becker, J. M., & Ringle, C. M. How to specify, estimate, and validate higher-order constructs in PLS-SEM. J Australasian Marketing Journal, 27, 197-211 (2019). Yang, S., Isa, S. M., & Ramayah, T. Does uncertainty avoidance moderate the effect of self-congruity on revisit intention? A two-city (Auckland and Glasgow) investigation. J Journal of Destination Marketing & Management, 24, 100703 (2022). Li, N., Yang, Y., Zhao, X., & Li, Y. The relationship between achievement motivation and college students’ general self-efficacy: A moderated mediation model. J Frontiers in Psychology, 13, 1031912 (2023). Guan, M., & So, J. Influence of social identity on self-efficacy beliefs through perceived social support: A social identity theory perspective. J Communication Studies, 67, 588-604. (2016) Nedeljkovic, M., Wepfer, V., Ausfeld-Hafter, B., Wirtz, P. H., & Streitberger, K. M. Influence of general self-efficacy as a mediator in Taiji-induced stress reduction–Results from a randomized controlled trial. J European Journal of Integrative Medicine, 5, 284-290 (2013). Pila, E., Stamiris, A., Castonguay, A., & Sabiston, C. M. Body-related envy: A social comparison perspective in sport and exercise. J Journal of sport and exercise psychology, 36, 93-106 (2014). Lamarche, L., Gammage, K. L., & Ozimok, B. The gym as a culture of body achievement: Exploring negative and positive body image experiences in men attending university. J SAGE Open, 8, 2158244018778103 (2018). Buunk, B. P., Oldersma, F. L., & De Dreu, C. K. Enhancing satisfaction through downward comparison: The role of relational discontent and individual differences in social comparison orientation. J Journal of experimental social psychology, 37, 452-467 (2001). Tables Table 1 Analysis of variable reliability and validity Variables Items Loadings (0.7)(Hair et al., 2020) CR (0.7)(Hair et al., 2020) AVE (0.5)(Fornell & Larcker, 1981) Cronbach’s α (0.7) SCO Viewpoint social comparison 0.83 0.86 0.76 0.79 Ability social comparison 0.91 PSS Family support 0.92 0.96 0.88 0.96 Friends Support 0.95 Other support 0.95 GSE SE1 0.75 0.95 0.64 0.94 SE2 0.82 SE3 0.77 SE4 0.72 SE5 0.81 SE6 0.81 SE7 0.81 SE8 0.85 SE9 0.83 SE10 0.85 PA PA1 0.87 0.86 0.67 0.76 PA2 0.89 PA3 0.67 SOC =Social Comparison Orientation, PSS =Perceived social support, GES =General Self-Efficacy, PA =Physical Activity Table 2 Distinguishing validity analysis SCO PSS GES PA SCO 0.87 PSS 0.09 0.94 GES 0.18 0.47 0.80 PA 0.17 0.82 0.18 0.82 Table 3 Moderated effects test with moderation Variables GSE M1 M2 M3 PA 0.165*** 3.666 0.146** 3.204 0.097* 2.275 SCO 0.109* 2.365 0.055 1.277 PA×SCO 0.053 1.262 0.072 1.761 PSS 0.425*** 10.189 PA×PSS 0.023 0.581 SCO×PSS 0.026 0.686 PA×SCO×PSS 0.077* 2.324 R 2 0.027 0.043 0.249 F 13.441*** 7.045*** 22.325*** *P<0.05; **P<0.01; ***P<0.001 Table 4 Conditional moderated main effects SCO PSS Effect SE P-value LLCI ULCI PA→GES M-1SD M-1SD 0.079 0.099 0.427 -0.116 0.274 M-1SD M 0.026 0.064 0.684 -0.099 0.151 M-1SD M+1SD -0.027 0.069 0.696 -0.162 0.108 M M-1SD 0.074 0.063 0.243 -0.050 0.197 M M 0.097 0.042 0.023 0.013 0.180 M M+1SD 0.120 0.053 0.024 0.016 0.223 M+1SD M-1SD 0.068 0.069 0.324 -0.068 0.204 M+1SD M 0.167 0.052 0.002 0.064 0.270 M+1SD M+1SD 0.266 0.069 0.001 0.130 0.402 Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Cite Share Download PDF Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. Our growing team is made up of researchers and industry professionals working together to solve the most critical problems facing scientific publishing. Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-4422173","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":305109488,"identity":"61f224ae-4812-499e-8131-2b69ac2c7980","order_by":0,"name":"Chong Liu","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Yangzhou University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Chong","middleName":"","lastName":"Liu","suffix":""},{"id":305109490,"identity":"8112eced-8c2d-4021-8f2e-21a2a3355496","order_by":1,"name":"Zifan Ding","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Yangzhou University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Zifan","middleName":"","lastName":"Ding","suffix":""},{"id":305109491,"identity":"9ea205f5-e462-4df9-9e79-3e8bcc0e4297","order_by":2,"name":"Zongchen Sun","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Yangzhou University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Zongchen","middleName":"","lastName":"Sun","suffix":""},{"id":305109493,"identity":"01d05c0c-2de6-4dcd-9a91-4937489893bf","order_by":3,"name":"Hanwen Chen","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Yangzhou University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Hanwen","middleName":"","lastName":"Chen","suffix":""},{"id":305109494,"identity":"57ab5069-1872-400a-a5fb-9883d9e7da49","order_by":4,"name":"Tianci Lu","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Yangzhou University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Tianci","middleName":"","lastName":"Lu","suffix":""},{"id":305109495,"identity":"fbfc3a29-86cb-421c-9cf7-21bd8eef231e","order_by":5,"name":"Jun Yan","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAAzUlEQVRIiWNgGAWjYJACAwYGGwiLhwQtaSRqAYLDJGgxOH72QDHvjvOJ82ckMD5428Ygb05Qy5m8BGPeM7cTG2ckMBvObWMw3NlASMuBHANj3rbbic0SCWzSvG0MCQYHCGk5/wak5Vxim0QC+2/itNwA23IgsQdoCzNRWiRvvDEAeiHZeAbPw2bJOeckDDcQ0sJ3PsfM4G2bnez89uSDH96U2cgTtEXhAAMbMCoZHBsYGBuAtAQB9UAg38DA/ABI2xNWOgpGwSgYBSMWAABHjj8u0YCqmAAAAABJRU5ErkJggg==","orcid":"","institution":"Yangzhou University","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Jun","middleName":"","lastName":"Yan","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2024-05-15 03:08:16","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-4422173/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-4422173/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":57447941,"identity":"ced39410-3b9e-4c2c-91e7-f7348dfc6497","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-05-30 19:51:57","extension":"jpg","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":23325,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eHypothetical model\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"1.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4422173/v1/945158a2e7ee547616a303ea.jpg"},{"id":57447940,"identity":"179147a2-cb11-47be-a9db-91a216b5e872","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-05-30 19:51:57","extension":"jpg","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":49719,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eSecond-order moderating effect of social comparison orientation x perceived social support\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"2.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4422173/v1/ac51aa867ebd85425219df2c.jpg"},{"id":58687373,"identity":"c1c6a900-fe5f-47a7-8e8b-c51a7d1e0f18","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-06-19 20:40:39","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":615351,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4422173/v1/29d23f90-7129-4a17-a432-2518bce42222.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"The relationship between physical activity and general self-efficacy: a three-way interaction model","fulltext":[{"header":"Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eSelf-efficacy is defined as individuals' beliefs in their own abilities to exert influence over events that affect their lives\u003csup\u003e1\u003c/sup\u003e. Since its introduction by Bandura in 1977, this concept has gradually become an important research topic in fields such as psychology and sociology. Regarding the study of self-efficacy, some scholars argue that self-efficacy is domain-specific, meaning that individuals possess different levels of self-efficacy in different domains. On the other hand, some scholars propose the existence of a general self-efficacy, which represents an overall confidence characteristic in individuals' assessments and perceptions of their overall abilities\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e. This confidence characteristic is crucial for university students who are about to enter the workforce and society. A confident attitude and belief can help them overcome challenges and pursue goals with motivation. When they believe in their ability to cope with various challenges, they will have the courage to try new things, accept new challenges, and learn and grow from them. Existing evidence also suggests that general self-efficacy is closely related to university students' life satisfaction and happiness\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ePhysical activity, as a healthy lifestyle, has been increasingly recognized by the public. To enhance health and reduce the risk of chronic diseases and depression, the World Health Organization recommends that adults engage in 150-300 minutes of moderate-intensity physical activity per week\u003csup\u003e4\u003c/sup\u003e. Most of the existing research in the field of physical activity typically views self-efficacy as exercise self-efficacy\u003csup\u003e5-6\u003c/sup\u003e, while neglecting the association between individuals' physical activity behavior and general self-efficacy or other aspects of self-efficacy. However, can we definitively say that there is no association between individuals' physical activity and general self-efficacy or other aspects of self-efficacy? Currently, we cannot provide a definite answer. Relevant studies have shown that the level of physical activity among university students is a predictor of positive factors such as psychological resilience\u003csup\u003e7\u003c/sup\u003eand happiness\u003csup\u003e8\u003c/sup\u003e, both of which have been confirmed by numerous evidence to be closely related to individuals' general self-efficacy\u003csup\u003e9-10\u003c/sup\u003e. Therefore, it is reasonable to proposes Hypothesis 1: Physical exercise can predict individuals' general self-efficacy.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSocial comparison theory suggests that when individuals evaluate their abilities and opinions without an objective physical basis, they tend to compare themselves to others\u003csup\u003e11\u003c/sup\u003e. From the perspective of social comparison direction, it can be divided into upward comparison and downward comparison\u003csup\u003e12\u003c/sup\u003e. Additionally, some scholars argue that individuals may choose to compare themselves with individuals who possess specific attributes related to their behavioral performance, which is known as parallel comparison\u003csup\u003e13\u003c/sup\u003e. Under this prevalent social phenomenon, comparing oneself to others can have various effects on an individual's psychological state and self-efficacy\u003csup\u003e14\u003c/sup\u003e. However, the impact of different directions of social comparison on individuals' self-conceptual changes is not always consistent. In certain situations, upward comparison may also lead to positive evaluations, while downward comparison may lead to negative evaluations, depending on individual differences\u003csup\u003e15\u003c/sup\u003e. Therefore, based on existing evidence, it can be concluded that different directions of social comparison can influence individuals' self-efficacy, but the underlying mechanisms of this influence have not yet reached a consensus. However, it is evident that the impact of social comparison on individuals' self-efficacy is moderated by individual differences, which Gibbons and Buunk define as social comparison orientation\u003csup\u003e16\u003c/sup\u003e, a variable that reflects inter-individual differences in social comparison. Meanwhile, research has reported a close relationship between inter-individual social comparison differences and aerobic physical activity\u003csup\u003e17\u003c/sup\u003e. It has also been found that social comparison orientation can moderate college students' motivation for physical activity after viewing fitness posts\u003csup\u003e18\u003c/sup\u003e, and individual physical activity is closely related to their self-efficacy. Based on the above analysis, it is reasonable to speculate that the interaction between social comparison orientation and physical activity may influence college students' general self-efficacy. Therefore, the present study proposes Hypothesis 2: Social comparison orientation moderates the process by which physical activity influences general self-efficacy.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBandura's triadic reciprocal determinism theory posits that an individual's process of survival and development is a mutually influencing and determining process involving internal factors, behavior, and the environment\u003csup\u003e19\u003c/sup\u003e. Social support, as one of the external influences on individuals, plays an important role in their process of survival and development. Cohen defines social support as the psychological and physical resources provided by social networks to individuals, which can come from their families, friends, and other sources\u003csup\u003e20\u003c/sup\u003e. Social support can be categorized into two types: objective social support and perceived social support. Objective social support refers to the actual support received by individuals, which includes the help provided by people around them when they face stress\u003csup\u003e21\u003c/sup\u003e. Perceived social support, on the other hand, refers to individuals' subjective perception and evaluation of the external support they receive\u003csup\u003e22\u003c/sup\u003e. In practical application, objective social support includes various forms of tangible support in different aspects. Due to privacy concerns, individuals may not accurately report this type of actual social support. Perceived social support, as individuals' subjective experience of such support, better reflects their psychological reality, and psychological reality can more significantly influence their behavior and development\u003csup\u003e23\u003c/sup\u003e. Therefore, in this study, social support specifically refers to individuals' perceived social support.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ePhysical activity, as an individual's behavior, and social comparison orientation and self-efficacy as individual factors, when social comparison orientation moderates the process by which physical activity influences individuals' general self-efficacy, the level of perceived social support can affect individuals' social comparison orientation and level of physical activity\u003csup\u003e24-25\u003c/sup\u003e. Therefore, it is reasonable to speculate that the level of perceived social support can moderate the process of social comparison orientation regulation. Hence, the present study proposes Hypothesis 3: Perceived social support moderates the process by which social comparison tendencies moderating physical activity influence general self-efficacy among college students. The hypothesized model Figure 1 is shown below:\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Methods","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eParticipants\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eA convenience sampling method was used to distribute an electronic questionnaire to 509 college students at a university in Jiangsu Province, China. The students in this university come from various regions across the country. Prior to the distribution of the electronic questionnaire, each participant signed an informed consent form. Additionally, this study received guidance and assistance in questionnaire design and data collection from professionals in the field of psychology who were not directly involved in the study. Questionnaires were excluded from analysis if they had more than two-thirds of the questions unanswered or if all selected options were the same (e.g., all options selected as \u0026quot;satisfied\u0026quot;). A total of 480 valid questionnaires were included in the analysis, which were completed in their entirety and correctly answered the control questions. The sample consisted of 262 male students and 218 female students, with an average age of 19.16\u0026plusmn;1.07 years.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eInstruments\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003ePhysical activity rating scale\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe Chinese version of the Physical Activity Rating Scale (PARS) was developed in collaboration with Koshio Hashimoto and Deqing Liang\u003csup\u003e26\u003c/sup\u003e. The single dimension has 3 entries of exercise intensity, exercise time, and exercise frequency. The scoring formula is: physical activity = physical activity intensity \u0026times; (physical activity time-1) \u0026times; physical activity frequency, and the higher the score, the greater the amount of physical activity of the individual.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003ePerceived social support scale\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe Perceived Social Support Scale developed by Zimet et al\u003csup\u003e22\u003c/sup\u003e and translated and revised by Qianjin Jiang\u003csup\u003e27\u003c/sup\u003e, which consists of 12 entries and consists of 3 dimensions: support within the family, support from friends, and other support. Likert 7-point scoring, 1 (totally disagree) - 7 (totally agree). The formula is calculated by summing the total scores, with higher scores indicating a higher level of perceived social support for the individual.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eGeneral Self-Efficacy Scale\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe General Self-Efficacy Scale developed by Schwarzer et al\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e and translated and revised by Caikang Wang et al\u003csup\u003e28\u003c/sup\u003e, which has 10 entries in a single dimension and is scored on a 4-point Likert scale, 1 (not at all correct) - 4 (completely correct). The formula is to add up the total scores, and the higher the score, the stronger the individual\u0026apos;s general self-efficacy.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eSocial Comparison Orientation Scale\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSocial Comparison Orientation Scale developed by Gibbons and Buunk\u003csup\u003e16\u003c/sup\u003e and translated and revised by Mingji Wang et al. 11 entries consisting of two dimensions: viewpoint social comparison and ability social comparison. Likert 5-point scoring, 1 (not at all) - 5 (fully). The formula is calculated by summing the total scores, with higher scores indicating that individuals are more inclined to make social comparisons.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eStatistical analysis plan\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe reliability of the research instrument was measured using Smartpls 3.2.9, and the data were analyzed by Harman\u0026apos;s one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) using SPSS 27.0, and then first- and second-order moderated effects were analyzed using Model 1 and Model 3 in the Process plug-in of the macros program prepared by Hayes. P \u0026lt; 0.05 was set as statistically significant.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Results","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eReliability and validity tests of research instruments\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eCronbach\u0026apos;s alpha coefficient is a commonly used measure of internal consistency reliability. However, Cronbach\u0026apos;s alpha only considers the internal consistency of the measurement tool and does not account for other factors that may influence measurement results. Therefore, in this study, we comprehensively assessed the measurement tool used by examining the Average Variance Extracted (AVE) and Composite Reliability (CR) coefficients, as well as the discriminant validity based on the Fornell-Larcker criterion. Building on previous research recommendations and experiences\u003csup\u003e29-30\u003c/sup\u003e, we reduce the the dimensionality of high-order variables of \u0026quot;perceived social support\u0026quot; and \u0026quot;social comparison tendency\u0026quot; in Smartpls for measurement. The results in Table 1 and Table 2 indicate that the research instruments used in this study demonstrates good reliability and validity.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCommon Method Biases\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe data in this study were obtained from self-administered questionnaires, so common method bias needed to be controlled and tested. The measured experimental data were included in SPSS 27.0, Harman one-way method was used, and the maximum variance rotated principal axis method was used to extract six factors with eigenroots greater than 1. The 1st common factor variance explained was 31.73%, which is less than 40%. It suggests that there is no serious common method bias.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eModerating effects test\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWe utilized Model 3 from Process 4.1 to test the moderation effects among variables. Prior to conducting the moderation analysis, all variables were standardized to mitigate issues of multicollinearity between the interaction terms and the independent and moderator variables. We employed a bias-corrected percentile bootstrap method with 5000 resamples to test the moderated mediation model. The results are presented in Table 3.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFirst, in Model 1 (M1), it was found that physical activity had a significant main effect on general self-efficacy. College students\u0026apos; physical activity significantly predicted their general self-efficacy (\u003cem\u003e\u0026beta;\u003c/em\u003e=0.165, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026lt;0.001), supporting H1. In Model 2 (M2), utilizing Model 1 in the Process plugin, we tested the moderation effect of social comparison orientation on the relationship between physical activity and general self-efficacy. The results indicated that the second-order interaction term between physical activity and social comparison orientation was not significant in predicting general self-efficacy (\u003cem\u003e\u0026beta;\u003c/em\u003e=0.053, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026gt;0.05), thus failing to support H2. In Model 3 (M3), using Model 3 in the Process plugin, we tested the three-way interaction effect among physical activity, social comparison orientation, and perceived social support on general self-efficacy. The results showed that the three-way interaction term was significant in predicting general self-efficacy (\u003cem\u003e\u0026beta;\u003c/em\u003e=0.077, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026lt;0.05), indicating that perceived social support moderated the moderation effect of social comparison orientation, thus supporting H3. Furthermore, the results obtained from M1 and M2 were consistent with the findings in the M3 analysis.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTo further understand the moderating effect of second-order adjustment on the impact of physical activity on general self-efficacy among college students, a simple slope analysis was conducted and a moderation effect graph (Table 4 and Figure 2) was plotted. According to Table 4, when social comparison orientation is at a lower level (M-1SD), regardless of the level of perceived social support, there is no significant main effect of physical activity on general self-efficacy. Similarly, when individual\u0026apos;s perceived social support is at a lower level (M-1SD), there is also no significant main effect of physcial activity on general self-efficacy. However, in other situations, the main effect of exercise on general self-efficacy is significant.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMain effects analysis of physical activity and general self-efficacy\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis study found that physical activity in college students is a predictor of their general self-efficacy. By engaging in physical activity, individuals can improve their physical health and fitness levels, and gain a sense of achievement in their physical endeavors. This sense of achievement can translate into a general self-efficacy, which refers to an individual's confidence and belief in their abilities in other areas. Additionally, research has shown that achievement motivation is an important variable influencing college students' general self-efficacy\u003csup\u003e31\u003c/sup\u003e. Achievement motivation refers to an individual's motivation to pursue goals, achieve success, and experience a sense of accomplishment. In the process of engaging in physical activity, individuals can set specific exercise goals, and as they consistently strive and ultimately achieve these goals, they experience a sense of accomplishment and satisfaction. This psychological achievement and satisfaction further contribute to their self-efficacy. Moreover, overcoming difficulties and fatigue, persisting in exercise, and achieving personal goals also cultivate positive qualities such as perseverance and resilience in individuals\u003csup\u003e10\u003c/sup\u003e. The enhancement of these positive qualities can have a positive impact on individuals' lives and work, enabling them to face various challenges and difficulties outside the realm of physical activity with confidence and competence.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFurthermore, social identity theory posits that an individual's self-identity and sense of belonging are based on their connection and identification with social groups. Within the campus context, physical activity provides college students with a platform for social interaction, which can facilitate the establishment and strengthening of interpersonal relationships, thereby increasing individuals' sense of identification and belonging within the social group. Additionally, in this process, individuals perceive support and encouragement from others who share similar interests, and it has been found that these positive influences from external social sources and the enhancement of identification have a positive effect on individuals' general self-efficacy\u003csup\u003e32\u003c/sup\u003e. Nedeljkovic conducted a 12-week randomized controlled trial utilizing Taiji, a form of leisure physical activity derived from traditional Chinese martial arts, and confirmed that this form of physical activity can indeed enhance individuals' general self-efficacy\u003csup\u003e33\u003c/sup\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTherefore, based on the above analysis, this study suggests that the influence of physical activity on individual self-efficacy is not limited to specific domains but can extend to various aspects of individuals' lives. Physical activity can enhance individuals' general self-efficacy by increasing their self-confidence, resilience, cultivating perseverance and determination, as well as promoting the development of social and teamwork skills. This, in turn, enables individuals to approach challenges and achieve goals with greater confidence and competence in various universal domains.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eModerated analysis of moderating effects\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAlthough the current study did not confirm social comparison orientation as a first-order moderator of the relationship between physical activity and general self-efficacy, it did find a significant three-way interaction effect of physical activity ×social comparison orientation×perceived social support on the dependent variable. Specifically, under conditions of high social comparison orientation and high perceived social support (M+1SD), the interaction effect (\u003cem\u003eβ\u003c/em\u003e=0.266, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026lt;0.001) was greater than the main effect (\u003cem\u003eβ\u003c/em\u003e=0.165, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026lt;0.001) of physical activity. This suggests that the impact of social comparison orientation on the main effect may only manifest under certain specific conditions. Therefore, the second-order moderation effect of social comparison orientation×perceived social support is the focus of discussion in this study.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAs evident from the results in Table 4, when individuals have low levels of social comparison orientation, the main effect of physical activity on general self-efficacy is not significant, regardless of the level of perceived social support. Social comparison is a common phenomenon in daily life, constantly influencing individuals' behavior and efficacy, including during physical activity. For example, during running activities, individuals may consciously or unconsciously compare their speed with their peers or others. In the gym, both men and women may engage in comparisons related to physical appearance\u003csup\u003e34\u003c/sup\u003e. Research has indicated that male college students who engage in positive social comparison at the gym experience a sense of confidence that extends beyond the exercise environment, and social support can buffer the negative effects of negative comparisons\u003csup\u003e35\u003c/sup\u003e. However, it is important to note that these research findings are based on the premise that these individuals have a tendency for social comparison or are actively engaging in social comparison. If individuals have a low social comparison orientation, they may not compare themselves with others during physical activity, and they may not even participate in physical activities that involve strong comparisons. Therefore, the impact of any type of physical activities on their general self-efficacy is minimal. And perceived social support refers to the support and encouragement individuals perceive from others in their social environment. For individuals with low social comparison orientation, they are more focused on their own internal standards and values and are less inclined to compare themselves with others. Therefore, for individuals with low social comparison orientation, the influence of high or low levels of external social support on the relationship between physical activity and general self-efficacy is relatively small. However, this does not mean that we can neglect this group; appropriate support and guidance are still necessary.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWhen individuals have a moderate to high level of social comparison orientation and simultaneously perceive a moderate to high level of social support, the main effect of physical activity on self-efficacy is significant under these conditions. According to the simple slope analysis graph (Figure 2), it can be observed that under the conditions of high perceived social support and high social comparison orientation, for every unit increase in physical activity, general self-efficacy increases by 0.27 units, which is significantly higher than the 0.17 units in Model 1. It is understandable that individuals who tend to engage in social comparison are more likely to compare themselves with others during physical activity, and they compare themselves in various aspects. For example, during various types of physical activity, they may compare who runs faster, who lifts heavier weights, or who has a better physique\u003csup\u003e34\u003c/sup\u003e. In the process of comparison, the perception of high levels of social support from others can help them establish a reference for social comparison. When they perceive encouragement and recognition from others, they may have more confidence in their abilities and feel satisfied with their performance. This sense of identification and satisfaction further enhances their general self-efficacy. However, it is important to acknowledge that individuals with high levels of perceived social support themselves may already have high levels of general self-efficacy\u003csup\u003e32\u003c/sup\u003e. This is why, under the interaction of high social comparison orientation and high perceived social support, the main effect of physical activity on general self-efficacy is higher than its main effect in non-conditional situations.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAlthough there is limited research specifically focused on individuals with high social comparison orientation, in a few studies examining individuals with different levels of social comparison orientation, it has been found that individuals with high social comparison orientation can mitigate the negative effects through downward social comparison\u003csup\u003e36\u003c/sup\u003e. This finding has sparked new considerations: Do individuals with high social comparison orientation selectively engage in downward social comparison when comparing themselves to others? (Because downward social comparison is often easier and can effortlessly boost individuals' self-confidence).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe findings of this study also have implications for universities and government institutions in assisting college students in facing future societal challenges, such as cultivating their self-confidence and resilience. Increasing investment in their physical exercise may be a convenient and effective approach. However, it is important to provide appropriate guidance for individuals with different social comparison orientations. Particularly for college students who may be more inclined towards introspection and self-evaluation, offering suitable social support and recognition is crucial.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eLimitations\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eLike other cross-sectional studies, this study collected data at a single time point, which limits the ability to establish causal relationships between variables. Additionally, while the data collection in this study included students from universities across the country, it is important to acknowledge that the sample may not be fully representative. Nevertheless, this study confirms the significance of physical activity, a behavior closely related to people's lives, as an important predictor of general self-efficacy. Furthermore, it is the first study to comprehensively consider social comparison and social support, two important variables associated with individuals' well-being and development, within a single framework. Future research could further explore the mediating mechanisms through which physical activity influences general self-efficacy and investigate whether the second-order interaction of social comparison and social support also plays a role in other studies.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003ePhysical activity is a significant predictor of college students\u0026apos; general self-efficacy and is co-regulated by individual social comparison orientation and levels of perceived social support in this process.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eE\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ethics approval\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAll procedures performed in studies involving human participants were in accordance with the ethical standards of the institutional and/or national research committee and with the 1964 Helsinki Declaration and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards. The study was approved by the Bioethics Committee of the Medical College of Yangzhou University (No. YXYLL-2023-139).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eInformed consent\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eInformed consent was obtained from all individual participants included in the study.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eC\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eonflict of interest\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAll authors certify that they have no affiliations with or involvement in any organization or entity with any financial interest or non-financial interest in the subject matter or materials discussed in this manuscript.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eData availability\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe datasets generated during or analysed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eFunding\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNo funding was used to support this research and/or the preparation of the manuscript.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eAcknowledgments\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWe thank the teachers and principals who helped us in this study.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eA\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003euthor Contributions\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eChong Liu drafted and wrote the manuscript, participated in data collection, reviewed and edited the manuscript. Zifan Ding participated in the design of the study and assisted in data collection. Zongchen Sun assisted in data collection. Hanwen Chen participated in the design, reviewed the manuscript. Tianci Lu assisted in the submission of the ethical and R\u0026amp;D applications. Jun Yan conceptualized the idea and participated in the study design and reviewed the manuscript.\u003c/p\u003e\n"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eBandura, A. Syntax of referencing in Self-efficacy (ed. Ramachaudran.) 71-78 (Academic Press, 1994).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eSchwarzer, R., B\u0026auml;\u0026szlig;ler, J., Kwiatek, P., Schr\u0026ouml;der, K., \u0026amp; Zhang, J. X. The assessment of optimistic self\u003c/strong\u003e‐\u003c/strong\u003ebeliefs: comparison of the German, Spanish, and Chinese versions of the general self\u003c/strong\u003e‐\u003c/strong\u003eefficacy scale. J. Applied psychology, 46, 69-88 (1997).\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eVan Zyl, Y., \u0026amp; Dhurup, M. Self-efficacy and its relationship with satisfaction with life and happiness among university students. J. Journal of Psychology in Africa, 28, 389-393 (2018).\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eBull, F. C., Al-Ansari, S. S., Biddle, S., Borodulin, K., Buman, M. P., et al. World Health Organization 2020 guidelines on physical activity and sedentary behaviour. J. British journal of sports medicine, 54, 1451-1462 (2020).\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003ePauline, J. Physical activity behaviors, motivation, and self-efficacy among college students. J College Student Journal, 47, 64-74 (2013).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eJoseph, R. P., Royse, K. E., Benitez, T. J., \u0026amp; Pekmezi, D. W. Physical activity and quality of life among university students: exploring self-efficacy, self-esteem, and affect as potential mediators. J Quality of life research, 23, 659-667 (2014).\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eYu, J. J., \u0026amp; Ye, J. C. Resilience is associated with physical activity and sedentary behaviour recommendations attainment in Chinese university students. J Complementary Therapies in Clinical Practice, 101747 (2023).\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eZhang, Z., He, Z., \u0026amp; Chen, W. The relationship between physical activity intensity and subjective well-being in college students. J Journal of American College Health, 70, 1241-1246 (2022).\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eTong, Y., \u0026amp; Song, S. A Study on General Self-Efficacy and Subjective Well-Being of Low SES College Students in a Chinese University. J College Student Journal, 38, 637-642 (2004).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eMei, X., Wang, H., Wang, X., Wu, X., Wu, J., et al. Associations among neuroticism, self-efficacy, resilience and psychological distress in freshman nursing students: a cross-sectional study in China. J BMJ open, 12, e059704 (2022).\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eFestinger, L. A theory of social comparison processes. J Human relations, 7, 117-140 (1954).\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eGibbons, F. X., \u0026amp; Gerrard, M. Effects of upward and downward social comparison on mood states. J Journal of social and clinical psychology, 8, 14-31 (1989).\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eGoethals, G.R., \u0026amp; Darley, J. Syntax of referencing in Social comparison processes: Theoretical and empirical perspectives. (eds. Suls, J. M \u0026amp; R.L. Miller.) 259\u0026ndash;278 (Hemisphere Publishing,1977).\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eSteyn, R., \u0026amp; Mynhardt, J. Factors that influence the forming of self-evaluation and self-efficacy perceptions. J South African Journal of Psychology, 38, 563-573 (2008).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eSuls, J., Martin, R., \u0026amp; Wheeler, L. Social comparison: Why, with whom, and with what effect?. J Current directions in psychological science, 11, 159-163 (2002).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eGibbons, F. X., \u0026amp; Buunk, B. P. Individual differences in social comparison: development of a scale of social comparison orientation. J Journal of personality and social psychology, 76, 129 (1999).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eArigo, D., \u0026amp; Butryn, M. L. Prospective relations between social comparison orientation and weight loss outcomes. J Behavioral Medicine, 45, 249-254 (2019).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003ePasko, K., \u0026amp; Arigo, D. The roles of social comparison orientation and regulatory focus in college students\u0026rsquo; responses to fitspiration posts on social media: cross-sectional study. J JMIR Mental Health, 8, e26204. (2021)\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eBandura, A. Human agency in social cognitive theory. J American psychologist, 44, 1175 (1989).\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eCohen, S., \u0026amp; Wills, T. A. Stress, social support, and the buffering hypothesis. J Psychological bulletin, 98, 310 (1985).\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eJunjie, Y. Perceived Social Support,Enacted Social Support and Depression in a Sample of College Students. J Psychological Science, 29, 1141-1143+1131 (2006).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eZimet, G. D., Dahlem, N. W., Zimet, S. G., \u0026amp; Farley, G. K. The multidimensional scale of perceived social support. J Journal of personality assessment, 52, 30-41 (1988).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eThoits, P. A. Syntax of referencing in Psychosocial stress: Trends in theory and research (ed. Kaplan, H. B.) 33\u0026ndash;103 (Academic, 1983)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eGlozah, F. N., \u0026amp; Pevalin, D. J. Perceived social support and parental education as determinants of adolescents\u0026rsquo; physical activity and eating behaviour: a cross-sectional survey. J International journal of adolescent medicine and health, 27, 253-259 (2015).\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eDu, X., Zhou, M., Mao, Q., Luo, Y., \u0026amp; Chen, X. Positive aging: social support and social well-being in older adults-the serial mediation model of social comparison and cognitive reappraisal. J Current Psychology, 42, 22429-22435 (2023).\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eDeqing, L. Stress level and its relationship with physical exercise of college students. J Chinese Mental Health Journal, 8, 5-6 (1994).\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eQianjin J. Syntax of referencing in Handbook of Mental Health Assessment Scales (eds. Xiangdong, W, Xilin, W., \u0026amp; Hong, M) 131-133 (China Journal of Mental Health Press, 1999)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eCaikang, W., Zhongfeng, H., \u0026amp; Yong, L. Evidences for reliability and validity of the Chinese version of general self-efficacy scale. J Chinese Journal of Applied Psychology, 7, 37-40 (2001).\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eSarstedt, M., Hair, J. F., Jr., Cheah, J. H., Becker, J. M., \u0026amp; Ringle, C. M. How to specify, estimate, and validate higher-order constructs in PLS-SEM. J Australasian Marketing Journal, 27, 197-211 (2019).\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eYang, S., Isa, S. M., \u0026amp; Ramayah, T. Does uncertainty avoidance moderate the effect of self-congruity on revisit intention? A two-city (Auckland and Glasgow) investigation. J Journal of Destination Marketing \u0026amp; Management, 24, 100703 (2022).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eLi, N., Yang, Y., Zhao, X., \u0026amp; Li, Y. The relationship between achievement motivation and college students\u0026rsquo; general self-efficacy: A moderated mediation model. J Frontiers in Psychology, 13, 1031912 (2023).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eGuan, M., \u0026amp; So, J. Influence of social identity on self-efficacy beliefs through perceived social support: A social identity theory perspective. J Communication Studies, 67, 588-604. (2016)\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eNedeljkovic, M., Wepfer, V., Ausfeld-Hafter, B., Wirtz, P. H., \u0026amp; Streitberger, K. M. Influence of general self-efficacy as a mediator in Taiji-induced stress reduction\u0026ndash;Results from a randomized controlled trial. J European Journal of Integrative Medicine, 5, 284-290 (2013).\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003ePila, E., Stamiris, A., Castonguay, A., \u0026amp; Sabiston, C. M. Body-related envy: A social comparison perspective in sport and exercise. J Journal of sport and exercise psychology, 36, 93-106 (2014).\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eLamarche, L., Gammage, K. L., \u0026amp; Ozimok, B. The gym as a culture of body achievement: Exploring negative and positive body image experiences in men attending university. J SAGE Open, 8, 2158244018778103 (2018).\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eBuunk, B. P., Oldersma, F. L., \u0026amp; De Dreu, C. K. Enhancing satisfaction through downward comparison: The role of relational discontent and individual differences in social comparison orientation. J Journal of experimental social psychology, 37, 452-467 (2001).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"},{"header":"Tables","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable 1\u003c/strong\u003e Analysis of variable reliability and validity\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eVariables\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eItems\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eLoadings\u003c/em\u003e(0.7)(Hair et al., 2020)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eCR\u003c/em\u003e(0.7)(Hair et al., 2020)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAVE\u003c/em\u003e(0.5)(Fornell \u0026amp; Larcker, 1981)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eCronbach\u0026rsquo;s \u0026alpha;\u003c/em\u003e(0.7)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSCO\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eViewpoint social comparison\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.83\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.86\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.76\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.79\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAbility social comparison\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.91\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"3\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePSS\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFamily support\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.92\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"3\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.96\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"3\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.88\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"3\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.96\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFriends Support\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.95\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eOther support\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.95\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"10\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eGSE\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSE1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.75\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"10\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.95\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"10\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.64\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"10\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.94\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSE2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.82\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSE3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.77\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSE4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.72\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSE5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.81\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSE6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.81\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSE7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.81\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSE8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.85\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSE9\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.83\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSE10\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.85\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"3\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePA\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePA1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.87\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"3\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.86\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"3\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.67\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"3\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.76\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePA2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.89\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePA3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.67\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSOC\u003c/em\u003e=Social Comparison Orientation, \u003cem\u003ePSS\u003c/em\u003e=Perceived social support, \u003cem\u003eGES\u003c/em\u003e=General Self-Efficacy, \u003cem\u003ePA\u003c/em\u003e=Physical Activity\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable 2\u003c/strong\u003e Distinguishing validity analysis\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" width=\"99%\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"22.448979591836736%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"22.448979591836736%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSCO\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"22.448979591836736%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePSS\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.3265306122449%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eGES\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.3265306122449%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePA\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"22.448979591836736%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSCO\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"22.448979591836736%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e0.87\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"22.448979591836736%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.3265306122449%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.3265306122449%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"22.448979591836736%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePSS\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"22.448979591836736%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.09\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"22.448979591836736%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e0.94\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.3265306122449%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.3265306122449%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"22.448979591836736%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eGES\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"22.448979591836736%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.18\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"22.448979591836736%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.47\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.3265306122449%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e0.80\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.3265306122449%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"22.448979591836736%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePA\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"22.448979591836736%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.17\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"22.448979591836736%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.82\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.3265306122449%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.18\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.3265306122449%\" valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e0.82\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e3 Moderated effects test with moderation\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003ctable border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" width=\"99%\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"22.22222222222222%\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eVariables\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"77.77777777777777%\" colspan=\"6\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eGSE\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"32.89473684210526%\" colspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eM1\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"31.57894736842105%\" colspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eM2\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"35.526315789473685%\" colspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eM3\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"22.68041237113402%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePA\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"15.463917525773196%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.165***\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"10.309278350515465%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.666\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.402061855670103%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.146**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"10.309278350515465%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.204\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"15.463917525773196%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.097*\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.371134020618557%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.275\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"22.68041237113402%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSCO\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"15.463917525773196%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"10.309278350515465%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.402061855670103%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.109*\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"10.309278350515465%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.365\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"15.463917525773196%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.055\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.371134020618557%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.277\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"22.68041237113402%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePA\u0026times;SCO\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"15.463917525773196%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"10.309278350515465%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.402061855670103%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.053\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"10.309278350515465%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.262\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"15.463917525773196%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.072\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.371134020618557%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.761\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"22.68041237113402%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePSS\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"15.463917525773196%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"10.309278350515465%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.402061855670103%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"10.309278350515465%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"15.463917525773196%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.425***\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.371134020618557%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10.189\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"22.68041237113402%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePA\u0026times;PSS\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"15.463917525773196%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"10.309278350515465%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.402061855670103%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"10.309278350515465%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"15.463917525773196%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.023\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.371134020618557%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.581\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"22.68041237113402%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSCO\u0026times;PSS\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"15.463917525773196%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"10.309278350515465%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.402061855670103%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"10.309278350515465%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"15.463917525773196%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.026\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.371134020618557%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.686\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"22.68041237113402%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePA\u0026times;SCO\u0026times;PSS\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"15.463917525773196%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"10.309278350515465%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.402061855670103%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"10.309278350515465%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"15.463917525773196%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.077*\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.371134020618557%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.324\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"22.448979591836736%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eR\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"25.510204081632654%\" colspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.027\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"24.489795918367346%\" colspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.043\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"27.551020408163264%\" colspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.249\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"22.448979591836736%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eF\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"25.510204081632654%\" colspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e13.441***\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"24.489795918367346%\" colspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7.045***\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"27.551020408163264%\" colspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e22.325***\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n \u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e*P\u0026lt;0.05; **P\u0026lt;0.01; ***P\u0026lt;0.001\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable 4\u003c/strong\u003e Conditional moderated main effects\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003ctable border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" width=\"99%\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.49484536082474%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.402061855670103%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSCO\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.402061855670103%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePSS\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"8.24742268041237%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eEffect\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"11.34020618556701%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSE\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.371134020618557%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eP-value\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.371134020618557%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLLCI\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.371134020618557%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eULCI\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.49484536082474%\" rowspan=\"9\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePA\u0026rarr;GES\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.402061855670103%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eM-1SD\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.402061855670103%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eM-1SD\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"8.24742268041237%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.079\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"11.34020618556701%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.099\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.371134020618557%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.427\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.371134020618557%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.116\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"12.371134020618557%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.274\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.049382716049383%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eM-1SD\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.049382716049383%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eM\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"9.876543209876543%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.026\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.580246913580247%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.064\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"14.814814814814815%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.684\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"14.814814814814815%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.099\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"14.814814814814815%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.151\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.049382716049383%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eM-1SD\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.049382716049383%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eM+1SD\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"9.876543209876543%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.027\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.580246913580247%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.069\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"14.814814814814815%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.696\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"14.814814814814815%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.162\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"14.814814814814815%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.108\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.049382716049383%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eM\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.049382716049383%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eM-1SD\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"9.876543209876543%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.074\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.580246913580247%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.063\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"14.814814814814815%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.243\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"14.814814814814815%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.050\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"14.814814814814815%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.197\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.049382716049383%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eM\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.049382716049383%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eM\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"9.876543209876543%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.097\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.580246913580247%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.042\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"14.814814814814815%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.023\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"14.814814814814815%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.013\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"14.814814814814815%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.180\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.049382716049383%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eM\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.049382716049383%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eM+1SD\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"9.876543209876543%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.120\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.580246913580247%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.053\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"14.814814814814815%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.024\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"14.814814814814815%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.016\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"14.814814814814815%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.223\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.049382716049383%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eM+1SD\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.049382716049383%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eM-1SD\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"9.876543209876543%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.068\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.580246913580247%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.069\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"14.814814814814815%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.324\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"14.814814814814815%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.068\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"14.814814814814815%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.204\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.049382716049383%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eM+1SD\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.049382716049383%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eM\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"9.876543209876543%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.167\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.580246913580247%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.052\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"14.814814814814815%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.002\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"14.814814814814815%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.064\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"14.814814814814815%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.270\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.049382716049383%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eM+1SD\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"16.049382716049383%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eM+1SD\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"9.876543209876543%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.266\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"13.580246913580247%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.069\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"14.814814814814815%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"14.814814814814815%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.130\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd width=\"14.814814814814815%\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.402\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n \u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Physical activity, Social comparison orientation, Perceived social support, General self-efficacy, Three-way interaction.","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-4422173/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-4422173/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eGeneral self-efficacy is crucial for university students who are about to enter the workplace and society. However, the association between physical activity, a widely recognized and convenient way to promote various psychological qualities, and general self-efficacy or other aspects of self-efficacy is often overlooked. Through psychological measurements of 480 university students, this study found that social comparison orientation and perceived social support jointly moderate the impact of physical activity on general self-efficacy among university students. Specifically, under conditions of high social comparison orientation and high levels of perceived social support, physical activity has a significant predictive effect on individuals' general self-efficacy. These findings suggest that universities and social institutions should pay attention to the importance of physical activity for university students' general self-efficacy. By encouraging their participation in physical activity and providing appropriate social support, they can help them establish positive self-evaluation and confidence to better cope with future challenges and difficulties.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"The relationship between physical activity and general self-efficacy: a three-way interaction model","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2024-05-30 19:51:53","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-4422173/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"5f1434b8-e08e-46d4-a601-391f998f9d17","owner":[],"postedDate":"May 30th, 2024","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[{"id":32214505,"name":"Biological sciences/Psychology"},{"id":32214506,"name":"Biological sciences/Psychology/Human behaviour"}],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2024-06-19T20:32:32+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2024-05-30 19:51:53","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-4422173","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-4422173","identity":"rs-4422173","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}