Fungal diversity and contamination of some selected medicinal plants in South Africa

Fungal diversity and contamination of some selected medicinal plants in South Africa | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Fungal diversity and contamination of some selected medicinal plants in South Africa Oluwaseun Mary Oladeji, Judith Zanele Phoku, Oluwasola Abayomi Adelusi, and 2 more This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-4563660/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Published Journal Publication published 21 Feb, 2025 Read the published version in Discover Life → Version 1 posted 10 You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Indigenous medicinal plants have gained attention worldwide for their ability to cure different ailments. However, there are concerns over the contamination of these plants by fungal species, which produce mycotoxins. This study investigated 36 different medicinal plants purchased from Faraday Muthi Market, Johannesburg, South Africa for fungal contamination using macro- and microscopic approaches, and their identities were confirmed by molecular means. The fungal loads of the mycoflora recovered from the medical plants ranged from 1.8 × 10 4 CFU/g to 2 × 10 7 CFU/g, exceeding the WHO regulatory limit of 1 x 10 3 CFU/g. Furthermore, a total of 164 fungal species from nine genera, including Aspergillus (39.6%), Penicillium (19.5%), and Fusarium (9.7%), other notable fungal genera such as Alternaria (5.5%), Mucor (5.4%), Rhizopus (5.4%), Chaetomium (4.2%), Cladosporium (3.6%), Emericella nidulans (3.6%) and Epicoccum (3.0%) were also recovered from the medicinal plants. Furthermore, A. niger (10.97%) was the most prevalent among all the identified fungal species. Consequently, consuming fungal-contaminated medicinal plants may increase the risk of exposure to fungal species, which might have a dire impact on human health. Therefore, this research underscores the importance of stringent quality control measures in the cultivation, harvesting, and processing of medicinal plants in South Africa and other African countries to mitigate fungal contamination risks. Medicinal plants fungal contamination Aspergillus Fusarium South Africa human health Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 1.0 Introduction Since ancient times, the use of medicinal plants has been integral to providing primary healthcare to human populations. Approximately 60–80% of the African population, particularly marginalized communities, depends on traditional healthcare practices, utilizing medicinal plants to cure a wide range of ailments affecting both animals and humans. These conditions include, but are not limited to, cancer, tuberculosis, epilepsy, typhoid, malaria, diabetes, and numerous others. [ 1 – 4 ]. Thus, the adoption of medicinal plants to treat several diseases may be linked to the innumerable side effects of synthetic drugs when compared to natural products, which have been demonstrated to be more beneficial to the body systems [ 5 – 7 ]. This preference could potentially be attributed to several other factors, including drug adulteration, the exorbitant cost associated with procuring Western medicines, the prevalence of drug resistance among users [ 8 , 9 ]. Globally, the use and demand for medicinal plants are on the rise as they contribute significantly to over 50% of all medicines used worldwide [ 2 , 10 , 11 ]. In the United States, 78.7% of the top prescribed drugs are based on natural products, while the reports in advanced countries showed that medicinal plants are extensively utilized because of the scientific evidences about their efficacy [ 2 , 12 , 13 ]. Furthermore, about 80% of Asian and African nations, including SA, frequently rely on medicinal plants for health care [ 14 – 16 ]. In South Africa (SA), the use of medicinal plants in traditional medicine has increased, with several indigenous and global enterprises vigorously exploring these resources as raw materials in the pharmaceutical industry (Matsabisa et al., 2022; Mothibe and Sibanda, 2019; Rybicki et al., 2012). As revealed by Van Wyk et al. (1997) and Zuma et al. (2016), over 200,000 traditional doctors, popularly known as Sangomas (diviners) and Inyangas (herbalists), exist in SA. The majority of people in the country, especially those in rural communities, depend entirely on the healing properties of medicinal plants prescribed by traditional doctors. This is due to the high cost of modern medicines and the increasing rate of unemployment, which has led many people to turn to traditional medicines for personal use and trading [ 17 , 18 ]. Apart from their therapeutic attributes, medicinal plants also contribute significantly to the economic prosperity of many countries. The trade of medicinal plants in SA generates millions of Rands, proving to be a lucrative enterprise for both rural communities and the entire nation [ 19 , 20 ]. The annual turnover of medicinal plants traded in the country is estimated to be more than R520 million and has employed about 130,000 people, particularly rural women, within the informal settlement [ 19 , 21 , 22 ]. Some SA medicinal plants popularly known include devil’s claw, African potato, buchu, aloe products and rooibos tea [ 23 ]. Interestingly, the demand for new phyto-medicines on the international scene has encouraged the exploration of traditional knowledge systems, which may intensify the demand for SA medicinal plants [ 20 , 24 , 25 ]. Despite their widespread use, health benefits, and socioeconomic importance, the safety of medicinal plants is often compromised by microbes, including a vast array of fungal taxa numbering over a million [ 26 – 29 ]. Many factors, such as geographical location, climatic patterns, physiology and specificity of colonized tissue, influence fungal contamination of medicinal plants [ 30 – 32 ]. Other factors include improper handling and porr storage conditions [ 32 , 33 ]. Numerous studies have documented the susceptibility of medicinal plants to fungal and mycotoxin contamination [ 34 – 40 ]. The growing usage and consumption of medicinal plants for health care and as food is undoubtedly becoming a public health concern due to a lack of information on their mycological qualities and safety [ 33 , 41 ]. Consequently, the contamination of medicinal plants by fungi is of great concern since fungal colonization can cause severe deterioration and spoilage of the plants, leading to numerous adverse effects on human health. Despite various research on fungal colonization of agricultural products in SA, there is little information on fungal contamination of medicinal plants in the country. Therefore, this study aimed to identify the fungal species colonizing SA medicinal plants and to evaluate the safety levels of the plants with respect to fungal contamination. 2.0 Materials and Methods 2.1 Sample collection A total of 36 medicinal plants of different types were randomly purchased from different points within a well-known location, Faraday Muthi market, in the Johannesburg metropolis of SA. These medicinal plants were selected based on their availability and popularity in terms of their usage. Apparently, healthy and disease-free parts of the plants including stem, root, and leaves were collected (Supplementary Table 1). The samples were transported to the fungal and mycotoxin laboratory at the University of Johannesburg, SA, in sterilized polythene bags and promptly analyzed to minimize the risk of additional contamination. 2.2 Fungal isolation and enumeration Firstly, the plant materials were surface sterilized by running them under tap water for 10 min to remove the dust and debris. Each sample was washed with 70% ethanol for 1 min, immersed in 1% sodium hypochlorite solution for 3–4 min, and finally rinsed three times with sterile distilled water. The excess moisture was allowed to surface dry on a sterile filter paper under aseptic conditions. After proper drying, samples were finely ground into powder using a sterile laboratory miller (LBIOG, ITM Instrument, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada). Fungal isolation was performed according to the method described by Njobeh et al. [ 42 ] and Adelusi et al. [ 43 ]. Briefly, 1 g of milled medicinal plant samples was weighed and transferred into a test tube containing 9 ml of sterile ringer salt solution, vortexed for 1 min and serially diluted further to 10 − 6 . After that, an aliquot of 1 ml from each test tube was inoculated onto potato dextrose agar (PDA) Petri dishes supplemented with chloramphenicol and streptomycin to inhibit bacterial growth. The inoculated plates were incubated at a temperature of 25 o C for 7 days and then observed for fungal colonies. The number of colonies on the agar plates was counted using a colony counter and expressed in colony-forming units per gram of sample (CFU/g sample) according to Eq. 1 . $$\text{C}\text{f}\text{u}/\text{g}=\frac{\text{N}\text{u}\text{m}\text{b}\text{e}\text{r} \text{o}\text{f} \text{c}\text{o}\text{l}\text{o}\text{n}\text{i}\text{e}\text{s} \times \text{r}\text{e}\text{c}\text{i}\text{p}\text{r}\text{o}\text{c}\text{a}\text{l} \text{o}\text{f} \text{t}\text{h}\text{e} \text{d}\text{i}\text{l}\text{u}\text{t}\text{i}\text{o}\text{n} \text{f}\text{a}\text{c}\text{t}\text{o}\text{r}}{\text{P}\text{l}\text{a}\text{t}\text{i}\text{n}\text{g} \text{v}\text{o}\text{l}\text{u}\text{m}\text{e} \left(1\text{m}\text{l}\right)}$$ 1 2.3 Morphological fungal identification After counting, single spore isolations were sub-cultured on PDA, czapek yeast extract agar (CYA), and malt extract agar (MEA) and then incubated for 7 days at 25°C. Pure isolated fungal colonies were harvested and mounted on microscope slides, stained with lactophenol cotton blue, and viewed under an optical microscope (Olympus CX40, Micro-Instruments New Zealand, Ltd). The identification of the fungal spp., including Fusarium spp., was achieved using the taxonomic keys and guides of [ 44 ] and [ 45 ]. On the other hand, the macro- and microscopic characteristics of the genera Alternaria , Aspergillus , Cladosporium , Penicillium and other fungal genera were identified following the identification keys of [ 46 – 49 ]. The relative density of genus/species were obtained following Eq. 2 . $$\text{R}\text{e}\text{l}\text{a}\text{t}\text{i}\text{v}\text{e} \text{d}\text{e}\text{n}\text{s}\text{i}\text{t}\text{y}=\frac{\text{N}\text{u}\text{m}\text{b}\text{e}\text{r} \text{o}\text{f} \text{i}\text{s}\text{o}\text{l}\text{a}\text{t}\text{e}\text{s} \text{o}\text{f} \text{a} \text{g}\text{e}\text{n}\text{u}\text{s} \text{o}\text{r} \text{s}\text{p}\text{e}\text{c}\text{i}\text{e} \text{c}\text{o}\text{l}\text{o}\text{n}\text{i}\text{e}\text{s} \text{X} 100}{\text{T}\text{o}\text{t}\text{a}\text{l} \text{n}\text{u}\text{m}\text{b}\text{e}\text{r} \text{o}\text{f} \text{f}\text{u}\text{n}\text{g}\text{i} \text{i}\text{s}\text{o}\text{l}\text{a}\text{t}\text{e}\text{d}}$$ 2 2.4 Molecular Analysis 2.4.1 DNA extraction When conventional methods of fungal identification failed, fungal isolates were transferred to Inqaba Biotechnological Laboratories in Pretoria, South Africa, for molecular confirmation. A bacterial/fungal DNA extraction kit (Zymo Research Corporation, Southern California, USA) was used to conduct genomic DNA analysis. Fungal cultures were freeze-dried and maintained at room temperature for one hour before being extracted for DNA. Approximately 60 mg of sample was combined with 200 µl of PBS in a 1.5 ml ZR Bashing BeadTM lysis tube. The lysis tube was placed in a beat beater and treated for 5 minutes, then centrifuged at 10,000 g for 1 minute. The supernatant was transferred to a 1.5 ml Eppendorf tube fitted with a Zymo-SpinTM IV spin filter and centrifuged at 7,000 g for 1 minute. The content was filtered into a collection tube, add 1,200 µl of fungal/bacterial DNA binding buffer, and vortex. The extraction mixture (800 µl) was transferred to a Zymo-SpinTM IIC column in the collecting tube and centrifuged at 10,000 g for 1 minute. The supernatant was discarded twice. To prepare the Zymo-SpinTM IIC column, add 200 µl of DNA pre-wash buffer I to a fresh collection tube and centrifuge at 10,000g for 1 minute. After discarding the filtrate, transfer the column to a fresh tube. Add 500 µl of bacterial/fungal DNA wash buffer II to the Zymo-SpinTM IIC column and centrifuge at 10,000 g for 1 minute. The Zymo-SpinTM column was transferred to a sterile 1.5 ml Eppendorf tube, and 100 µl of DNA elution buffer was directly added to the column matrix. The mixture was then centrifuged at 10,000 g for 30 seconds to extract the DNA. 2.4.2 Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) analysis The primer sequences were designed in conserved 5' and 3' regions. The two primers, ITS-1; 5'-TCC GTA GGT GAA CCT GCG G-3' (forward) and ITS-4; 5'-TCC TCC GCT TAT TGA TAT GC -3' (reverse), produced a 450 bp elongation factor product. Primers were produced at 0.01 µM and purified via reverse-phase cartridge purification (Inqaba Biotechnical Industries (Pty) Ltd, South Africa). The primers were re-suspended in 2 µM TE buffer with a stock solution concentration of 100 µM. Fermentas Life Science's 2 × PCR mix (Lithuania) was used for PCR analysis. The PCR mix for each sample included 25 µl of 2 × PCR mix, 1 µl of each 2 µM primer, 1 µl of DNA (final concentration of 10 µM), and up to 50 µl of nuclease-free water. A negative control with all reagents except the DNA was also prepared. The PCR was carried out using an Eppendorf 96-well Thermocycler (Eppendorf, USA). The PCR cycling parameters were established as follows: Pre-dwelling at 95 o C for 3 minutes, followed by 35 cycles of denaturation at 95 o C for 1 minute, annealing at 58 o C for 45 seconds, extension at 72 o C for 1 minute and 30 seconds, and post-dwelling at 72 o C for 10 minutes before being kept at 4 o C. 2.4.3 Agarose gel DNA electrophoresis A 2% agarose gel was made by dissolving 2 g of agarose (Fermentas Life Science, Lithuania) in 98 ml of 1x TBE buffer (Fermentas Life Science, Lithuania) and then boiled. The solution was chilled to about 60°C. Approximately 3 µl of ethidium bromide (Sigma-Aldrich, ST Louis, MO, USA) was well mixed into the solution. The agarose solution was transferred to a casting chamber (Bio-Rad Laboratories, California, USA), and a 10-well comb was placed into each well. The running system chambers (Bio-Rad Laboratories, California and USA) were filled with 1×TBE buffer (fermentas Life Science, Lithuania). PCR products (2 µl) were combined with 10 µl of 6×orange loading dye (Fermentas Life Science, Lithuania) and injected into wells. The closed chamber was ran @ 70 V for 15 minutes. The PCR result was seen with the Vacutec Gel documentation system, and its size was determined by comparing it to the Middle Range FastRuler (Fermentas Life Science, Lithuania). 2.4.4 DNA Sequencing and Phylogenetic Analysis The PCR products were cleaned using shrimp alkaline phosphatase and E. coli exonuclease I (Fermentas Life Sciences, Lithuania). The DNA purity was determined by passing it across a 2% agarose gel (as previously described). At Inqaba Biotechnical Industries (Pty) Ltd (Pretoria, RSA), automated DNA sequencing was performed using the ABI PRISM® 3700XL automated DNA Sequencer (Applied Biosystems, USA). The resulting ITS region chromatograms of forward and reverse fungal DNA sequences from this investigation were neatly combined, examined, and altered by Chromas Lite version 2.4 software (Technelysium Pty Ltd 2012). Harmony sequences were created by analyzing and editing nucleotide sequences with the BioEdit program (Hall, 1999). A sequence BLAST ( http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/ ) search was performed, and the nucleotide sequences of the fungal isolates were compared to entries in the NCBI web server's nucleotide database to determine the specific fungi. The sequence assessment of fungal isolates revealed 86%-100% identification similarities with reference spp. in the GenBank database. The resulting DNA sequences were aligned using Muscle, and the evolutionary tree was built using MEGA 7.0 [ 50 ]. The evolutionary link between fungal sequences generated from medicinal plant samples and their reference strains was identified using the maximum likelihood (ML) method described by [ 51 ]. The 1000 replications served as parameters for generating the phylogeny [ 52 ], with branches representing partitions that reproduced less than 50% of bootstrap replicates collapsed. The generated phylogenetic trees were then utilized to confirm the evolutionary link between the fungal spp. identified in this study and their GenBank relatives. All recovered fungus species were grown on PDA slants and stored in the University of Johannesburg's fungal and mycotoxin laboratory culture collection. 3.0 Results 3.1 Fungal Identification The fungal spp. were identified using both conventional and molecular approaches. Their conidia germinated on CYA, MEA and PDA at 25 o C within 7 days. Colour variations were noticed in the three media (Fig. 1 ). According to the phylogenetic analysis, the sequences were grouped into 4 clades (Figs. 2 ). Isolates AAP103 and AAP105 were grouped in clade 1 with confirmed A. fumigatus isolates (MN944466 and MN634372), while isolates AAP117 and AAP211 were associated with A. flavus (JQ675308) in clade 2 with 67% bootstrap value. Furthermore, isolates AAP115 was found with confirmed A. niger isolate (MK926405) in clade 3 with 100% bootstrap value. Lastly, isolate AAP112 was found in clade 4 with confirmed P. expansum isolates (MT738591 and KX243326). 3.2 Fungal contamination The fungal load in all the samples were determined and found to range from 1.8 × 10 4 to 2×10 7 CFU/g (Table 1 ). Putranjiva roxburgii , Schotia brachypetata and Elephantorriza elephantine each had the highest fungal load of (2×10 7 CFU/g). Meanwhile Acacia karoo was the least contaminated sample with a fungal load of 1.8 × 10 4 CFU/g. The overall mycological data in this study reveal that all the examined medicinal plants were contaminated by two or more fungal spp., with A . niger and A . fumigatus the most dominant fungal spp. co-occurring with one another in most of the medicinal plant samples. Table 1 Fungal load of selected South African medicinal plants ̽ (CFU/g) Plants Alternaria Aspergillus Penicillum Fusarium Cladosporium Chaetominum Emericella Epicoccum Mucor Rhizopus TOTAL BAN 1 (2.0×10 5 ) 2 (4.0×10 5 ) - 1 (2.0 ×10 5 ) - - - - 1 (2.0×10 5 ) - 5 (1.0×10 6 ) PBT - 3 (4.0×10 5 ) 1 (1.3×10 6 ) 1 (1.3×10 6 ) - - - - 1 (1.3×10 6 ) - 6 (8.0×10 6 ) KA - 2 (8.0×10 5 ) - 1 (4.0×10 5 ) - - 1 (4.0×10 5 ) - - - 4 (2.0×10 6 ) IMB - 2 (4.0×10 5 ) 1 (2.0×10 5 ) - - - - - - 1 (2.0×10 5 ) 4 (8.0×10 5 ) UMG 1 (1.1×10 6 ) - 1 (1.1×10 6 ) - - 1 (1.1×10 6 ) - - - - 3 (3.3×10 6 ) IPH - 3 (1.2×10 6 ) - 1 (4.1×10 6 ) - - - - - 1 (4.1×10 6 ) 5 (9.4×10 6 ) SE - 1 (4.1×10 6 ) 2 (8.2×10 6 ) - 1 (4.1×10 6 ) - - 1 (4.1×10 6 ) - - 5 (1.3×10 7 ) GOB - 3 (1.5×10 4 ) 1 (4.9×10 4 ) - - - - 1 (4.9×10 4 ) - - 5 (1.0×10 5 ) GIB 1 (2.0×10 6 ) 1 (2.0×10 6 ) 1 (2.0×10 6 ) - - - - - - 1 (3.0× 10 6 ) 4 (8.0×10 6 ) MAT - 2 (3.4×1 0 4 ) - - - 1 (1.7 × 10 5 ) - - - - 3 (5.0×10 6 ) IMY - 2 (2.6×10 4 ) 2 (2.6×10 4 ) - - - 1 (1.3×10 5 ) - - - 5 (1.8×10 4 ) AAT 1 (1.5×10 5 ) - 2 (3.0×10 5 ) 1 (1.5×10 5 ) - - 1 (1.3×10 5 ) - - - 5 (6.0×10 5 ) WS - 2 (3.6×10 4 ) - 1 (1.8×10 5 ) 1 (1.8×10 5 ) - - - - - 4 (4.0×10 5 ) INT - 2 (1.0×10 5 ) 2 (1.0×10 5 ) - - - 1 (5.6×10 4 ) - - - 5 (2.6×10 5 ) PT - 1 (4.4×10 5 ) 2 (8.8×10 5 ) - - 1 (4.4×10 5 ) - - - - 4 (2.0×10 6 ) MGA 1 (2.3×10 5 ) 2 (4.6×10 5 ) - - - - - - - 1 (2.3×10 5 ) 4 (9.2×10 4 ) HF - 2 (4.0×10 6 ) - 2 (4.0×10 6 ) - - - - 1 (2.0×10 6 ) - 5 (1.0×10 7 ) UBH - 1 (1.0×10 6 ) 1 (1.0×10 6 ) - - - - 1 (1.0×10 6 ) - 1 (1.0×10 6 ) 4 (4.0×10 6 ) ISH - 2 (2.0×106) - 1 (1.0×10 6 ) - 1 (1.0×10 6 ) - - - - 4 (4.0×106) UMX 1 (4.0×10 6 ) 2 (8.0×10 6 ) 1 (4.0×10 6 ) - - - - - 1 (4.0×10 6 ) - 5 (2.0×10 7 ) Plants Alternaria Aspergillus Penicillum Fusarium Cladosporium Chaetominum Emericella Epicoccum Mucor Rhizopus TOTAL IHI - 3 (4.0×10 6 ) 1 (1.3×10 6 ) - - - - - 1 (1.3×10 6 ) - 5 (6.6×10 6 ) MA - 2 (3.4×10 5 ) 2 (3.4×10 5 ) - - - - - - 1 (1.7×10 6 ) 5 (8.5×10 5 ) LB - 2 (8.0×10 6 ) 1 (4.0×10 6 ) - 1 (4.0×10 6 ) - 1 (4.0 ×10 6 ) - - - 5 (2.0×10 7 ) RP - 1 (1.4×10 6 ) 1 (1.4×10 6 ) 1 (1.4×10 6 ) - - - - - - 3 (5.6×10 6 ) CHI 1 (1.7×10 6 ) 3 (5.1×10 6 ) 1 (1.7×10 6 ) - - 1 (1.7×10 6 ) - - - - 6 (1.0×10 6 ) WG - 2 (3.0×10 6 ) - - - - 1 (1.5 ×10 6 ) - 1 (1.5×10 6 ) 4 (6.0×10 6 ) AWW - 2 (3.0×10 6 ) 1 (1.5×10 6 ) - - - - 1 (1.5×10 6 ) - 5 (7.5×10 6 ) CM 1 (2.2×10 6 ) 2 (4.4×10 6 ) - - 1 (2.2×10 6 ) - - - - 5 (9.0×10 6 ) MPI - 2 (2.1×10 6 ) 1 (1.1×10 6 ) 1 (1.1×10 6 ) - - - - - 4 (4.3×10 6 ) AMA - - 1 (8.2×10 5 ) - - - - 1 (8.2×10 5 ) 1 (8.2×10 5 ) 5 (5.0×10 6 ) AAL - 1 (5.0×10 5 ) - - - - 1 (5.0×10 5 ) - - 3 (2.0×10 6 ) MAH - 2 (4.0×10 6 ) - 1 (2.0×10 6 ) - - - 1 (2.0×10 6 ) - 4 (8.0×10 6 ) INZ 1 (1.0×10 6 ) 2 (2.0×10 6 ) 1 (1.0×10 6 ) - - 1 (1.0×10 6 ) - - - 6 (6.0×10 6 ) AP - 4 (4.0×10 6 ) - - 1 (1.0×10 6 ) - - - - 6 (6.0×10 6 ) UMD - - 1 (4.0×10 6 ) 1 (4.0×10 6 ) - 1 (4.0×10 6 ) - - - 4 (2.0×10 7 ) BL - 2 (2.0×10 6 ) 1(1.0×106) 1 (1.0×10 6 ) - - - - 1 (1.0×10 6 ) - 5 (5.0×10 6 ) ̽ - No of sample.-, BAN: Eriosema kraussianum , PBT: Warburgia salutaris , KA: Albizia adianthifolia , IMB: Foenicilum vulgare , UMG: Sclerocarya birrea , IPH: Viscum Album , SE: Merwilla linearis , GOB: Gunnera perpensa , GIB: Silidenafil citrate , MAT: Cyperus rotundus , IMY: Acacia Karoo , AAT: Olea campesis WS: Pittosporum viridiflorum , INT: Bulbine frutescens , PT: Eucomis Autumnalis , MGA: Hydrnora aficana , HF: Melianthus major ,UBH: Harmbstaedti aodorata , ISH: Xysmlobium undulatum , UMX: Schotia brachypetata , IHI: Acacia xanthophloea , MA: Sutherlandia frutescens , LB: Putranjiva roxburghii . RP: Hippobromusp auciflorus , CHI: Pentanisia prunelloides , WG: Tulbaghia Violacea , AWW: Artemisia afra , CM: Clifforti aodorata , MPI: Hellichyscnm nudifolium , AMA: Sorghum bicolor , AAL: Helichrysum spp , MAH: Maesa lanceolata , INZ: Gladious aurantiacus , AP: Hypoxis hemerocallidea , UMD: Elephantorriza elephantine , BL: Clivia miniata. 3.3 Fungal genera and species In this study, the incidence of fungal isolates in different medicinal plants from Faraday Muthi Market, Johannesburg, was examined. According to Fig. 3 , the mycological analysis of the 36 different medicinal plant samples showed a total of 164 fungal spp. belonging to nine genera, including Aspergillus (39.6%), Penicillium (19.5%), and Fusarium (9.7%). Other notable fungal genera include Alternaria (5.5%), Mucor (5.4%), Rhizopus (5.4%), Chaetomium (4.2%), Cladosporium (3.6%), Emericella (3.6%) and Epicoccum (3.0%). As shown in Table 2 and Supplementary Table 2, approximately 39.6% of the fungal isolates obtained were recognized as various species within the Aspergillus genus, encompassing A . cabonarius , A . flavus , A . fumigatus , A . nidulans, A . niger , A . ochraceus , A . parasiticus , A . penicillioides and A . versicolor. Among the recovered Aspergillus spp., A. niger was found to be the most commonly identified sp, present in a total of 18 (10.97%) of the samples analyzed, followed by A. flavus , A. fumigatus , and A. ochraceous , each detected in 9 (5.48%) of the analyzed samples. Penicillium spp. were also frequent, with 32 (19.5%) of them detected in 25 of the plant samples. These spp. include P . aurantiogriseum , P . citirin , P . digiatum , P . expansum , P . olsolonii and P . oxalicum . Among the identified Penicillium spp., P. digiatum was the most prevalent, recording a total of 5.48% of all identified fungal spp. Moreover, Fusarium spp. constituted 9.7% of the isolated fungal species, which encompassed F. gramineum , F. oxysporum , F. proliferatum , and F. soloni . Notably, F. proliferatum was the most predominant, accounting for 5 (3.04%) of the total fungal isolates recorded. Other notable fungal spp. isolated in this study include Alternaria alternate (5.48%), Mucor plumbeus (5.48%), Rhizopus solonifer (5.5%), Chaetomium globosum (4.26%), Cladosporium (3.6%), among others. Table 2 Incidence and fungal load of isolates from South African medicinal plants Fungal genera/species Number of isolates Relative density (%) Alspergillus spp. (65) A. carbonarius 3 1.83 A. flavus 9 5.48 A. fumigatus 9 5.48 A. ochraceous 9 5.48 A. nidulans 6 3.65 A. niger 18 10.97 A. parasiticus 4 2.44 A. penicillioides 5 3.04 A. versicolor 2 1.22 Fusarium spp. (16) F. graminearum 3 1.83 F. oxysporum 4 2.44 F. proliferatum 5 3.04 F. solani 4 2.44 Penicillum spp. (32) P. aurantiogriseum 5 3.04 P. citrinum 5 3.04 P. diginatum 9 5.48 P. expansum 5 3.04 P. olsonii 4 2.44 P. oxalicum 4 2.44 Other spp. (51) Alternaria alternata 9 5.48 Chaetomium globosum 7 4.26 Cladosporium cladosporioides 6 3.65 Epicoccum sorghinum 5 3.04 Emericella nidulans 6 3.65 Mucor plumbeus 9 5.48 Rhizopus solonifer 9 5.48 Total 164 4.0 Discussion This study highlights that various field and storage fungi are associated with medicinal plants in SA, with the lowest fungal load of 1.8 × 10 4 CFU/g recorded in Acacia karoo , whereas the highest contamination level of 2×10 7 CFU/g of sample was each found in Putranjiva roxburgii , Schotia brachypetata and Elephantorriza elephantine . According to WHO [ 53 ], a maximum contamination limit regulated for fungi and yeasts in medicinal plants has been set to be 1 x 10 3 CFU/g. It was found in this study that all the plant samples analyzed contained fungal load that exceeded this limit, demonstrating how highly contaminated these samples were that could pose some health implications amongst consumers. The elevated fungal load observed in the medicinal plants may be attributed to various factors, including climatic patterns, improper handling during harvesting, poor storage facilities and conditions (Ashiq et al., 2014; Fontana et al., 2021). We employed both conventional and molecular techniques to confirm the identity of fungal spp. recovered from the medicinal plants. Approximately 164 fungal isolates were identified, representing 10 fungal genera. Among these, Aspergillus, Penicillium , and Fusarium were found to be the most predominant. The aforementioned fungal genera are important from the mycological point of view, since they are capable of producing mycotoxins, chemical compounds which can cause a range of adverse health effects such as acute poisoning, immune suppression, carcinogenicity, and reproductive disorders in humans and animals [ 54 ]. Consequently, the presence of these fungal isolates in medicinal plants raises significant health concerns, particularly considering that none of the analyzed samples were found to be free from these isolates. The incidence of fungal spp. in medicinal plants have been reported in other countries like Portugal, China, and Poland (Ałtyn and Twarużek, 2020; Rocha-Miranda and Venâncio, 2019; Zheng et al., 2017).The results from the current study are in agreement with the study of [ 55 ], who reported Aspergillus (43.77%), followed by Fusarium (5.17%), Cladosporium (4.46%), Alternaria (3.69%), Penicillium (2.85%), and Xeromyces (2.46%), as the predominant fungal genera contaminating Chinese herbal medicines. Similar, Zheng et al. (2017) reported Aspergillus (28 isolates) and Penicillium (35 isolates) as the prevalent fungal genera detected in medicinal plants from China. [ 56 ] study on the identification of mycoflora in forty medicinal plants revealed that 83.3% of the samples were contaminated with one or more fungal species, which aligns with our present findings. The authors further confirmed that of the 69 strains recovered, Trichoderma (11.6%), Rhizopus (14.5%), Penicillium (24.6%), and Aspergillus (26.1%) were the most prevalent. Among the nine Aspergillus spp. recovered from the medicinal plants in this present research, A. niger , A. flavus , A. ochraceous , and A. fumigatus were the most prevalent. These results concur with the studies conducted by Kortei et al. [ 57 ] who documented 12 species belonging to 7 genera, Aspergillus ( niger , flavus , fumigatus , and ochraceus ), Penicillium ( digitatum , expansum ), Fusarium ( oxysporum , verticillioides ), Mucor ( racemosus) , Rhizopus (stolonif er), Rhodotorula sp., and Trichoderma harzianum , were identified as fungal contaminants in spices and herbs samples. More so in China, [ 56 ] reported 18 strains of Aspergillus , 17 strains of Penicillium , 10 strains of Rhizopus , 8 strains of Trichoderma , 4 strains of Mucor , 5 strains of yeast, 2 strains of Byssochlamys , 2 strains of Chaetomium , 1 strain of Alternaria , 1 strain of Mycosis , and 1 strain of Neurospora in 13 different medicinal herbs from the country. In another study conducted by [ 58 ] to investigate the presence of potential mycotoxin-producing fungi in selected herbal medicines from Nigeria, a range of fungal isolates were obtained from the plants, with Aspergillus and Penicillium genera being the most prevalence. Consistent with our findings, A. niger , A. flavus , P. limosum , and P. chrysogenum emerged as the predominant species. The presence of fungal species in medicinal plants in the present study can be ascribed to climatic factors, poor handling, inadequate storage facilities, as well as poor storage conditions (Ashiq et al., 2014; Fontana et al., 2021). This was clearly evident during the sampling process, where the plant materials were exposed to environmental conditions conducive to microbial contamination. The contamination of medicinal plants with fungi not only leads to a reduction in quality, decreased market value, and diminished healing potential, but it can also pose a health risk if the fungal spp. are toxigenic [ 38 , 59 , 60 ]. Some of the fungal spp. reported in this study, including A. fumigatus , A. flavus , A. niger , A. paraciticus, F. graminearum, F. oxysporum, F. proliferatum, P. expanusm , and P. citrinum have been reported to cause acute and chronic mycotoxicoses, resulting in significant morbidity and mortality among animals and humans (Person et al., 2010; Rana et al., 2020; Stemler et al., 2023). This group of fungi holds great significance, particularly in sub-Saharan Africa, where favorable conditions exist for their proliferation and mycotoxin production [ 40 , 61 ]. Fungal-contaminated medicinal plants are frequently used worldwide in the treatment of various diseases and for improving human health [ 33 , 62 ]. Unfortunately, the increased consumption of fungal-contaminated medicinal plants has significantly contributed to public health issues arising from the inadequate examination of their quality and safety. As previously mentioned, the invasion of fungi on plants is a common occurrence throughout various stages of agricultural practice, including handling, harvesting, and storage processing. It is obvious that many users of medicinal plants often purchase them from markets without inspecting them for visible signs of fungal contamination. Furthermore, there is a lack of awareness and knowledge regarding the potential presence of fungi and their attendant mycotoxins in medicinal plants, as well as the associated adverse effects on human health (Areo et al., 2020). This is a significant issue as contaminated herbs can greatly compromise the expected health benefits and instead lead to unexpected health implications. Therefore, it is imperative to provide education on the health consequences of consuming medicinal plants that have been infested with fungi to traditional healers, individuals involved in cultivation, handling, and the sale of these plants (from field to market), as well as the final consumers. 5.0 Conclusion From the findings of this study, it is evident that the medicinal plants sold at Faraday Muthi market in Johannesburg, SA exhibit poor microbiological quality. These plants may be unsafe for human consumption, as many of them were found to have fungal contamination levels exceeding the WHO regulatory limit of 1 x 10 3 CFU/g. Therefore, it is crucial to establish appropriate standards for fungal load in SA medicinal plants to mitigate the health risks associated with their consumption. The identification of the isolated fungal species is of utmost importance from a mycological perspective. The regular consumption of fungi-contaminated medicinal plants in the country can lead to various health implications on the consumers. Consequently, it is necessary to implement official regulations that define safe limits for fungi in different medicinal plants and their products in SA and other African nations. While it may not be possible to completely eradicate fungal contamination during the various stages of medicinal plant cultivation, harvest, and post-harvest handling, it is imperative to adopt dynamic strategies to reduce their levels in the plants in order to minimize human exposure. Prior to the distribution of any plant material intended for medical purposes in any market, it is essential to conduct thorough fungal analysis to ensure the safety and well-being of consumers. Declarations Acknowledgement The authors would like to express their gratitude to The University of Johannesburg for providing financial support for this research. Conflict of interest The authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest. Informed consent statement Not applicable. Data availability The datasets used in this study will be made available upon request from the corresponding author. Author Contribution OMO and JZ contributed to investigation, conceptualization, visualization, and wrote the main manuscript text. OAA conducted formal analysis and review the manuscript, and OAA prepared the Figures. PBN supervised the project and edited the manuscript. References Adhikari BS, Babu M, Saklani P, Rawat G (2010) Medicinal plants diversity and their conservation status in Wildlife Institute of India (WII) campus, Dehradun, Ethnobotanical leaflets , vol. p. 6, 2010 Ozioma E-OJ, Chinwe OAN (2019) Herbal medicines in African traditional medicine. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-4563660","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":326576912,"identity":"6834e13f-838b-4a68-9f01-637519c0f4d9","order_by":0,"name":"Oluwaseun Mary Oladeji","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Sefako Makgatho Health Sciences University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Oluwaseun","middleName":"Mary","lastName":"Oladeji","suffix":""},{"id":326576913,"identity":"347aba8a-5290-4b47-be81-1464f4633283","order_by":1,"name":"Judith Zanele Phoku","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Agricultural Research Council of South Africa","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Judith","middleName":"Zanele","lastName":"Phoku","suffix":""},{"id":326576914,"identity":"e603397a-a431-467e-9a79-6a0bab96092a","order_by":2,"name":"Oluwasola Abayomi Adelusi","email":"data:image/png;base64,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","orcid":"","institution":"University of Johannesburg","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Oluwasola","middleName":"Abayomi","lastName":"Adelusi","suffix":""},{"id":326576915,"identity":"9c3a7f23-ed9f-49ff-beb5-37611303c8a0","order_by":3,"name":"Oluwakemi Adeola Aasa","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"University of Pretoria","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Oluwakemi","middleName":"Adeola","lastName":"Aasa","suffix":""},{"id":326576916,"identity":"67927dab-ba30-4230-b14e-d04c734552c1","order_by":4,"name":"Patrick Berka Njobeh","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"University of Johannesburg","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Patrick","middleName":"Berka","lastName":"Njobeh","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2024-06-11 11:23:16","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-4563660/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-4563660/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[{"content":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s11084-025-09682-9","type":"published","date":"2025-02-21T15:57:02+00:00"}],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":60386732,"identity":"f5592e1b-7cf9-45c6-8819-b6e8853166e4","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-07-16 08:11:38","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":388314,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eColonies and microscopic pictures of some fungal species isolated from medicinal plants after Day 7 of incubation at 25\u003csup\u003eo\u003c/sup\u003eC. A: \u003cem\u003eA\u003c/em\u003e. f\u003cem\u003elavus\u003c/em\u003e on CYA; AA: microsocpic picture of \u003cem\u003eA. flavus\u003c/em\u003e; B: \u003cem\u003eA\u003c/em\u003e. \u003cem\u003eniger\u003c/em\u003e on CYA; BB: microscopic picture of \u003cem\u003eA. niger\u003c/em\u003e; C: \u003cem\u003eF\u003c/em\u003e. \u003cem\u003eoxysporum\u003c/em\u003e on PDA, and CC: microscopic picture of \u003cem\u003eF. oxysporum\u003c/em\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4563660/v1/f6b2dc0baafe90194bcd3249.png"},{"id":60386734,"identity":"a10d5697-66ae-422f-9abf-9952f62721de","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-07-16 08:11:39","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":181062,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003ePhylogeny of fungal spp. (taxa names with triangle) recovered from medicinal plants in SA based on the sequences of the ITS region. Numbers within the tree represent the bootstrap values of 1000 replicates. The dendrogram is rooted (outgroup) with \u003cem\u003eAlternaria tenuissima.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4563660/v1/298c42411b9d9343911b7319.png"},{"id":60386733,"identity":"58513d60-5fca-4028-89ab-f118dd0e3af5","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-07-16 08:11:39","extension":"png","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":65759,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eFungal genera isolated from medicinal plants in SA\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage3.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4563660/v1/5a851b703cd5d603c6082f7f.png"},{"id":77052495,"identity":"d7fabfb8-10f7-4fa3-bf1d-0c72354be086","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-02-24 16:11:25","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":2221016,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4563660/v1/77b1d6b8-5a47-4f7e-a92a-acbccef73533.pdf"},{"id":60386736,"identity":"c9c14715-58d8-450c-8638-8b257acbeebd","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-07-16 08:11:40","extension":"docx","order_by":1,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":19003,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Fungaldiversityinmedicinalplantssupplementrytables.docx","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4563660/v1/a93e8ea26ee36b4da863562c.docx"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Fungal diversity and contamination of some selected medicinal plants in South Africa","fulltext":[{"header":"1.0 Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eSince ancient times, the use of medicinal plants has been integral to providing primary healthcare to human populations. Approximately 60\u0026ndash;80% of the African population, particularly marginalized communities, depends on traditional healthcare practices, utilizing medicinal plants to cure a wide range of ailments affecting both animals and humans. These conditions include, but are not limited to, cancer, tuberculosis, epilepsy, typhoid, malaria, diabetes, and numerous others. [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR2 CR3\" citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e]. Thus, the adoption of medicinal plants to treat several diseases may be linked to the innumerable side effects of synthetic drugs when compared to natural products, which have been demonstrated to be more beneficial to the body systems [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR6\" citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e]. This preference could potentially be attributed to several other factors, including drug adulteration, the exorbitant cost associated with procuring Western medicines, the prevalence of drug resistance among users [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eGlobally, the use and demand for medicinal plants are on the rise as they contribute significantly to over 50% of all medicines used worldwide [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e]. In the United States, 78.7% of the top prescribed drugs are based on natural products, while the reports in advanced countries showed that medicinal plants are extensively utilized because of the scientific evidences about their efficacy [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e]. Furthermore, about 80% of Asian and African nations, including SA, frequently rely on medicinal plants for health care [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR15\" citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e]. In South Africa (SA), the use of medicinal plants in traditional medicine has increased, with several indigenous and global enterprises vigorously exploring these resources as raw materials in the pharmaceutical industry (Matsabisa et al., 2022; Mothibe and Sibanda, 2019; Rybicki et al., 2012). As revealed by Van Wyk et al. (1997) and Zuma et al. (2016), over 200,000 traditional doctors, popularly known as Sangomas (diviners) and Inyangas (herbalists), exist in SA. The majority of people in the country, especially those in rural communities, depend entirely on the healing properties of medicinal plants prescribed by traditional doctors. This is due to the high cost of modern medicines and the increasing rate of unemployment, which has led many people to turn to traditional medicines for personal use and trading [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eApart from their therapeutic attributes, medicinal plants also contribute significantly to the economic prosperity of many countries. The trade of medicinal plants in SA generates millions of Rands, proving to be a lucrative enterprise for both rural communities and the entire nation [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e]. The annual turnover of medicinal plants traded in the country is estimated to be more than R520\u0026nbsp;million and has employed about 130,000 people, particularly rural women, within the informal settlement [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e22\u003c/span\u003e]. Some SA medicinal plants popularly known include devil\u0026rsquo;s claw, African potato, buchu, aloe products and rooibos tea [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e23\u003c/span\u003e]. Interestingly, the demand for new phyto-medicines on the international scene has encouraged the exploration of traditional knowledge systems, which may intensify the demand for SA medicinal plants [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e24\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e25\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDespite their widespread use, health benefits, and socioeconomic importance, the safety of medicinal plants is often compromised by microbes, including a vast array of fungal taxa numbering over a million [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR27 CR28\" citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e26\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e29\u003c/span\u003e]. Many factors, such as geographical location, climatic patterns, physiology and specificity of colonized tissue, influence fungal contamination of medicinal plants [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR31\" citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e30\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e32\u003c/span\u003e]. Other factors include improper handling and porr storage conditions [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e32\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e33\u003c/span\u003e]. Numerous studies have documented the susceptibility of medicinal plants to fungal and mycotoxin contamination [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR35 CR36 CR37 CR38 CR39\" citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e34\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e40\u003c/span\u003e]. The growing usage and consumption of medicinal plants for health care and as food is undoubtedly becoming a public health concern due to a lack of information on their mycological qualities and safety [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e33\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e41\u003c/span\u003e]. Consequently, the contamination of medicinal plants by fungi is of great concern since fungal colonization can cause severe deterioration and spoilage of the plants, leading to numerous adverse effects on human health. Despite various research on fungal colonization of agricultural products in SA, there is little information on fungal contamination of medicinal plants in the country. Therefore, this study aimed to identify the fungal species colonizing SA medicinal plants and to evaluate the safety levels of the plants with respect to fungal contamination.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"2.0 Materials and Methods","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.1 Sample collection\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eA total of 36 medicinal plants of different types were randomly purchased from different points within a well-known location, Faraday Muthi market, in the Johannesburg metropolis of SA. These medicinal plants were selected based on their availability and popularity in terms of their usage. Apparently, healthy and disease-free parts of the plants including stem, root, and leaves were collected (Supplementary Table\u0026nbsp;1). The samples were transported to the fungal and mycotoxin laboratory at the University of Johannesburg, SA, in sterilized polythene bags and promptly analyzed to minimize the risk of additional contamination.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec4\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.2 Fungal isolation and enumeration\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eFirstly, the plant materials were surface sterilized by running them under tap water for 10 min to remove the dust and debris. Each sample was washed with 70% ethanol for 1 min, immersed in 1% sodium hypochlorite solution for 3\u0026ndash;4 min, and finally rinsed three times with sterile distilled water. The excess moisture was allowed to surface dry on a sterile filter paper under aseptic conditions. After proper drying, samples were finely ground into powder using a sterile laboratory miller (LBIOG, ITM Instrument, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada). Fungal isolation was performed according to the method described by Njobeh et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e42\u003c/span\u003e] and Adelusi et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e43\u003c/span\u003e]. Briefly, 1 g of milled medicinal plant samples was weighed and transferred into a test tube containing 9 ml of sterile ringer salt solution, vortexed for 1 min and serially diluted further to 10\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;6\u003c/sup\u003e. After that, an aliquot of 1 ml from each test tube was inoculated onto potato dextrose agar (PDA) Petri dishes supplemented with chloramphenicol and streptomycin to inhibit bacterial growth. The inoculated plates were incubated at a temperature of 25 \u003csup\u003eo\u003c/sup\u003eC for 7 days and then observed for fungal colonies. The number of colonies on the agar plates was counted using a colony counter and expressed in colony-forming units per gram of sample (CFU/g sample) according to Eq.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Equ1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e.\u003cdiv id=\"Equ1\" class=\"Equation\"\u003e\u003cdiv format=\"TEX\" class=\"mathdisplay\" id=\"FileID_Equ1\" name=\"EquationSource\"\u003e\n$$\\text{C}\\text{f}\\text{u}/\\text{g}=\\frac{\\text{N}\\text{u}\\text{m}\\text{b}\\text{e}\\text{r} \\text{o}\\text{f} \\text{c}\\text{o}\\text{l}\\text{o}\\text{n}\\text{i}\\text{e}\\text{s} \\times \\text{r}\\text{e}\\text{c}\\text{i}\\text{p}\\text{r}\\text{o}\\text{c}\\text{a}\\text{l} \\text{o}\\text{f} \\text{t}\\text{h}\\text{e} \\text{d}\\text{i}\\text{l}\\text{u}\\text{t}\\text{i}\\text{o}\\text{n} \\text{f}\\text{a}\\text{c}\\text{t}\\text{o}\\text{r}}{\\text{P}\\text{l}\\text{a}\\text{t}\\text{i}\\text{n}\\text{g} \\text{v}\\text{o}\\text{l}\\text{u}\\text{m}\\text{e} \\left(1\\text{m}\\text{l}\\right)}$$\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"EquationNumber\"\u003e1\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec5\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.3 Morphological fungal identification\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eAfter counting, single spore isolations were sub-cultured on PDA, czapek yeast extract agar (CYA), and malt extract agar (MEA) and then incubated for 7 days at 25\u0026deg;C. Pure isolated fungal colonies were harvested and mounted on microscope slides, stained with lactophenol cotton blue, and viewed under an optical microscope (Olympus CX40, Micro-Instruments New Zealand, Ltd). The identification of the fungal spp., including \u003cem\u003eFusarium\u003c/em\u003e spp., was achieved using the taxonomic keys and guides of [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e44\u003c/span\u003e] and [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e45\u003c/span\u003e]. On the other hand, the macro- and microscopic characteristics of the genera \u003cem\u003eAlternaria\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eAspergillus\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eCladosporium\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003ePenicillium\u003c/em\u003e and other fungal genera were identified following the identification keys of [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR47 CR48\" citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e46\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR49\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e49\u003c/span\u003e]. The relative density of genus/species were obtained following Eq.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Equ2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e.\u003cdiv id=\"Equ2\" class=\"Equation\"\u003e\u003cdiv format=\"TEX\" class=\"mathdisplay\" id=\"FileID_Equ2\" name=\"EquationSource\"\u003e\n$$\\text{R}\\text{e}\\text{l}\\text{a}\\text{t}\\text{i}\\text{v}\\text{e} \\text{d}\\text{e}\\text{n}\\text{s}\\text{i}\\text{t}\\text{y}=\\frac{\\text{N}\\text{u}\\text{m}\\text{b}\\text{e}\\text{r} \\text{o}\\text{f} \\text{i}\\text{s}\\text{o}\\text{l}\\text{a}\\text{t}\\text{e}\\text{s} \\text{o}\\text{f} \\text{a} \\text{g}\\text{e}\\text{n}\\text{u}\\text{s} \\text{o}\\text{r} \\text{s}\\text{p}\\text{e}\\text{c}\\text{i}\\text{e} \\text{c}\\text{o}\\text{l}\\text{o}\\text{n}\\text{i}\\text{e}\\text{s} \\text{X} 100}{\\text{T}\\text{o}\\text{t}\\text{a}\\text{l} \\text{n}\\text{u}\\text{m}\\text{b}\\text{e}\\text{r} \\text{o}\\text{f} \\text{f}\\text{u}\\text{n}\\text{g}\\text{i} \\text{i}\\text{s}\\text{o}\\text{l}\\text{a}\\text{t}\\text{e}\\text{d}}$$\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"EquationNumber\"\u003e2\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec6\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.4 Molecular Analysis\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec7\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.4.1 DNA extraction\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eWhen conventional methods of fungal identification failed, fungal isolates were transferred to Inqaba Biotechnological Laboratories in Pretoria, South Africa, for molecular confirmation. A bacterial/fungal DNA extraction kit (Zymo Research Corporation, Southern California, USA) was used to conduct genomic DNA analysis. Fungal cultures were freeze-dried and maintained at room temperature for one hour before being extracted for DNA. Approximately 60 mg of sample was combined with 200 \u0026micro;l of PBS in a 1.5 ml ZR Bashing BeadTM lysis tube. The lysis tube was placed in a beat beater and treated for 5 minutes, then centrifuged at 10,000 g for 1 minute. The supernatant was transferred to a 1.5 ml Eppendorf tube fitted with a Zymo-SpinTM IV spin filter and centrifuged at 7,000 g for 1 minute. The content was filtered into a collection tube, add 1,200 \u0026micro;l of fungal/bacterial DNA binding buffer, and vortex. The extraction mixture (800 \u0026micro;l) was transferred to a Zymo-SpinTM IIC column in the collecting tube and centrifuged at 10,000 g for 1 minute. The supernatant was discarded twice. To prepare the Zymo-SpinTM IIC column, add 200 \u0026micro;l of DNA pre-wash buffer I to a fresh collection tube and centrifuge at 10,000g for 1 minute. After discarding the filtrate, transfer the column to a fresh tube. Add 500 \u0026micro;l of bacterial/fungal DNA wash buffer II to the Zymo-SpinTM IIC column and centrifuge at 10,000 g for 1 minute. The Zymo-SpinTM column was transferred to a sterile 1.5 ml Eppendorf tube, and 100 \u0026micro;l of DNA elution buffer was directly added to the column matrix. The mixture was then centrifuged at 10,000 g for 30 seconds to extract the DNA.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e\u003cem\u003e2.4.2 Polymerase chain reaction\u003c/em\u003e (PCR) \u003cem\u003eanalysis\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe primer sequences were designed in conserved 5' and 3' regions. The two primers, ITS-1; 5'-TCC GTA GGT GAA CCT GCG G-3' (forward) and ITS-4; 5'-TCC TCC GCT TAT TGA TAT GC -3' (reverse), produced a 450 bp elongation factor product. Primers were produced at 0.01 \u0026micro;M and purified via reverse-phase cartridge purification (Inqaba Biotechnical Industries (Pty) Ltd, South Africa). The primers were re-suspended in 2 \u0026micro;M TE buffer with a stock solution concentration of 100 \u0026micro;M. Fermentas Life Science's 2 \u0026times; PCR mix (Lithuania) was used for PCR analysis. The PCR mix for each sample included 25 \u0026micro;l of 2 \u0026times; PCR mix, 1 \u0026micro;l of each 2 \u0026micro;M primer, 1 \u0026micro;l of DNA (final concentration of 10 \u0026micro;M), and up to 50 \u0026micro;l of nuclease-free water. A negative control with all reagents except the DNA was also prepared. The PCR was carried out using an Eppendorf 96-well Thermocycler (Eppendorf, USA). The PCR cycling parameters were established as follows: Pre-dwelling at 95\u003csup\u003eo\u003c/sup\u003eC for 3 minutes, followed by 35 cycles of denaturation at 95\u003csup\u003eo\u003c/sup\u003eC for 1 minute, annealing at 58\u003csup\u003eo\u003c/sup\u003eC for 45 seconds, extension at 72\u003csup\u003eo\u003c/sup\u003eC for 1 minute and 30 seconds, and post-dwelling at 72\u003csup\u003eo\u003c/sup\u003eC for 10 minutes before being kept at 4\u003csup\u003eo\u003c/sup\u003eC.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec9\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.4.3 Agarose gel DNA electrophoresis\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eA 2% agarose gel was made by dissolving 2 g of agarose (Fermentas Life Science, Lithuania) in 98 ml of 1x TBE buffer (Fermentas Life Science, Lithuania) and then boiled. The solution was chilled to about 60\u0026deg;C. Approximately 3 \u0026micro;l of ethidium bromide (Sigma-Aldrich, ST Louis, MO, USA) was well mixed into the solution. The agarose solution was transferred to a casting chamber (Bio-Rad Laboratories, California, USA), and a 10-well comb was placed into each well. The running system chambers (Bio-Rad Laboratories, California and USA) were filled with 1\u0026times;TBE buffer (fermentas Life Science, Lithuania). PCR products (2 \u0026micro;l) were combined with 10 \u0026micro;l of 6\u0026times;orange loading dye (Fermentas Life Science, Lithuania) and injected into wells. The closed chamber was ran @ 70 V for 15 minutes. The PCR result was seen with the Vacutec Gel documentation system, and its size was determined by comparing it to the Middle Range FastRuler (Fermentas Life Science, Lithuania).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec10\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.4.4 DNA Sequencing and Phylogenetic Analysis\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe PCR products were cleaned using shrimp alkaline phosphatase and E. coli exonuclease I (Fermentas Life Sciences, Lithuania). The DNA purity was determined by passing it across a 2% agarose gel (as previously described). At Inqaba Biotechnical Industries (Pty) Ltd (Pretoria, RSA), automated DNA sequencing was performed using the ABI PRISM\u0026reg; 3700XL automated DNA Sequencer (Applied Biosystems, USA). The resulting ITS region chromatograms of forward and reverse fungal DNA sequences from this investigation were neatly combined, examined, and altered by Chromas Lite version 2.4 software (Technelysium Pty Ltd 2012). Harmony sequences were created by analyzing and editing nucleotide sequences with the BioEdit program (Hall, 1999). A sequence BLAST (\u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/\" targettype=\"URL\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e) search was performed, and the nucleotide sequences of the fungal isolates were compared to entries in the NCBI web server's nucleotide database to determine the specific fungi. The sequence assessment of fungal isolates revealed 86%-100% identification similarities with reference spp. in the GenBank database.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe resulting DNA sequences were aligned using Muscle, and the evolutionary tree was built using MEGA 7.0 [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e50\u003c/span\u003e]. The evolutionary link between fungal sequences generated from medicinal plant samples and their reference strains was identified using the maximum likelihood (ML) method described by [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR51\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e51\u003c/span\u003e]. The 1000 replications served as parameters for generating the phylogeny [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR52\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e52\u003c/span\u003e], with branches representing partitions that reproduced less than 50% of bootstrap replicates collapsed. The generated phylogenetic trees were then utilized to confirm the evolutionary link between the fungal spp. identified in this study and their GenBank relatives. All recovered fungus species were grown on PDA slants and stored in the University of Johannesburg's fungal and mycotoxin laboratory culture collection.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"3.0 Results","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e3.1 Fungal Identification\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe fungal spp. were identified using both conventional and molecular approaches. Their conidia germinated on CYA, MEA and PDA at 25\u003csup\u003eo\u003c/sup\u003eC within 7 days. Colour variations were noticed in the three media (Fig. \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e). According to the phylogenetic analysis, the sequences were grouped into 4 clades (Figs. \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e). Isolates AAP103 and AAP105 were grouped in clade 1 with confirmed \u003cem\u003eA. fumigatus\u003c/em\u003e isolates (MN944466 and MN634372), while isolates AAP117 and AAP211 were associated with \u003cem\u003eA. flavus\u003c/em\u003e (JQ675308) in clade 2 with 67% bootstrap value. Furthermore, isolates AAP115 was found with confirmed \u003cem\u003eA. niger\u003c/em\u003e isolate (MK926405) in clade 3 with 100% bootstrap value. Lastly, isolate AAP112 was found in clade 4 with confirmed \u003cem\u003eP. expansum\u003c/em\u003e isolates (MT738591 and KX243326).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec13\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e3.2 Fungal contamination\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe fungal load in all the samples were determined and found to range from 1.8 \u0026times; 10\u003csup\u003e4\u003c/sup\u003e to 2\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e7\u003c/sup\u003e CFU/g (Table \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e). \u003cem\u003ePutranjiva roxburgii\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eSchotia brachypetata\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eElephantorriza elephantine\u003c/em\u003e each had the highest fungal load of (2\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e7\u003c/sup\u003e CFU/g). Meanwhile \u003cem\u003eAcacia karoo\u003c/em\u003e was the least contaminated sample with a fungal load of 1.8 \u0026times; 10\u003csup\u003e4\u003c/sup\u003e CFU/g. The overall mycological data in this study reveal that all the examined medicinal plants were contaminated by two or more fungal spp., with \u003cem\u003eA\u003c/em\u003e. \u003cem\u003eniger\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eA\u003c/em\u003e. \u003cem\u003efumigatus\u003c/em\u003e the most dominant fungal spp. co-occurring with one another in most of the medicinal plant samples.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003ctable id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFungal load of selected South African medicinal plants ̽ (CFU/g)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003c/caption\u003e\n \u003cthead\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePlants\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAlternaria\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAspergillus\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ePenicillum\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eFusarium\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eCladosporium\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eChaetominum\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eEmericella\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eEpicoccum\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eMucor\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eRhizopus\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTOTAL\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/thead\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eBAN\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1 (2.0\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e5\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2 (4.0\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e5\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1 (2.0 \u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e5\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1 (2.0\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e5\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5 (1.0\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e6\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ePBT\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3 (4.0\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e5\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1 (1.3\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e6\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1 (1.3\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e6\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1 (1.3\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e6\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6 (8.0\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e6\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eKA\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2 (8.0\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e5\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1 (4.0\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e5\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1 (4.0\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e5\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4 (2.0\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e6\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eIMB\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2 (4.0\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e5\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1 (2.0\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e5\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1 (2.0\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e5\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4 (8.0\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e5\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eUMG\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1 (1.1\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e6\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1 (1.1\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e6\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1 (1.1\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e6\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3 (3.3\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e6\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eIPH\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3 (1.2\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e6\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1 (4.1\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e6\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1 (4.1\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e6\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5 (9.4\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e6\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSE\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1 (4.1\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e6\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2 (8.2\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e6\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1 (4.1\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e6\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1 (4.1\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e6\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5 (1.3\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e7\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eGOB\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3 (1.5\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e4\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1 (4.9\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e4\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1 (4.9\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e4\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5 (1.0\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e5\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eGIB\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1 (2.0\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e6\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1 (2.0\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e6\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1 (2.0\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e6\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1 (3.0\u0026times; 10\u003csup\u003e6\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4 (8.0\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e6\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMAT\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2 (3.4\u0026times;1 0\u003csup\u003e4\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1 (1.7\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026times;\u003c/strong\u003e10\u003csup\u003e5\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3 (5.0\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e6\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eIMY\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2 (2.6\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e4\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2 (2.6\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e4\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1 (1.3\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e5\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5 (1.8\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e4\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAAT\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1 (1.5\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e5\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2 (3.0\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e5\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1 (1.5\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e5\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1 (1.3\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e5\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5 (6.0\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e5\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eWS\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2 (3.6\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e4\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1 (1.8\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e5\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1 (1.8\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e5\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4 (4.0\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e5\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eINT\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2 (1.0\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e5\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2 (1.0\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e5\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1 (5.6\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e4\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5 (2.6\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e5\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ePT\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1 (4.4\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e5\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2 (8.8\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e5\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1 (4.4\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e5\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4 (2.0\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e6\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMGA\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1 (2.3\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e5\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2 (4.6\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e5\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1 (2.3\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e5\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4 (9.2\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e4\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eHF\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2 (4.0\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e6\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2 (4.0\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e6\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1 (2.0\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e6\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5 (1.0\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e7\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eUBH\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1 (1.0\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e6\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1 (1.0\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e6\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1 (1.0\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e6\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1 (1.0\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e6\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4 (4.0\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e6\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eISH\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2 (2.0\u0026times;106)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1 (1.0\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e6\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1 (1.0\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e6\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4 (4.0\u0026times;106)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eUMX\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1 (4.0\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e6\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2 (8.0\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e6\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1 (4.0\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e6\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1 (4.0\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e6\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5 (2.0\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e7\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n \u003cthead\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePlants\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAlternaria\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAspergillus\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ePenicillum\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eFusarium\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eCladosporium\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eChaetominum\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eEmericella\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eEpicoccum\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eMucor\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eRhizopus\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTOTAL\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/thead\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eIHI\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3 (4.0\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e6\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1 (1.3\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e6\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1 (1.3\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e6\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5 (6.6\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e6\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMA\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2 (3.4\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e5\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2 (3.4\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e5\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1 (1.7\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e6\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5 (8.5\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e5\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eLB\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2 (8.0\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e6\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1 (4.0\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e6\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1 (4.0\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e6\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1 (4.0 \u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e6\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5 (2.0\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e7\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eRP\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1 (1.4\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e6\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1 (1.4\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e6\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1 (1.4\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e6\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3 (5.6\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e6\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCHI\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1 (1.7\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e6\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3 (5.1\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e6\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1 (1.7\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e6\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1 (1.7\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e6\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6 (1.0\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e6\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eWG\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2 (3.0\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e6\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1 (1.5 \u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e6\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1 (1.5\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e6\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4 (6.0\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e6\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAWW\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2 (3.0\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e6\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1 (1.5\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e6\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1 (1.5\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e6\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5 (7.5\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e6\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCM\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1 (2.2\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e6\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2 (4.4\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e6\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1 (2.2\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e6\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5 (9.0\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e6\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMPI\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2 (2.1\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e6\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1 (1.1\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e6\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1 (1.1\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e6\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4 (4.3\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e6\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAMA\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1 (8.2\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e5\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1 (8.2\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e5\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1 (8.2\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e5\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5 (5.0\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e6\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAAL\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1 (5.0\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e5\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1 (5.0\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e5\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3 (2.0\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e6\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMAH\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2 (4.0\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e6\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1 (2.0\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e6\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1 (2.0\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e6\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4 (8.0\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e6\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eINZ\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1 (1.0\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e6\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2 (2.0\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e6\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1 (1.0\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e6\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1 (1.0\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e6\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6 (6.0\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e6\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAP\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4 (4.0\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e6\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1 (1.0\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e6\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6 (6.0\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e6\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eUMD\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1 (4.0\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e6\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1 (4.0\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e6\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1 (4.0\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e6\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4 (2.0\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e7\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eBL\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2 (2.0\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e6\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1(1.0\u0026times;106)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1 (1.0\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e6\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1 (1.0\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e6\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5 (5.0\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e6\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n \u003c/table\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e̽ -\u003c/strong\u003e No of sample.-, BAN: \u003cem\u003eEriosema kraussianum\u003c/em\u003e, PBT: \u003cem\u003eWarburgia salutaris\u003c/em\u003e, KA: \u003cem\u003eAlbizia adianthifolia\u003c/em\u003e, IMB: \u003cem\u003eFoenicilum vulgare\u003c/em\u003e, UMG: \u003cem\u003eSclerocarya birrea\u003c/em\u003e, IPH: \u003cem\u003eViscum Album\u003c/em\u003e, SE: \u003cem\u003eMerwilla linearis\u003c/em\u003e, GOB: \u003cem\u003eGunnera perpensa\u003c/em\u003e, GIB: \u003cem\u003eSilidenafil citrate\u003c/em\u003e, MAT: \u003cem\u003eCyperus rotundus\u003c/em\u003e, IMY: \u003cem\u003eAcacia Karoo\u003c/em\u003e, AAT: \u003cem\u003eOlea campesis\u003c/em\u003e WS: \u003cem\u003ePittosporum viridiflorum\u003c/em\u003e, INT: \u003cem\u003eBulbine frutescens\u003c/em\u003e, PT: \u003cem\u003eEucomis Autumnalis\u003c/em\u003e, MGA: \u003cem\u003eHydrnora aficana\u003c/em\u003e, HF: \u003cem\u003eMelianthus major\u003c/em\u003e,UBH: \u003cem\u003eHarmbstaedti aodorata\u003c/em\u003e, ISH: \u003cem\u003eXysmlobium undulatum\u003c/em\u003e, UMX: \u003cem\u003eSchotia brachypetata\u003c/em\u003e, IHI: \u003cem\u003eAcacia xanthophloea\u003c/em\u003e, MA: \u003cem\u003eSutherlandia frutescens\u003c/em\u003e, LB: \u003cem\u003ePutranjiva roxburghii\u003c/em\u003e. RP: \u003cem\u003eHippobromusp auciflorus\u003c/em\u003e, CHI: \u003cem\u003ePentanisia prunelloides\u003c/em\u003e, WG: \u003cem\u003eTulbaghia Violacea\u003c/em\u003e, AWW: \u003cem\u003eArtemisia afra\u003c/em\u003e, CM: \u003cem\u003eClifforti aodorata\u003c/em\u003e, MPI: \u003cem\u003eHellichyscnm nudifolium\u003c/em\u003e, AMA: \u003cem\u003eSorghum bicolor\u003c/em\u003e, AAL: \u003cem\u003eHelichrysum spp\u003c/em\u003e, MAH: \u003cem\u003eMaesa lanceolata\u003c/em\u003e, INZ: \u003cem\u003eGladious aurantiacus\u003c/em\u003e, AP: \u003cem\u003eHypoxis hemerocallidea\u003c/em\u003e, UMD: \u003cem\u003eElephantorriza elephantine\u003c/em\u003e, BL: \u003cem\u003eClivia miniata.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec14\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e3.3 Fungal genera and species\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIn this study, the incidence of fungal isolates in different medicinal plants from Faraday Muthi Market, Johannesburg, was examined. According to Fig. \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e, the mycological analysis of the 36 different medicinal plant samples showed a total of 164 fungal spp. belonging to nine genera, including \u003cem\u003eAspergillus\u003c/em\u003e (39.6%), \u003cem\u003ePenicillium\u003c/em\u003e (19.5%), and \u003cem\u003eFusarium\u003c/em\u003e (9.7%). Other notable fungal genera include \u003cem\u003eAlternaria\u003c/em\u003e (5.5%), \u003cem\u003eMucor\u003c/em\u003e (5.4%), \u003cem\u003eRhizopus\u003c/em\u003e (5.4%), \u003cem\u003eChaetomium\u003c/em\u003e (4.2%), \u003cem\u003eCladosporium\u003c/em\u003e (3.6%), \u003cem\u003eEmericella\u003c/em\u003e (3.6%) and \u003cem\u003eEpicoccum\u003c/em\u003e (3.0%).\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAs shown in Table \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e and Supplementary Table 2, approximately 39.6% of the fungal isolates obtained were recognized as various species within the \u003cem\u003eAspergillus\u003c/em\u003e genus, encompassing \u003cem\u003eA\u003c/em\u003e. \u003cem\u003ecabonarius\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eA\u003c/em\u003e. \u003cem\u003eflavus\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eA\u003c/em\u003e. \u003cem\u003efumigatus\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eA\u003c/em\u003e. \u003cem\u003enidulans, A\u003c/em\u003e. \u003cem\u003eniger\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eA\u003c/em\u003e. \u003cem\u003eochraceus\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eA\u003c/em\u003e. \u003cem\u003eparasiticus\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eA\u003c/em\u003e. \u003cem\u003epenicillioides\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eA\u003c/em\u003e. \u003cem\u003eversicolor.\u003c/em\u003e Among the recovered \u003cem\u003eAspergillus\u003c/em\u003e spp., \u003cem\u003eA. niger\u003c/em\u003e was found to be the most commonly identified sp, present in a total of 18 (10.97%) of the samples analyzed, followed by \u003cem\u003eA. flavus\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eA. fumigatus\u003c/em\u003e, and \u003cem\u003eA. ochraceous\u003c/em\u003e, each detected in 9 (5.48%) of the analyzed samples. \u003cem\u003ePenicillium\u003c/em\u003e spp. were also frequent, with 32 (19.5%) of them detected in 25 of the plant samples. These spp. include \u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e. \u003cem\u003eaurantiogriseum\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e. \u003cem\u003ecitirin\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e. \u003cem\u003edigiatum\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e. \u003cem\u003eexpansum\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e. \u003cem\u003eolsolonii\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e. \u003cem\u003eoxalicum\u003c/em\u003e. Among the identified \u003cem\u003ePenicillium\u003c/em\u003e spp., \u003cem\u003eP. digiatum\u003c/em\u003e was the most prevalent, recording a total of 5.48% of all identified fungal spp. Moreover, \u003cem\u003eFusarium\u003c/em\u003e spp. constituted 9.7% of the isolated fungal species, which encompassed \u003cem\u003eF. gramineum\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eF. oxysporum\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eF. proliferatum\u003c/em\u003e, and \u003cem\u003eF. soloni\u003c/em\u003e. Notably, \u003cem\u003eF. proliferatum\u003c/em\u003e was the most predominant, accounting for 5 (3.04%) of the total fungal isolates recorded. Other notable fungal spp. isolated in this study include \u003cem\u003eAlternaria alternate\u003c/em\u003e (5.48%), \u003cem\u003eMucor plumbeus\u003c/em\u003e (5.48%), \u003cem\u003eRhizopus\u003c/em\u003e solonifer (5.5%), \u003cem\u003eChaetomium globosum\u003c/em\u003e (4.26%), \u003cem\u003eCladosporium\u003c/em\u003e (3.6%), among others.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003ctable id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIncidence and fungal load of isolates from South African medicinal plants\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003c/caption\u003e\n \u003cthead\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFungal genera/species\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNumber of isolates\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eRelative density (%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAlspergillus spp.\u003c/em\u003e (65)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/thead\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eA. carbonarius\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.83\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eA. flavus\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e9\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5.48\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eA. fumigatus\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e9\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5.48\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eA. ochraceous\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e9\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5.48\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eA. nidulans\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.65\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eA. niger\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e18\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10.97\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eA. parasiticus\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.44\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eA. penicillioides\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.04\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eA. versicolor\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.22\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFusarium spp.\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cstrong\u003e(16)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eF. graminearum\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.83\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eF. oxysporum\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.44\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eF. proliferatum\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.04\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eF. solani\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.44\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ePenicillum spp.\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cstrong\u003e(32)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eP.\u003c/em\u003e aurantiogriseum\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.04\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eP. citrinum\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.04\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eP. diginatum\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e9\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5.48\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eP. expansum\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.04\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eP. olsonii\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.44\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eP. oxalicum\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.44\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eOther spp.\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cstrong\u003e(51)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAlternaria alternata\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e9\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5.48\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eChaetomium\u0026nbsp;globosum\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.26\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eCladosporium cladosporioides\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.65\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eEpicoccum sorghinum\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.04\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eEmericella nidulans\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.65\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eMucor plumbeus\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e9\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5.48\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eRhizopus solonifer\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e9\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5.48\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTotal\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e164\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n \u003c/table\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"4.0 Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis study highlights that various field and storage fungi are associated with medicinal plants in SA, with the lowest fungal load of 1.8 \u0026times; 10\u003csup\u003e4\u003c/sup\u003e CFU/g recorded in \u003cem\u003eAcacia karoo\u003c/em\u003e, whereas the highest contamination level of 2\u0026times;10\u003csup\u003e7\u003c/sup\u003e CFU/g of sample was each found in \u003cem\u003ePutranjiva roxburgii\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eSchotia brachypetata\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eElephantorriza elephantine\u003c/em\u003e. According to WHO [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR53\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e53\u003c/span\u003e], a maximum contamination limit regulated for fungi and yeasts in medicinal plants has been set to be 1 x 10\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e CFU/g. It was found in this study that all the plant samples analyzed contained fungal load that exceeded this limit, demonstrating how highly contaminated these samples were that could pose some health implications amongst consumers. The elevated fungal load observed in the medicinal plants may be attributed to various factors, including climatic patterns, improper handling during harvesting, poor storage facilities and conditions (Ashiq et al., 2014; Fontana et al., 2021).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWe employed both conventional and molecular techniques to confirm the identity of fungal spp. recovered from the medicinal plants. Approximately 164 fungal isolates were identified, representing 10 fungal genera. Among these, \u003cem\u003eAspergillus, Penicillium\u003c/em\u003e, and \u003cem\u003eFusarium\u003c/em\u003e were found to be the most predominant. The aforementioned fungal genera are important from the mycological point of view, since they are capable of producing mycotoxins, chemical compounds which can cause a range of adverse health effects such as acute poisoning, immune suppression, carcinogenicity, and reproductive disorders in humans and animals [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR54\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e54\u003c/span\u003e]. Consequently, the presence of these fungal isolates in medicinal plants raises significant health concerns, particularly considering that none of the analyzed samples were found to be free from these isolates. The incidence of fungal spp. in medicinal plants have been reported in other countries like Portugal, China, and Poland (Ałtyn and Twarużek, 2020; Rocha-Miranda and Ven\u0026acirc;ncio, 2019; Zheng et al., 2017).The results from the current study are in agreement with the study of [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR55\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e55\u003c/span\u003e], who reported \u003cem\u003eAspergillus\u003c/em\u003e (43.77%), followed by \u003cem\u003eFusarium\u003c/em\u003e (5.17%), \u003cem\u003eCladosporium\u003c/em\u003e (4.46%), \u003cem\u003eAlternaria\u003c/em\u003e (3.69%), \u003cem\u003ePenicillium\u003c/em\u003e (2.85%), and \u003cem\u003eXeromyces\u003c/em\u003e (2.46%), as the predominant fungal genera contaminating Chinese herbal medicines. Similar, Zheng et al. (2017) reported \u003cem\u003eAspergillus\u003c/em\u003e (28 isolates) and \u003cem\u003ePenicillium\u003c/em\u003e (35 isolates) as the prevalent fungal genera detected in medicinal plants from China. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR56\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e56\u003c/span\u003e] study on the identification of mycoflora in forty medicinal plants revealed that 83.3% of the samples were contaminated with one or more fungal species, which aligns with our present findings. The authors further confirmed that of the 69 strains recovered, Trichoderma (11.6%), Rhizopus (14.5%), Penicillium (24.6%), and Aspergillus (26.1%) were the most prevalent.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAmong the nine \u003cem\u003eAspergillus\u003c/em\u003e spp. recovered from the medicinal plants in this present research, \u003cem\u003eA. niger\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eA. flavus\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eA. ochraceous\u003c/em\u003e, and \u003cem\u003eA. fumigatus\u003c/em\u003e were the most prevalent. These results concur with the studies conducted by Kortei et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR57\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e57\u003c/span\u003e] who documented 12 species belonging to 7 genera, \u003cem\u003eAspergillus\u003c/em\u003e (\u003cem\u003eniger\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eflavus\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003efumigatus\u003c/em\u003e, and \u003cem\u003eochraceus\u003c/em\u003e), \u003cem\u003ePenicillium\u003c/em\u003e (\u003cem\u003edigitatum\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eexpansum\u003c/em\u003e), \u003cem\u003eFusarium\u003c/em\u003e (\u003cem\u003eoxysporum\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003everticillioides\u003c/em\u003e), Mucor (\u003cem\u003eracemosus)\u003c/em\u003e, Rhizopus (stolonif\u003cem\u003eer), Rhodotorula\u003c/em\u003e sp., and \u003cem\u003eTrichoderma harzianum\u003c/em\u003e, were identified as fungal contaminants in spices and herbs samples. More so in China, [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR56\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e56\u003c/span\u003e] reported 18 strains of \u003cem\u003eAspergillus\u003c/em\u003e, 17 strains of \u003cem\u003ePenicillium\u003c/em\u003e, 10 strains of \u003cem\u003eRhizopus\u003c/em\u003e, 8 strains of \u003cem\u003eTrichoderma\u003c/em\u003e, 4 strains of \u003cem\u003eMucor\u003c/em\u003e, 5 strains of yeast, 2 strains of \u003cem\u003eByssochlamys\u003c/em\u003e, 2 strains of \u003cem\u003eChaetomium\u003c/em\u003e, 1 strain of \u003cem\u003eAlternaria\u003c/em\u003e, 1 strain of \u003cem\u003eMycosis\u003c/em\u003e, and 1 strain of \u003cem\u003eNeurospora\u003c/em\u003e in 13 different medicinal herbs from the country. In another study conducted by [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR58\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e58\u003c/span\u003e] to investigate the presence of potential mycotoxin-producing fungi in selected herbal medicines from Nigeria, a range of fungal isolates were obtained from the plants, with \u003cem\u003eAspergillus\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003ePenicillium\u003c/em\u003e genera being the most prevalence. Consistent with our findings, \u003cem\u003eA. niger\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eA. flavus\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eP. limosum\u003c/em\u003e, and \u003cem\u003eP. chrysogenum\u003c/em\u003e emerged as the predominant species.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe presence of fungal species in medicinal plants in the present study can be ascribed to climatic factors, poor handling, inadequate storage facilities, as well as poor storage conditions (Ashiq et al., 2014; Fontana et al., 2021). This was clearly evident during the sampling process, where the plant materials were exposed to environmental conditions conducive to microbial contamination. The contamination of medicinal plants with fungi not only leads to a reduction in quality, decreased market value, and diminished healing potential, but it can also pose a health risk if the fungal spp. are toxigenic [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e38\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR59\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e59\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR60\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e60\u003c/span\u003e]. Some of the fungal spp. reported in this study, including \u003cem\u003eA. fumigatus\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eA. flavus\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eA. niger\u003c/em\u003e, A. paraciticus, \u003cem\u003eF. graminearum, F. oxysporum, F. proliferatum, P. expanusm\u003c/em\u003e, and \u003cem\u003eP. citrinum\u003c/em\u003e have been reported to cause acute and chronic mycotoxicoses, resulting in significant morbidity and mortality among animals and humans (Person et al., 2010; Rana et al., 2020; Stemler et al., 2023). This group of fungi holds great significance, particularly in sub-Saharan Africa, where favorable conditions exist for their proliferation and mycotoxin production [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e40\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR61\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e61\u003c/span\u003e]. Fungal-contaminated medicinal plants are frequently used worldwide in the treatment of various diseases and for improving human health [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e33\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR62\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e62\u003c/span\u003e]. Unfortunately, the increased consumption of fungal-contaminated medicinal plants has significantly contributed to public health issues arising from the inadequate examination of their quality and safety.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAs previously mentioned, the invasion of fungi on plants is a common occurrence throughout various stages of agricultural practice, including handling, harvesting, and storage processing. It is obvious that many users of medicinal plants often purchase them from markets without inspecting them for visible signs of fungal contamination. Furthermore, there is a lack of awareness and knowledge regarding the potential presence of fungi and their attendant mycotoxins in medicinal plants, as well as the associated adverse effects on human health (Areo et al., 2020). This is a significant issue as contaminated herbs can greatly compromise the expected health benefits and instead lead to unexpected health implications. Therefore, it is imperative to provide education on the health consequences of consuming medicinal plants that have been infested with fungi to traditional healers, individuals involved in cultivation, handling, and the sale of these plants (from field to market), as well as the final consumers.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"5.0 Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eFrom the findings of this study, it is evident that the medicinal plants sold at Faraday Muthi market in Johannesburg, SA exhibit poor microbiological quality. These plants may be unsafe for human consumption, as many of them were found to have fungal contamination levels exceeding the WHO regulatory limit of 1 x 10\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e CFU/g. Therefore, it is crucial to establish appropriate standards for fungal load in SA medicinal plants to mitigate the health risks associated with their consumption. The identification of the isolated fungal species is of utmost importance from a mycological perspective. The regular consumption of fungi-contaminated medicinal plants in the country can lead to various health implications on the consumers. Consequently, it is necessary to implement official regulations that define safe limits for fungi in different medicinal plants and their products in SA and other African nations. While it may not be possible to completely eradicate fungal contamination during the various stages of medicinal plant cultivation, harvest, and post-harvest handling, it is imperative to adopt dynamic strategies to reduce their levels in the plants in order to minimize human exposure. Prior to the distribution of any plant material intended for medical purposes in any market, it is essential to conduct thorough fungal analysis to ensure the safety and well-being of consumers.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAcknowledgement\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors would like to express their gratitude to The University of Johannesburg for providing financial support for this research.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConflict of interest\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest.\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eInformed consent statement\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNot applicable.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eData availability\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe datasets used in this study will be made available upon request from the corresponding author.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAuthor Contribution\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eOMO and JZ contributed to investigation, conceptualization, visualization, and wrote the main manuscript text. OAA conducted formal analysis and review the manuscript, and OAA prepared the Figures. PBN supervised the project and edited the manuscript.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAdhikari BS, Babu M, Saklani P, Rawat G (2010) Medicinal plants diversity and their conservation status in Wildlife Institute of India (WII) campus, Dehradun, \u003cem\u003eEthnobotanical leaflets\u003c/em\u003e, vol. p. 6, 2010\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eOzioma E-OJ, Chinwe OAN (2019) Herbal medicines in African traditional medicine. Herb Med 10:191\u0026ndash;214\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eOkaiyeto K, Oguntibeju OO (2021) African herbal medicines: Adverse effects and cytotoxic potentials with different therapeutic applications. 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Revista Brasileira de Plantas Medicinais 17:262\u0026ndash;266\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAiko V, Mehta A (2016) Prevalence of toxigenic fungi in common medicinal herbs and spices in India, \u003cem\u003e3 Biotech\u003c/em\u003e, vol. 6, p. 159\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAnthony MH, Francis DM, Patrick N, Berka GTA, Haruna OG (2012) Aflatoxin contamination in foods and feeds: A special focus on Africa. Trends Vital Food Control Eng\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eMensah M, Komlaga G, Forkuo AD, Firempong C, Anning AK, Dickson RA (2019) Toxic Saf implications Herb Med used Afr Herb Med, 63, pp. 1992\u0026thinsp;\u0026ndash;\u0026thinsp;0849\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":true,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"discover-life","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"Learn more about [Discover Life](https://link.springer.com/journal/11084)","snPcode":"11084","submissionUrl":"https://submission.springernature.com/new-submission/11084/3","title":"Discover Life","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"stoa","reportingPortfolio":"Discover Series","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Medicinal plants, fungal contamination, Aspergillus, Fusarium, South Africa, human health","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-4563660/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-4563660/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eIndigenous medicinal plants have gained attention worldwide for their ability to cure different ailments. However, there are concerns over the contamination of these plants by fungal species, which produce mycotoxins. This study investigated 36 different medicinal plants purchased from Faraday Muthi Market, Johannesburg, South Africa for fungal contamination using macro- and microscopic approaches, and their identities were confirmed by molecular means. The fungal loads of the mycoflora recovered from the medical plants ranged from 1.8 \u0026times; 10\u003csup\u003e4\u003c/sup\u003e CFU/g to 2 \u0026times; 10\u003csup\u003e7\u003c/sup\u003e CFU/g, exceeding the WHO regulatory limit of 1 x 10\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e CFU/g. Furthermore, a total of 164 fungal species from nine genera, including \u003cem\u003eAspergillus\u003c/em\u003e (39.6%), \u003cem\u003ePenicillium\u003c/em\u003e (19.5%), and \u003cem\u003eFusarium\u003c/em\u003e (9.7%), other notable fungal genera such as \u003cem\u003eAlternaria\u003c/em\u003e (5.5%), \u003cem\u003eMucor\u003c/em\u003e (5.4%), \u003cem\u003eRhizopus\u003c/em\u003e (5.4%), \u003cem\u003eChaetomium\u003c/em\u003e (4.2%), \u003cem\u003eCladosporium\u003c/em\u003e (3.6%), \u003cem\u003eEmericella nidulans\u003c/em\u003e (3.6%) \u003cem\u003eand Epicoccum\u003c/em\u003e (3.0%) were also recovered from the medicinal plants. Furthermore, \u003cem\u003eA. niger\u003c/em\u003e (10.97%) was the most prevalent among all the identified fungal species. Consequently, consuming fungal-contaminated medicinal plants may increase the risk of exposure to fungal species, which might have a dire impact on human health. Therefore, this research underscores the importance of stringent quality control measures in the cultivation, harvesting, and processing of medicinal plants in South Africa and other African countries to mitigate fungal contamination risks.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Fungal diversity and contamination of some selected medicinal plants in South Africa","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2024-07-16 08:11:34","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-4563660/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"decision","content":"Revision requested","date":"2024-08-06T08:31:43+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"13686029770163141783576055982230624032","date":"2024-07-28T01:57:29+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2024-07-26T19:29:02+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"50753458028260328845466777267995689523","date":"2024-07-26T18:24:35+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2024-07-03T09:24:33+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"177166663185491761593717608561376760302","date":"2024-07-02T06:12:09+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2024-07-02T05:31:44+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2024-06-25T05:40:18+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"checksComplete","content":"","date":"2024-06-25T05:33:40+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"Discover Life","date":"2024-06-11T11:21:18+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"discover-life","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"Learn more about [Discover Life](https://link.springer.com/journal/11084)","snPcode":"11084","submissionUrl":"https://submission.springernature.com/new-submission/11084/3","title":"Discover Life","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"stoa","reportingPortfolio":"Discover Series","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"42f2ac43-8b0c-42ae-846c-03cef04b5af4","owner":[],"postedDate":"July 16th, 2024","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"published-in-journal","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2025-02-24T15:59:30+00:00","versionOfRecord":{"articleIdentity":"rs-4563660","link":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s11084-025-09682-9","journal":{"identity":"discover-life","isVorOnly":false,"title":"Discover Life"},"publishedOn":"2025-02-21 15:57:02","publishedOnDateReadable":"February 21st, 2025"},"versionCreatedAt":"2024-07-16 08:11:34","video":"","vorDoi":"10.1007/s11084-025-09682-9","vorDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s11084-025-09682-9","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-4563660","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-4563660","identity":"rs-4563660","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"qtupq5eGEP_6zYnWcrvyt","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}