Developing and evaluating an augmented reality (AR) module for lace design: study on enhancing student creativity and engagement

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This mixed-methods study evaluates AR-integrated versus traditional education in a university fashion design course. 45 university students were randomly assigned to a control group (CG) or study group (SG). Learning outcomes were assessed based on students' lace design portfolio, including functionality, aesthetics, and creativity. While quantitative data on student perceptions and attitudes were collected via post-intervention questionnaires. Though qualitative performance gains on the lace portfolios were non-significant, AR accounted for 75% of the top-ranked creative designs. Additionally, AR significantly boosted motivation and engagement (overall mean perception scores = 4.33/5) and greatly reduced perceived stress (p = 0.001; 16% decrease). The findings support AR as a valuable tool for enhancing motivation, reducing stress, and fostering creativity in fashion education. Social science/Education Biological sciences/Psychology Social science/Psychology Augmented Reality Fashion Design Education Creativity Engagement Stress Reduction Mixed-methods Higher Education Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 Figure 6 Figure 7 Figure 8 Introduction The prevailing teacher-centric educational approach, like only use of PowerPoint (PPT) may unintentionally reduce student engagement and interaction (Peng, 2023 ). It can be exacerbated by an extensive curriculum, which makes it increasingly difficult for educators to sustain student interest and foster creativity. As a result, learners may experience heightened stress and disengagement (Igbokwe et al., 2019 ). For example, Gam and Banning ( 2012 ) note that traditional methods often fail to foster creativity among students, which limited their ability to draw inspiration from historical contexts and implement that in practical design portfolios (Gam & Banning, 2012 ). Additionally, reliance on static presentations can hinder environments conducive to critical thinking and exploration, which are essential in fashion education (Zhao et al., 2021 ). In today’s educational landscape, stress associated with design tasks has emerged as a significant yet frequently overlooked barrier to effective learning. Addressing this challenge requires cultivating inclusive and supportive environments that prioritize student well-being and intellectual curiosity. Fashion design education, which demands a balance between imaginative expression and technical proficiency, is especially vulnerable to the limitations of traditional pedagogical models. These methods are often characterized by passive, lecture-based delivery, which contrasts with experiential learning principles that emphasize active participation, reflection, and real-world application. Such approaches frequently fall short in developing the creative agility students need to draw inspiration from lived experiences and translate those insights into innovative design solutions. It implies that the one-way, lecture-based approach in classroom can disengage students who thrive on dynamic and immersive learning experiences to thrive in creativity-driven industries (Kohli, 2024 ). This disconnect limits engagement and undermines the constructivist paradigm, wherein knowledge is actively built through exploration, experimentation, and iterative practice. Without opportunities for immersive learning, such as collaborative projects, studio critiques, and material experimentation, students may struggle to develop the originality and critical thinking required to navigate complex design challenges. The integration of advanced technologies into education such as AR has significantly reshaped traditional teaching methodologies, which creates immersive learning experiences by superimposing digital content onto the physical world (Xu et al., 2023 ). The adoption of AR in education has grown significantly, increasing by 336% between 2012 and 2018 (Garzón et al., 2019 ). However, its application in fashion design remains limited compared to other disciplines (Jean, 2022 ; Ji et al., 2024 ). Peng ( 2023 ) pointed out that AR can transform passive classrooms into active learning environments, and therefore significantly enhances interactivity, fosters openness, and promotes collaborative sharing among students. Ebadi and Ashrafabadi ( 2022 ) shared similar views that AR positively influences the curiosity, engagement, and motivation of students, which makes learning more interactive and effective. This is particularly impactful in specialized fields such as fashion design, where AR enables students to visualize designs in three dimensions (3D) and interact with virtual models, thus fostering more engagement and inspiration (Elfeky & Elbyaly, 2021 ). Beyond capturing the attention of students, AR facilitates a deeper understanding of complex concepts and enhances creative expression (Starkey et al., 2021 ). For example, AR-integrated education has been shown to improve fashion design skills, which leads to enhanced academic performance and more receptiveness towards student projects (Elfeky & Elbyaly, 2021 ). These positive results may be due to the ability of AR to connect theoretical knowledge with practical applications in a more engaging and creative manner. Additionally, although AR technology has shown potential in stimulating creative thinking (Chen et al., 2021 ), existing research predominantly emphasizes technical skill development. For instance, studies have examined the effectiveness of AR in improving sewing accuracy (Yip et al., 2019 ), pattern-making and 3D apparel visualization (Kazlacheva et al., 2018 ). However, significantly less attention has been given to examining the potential of AR to facilitate higher-order creative processes, particularly in developing original design concepts. This suggests that further research is needed to determine how AR can systematically enhance creative thinking in fashion design education. Given these considerations, this study has three primary objectives: (1) to explore the application of AR technology in university-level fashion design education, with a particular focus on its impact on enhancing students' creativity and expressive capabilities; (2) to enhance students' learning motivation, specifically, their willingness to actively engage in the learning environment (Keller & Litchfield, 2002 ); (3) to evaluate students' attitudes and interest in AR technology in future fashion design classrooms. To achieve these goals, this research involves implementing AR-integrated lace design lessons for year 3 and year 4 design students, allowing them to utilize AR technology to comprehend the abstract knowledge involved in lace design and production processes. This approach allows students to showcase their comprehensive design abilities in creativity, functionality, and aesthetic expression. To assess students' motivation and their likelihood of using AR in future classes, post-intervention questionnaires were administered to the SG group, capturing quantitative data on their attitudes and feedback regarding the AR- integrated teaching intervention. Literature Review AR in Design-related Education. Fashion design education requires advanced visualization skills to support creative and technical learning (Wiana, 2018 ). Traditional teaching methods often struggle to convey abstract concepts and complex visual principles, thus highlighting the need for innovative educational tools. The integration of innovative technologies, such as AR, has been shown to enhance higher education in fashion design by fostering interactivity, flexibility, and dynamic learning experiences (Kazlacheva et al., 2018 ). Garzón et al. ( 2019 ) examined 61 AR related education publications which revealed a significant disciplinary imbalance: approximately 50% of the publications focus on natural sciences, mathematics, and statistics, while only 16.4% address the arts and humanities. More recent data indicate continued growth in AR education research during 2019–2022, yet this increase has not extended to design education (Jamiat & Madi, 2023 ). After 2018, the majority of these publications focus on using AR in medical education. This disparity highlights a significant research gap in leveraging the potential of AR for fashion education. Recent studies highlight the ability of AR to transform static content into interactive experiences in the art and design areas. For instance, Yip et al. ( 2019 ) found that learners show significantly improved efficiency in sewing tasks when using AR video guidance, thus highlighting the potential of this technology in skill-based fields. Moreover, Blanco-Pons et al. ( 2019 ) employed AR technology to restore and improve prehistoric rock art paintings in Spain, which enables users to interpret eroded artworks more effectively. The participants reported a superior learning experience compared to traditional observation, thus underscoring the capacity of AR to clarify visual ambiguity. Creativity Education. Design fundamentally differs from disciplines that depend on standardized formulas, fixed methodologies, and factual recall, because design prioritizes creativity, originality, and the ability to connect disparate ideas. In this context, inspiration drawn from external stimuli plays a crucial role in enhancing creativity (Hou & Chen, 2023 ). These stimuli, including visual and auditory elements, are essential for analogy mapping, activating long-term memory, and facilitating effective problem-solving skills. This process allows students to transfer knowledge across various contexts. Fibre Guard ( 2021 ) further emphasized that inspiration in design is not merely an accessory but a foundational element of creative development. This is because the ability to generate innovative solutions and conceptualize novel ideas is vital for design students. AR integrates visual and auditory stimuli to create rich and immersive experiences that can inspire students and enhance creativity. Christensen and Schunn ( 2007 ) noted that the innovative learning environment provided by AR intentionally fosters inspiration by engaging students through dynamic visual elements (such as 3D models, colors, and symbols) and auditory stimuli. This has been shown in Elfeky and Elbyaly ( 2021 ), which indicates that students become more creative after using AR technology. Moreover, Chen ( 2019 ) identified three key factors that drive student acceptance of AR in design courses, namely visual appeal, knowledgeability, and situational experience. This suggests that effective implementation of AR technology not only improves comprehension but also cultivates innovative thinking, thereby enhancing the groundwork for advanced design education (Ji et al., 2024 ). Motivation and Engagement. A large number of studies have established motivation as a fundamental driver of self-directed learning and creative cognition (Mega et al., 2014 ). In educational technology, motivation is one of the most significant benefits of using AR, which offers marked advantages over traditional teaching methods (Garzón et al., 2019 ). For instance, a meta-analysis of 68 studies in Akçayır and Akçayır ( 2017 ) reported that AR in education significantly enhances learning outcomes, including motivation, academic performance, and student attitudes. While AR has been shown to enhance motivation, its pedagogical value remains uncertain without evidence that such gains lead to deeper learning, skill acquisition, or creative development (Rodriguez-Saavedra et. al, 2025 ). Ciloglu and Ustun ( 2023 ) stated that traditional teacher-centric instructional methods often lead to student disengagement. This limitation may be due to the inherent constraints of verbal explanations, which have minimal effectiveness in fostering deep conceptual understanding (Wang et al., 2023 ). When learning focuses solely on memorizing individual facts, such as terminology or specific material names, students may lose interest and intrinsic motivation over time (Kalana et al., 2020 ). This issue frequently arises in concept-based subjects, where passive information reception often fails to foster meaningful learning (Ciloglu & Ustun, 2023 ). AR technology overcomes these limitations by enabling active exploration, providing immediate feedback, and creating immersive learning experiences (Lee & Hsu, 2021 ). For instance, Safadel and White ( 2019 ) showed that the playfulness and interactivity of AR enhance both learner satisfaction and intrinsic motivation. Method This pilot study employs a mixed-methods approach to explore the impact of AR technology on motivation, design skills, and stress management (refers to perceived stress related to design tasks) in education. The methodology involves four main steps: (a) content development, (b) participant allocation, (c) post-questionnaire, and (d) lace design portfolio. The study was conducted over a three-week period, with Years 3 and 4 intimate apparel (IA) students who are enrolled in a university in Hong Kong. The following sections outline the procedures and methods used in this research work in detail. Figure 1 the procedures and data collection methods used in this research work in detail. Content Development. PPT presentations that emphasized the use of figures and animations (Fig. 2 a) were developed and served as the foundational material for the AR-enhanced lessons. Visually rich PPT presentations were used because visual stimuli elicit stronger emotional responses than textual information, thereby enhancing memory retention (Bradley & Lang, 2007 ). Secondly, a series of short videos were created to provide an introduction on the various types of lace (Fig. 2 b). These videos were found on YouTube and then re-designed to emulate the format of Instagram reels. These shorter, visually engaging videos have been shown to more effectively capture the attention of students (Fiorella & Mayer, 2018 ). The third step was the development of 3D models. Using CLO software, a range of intimate apparel and activewear designs were created in 3D (Fig. 2 c). When incorporated with AR technology, students could interact with the 3D models by zooming in and out to examine intricate details such as texture, accessories, and sewing techniques. Upon completion of the PPT slides, videos, 3D models, and reference images, these materials were uploaded to the AR application platform, Artivive (Fig. 2 d). The students could scan the reference images to access corresponding videos or 3D models. Participants. In this pilot study, 45 (42 females and 3 males) Year 3 and 4 design students who are IA majors between 19 and 22 years old at a university in Hong Kong were randomly allocated into two groups: the CG (n = 22) and SG (n = 23). CG experienced traditional teaching methods and SG undergoing an AR technology-based teaching module. Both groups received identical content, but SG had more opportunities to engage in the mixed-reality environment. Lace Design Portfolios. After 3 weeks study, both groups were required to complete a lace design assignment, which was evaluated with the marking scheme in Elfeky and Elbyaly ( 2021 ) to determine the impact of AR technology on design skills. The scheme evaluated three main aspects, including functionality, aesthetics, and creativity (Appendix 1) . In each aspect, the full mark is 25, for a total of 75 marks. To ensure reliability, the designs were evaluated by three independent fashion design professionals at the university. In cases where there are significant discrepancies, discussions were held to reach consensus. Additionally, all the designs were submitted to three respected lace designers at Dong Guan Best Pacific Textile Ltd. (Guangdong, China), a recognized factory in Mainland China, for the selection of the most creative designs and to provide advice to the students. Post-questionnaire. A post-questionnaire was administered to the SG following the AR-integrated lessons to assess participants' perceptions of AR technology. The questionnaire had four sections: (1) demographic data, (2) AR technology perception (e.g. perceived usefulness, ease of use, and engagement value), (3) self-reported stress levels, and (4) recommendations for the future use of AR in instructional settings ( Appendix 2 ). The questionnaire used a Likert scale that ranges from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). For Sections 2 and 3, the internal reliability was evaluated by using Cronbach’s alpha, with a pilot test that yields a value of 0.94, thus indicating excellent reliability. Data Analysis. The evaluation of the lace design portfolios was based on the marking scheme in Elfeky and Elbyaly ( 2021 ). The scores of the CG and the SG were compared by analyzing statistical measures, including the mean (x̄), median (Med), and standard deviation (SD). A t-test was subsequently conducted to evaluate the impact of AR technology on the design skills of the students in terms of functionality, aesthetics, and creativity. Additionally, correlational analysis was performed to investigate the potential relationships between performance in these three domains. Descriptive statistics were used to summarize the post-questionnaire results and characterize the SG’ attitudes towards the AR-integrated teaching methodology. Frequency distributions were also analyzed to identify prevailing trends in the Likert-scale responses. Results Evaluation of Lace Design Portfolios A total of 45 IA students submitted their portfolios, with 22 participants in the CG and 23 in the SG. The evaluation examined three dimensions: functionality, aesthetics, and creativity, with each worth 25 marks, for a total of 75 marks. Based on the descriptive statistics of lace design performance, the SG demonstrated superior performance compared to the CG across all three evaluated dimensions: functionality, aesthetics, and creativity, the mean differences are 0.53, 0.98, 0.74, and 2.24, respectively (Table 1 ). Furthermore, the median scores of the SG were greater than those of the CG in aesthetics and creativity, reinforcing the observed trend of enhanced performance. While quantitative gains in design skills did not reach significance, qualitative expert assessments indicated superior creative outcomes in the SG (75% of top-ranked designs). Table 1 Descriptive Statistics for Assessment Dimensions by Group. Group N x̄ x̄ diff. Med SD p-value Functionality CG 22 17.36 -0.53 20 3.98 0.65 SG 23 17.89 20 3.78 Aesthetics CG 22 16.07 -0.98 16 3.95 0.42 SG 23 17.04 19 4.11 Creativity CG 22 16.5 -0.74 16.5 3.71 0.52 SG 23 17.24 18 3.91 Total CG 22 49.93 -2.24 51.13 11.47 0.52 SG 23 52.17 59.92 11.6 Notably, the higher SD within the SG suggests greater variability in individual outcomes, indicating that the intervention may lead to distinct and individualized improvements in design skills among participants. These findings are visually supported by the comparative distributions presented in Fig. 3 . Regarding functionality, the performance disparity between the two groups appears minimal. The median scores (CG & SG = 20) are aligned, and the interquartile ranges (IQRs) exhibit comparable magnitude and positioning along the score axis. This suggests that the intervention given to SG did not yield a marked improvement in functional lace product. This outcome suggests that functional competence is likely predicated on fundamental technical skills that were equally developed in both groups through conventional instruction. In contrast, a more pronounced difference in performance is observed in the aesthetic and creative dimensions. The median score for the SG (aesthetic = 19, creative = 18) is higher than that of the CG (aesthetic = 16, creative = 16.5), and the entire IQR for the SG is positioned higher on the score axis. This distribution indicates that the AR intervention potentially including the strong visual stimuli, demonstrated superior compositional arrangement, and reflected a more advanced understanding of design principles such as balance and harmony. To compare overall performance and identify variability, total score distribution between SG and the CG on the lace portfolios is compared (Fig. 4 ). The SG's distribution is characterized by a main peak within the 80–89% range, indicating that the majority of students in this cohort attained a high level of mastery and comprehension of the project's core objectives. A secondary, smaller peak within the 50–59% range suggests a special subset of students who achieved lower grade. In contrast, the CG's score distribution exhibits a positive skew, with its highest concentration of scores residing in the 50–59% range, alongside a larger number of students scoring in the lower grade categories. This wider spread and lower average imply that with traditional teaching method, students had more varied and generally lower levels of understanding. SG not only had higher scores but also a more overall successful learning outcome. One of the objectives of this project is to enhance design skills, particularly in creativity. Therefore, three esteemed lace designers were invited to help select the creative designs. Four outstanding designs were chosen, with three of the four (75%) belonging to SG (Fig. 5 ). The theme “Micro Sculpture” was selected as the most creative design because it transferred the silhouette of a Western architectural image into the lace trim design. The line pattern artistically presented the theme, while the basic lace design with the pattern design improved the functionality of the lace. The pattern design made the lace more usable and overall created a more unique lace design than the traditional ones on the market. The student was able to transcend traditional aesthetics and express her unique creativity. Evaluation of Student Perceptions based on use of AR in Education The results of the post-questionnaire completed by 23 IA students in the SG indicate overwhelmingly positive perceptions of AR as an educational intervention, thus indicating strong acceptance and usability of AR technology. All of the measured constructs achieve scores above 3.8 on a 5-point Likert scale (Fig. 6 ), and the overall mean is 4.33. This robust performance across all the evaluation metrics indicates strong technological acceptance, high usability metrics, and successful implementation. The results show that AR significantly enhances student satisfaction and confidence in the design lessons, with the highest scores observed for "Motivating Rewards" (x̄ =4.52), "Felt Achieved" (x̄ =4.52), and "Right Degree of Difficulty" (x̄ =4.52). These findings indicate that students found the AR tool well-matched to their skill level, which contributes to their sense of accomplishment and appreciation for the reward system. Additionally, the tool is shown to be highly effective for specialized content delivery, as evidenced by the high relevance scores for "Practical Examples" (x̄ =4.39) and "Academic Needs" (x̄ =4.39), which suggests that the AR contents successfully align with the broader learning objectives. Furthermore, the students also strongly expressed their intention to use AR in the future (x̄ =4.30), thus reflecting an overall positive reception. Moreover, the majority of students identified video viewing (56.5%) and enhanced interactivity (52.2%) as the most valuable features of AR technology (Fig. 7 ). This may be because these functions appear to effectively engage learners by combining visual demonstration with active participation. However, slightly lower scores for "Useful Feedback" (M = 3.87) and "Grabbed Attention" (M = 4.09) point to areas for improvement (Fig. 8 ), such as expanded practical applications through additional examples and case studies (47.8%) and increased interactive elements (39.1%) to further boost engagement (Fig. 7 ). These insights highlight the potential of AR as an educational tool while underscoring opportunities to refine feedback systems and engagement strategies to further enhance the learning experience. Student Stress Levels Before and After the AR-assisted Lessons The paired samples t-test indicated a significant reduction in stress levels after AR-assisted lessons. Mean scores decreased from 4.65 before the intervention to 3.91 post-intervention (p = 0.001), which marks a notable 16% reduction in stress (Table 2 ). Moreover, the median values decreased from 5 to 4, which also reveals a general downward trend in stress. The moderate to large effect size (Cohen’s d = 0.79) further supports that this reduction is not only statistically significant but also practically relevant, which indicates a substantive impact on the well-being of students. Although pre-intervention stress levels showed relatively low variability (SD = 0.65), they are near the scale maximum (Med = 5). In contrast, the post-intervention scores exhibited greater dispersion (SD = 1.16), which implies differential individual responses to the AR experience. Table 2 Significance of difference in stress level of SG before and after AR-assisted lessons. n x̄ x̄ diff. Med SD Cohen’s d p-value Before 23 4.65 0.739 5 0.65 0.79 0.001 After 23 3.91 4 1.16 Discussion Effectiveness of AR technology in enhancing design skills in terms of functionality, aesthetics, and creativity This study examined the impact of AR-integrated teaching on student performance in lace design, but found no statistically significant difference compared to conventional methods (p > 0.05). The limited sample size (N = 45) may have constrained statistical power, reducing the likelihood of detecting meaningful effects. Although the SG group exhibited elevated mean scores, these differences may reflect random variation rather than a systematic pedagogical advantage. Moreover, the depth, duration, and pedagogical alignment of AR implementation may have been insufficient to elicit measurable gains. Importantly, non-significant findings do not imply the absence of effect; rather, they highlight the need for future research with larger samples and more robust AR integration to determine its efficacy in design education. The data analysis reveals strong evidence to support additional research despite the study's null findings. The group averages show a significant impact from outliers because the mean scores differ substantially from the median values. The score distribution in Fig. 4 shows how individual learner differences (such as technological affinity and prior knowledge) affect results because the SG shows a bimodal distribution while the control group displays wide score variability. Notably, median scores in Table 1 indicate meaningful group differences, particularly in aesthetics, creativity, and overall performance, implying that typical students may benefit from AR-enhanced instruction. This is further supported by expert evaluations, where three of the four top-ranked creative designs emerged from the AR group. The combination of quantitative median results and qualitative expert assessments matches previous research findings. Research studies have demonstrated that AR technology helps students develop better spatial abilities and creative problem-solving skills (Chen & Tsai, 2012 ; Kang et al., 2023 ) which results in better design success (Elfeky & Elbyaly, 2021 ). Additionally, the theoretical framework of AR supports its ability to enhance creativity through virtual element visualization and manipulation (Hidajat, 2024 ; Diegmann et al., 2015 ) and its high engagement potential (Ji et al., 2024 ), which enables students to transcend traditional classroom boundaries. For example, by enabling students to interact with virtual lace elements, like rotating, resizing, and layering them in real time, AR reduces extraneous cognitive load and enhances Germane processing. This facilitates analogy mapping, activates long-term memory, and encourages cross-contextual knowledge transfer, all of which are essential for creative problem-solving in design (Hou & Chen, 2023 ). Design education emphasizes originality and idea synthesis over rote learning. In this context, AR acts as a catalyst for creativity by engaging visual and auditory pathways that inspire deeper conceptual exploration (Christensen & Schunn, 2007 ; Ji et al., 2024 ). The study’s median scores and expert evaluations highlight AR’s potential to foster innovative thinking and support its theoretical role in enhancing creativity. Effectiveness of AR technology in cultivating student interest and enhancing motivation Based on the strong positive responses to the questionnaire, it is evident that AR-assisted education is highly effective in enhancing the interest of students and their motivation to study. As illustrated in Fig. 6 , the students report high levels of satisfaction and acceptance of the AR technology: Motivating Rewards" (x̄ =4.52), "Felt Achieved" (x̄ =4.52), and "Right Degree of Difficulty" (x̄ =4.52). These consistently high scores suggest that AR- integrated learning environments successfully capture student attention and enhance their enthusiasm for learning. These findings align with a number of studies that show AR significantly boosts student interest, motivation, and involvement by offering fun, immersive, and interactive learning environments (Del Cerro Velázquez & Morales Méndez, 2018 ; Önal & Önal, 2021 ). Moreover, Di Serio et al. ( 2013 ) provided both qualitative and quantitative evidence that the integration of AR into learning environments serves as a significant motivational factor for students. Beyond motivation, this AR-induced engagement may also enhance interactivity with instructional content, accelerate knowledge acquisition (Filgona et al., 2020 ), and offer a unique advantage over other digital tools. For example, by enabling students to manipulate 3D lace elements in real time, AR supports spatial reasoning and aesthetic exploration more than procedural accuracy. This may explain why improvements were more pronounced in creativity and aesthetics than in technical functionality. While AR fosters engagement and conceptual experimentation, it may not provide the structured repetition or precision feedback needed to refine technical skills. This distinction highlights the importance of aligning AR tools with specific learning outcomes. Unlike computer games or virtual reality, AR allows users to connect to their physical environment while enhancing it realistically. This is a characteristic that sparks surprise and curiosity, further increasing motivation to engage with learning tools (Bujak et al., 2013 ). Notably, AR’s ability to enable students to interact with simulations and receive real-time feedback is difficult to replicate with the traditional teacher-centric instructional approaches still common in design education. These motivational benefits are reinforced by students’ desire to repeat the AR experience (Radu, 2012 )—a trend mirrored in our study, where the “Likelihood of Future AR Use” dimension received a high mean score of 4.30. While AR’s motivational benefits are well-documented, its potential to alleviate the growing societal concern of high student study pressure remains underexplored. Effectiveness of AR technology in alleviating study stress While earlier AR research prior to 2016 predominantly emphasized academic outcomes (96%) and student enjoyment (18%), its potential to alleviate study-related stress remained largely unexplored (Akçayır & Akçayır, 2017 ). This study addresses that gap by demonstrating a statistically significant reduction in stress levels following AR-integrated instruction (p = 0.001) (Table 2 ), suggesting that AR may serve as an effective tool for managing academic pressure in design education. Given the growing concern over academic pressure in higher education and its impact on mental health (Zhang et al., 2024 ; Li & Palaroan, 2024 ), this finding underscores AR’s potential as a pedagogical tool not only for enhancing engagement but also for mitigating study-related stress. The immersive and playful nature of AR has been shown to simplify complex concepts, enhance spatial reasoning, and reduce cognitive load (Koumpouros, 2024 ), all of which contribute to a more engaging and less stressful learning experience. Crucially, AR’s gamified elements promote autonomy and exploration, allowing students to learn at their own pace and experiment without fear of failure, which may be the key factors in reducing anxiety and building confidence. Additionally, Chen ( 2019 ) emphasized that the accessibility and playfulness of AR are central to managing study stress, particularly in subjects traditionally perceived as challenging, such as mathematics. In design courses, which often require balancing theoretical rigor with creative application, AR can bridge the gap between abstract instruction and experiential learning through gamified, multimodal content (Radu, 2014 ). However, the impact of AR on stress reduction varied among participants, with post-lesson stress scores showing greater dispersion (SD = 1.16) than pre-lesson scores (SD = 0.65). This variability may be attributed to differences in technology familiarity, learning preferences, and conceptual readiness. First, disparities in technology familiarity play a significant role because students with prior exposure to AR tools tend to more quickly adapt and consequently, reap more stress-reducing benefits from technology (Khan et al., 2019 ). Secondly, individual learning preferences mediate the stress level. This means students who excel in interactive, multimodal environments usually benefit more compared to those who prefer traditional teaching approaches (Liu et al., 2020 ). Third, the complexity of the content may be a critical factor that influences outcomes. Learners who struggle with foundational theoretical concepts may not experience much reduction in stress, even when utilizing the enhanced presentation methods of AR. These findings suggest that integrating AR technology into academic curricula could be a crucial strategy for alleviating the study stress levels, while also enhancing student engagement. However, it is important to consider individual differences in future applications. Limitations and Future Work The primary limitation of this study is its small pool of participants of only 45 IA design students. Given this small sample size, the findings may not fully capture the effectiveness of AR technology across different educational contexts. A larger and more varied participant group, which includes students from different design disciplines and institutions, and those of different academic levels, would improve the reliability of the results and enhance their applicability to broader student populations. Secondly, there is the absence of a pre-lesson test to evaluate the baseline knowledge and skills of students before the integration of AR. Since individual design competencies can vary significantly, the inability to measure initial proficiency makes it difficult to isolate the direct impact of AR on learning outcomes. Future studies should include pre-testing to ensure comparable ability levels between the CG and SG. This approach would allow for a more robust comparison between AR-enhanced and traditional instruction, thus strengthening conclusions about the pedagogical benefits of AR. Thirdly, the study is conducted over a period of only three weeks, which is not long enough to evaluate the long-term effects of AR on knowledge retention, skill development, and sustained student engagement. A longer experimental period would help to determine whether AR leads to lasting learning improvements or if its benefits are temporary. Longitudinal studies are needed to assess whether AR serves as a transformative educational tool or merely a short-term engagement booster. To fully evaluate the long-term educational value of AR, future studies could implement longitudinal research designs that track students across multiple academic years. For example, a well-structured two-year investigation following secondary school visual arts or fashion design students could systematically evaluate the impacts of AR on four key dimensions: (1) sustained knowledge retention, (2) motivation, (3) stress reduction, and (4) development of practical design skills. Such research would benefit from controlling critical variables including the baseline abilities of students, instructional time allocation, and learning environment factors. By employing rigorous experimental designs with appropriate control groups, these longitudinal studies could produce compelling evidence to guide educators and policymakers in making informed decisions about the large-scale integration of AR into school curricula. The resulting data would be particularly valuable for determining whether the benefits of AR persist over time or diminish after the initial implementation. Conclusion This study offers compelling support for the integration of AR into fashion design education, highlighting its significant impact on student motivation, stress reduction, and creative engagement. Although performance outcomes did not reach statistical significance, consistent mean differences and medium effect sizes suggest promising trends favoring technology-assisted instruction over traditional methods. Crucially, the psychological and experiential benefits of AR were both clear and statistically significant. Students reported high levels of motivation and engagement (mean score = 4.33 on a 5-point Likert scale), alongside a 16% reduction in perceived stress (p = 0.001) following AR-based lessons. These findings suggest that AR reduces cognitive barriers to creative experimentation by making complex content more accessible, interactive, and visually intuitive, thereby lowering academic pressure and fostering a more exploratory learning environment. Pedagogically, this implies that AR can be strategically leveraged to enhance student-centered learning, particularly in design disciplines where abstract concepts and visual thinking are critical. By simplifying intricate processes and encouraging immersive engagement, AR empowers students to take creative risks and iterate more freely. Overall, AR is a valuable tool in fashion education, effectively boosting motivation, reducing stress, and nurturing creative thinking. These insights support its strategic integration into design curricula. However, further research with larger, more diverse samples is needed to generalize these findings and solidify the link to performance outcomes. Declarations Data availability All data supporting the findings of this study are included in the article. For additional information or access to specific data not found in the manuscript, please contact the corresponding author or any of the co-authors, who will accommodate requests based on availability and established confidentiality policies. Acknowledgements We sincerely thank the three lace designers at Dong Guan Best Pacific Textile Ltd. (Dongguan, China) for their expert guidance in selecting innovative lace designs and providing valuable insights on lace design development. Their expertise greatly contributed to this research. Competing interests The authors declare no competing interests. Ethical statements The research reported in this article has obtained ethics approval from the Institutional Review Board (IRB) of The Hong Kong Polytechnic University (approval number: HSEARS20250416003; date of approval: July 01, 2024). All procedures performed in this study involving human participants were in accordance with the ethical standards of the institutional and/or national research committee and with the 1964 Helsinki Declaration and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards. Informed consent Electronic informed consents were obtained from all participants before the start of the survey in September 2024. Participants were required to review and acknowledge the consent form. The consent form outlined the study’s purpose (e.g., stimulate students' interest in their studies, promote self-learning, enhance creativity, and reduce stress levels), the use of the collected data (i.e., solely for scientific research and publication purposes with no personally identifiable information retained), the confidentiality of private information, participant rights (including the right of withdrawal at any time without punishment), and no potential risk of this survey. Participants indicated their consent by selecting the “Agree” option on the introduction page, which then provided access to the formal survey. Funding This work was supported by the Seed Fund for Quality Education, School of Fashion and Textiles, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University (Grant number: 5-88H8). References Akçayır M, Akçayır G (2017) Advantages and challenges associated with augmented reality for education: A systematic review of the literature. 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IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering , 459 (1), 012080. https://doi.org/10.1088/1757-899X/459/1/012080 Keller JM, Litchfield BC (2002) Motivation and performance. Trends issues instructional Des Technol 2:89–92 Khan T, Johnston K, Ophoff J (2019) The impact of an augmented reality application on learning motivation of students. Adv Hum Comput Interact 2019(1):7208494 Kohli JK (2024) Impact of artificial intelligence on fashion education for future jobs. High Educ Future 12(1):114–128. https://doi.org/10.1177/23476311241284860 Koumpouros Y (2024) Revealing the true potential and prospects of augmented reality in education. Smart Learn Environ 11(1):2. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40561-023-00288-0 Lee C-J, Hsu Y (2021) Sustainable education using augmented reality in vocational certification courses. Sustainability 13(11):6434. https://www.mdpi.com/2071-1050/13/11/6434 Li Q, Palaroan R (2024) Multidimensional academic anxiety: Examining domain-specific differences and motivational impacts. In J.-H. Ye, L. Nong, L. Wang, & W. Nong (Eds.), Motivation in Learning . IntechOpen. https://doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.1008203 Liu R, Wang L, Lei J, Wang Q, Ren Y (2020) Effects of an immersive virtual reality-based classroom on students’ learning performance in science lessons. Br J Edu Technol 51(6):2034–2049 Mega C, Ronconi L, De Beni R (2014) What makes a good student? How emotions, self-regulated learning, and motivation contribute to academic achievement. J Educ Psychol 106(1):121 Önal NT, Önal N (2021) The effect of augmented reality on the astronomy achievement and interest level of gifted students. Educ Inform Technol 26(4):4573–4599. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-021-10474-7 Peng S (2023) Application practice of virtual simulation technology in clothing craft teaching. Front Educational Res, 6 (5) Radu I (2012) Why should my students use AR? A comparative review of the educational impacts of augmented-reality. In 2012 IEEE international symposium on mixed and augmented reality (ISMAR) (pp. 313–314). IEEE Radu I (2014) Augmented reality in education: a meta-review and cross-media analysis. Personal Uniquit Comput 18:1533–1543 Rodriguez-Saavedra MO et al (2025) Augmented Reality as an Educational Tool: Transforming Teaching in the Digital Age. Information 16(5):372. https://doi.org/10.3390/info16050372 Safadel P, White D (2019) Facilitating molecular biology teaching by using augmented reality (AR) and protein data bank (PDB). TechTrends 63(2):188–193 Starkey S, Alotaibi S, Striebel H, Tejeda J, Francisco K, Rudolph N (2021) Fashion inspiration and technology: virtual reality in an experimental apparel design classroom. Int J Fashion Des Technol Educ 14(1):12–20. https://doi.org/10.1080/17543266.2020.1844807 Wang X-M, Qing-Nan H, Gwo-Jen H,and, Yu X-H (2023) Learning with digital technology-facilitated empathy: an augmented reality approach to enhancing students’ flow experience, motivation, and achievement in a biology program. Interact Learn Environ 31(10):6988–7004. https://doi.org/10.1088/1757-899X/306/1/012131 Wiana W (2018) The effectiveness of using interactive multimedia in improving the concept of fashion design and its application in the making of digital fashion design. IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering , 306 (1), 012131. https://doi.org/10.1088/1757-899X/306/1/012131 Xu J, Zhang L, Ji Q, Ji P, Chen Y, Song M, Guo L (2023) Nursing students’ emotional empathy, emotional intelligence and higher education-related stress: a cross-sectional study. BMC Nurs 22(1):437. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12912-023-01607-z Yip J, Wong S-H, Yick K-L, Chan K, Wong K-H (2019) Improving quality of teaching and learning in classes by using augmented reality video. Comput Educ 128:88–101. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2018.09.014 Zhang S, Rehman S, Zhao Y, Rehman E, Yaqoob B (2024) Exploring the interplay of academic stress, motivation, emotional intelligence, and mindfulness in higher education: a longitudinal cross-lagged panel model approach. BMC Psychol 12(1):732. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-024-02284-6 Zhao L, Liu S, Zhao X (2021) Big data and digital design models for fashion design. J Eng Fibers Fabr 16. https://doi.org/10.1177/15589250211019023 Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Supplementary Files Appendix1.pdf Appendix2.pdf Cite Share Download PDF Status: Under Review Version 1 posted Reviewers invited by journal 12 Feb, 2026 Editor invited by journal 19 Dec, 2025 Editor assigned by journal 22 Nov, 2025 Submission checks completed at journal 11 Nov, 2025 First submitted to journal 11 Nov, 2025 You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. Our growing team is made up of researchers and industry professionals working together to solve the most critical problems facing scientific publishing. Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-7996048","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":590107420,"identity":"ea4f6b4a-4e15-480b-b46e-3f08d5108a82","order_by":0,"name":"Ka Po Lee","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"The Hong Kong Polytechnic University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Ka","middleName":"Po","lastName":"Lee","suffix":""},{"id":590107421,"identity":"ccd1f025-0f56-454c-b0f7-73b0b7823d57","order_by":1,"name":"Lai Ching Wong","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"The Hong Kong Polytechnic University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Lai","middleName":"Ching","lastName":"Wong","suffix":""},{"id":590107422,"identity":"71eb41f5-c0c0-42bc-a256-22668a657975","order_by":2,"name":"Ruixin Liang","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"The Hong Kong Polytechnic University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Ruixin","middleName":"","lastName":"Liang","suffix":""},{"id":590107423,"identity":"eb5afc94-ca1d-40da-b3de-fee38e0b4ad9","order_by":3,"name":"Hiu Tung Yu","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"The Hong Kong Polytechnic University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Hiu","middleName":"Tung","lastName":"Yu","suffix":""},{"id":590107424,"identity":"033551b4-223c-4586-86af-a9284d85f942","order_by":4,"name":"Tsai Chun Huang","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"The Hong Kong Polytechnic University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Tsai","middleName":"Chun","lastName":"Huang","suffix":""},{"id":590107425,"identity":"efbaf70d-0335-4833-8e24-1cf657d0ce70","order_by":5,"name":"Nico Pak-Yiu Liu","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"The Hong Kong Polytechnic University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Nico","middleName":"Pak-Yiu","lastName":"Liu","suffix":""},{"id":590107426,"identity":"eb432e78-addd-451f-9acf-95edc77d46fc","order_by":6,"name":"Joanne Yip","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAA+klEQVRIiWNgGAWjYBACxgYog42B+QADQwGYbQAUTiBGC1sCSDFhLUiAx4A4Lcztzc8eF1QwJPZJ93x78MHgcGIDe/M2CcYdabgd1nPM3HjGGYbENpmz2w1ngLTwHCuTYDyTg1vLjAQzad42oBaJ3G3SPCAtEjlmEoxtFXi0pH+T5v0H0pLzDKJF/g0hLTlAWxrAWtigtvCAtOBxWM+ZMmmeYxLGbTLHzIF+STdu40krtkhsw+19w/Z2oBdqbGTnz25+9uBDhbVsP/vhjTc+tiXj1tIApiQcGySAscnA0AwmGRJwamBgkIfS9gwQLXV41I6CUTAKRsFIBQBq3k+dLhfHTAAAAABJRU5ErkJggg==","orcid":"","institution":"The Hong Kong Polytechnic University","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Joanne","middleName":"","lastName":"Yip","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2025-10-31 08:08:47","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7996048/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-7996048/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":102834554,"identity":"397b0644-dd78-47de-a6d6-e7b4f22b8729","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-02-17 10:42:22","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":305846,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eResearch workflow.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7996048/v1/85c4e954bd86dccae79bf0a9.png"},{"id":102834566,"identity":"0b8c0e97-efa7-4d06-9257-bcf73b6c3589","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-02-17 10:42:28","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":637424,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eAR Teaching content.\u003cstrong\u003e \u003c/strong\u003e(a). Layout of the PPT presentation, (b) instructional videos on lace production, (c) design process of 3D corset model, and (d) Artivive.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7996048/v1/17365e0211afc1ec4c79de95.png"},{"id":102834503,"identity":"fb33141c-0d7d-4250-8d59-c974ea1359e7","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-02-17 10:41:52","extension":"png","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":190687,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003ePerformance of CG and SG in lace portfolios. Comparing scores of CG and SG on three dimensions: functionality, aesthetics, and creativity.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage3.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7996048/v1/846bac26b1a66431301630e9.png"},{"id":102834524,"identity":"f1dbb62d-373a-4d3d-b4d6-0fb3d67732dc","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-02-17 10:42:08","extension":"png","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":225050,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eComparison of total marks between CG and SG in the lace project.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage4.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7996048/v1/93407f412ccf14ce5334b587.png"},{"id":102834502,"identity":"786d9b39-d8bf-42e9-9eb1-1536e78690f1","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-02-17 10:41:52","extension":"png","order_by":5,"title":"Figure 5","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":3052246,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eThe most creative designs selected by lace designers.\u003cstrong\u003e \u003c/strong\u003eThree out of the four designs selected as the most creative are from CG.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage5.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7996048/v1/91233a0d6f156f1f033072b1.png"},{"id":102834405,"identity":"85fe7ed6-a56d-400d-ad5f-a19fb654b1fc","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-02-17 10:41:39","extension":"png","order_by":6,"title":"Figure 6","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":58877,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eStudent perceptions of AR in education.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"6.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7996048/v1/995a60b7a952b552a5fdda49.png"},{"id":102834411,"identity":"a074694c-eaff-4f23-8792-ccdcce90220e","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-02-17 10:41:42","extension":"png","order_by":7,"title":"Figure 7","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":26861,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eThe most valuable features of AR technology.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"7.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7996048/v1/77164b753f644e45c58d12d4.png"},{"id":102834506,"identity":"1d038e44-188c-450a-a893-9c57d560a437","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-02-17 10:41:54","extension":"png","order_by":8,"title":"Figure 8","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":50611,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eSuggestions for future improvement in AR teaching.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"8.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7996048/v1/c4ff84ca7470a63d381ad257.png"},{"id":102834590,"identity":"597dd33b-c26f-491e-af0f-8cab9ad8a2a2","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-02-17 10:42:35","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":5391784,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7996048/v1/d3643ae3-7d79-4d3b-9f96-fae9bd43e9a6.pdf"},{"id":102834564,"identity":"f3907f85-573f-4096-a002-4a09122ec3c7","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-02-17 10:42:27","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":159909,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Appendix1.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7996048/v1/b107a421abd5e360947e4a3e.pdf"},{"id":102834407,"identity":"7abdb59b-c639-4732-b385-008ec2a56b39","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-02-17 10:41:41","extension":"pdf","order_by":1,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":125220,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Appendix2.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7996048/v1/ced11fc4c59aeec4078e3c51.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Developing and evaluating an augmented reality (AR) module for lace design: study on enhancing student creativity and engagement","fulltext":[{"header":"Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe prevailing teacher-centric educational approach, like only use of PowerPoint (PPT) may unintentionally reduce student engagement and interaction (Peng, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). It can be exacerbated by an extensive curriculum, which makes it increasingly difficult for educators to sustain student interest and foster creativity. As a result, learners may experience heightened stress and disengagement (Igbokwe et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). For example, Gam and Banning (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e) note that traditional methods often fail to foster creativity among students, which limited their ability to draw inspiration from historical contexts and implement that in practical design portfolios (Gam \u0026amp; Banning, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e). Additionally, reliance on static presentations can hinder environments conducive to critical thinking and exploration, which are essential in fashion education (Zhao et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR49\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). In today\u0026rsquo;s educational landscape, stress associated with design tasks has emerged as a significant yet frequently overlooked barrier to effective learning. Addressing this challenge requires cultivating inclusive and supportive environments that prioritize student well-being and intellectual curiosity.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFashion design education, which demands a balance between imaginative expression and technical proficiency, is especially vulnerable to the limitations of traditional pedagogical models. These methods are often characterized by passive, lecture-based delivery, which contrasts with experiential learning principles that emphasize active participation, reflection, and real-world application. Such approaches frequently fall short in developing the creative agility students need to draw inspiration from lived experiences and translate those insights into innovative design solutions. It implies that the one-way, lecture-based approach in classroom can disengage students who thrive on dynamic and immersive learning experiences to thrive in creativity-driven industries (Kohli, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). This disconnect limits engagement and undermines the constructivist paradigm, wherein knowledge is actively built through exploration, experimentation, and iterative practice. Without opportunities for immersive learning, such as collaborative projects, studio critiques, and material experimentation, students may struggle to develop the originality and critical thinking required to navigate complex design challenges.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe integration of advanced technologies into education such as AR has significantly reshaped traditional teaching methodologies, which creates immersive learning experiences by superimposing digital content onto the physical world (Xu et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). The adoption of AR in education has grown significantly, increasing by 336% between 2012 and 2018 (Garz\u0026oacute;n et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). However, its application in fashion design remains limited compared to other disciplines (Jean, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Ji et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). Peng (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e) pointed out that AR can transform passive classrooms into active learning environments, and therefore significantly enhances interactivity, fosters openness, and promotes collaborative sharing among students. Ebadi and Ashrafabadi (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e) shared similar views that AR positively influences the curiosity, engagement, and motivation of students, which makes learning more interactive and effective. This is particularly impactful in specialized fields such as fashion design, where AR enables students to visualize designs in three dimensions (3D) and interact with virtual models, thus fostering more engagement and inspiration (Elfeky \u0026amp; Elbyaly, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). Beyond capturing the attention of students, AR facilitates a deeper understanding of complex concepts and enhances creative expression (Starkey et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). For example, AR-integrated education has been shown to improve fashion design skills, which leads to enhanced academic performance and more receptiveness towards student projects (Elfeky \u0026amp; Elbyaly, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). These positive results may be due to the ability of AR to connect theoretical knowledge with practical applications in a more engaging and creative manner.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAdditionally, although AR technology has shown potential in stimulating creative thinking (Chen et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e), existing research predominantly emphasizes technical skill development. For instance, studies have examined the effectiveness of AR in improving sewing accuracy (Yip et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR47\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e), pattern-making and 3D apparel visualization (Kazlacheva et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). However, significantly less attention has been given to examining the potential of AR to facilitate higher-order creative processes, particularly in developing original design concepts. This suggests that further research is needed to determine how AR can systematically enhance creative thinking in fashion design education.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eGiven these considerations, this study has three primary objectives: (1) to explore the application of AR technology in university-level fashion design education, with a particular focus on its impact on enhancing students' creativity and expressive capabilities; (2) to enhance students' learning motivation, specifically, their willingness to actively engage in the learning environment (Keller \u0026amp; Litchfield, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2002\u003c/span\u003e); (3) to evaluate students' attitudes and interest in AR technology in future fashion design classrooms. To achieve these goals, this research involves implementing AR-integrated lace design lessons for year 3 and year 4 design students, allowing them to utilize AR technology to comprehend the abstract knowledge involved in lace design and production processes. This approach allows students to showcase their comprehensive design abilities in creativity, functionality, and aesthetic expression. To assess students' motivation and their likelihood of using AR in future classes, post-intervention questionnaires were administered to the SG group, capturing quantitative data on their attitudes and feedback regarding the AR- integrated teaching intervention.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Literature Review","content":"\u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eAR in Design-related Education.\u003c/b\u003e Fashion design education requires advanced visualization skills to support creative and technical learning (Wiana, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). Traditional teaching methods often struggle to convey abstract concepts and complex visual principles, thus highlighting the need for innovative educational tools. The integration of innovative technologies, such as AR, has been shown to enhance higher education in fashion design by fostering interactivity, flexibility, and dynamic learning experiences (Kazlacheva et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eGarzón et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e) examined 61 AR related education publications which revealed a significant disciplinary imbalance: approximately 50% of the publications focus on natural sciences, mathematics, and statistics, while only 16.4% address the arts and humanities. More recent data indicate continued growth in AR education research during 2019–2022, yet this increase has not extended to design education (Jamiat \u0026amp; Madi, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). After 2018, the majority of these publications focus on using AR in medical education. This disparity highlights a significant research gap in leveraging the potential of AR for fashion education.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eRecent studies highlight the ability of AR to transform static content into interactive experiences in the art and design areas. For instance, Yip et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR47\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e) found that learners show significantly improved efficiency in sewing tasks when using AR video guidance, thus highlighting the potential of this technology in skill-based fields. Moreover, Blanco-Pons et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e) employed AR technology to restore and improve prehistoric rock art paintings in Spain, which enables users to interpret eroded artworks more effectively. The participants reported a superior learning experience compared to traditional observation, thus underscoring the capacity of AR to clarify visual ambiguity.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eCreativity Education.\u003c/b\u003e Design fundamentally differs from disciplines that depend on standardized formulas, fixed methodologies, and factual recall, because design prioritizes creativity, originality, and the ability to connect disparate ideas. In this context, inspiration drawn from external stimuli plays a crucial role in enhancing creativity (Hou \u0026amp; Chen, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). These stimuli, including visual and auditory elements, are essential for analogy mapping, activating long-term memory, and facilitating effective problem-solving skills. This process allows students to transfer knowledge across various contexts. Fibre Guard (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e) further emphasized that inspiration in design is not merely an accessory but a foundational element of creative development. This is because the ability to generate innovative solutions and conceptualize novel ideas is vital for design students.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAR integrates visual and auditory stimuli to create rich and immersive experiences that can inspire students and enhance creativity. Christensen and Schunn (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2007\u003c/span\u003e) noted that the innovative learning environment provided by AR intentionally fosters inspiration by engaging students through dynamic visual elements (such as 3D models, colors, and symbols) and auditory stimuli. This has been shown in Elfeky and Elbyaly (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e), which indicates that students become more creative after using AR technology. Moreover, Chen (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e) identified three key factors that drive student acceptance of AR in design courses, namely visual appeal, knowledgeability, and situational experience. This suggests that effective implementation of AR technology not only improves comprehension but also cultivates innovative thinking, thereby enhancing the groundwork for advanced design education (Ji et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eMotivation and Engagement.\u003c/b\u003e A large number of studies have established motivation as a fundamental driver of self-directed learning and creative cognition (Mega et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e). In educational technology, motivation is one of the most significant benefits of using AR, which offers marked advantages over traditional teaching methods (Garzón et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). For instance, a meta-analysis of 68 studies in Akçayır and Akçayır (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e) reported that AR in education significantly enhances learning outcomes, including motivation, academic performance, and student attitudes. While AR has been shown to enhance motivation, its pedagogical value remains uncertain without evidence that such gains lead to deeper learning, skill acquisition, or creative development (Rodriguez-Saavedra et. al, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eCiloglu and Ustun (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e) stated that traditional teacher-centric instructional methods often lead to student disengagement. This limitation may be due to the inherent constraints of verbal explanations, which have minimal effectiveness in fostering deep conceptual understanding (Wang et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). When learning focuses solely on memorizing individual facts, such as terminology or specific material names, students may lose interest and intrinsic motivation over time (Kalana et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). This issue frequently arises in concept-based subjects, where passive information reception often fails to foster meaningful learning (Ciloglu \u0026amp; Ustun, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). AR technology overcomes these limitations by enabling active exploration, providing immediate feedback, and creating immersive learning experiences (Lee \u0026amp; Hsu, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). For instance, Safadel and White (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e) showed that the playfulness and interactivity of AR enhance both learner satisfaction and intrinsic motivation.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Method","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis pilot study employs a mixed-methods approach to explore the impact of AR technology on motivation, design skills, and stress management (refers to perceived stress related to design tasks) in education. The methodology involves four main steps: (a) content development, (b) participant allocation, (c) post-questionnaire, and (d) lace design portfolio. The study was conducted over a three-week period, with Years 3 and 4 intimate apparel (IA) students who are enrolled in a university in Hong Kong. The following sections outline the procedures and methods used in this research work in detail. Figure\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e the procedures and data collection methods used in this research work in detail.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eContent Development.\u003c/b\u003e PPT presentations that emphasized the use of figures and animations (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003ea) were developed and served as the foundational material for the AR-enhanced lessons. Visually rich PPT presentations were used because visual stimuli elicit stronger emotional responses than textual information, thereby enhancing memory retention (Bradley \u0026amp; Lang, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2007\u003c/span\u003e). Secondly, a series of short videos were created to provide an introduction on the various types of lace (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003eb). These videos were found on YouTube and then re-designed to emulate the format of Instagram reels. These shorter, visually engaging videos have been shown to more effectively capture the attention of students (Fiorella \u0026amp; Mayer, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). The third step was the development of 3D models. Using CLO software, a range of intimate apparel and activewear designs were created in 3D (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003ec). When incorporated with AR technology, students could interact with the 3D models by zooming in and out to examine intricate details such as texture, accessories, and sewing techniques. Upon completion of the PPT slides, videos, 3D models, and reference images, these materials were uploaded to the AR application platform, Artivive (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003ed). The students could scan the reference images to access corresponding videos or 3D models.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eParticipants.\u003c/b\u003e In this pilot study, 45 (42 females and 3 males) Year 3 and 4 design students who are IA majors between 19 and 22 years old at a university in Hong Kong were randomly allocated into two groups: the CG (n = 22) and SG (n = 23). CG experienced traditional teaching methods and SG undergoing an AR technology-based teaching module. Both groups received identical content, but SG had more opportunities to engage in the mixed-reality environment.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eLace Design Portfolios.\u003c/b\u003e After 3 weeks study, both groups were required to complete a lace design assignment, which was evaluated with the marking scheme in Elfeky and Elbyaly (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e) to determine the impact of AR technology on design skills. The scheme evaluated three main aspects, including functionality, aesthetics, and creativity \u003cem\u003e(Appendix 1)\u003c/em\u003e. In each aspect, the full mark is 25, for a total of 75 marks.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eTo ensure reliability, the designs were evaluated by three independent fashion design professionals at the university. In cases where there are significant discrepancies, discussions were held to reach consensus. Additionally, all the designs were submitted to three respected lace designers at Dong Guan Best Pacific Textile Ltd. (Guangdong, China), a recognized factory in Mainland China, for the selection of the most creative designs and to provide advice to the students.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003ePost-questionnaire.\u003c/b\u003e A post-questionnaire was administered to the SG following the AR-integrated lessons to assess participants' perceptions of AR technology. The questionnaire had four sections: (1) demographic data, (2) AR technology perception (e.g. perceived usefulness, ease of use, and engagement value), (3) self-reported stress levels, and (4) recommendations for the future use of AR in instructional settings (\u003cem\u003eAppendix 2\u003c/em\u003e). The questionnaire used a Likert scale that ranges from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). For Sections 2 and 3, the internal reliability was evaluated by using Cronbach’s alpha, with a pilot test that yields a value of 0.94, thus indicating excellent reliability.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eData Analysis.\u003c/b\u003e The evaluation of the lace design portfolios was based on the marking scheme in Elfeky and Elbyaly (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). The scores of the CG and the SG were compared by analyzing statistical measures, including the mean (x̄), median (Med), and standard deviation (SD). A t-test was subsequently conducted to evaluate the impact of AR technology on the design skills of the students in terms of functionality, aesthetics, and creativity. Additionally, correlational analysis was performed to investigate the potential relationships between performance in these three domains.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eDescriptive statistics were used to summarize the post-questionnaire results and characterize the SG’ attitudes towards the AR-integrated teaching methodology. Frequency distributions were also analyzed to identify prevailing trends in the Likert-scale responses.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Results","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec5\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eEvaluation of Lace Design Portfolios\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003e A total of 45 IA students submitted their portfolios, with 22 participants in the CG and 23 in the SG. The evaluation examined three dimensions: functionality, aesthetics, and creativity, with each worth 25 marks, for a total of 75 marks.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eBased on the descriptive statistics of lace design performance, the SG demonstrated superior performance compared to the CG across all three evaluated dimensions: functionality, aesthetics, and creativity, the mean differences are 0.53, 0.98, 0.74, and 2.24, respectively (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e). Furthermore, the median scores of the SG were greater than those of the CG in aesthetics and creativity, reinforcing the observed trend of enhanced performance. While quantitative gains in design skills did not reach significance, qualitative expert assessments indicated superior creative outcomes in the SG (75% of top-ranked designs).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDescriptive Statistics for Assessment Dimensions by Group.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"9\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c9\" colnum=\"9\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGroup\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eN\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ex̄\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c6\" namest=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ex̄ diff.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMed\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSD\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ep-value\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFunctionality\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCG\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e22\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e17.36\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c6\" namest=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.53\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.98\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.65\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSG\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e23\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e17.89\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c6\" namest=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.78\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAesthetics\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCG\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e22\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e16.07\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c6\" namest=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.98\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e16\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.95\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.42\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSG\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e23\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e17.04\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c6\" namest=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e19\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.11\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCreativity\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCG\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e22\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e16.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c6\" namest=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-0.74\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e16.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.71\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.52\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSG\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e23\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e17.24\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e18\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.91\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTotal\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCG\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e22\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e49.93\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-2.24\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e51.13\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.47\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.52\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSG\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e23\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e52.17\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e59.92\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eNotably, the higher SD within the SG suggests greater variability in individual outcomes, indicating that the intervention may lead to distinct and individualized improvements in design skills among participants. These findings are visually supported by the comparative distributions presented in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eRegarding functionality, the performance disparity between the two groups appears minimal. The median scores (CG \u0026amp; SG\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;20) are aligned, and the interquartile ranges (IQRs) exhibit comparable magnitude and positioning along the score axis. This suggests that the intervention given to SG did not yield a marked improvement in functional lace product. This outcome suggests that functional competence is likely predicated on fundamental technical skills that were equally developed in both groups through conventional instruction. In contrast, a more pronounced difference in performance is observed in the aesthetic and creative dimensions. The median score for the SG (aesthetic\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;19, creative\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;18) is higher than that of the CG (aesthetic\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;16, creative\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;16.5), and the entire IQR for the SG is positioned higher on the score axis. This distribution indicates that the AR intervention potentially including the strong visual stimuli, demonstrated superior compositional arrangement, and reflected a more advanced understanding of design principles such as balance and harmony.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo compare overall performance and identify variability, total score distribution between SG and the CG on the lace portfolios is compared (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e). The SG's distribution is characterized by a main peak within the 80\u0026ndash;89% range, indicating that the majority of students in this cohort attained a high level of mastery and comprehension of the project's core objectives. A secondary, smaller peak within the 50\u0026ndash;59% range suggests a special subset of students who achieved lower grade. In contrast, the CG's score distribution exhibits a positive skew, with its highest concentration of scores residing in the 50\u0026ndash;59% range, alongside a larger number of students scoring in the lower grade categories. This wider spread and lower average imply that with traditional teaching method, students had more varied and generally lower levels of understanding. SG not only had higher scores but also a more overall successful learning outcome.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOne of the objectives of this project is to enhance design skills, particularly in creativity. Therefore, three esteemed lace designers were invited to help select the creative designs. Four outstanding designs were chosen, with three of the four (75%) belonging to SG (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e). The theme \u0026ldquo;Micro Sculpture\u0026rdquo; was selected as the most creative design because it transferred the silhouette of a Western architectural image into the lace trim design. The line pattern artistically presented the theme, while the basic lace design with the pattern design improved the functionality of the lace. The pattern design made the lace more usable and overall created a more unique lace design than the traditional ones on the market. The student was able to transcend traditional aesthetics and express her unique creativity.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eEvaluation of Student Perceptions based on use of AR in Education\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe results of the post-questionnaire completed by 23 IA students in the SG indicate overwhelmingly positive perceptions of AR as an educational intervention, thus indicating strong acceptance and usability of AR technology. All of the measured constructs achieve scores above 3.8 on a 5-point Likert scale (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig7\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e), and the overall mean is 4.33. This robust performance across all the evaluation metrics indicates strong technological acceptance, high usability metrics, and successful implementation.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe results show that AR significantly enhances student satisfaction and confidence in the design lessons, with the highest scores observed for \"Motivating Rewards\" (x̄ =4.52), \"Felt Achieved\" (x̄ =4.52), and \"Right Degree of Difficulty\" (x̄ =4.52). These findings indicate that students found the AR tool well-matched to their skill level, which contributes to their sense of accomplishment and appreciation for the reward system. Additionally, the tool is shown to be highly effective for specialized content delivery, as evidenced by the high relevance scores for \"Practical Examples\" (x̄ =4.39) and \"Academic Needs\" (x̄ =4.39), which suggests that the AR contents successfully align with the broader learning objectives. Furthermore, the students also strongly expressed their intention to use AR in the future (x̄ =4.30), thus reflecting an overall positive reception.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMoreover, the majority of students identified video viewing (56.5%) and enhanced interactivity (52.2%) as the most valuable features of AR technology (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig8\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e). This may be because these functions appear to effectively engage learners by combining visual demonstration with active participation.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eHowever, slightly lower scores for \"Useful Feedback\" (M\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;3.87) and \"Grabbed Attention\" (M\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;4.09) point to areas for improvement (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig9\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e), such as expanded practical applications through additional examples and case studies (47.8%) and increased interactive elements (39.1%) to further boost engagement (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig8\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e). These insights highlight the potential of AR as an educational tool while underscoring opportunities to refine feedback systems and engagement strategies to further enhance the learning experience.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eStudent Stress Levels Before and After the AR-assisted Lessons\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe paired samples t-test indicated a significant reduction in stress levels after AR-assisted lessons. Mean scores decreased from 4.65 before the intervention to 3.91 post-intervention (p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.001), which marks a notable 16% reduction in stress (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e). Moreover, the median values decreased from 5 to 4, which also reveals a general downward trend in stress. The moderate to large effect size (Cohen\u0026rsquo;s d\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.79) further supports that this reduction is not only statistically significant but also practically relevant, which indicates a substantive impact on the well-being of students.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAlthough pre-intervention stress levels showed relatively low variability (SD\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.65), they are near the scale maximum (Med\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;5). In contrast, the post-intervention scores exhibited greater dispersion (SD\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1.16), which implies differential individual responses to the AR experience.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSignificance of difference in stress level of SG before and after AR-assisted lessons.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"8\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003en\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ex̄\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ex̄ diff.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMed\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSD\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCohen\u0026rsquo;s d\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ep-value\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBefore\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e23\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.65\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.739\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.65\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.79\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAfter\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e23\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.91\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.16\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Discussion","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec9\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eEffectiveness of AR technology in enhancing design skills in terms of functionality, aesthetics, and creativity\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study examined the impact of AR-integrated teaching on student performance in lace design, but found no statistically significant difference compared to conventional methods (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;0.05). The limited sample size (N\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;45) may have constrained statistical power, reducing the likelihood of detecting meaningful effects. Although the SG group exhibited elevated mean scores, these differences may reflect random variation rather than a systematic pedagogical advantage. Moreover, the depth, duration, and pedagogical alignment of AR implementation may have been insufficient to elicit measurable gains. Importantly, non-significant findings do not imply the absence of effect; rather, they highlight the need for future research with larger samples and more robust AR integration to determine its efficacy in design education.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe data analysis reveals strong evidence to support additional research despite the study's null findings. The group averages show a significant impact from outliers because the mean scores differ substantially from the median values. The score distribution in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e shows how individual learner differences (such as technological affinity and prior knowledge) affect results because the SG shows a bimodal distribution while the control group displays wide score variability. Notably, median scores in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e indicate meaningful group differences, particularly in aesthetics, creativity, and overall performance, implying that typical students may benefit from AR-enhanced instruction. This is further supported by expert evaluations, where three of the four top-ranked creative designs emerged from the AR group.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe combination of quantitative median results and qualitative expert assessments matches previous research findings. Research studies have demonstrated that AR technology helps students develop better spatial abilities and creative problem-solving skills (Chen \u0026amp; Tsai, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e; Kang et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e) which results in better design success (Elfeky \u0026amp; Elbyaly, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). Additionally, the theoretical framework of AR supports its ability to enhance creativity through virtual element visualization and manipulation (Hidajat, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e; Diegmann et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e) and its high engagement potential (Ji et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e), which enables students to transcend traditional classroom boundaries. For example, by enabling students to interact with virtual lace elements, like rotating, resizing, and layering them in real time, AR reduces extraneous cognitive load and enhances Germane processing. This facilitates analogy mapping, activates long-term memory, and encourages cross-contextual knowledge transfer, all of which are essential for creative problem-solving in design (Hou \u0026amp; Chen, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDesign education emphasizes originality and idea synthesis over rote learning. In this context, AR acts as a catalyst for creativity by engaging visual and auditory pathways that inspire deeper conceptual exploration (Christensen \u0026amp; Schunn, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2007\u003c/span\u003e; Ji et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). The study\u0026rsquo;s median scores and expert evaluations highlight AR\u0026rsquo;s potential to foster innovative thinking and support its theoretical role in enhancing creativity.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eEffectiveness of AR technology in cultivating student interest and enhancing motivation\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBased on the strong positive responses to the questionnaire, it is evident that AR-assisted education is highly effective in enhancing the interest of students and their motivation to study. As illustrated in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig7\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e, the students report high levels of satisfaction and acceptance of the AR technology: Motivating Rewards\" (x̄ =4.52), \"Felt Achieved\" (x̄ =4.52), and \"Right Degree of Difficulty\" (x̄ =4.52). These consistently high scores suggest that AR- integrated learning environments successfully capture student attention and enhance their enthusiasm for learning. These findings align with a number of studies that show AR significantly boosts student interest, motivation, and involvement by offering fun, immersive, and interactive learning environments (Del Cerro Vel\u0026aacute;zquez \u0026amp; Morales M\u0026eacute;ndez, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; \u0026Ouml;nal \u0026amp; \u0026Ouml;nal, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). Moreover, Di Serio et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e) provided both qualitative and quantitative evidence that the integration of AR into learning environments serves as a significant motivational factor for students.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eBeyond motivation, this AR-induced engagement may also enhance interactivity with instructional content, accelerate knowledge acquisition (Filgona et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e), and offer a unique advantage over other digital tools. For example, by enabling students to manipulate 3D lace elements in real time, AR supports spatial reasoning and aesthetic exploration more than procedural accuracy. This may explain why improvements were more pronounced in creativity and aesthetics than in technical functionality. While AR fosters engagement and conceptual experimentation, it may not provide the structured repetition or precision feedback needed to refine technical skills. This distinction highlights the importance of aligning AR tools with specific learning outcomes.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eUnlike computer games or virtual reality, AR allows users to connect to their physical environment while enhancing it realistically. This is a characteristic that sparks surprise and curiosity, further increasing motivation to engage with learning tools (Bujak et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e). Notably, AR\u0026rsquo;s ability to enable students to interact with simulations and receive real-time feedback is difficult to replicate with the traditional teacher-centric instructional approaches still common in design education. These motivational benefits are reinforced by students\u0026rsquo; desire to repeat the AR experience (Radu, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e)\u0026mdash;a trend mirrored in our study, where the \u0026ldquo;Likelihood of Future AR Use\u0026rdquo; dimension received a high mean score of 4.30. While AR\u0026rsquo;s motivational benefits are well-documented, its potential to alleviate the growing societal concern of high student study pressure remains underexplored.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eEffectiveness of AR technology in alleviating study stress\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eWhile earlier AR research prior to 2016 predominantly emphasized academic outcomes (96%) and student enjoyment (18%), its potential to alleviate study-related stress remained largely unexplored (Ak\u0026ccedil;ayır \u0026amp; Ak\u0026ccedil;ayır, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). This study addresses that gap by demonstrating a statistically significant reduction in stress levels following AR-integrated instruction (p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.001) (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e), suggesting that AR may serve as an effective tool for managing academic pressure in design education.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eGiven the growing concern over academic pressure in higher education and its impact on mental health (Zhang et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR48\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e; Li \u0026amp; Palaroan, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e), this finding underscores AR\u0026rsquo;s potential as a pedagogical tool not only for enhancing engagement but also for mitigating study-related stress. The immersive and playful nature of AR has been shown to simplify complex concepts, enhance spatial reasoning, and reduce cognitive load (Koumpouros, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e), all of which contribute to a more engaging and less stressful learning experience. Crucially, AR\u0026rsquo;s gamified elements promote autonomy and exploration, allowing students to learn at their own pace and experiment without fear of failure, which may be the key factors in reducing anxiety and building confidence. Additionally, Chen (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e) emphasized that the accessibility and playfulness of AR are central to managing study stress, particularly in subjects traditionally perceived as challenging, such as mathematics. In design courses, which often require balancing theoretical rigor with creative application, AR can bridge the gap between abstract instruction and experiential learning through gamified, multimodal content (Radu, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eHowever, the impact of AR on stress reduction varied among participants, with post-lesson stress scores showing greater dispersion (SD\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1.16) than pre-lesson scores (SD\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.65). This variability may be attributed to differences in technology familiarity, learning preferences, and conceptual readiness. First, disparities in technology familiarity play a significant role because students with prior exposure to AR tools tend to more quickly adapt and consequently, reap more stress-reducing benefits from technology (Khan et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). Secondly, individual learning preferences mediate the stress level. This means students who excel in interactive, multimodal environments usually benefit more compared to those who prefer traditional teaching approaches (Liu et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). Third, the complexity of the content may be a critical factor that influences outcomes. Learners who struggle with foundational theoretical concepts may not experience much reduction in stress, even when utilizing the enhanced presentation methods of AR.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThese findings suggest that integrating AR technology into academic curricula could be a crucial strategy for alleviating the study stress levels, while also enhancing student engagement. However, it is important to consider individual differences in future applications.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eLimitations and Future Work\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe primary limitation of this study is its small pool of participants of only 45 IA design students. Given this small sample size, the findings may not fully capture the effectiveness of AR technology across different educational contexts. A larger and more varied participant group, which includes students from different design disciplines and institutions, and those of different academic levels, would improve the reliability of the results and enhance their applicability to broader student populations.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSecondly, there is the absence of a pre-lesson test to evaluate the baseline knowledge and skills of students before the integration of AR. Since individual design competencies can vary significantly, the inability to measure initial proficiency makes it difficult to isolate the direct impact of AR on learning outcomes. Future studies should include pre-testing to ensure comparable ability levels between the CG and SG. This approach would allow for a more robust comparison between AR-enhanced and traditional instruction, thus strengthening conclusions about the pedagogical benefits of AR.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThirdly, the study is conducted over a period of only three weeks, which is not long enough to evaluate the long-term effects of AR on knowledge retention, skill development, and sustained student engagement. A longer experimental period would help to determine whether AR leads to lasting learning improvements or if its benefits are temporary. Longitudinal studies are needed to assess whether AR serves as a transformative educational tool or merely a short-term engagement booster.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo fully evaluate the long-term educational value of AR, future studies could implement longitudinal research designs that track students across multiple academic years. For example, a well-structured two-year investigation following secondary school visual arts or fashion design students could systematically evaluate the impacts of AR on four key dimensions: (1) sustained knowledge retention, (2) motivation, (3) stress reduction, and (4) development of practical design skills. Such research would benefit from controlling critical variables including the baseline abilities of students, instructional time allocation, and learning environment factors. By employing rigorous experimental designs with appropriate control groups, these longitudinal studies could produce compelling evidence to guide educators and policymakers in making informed decisions about the large-scale integration of AR into school curricula. The resulting data would be particularly valuable for determining whether the benefits of AR persist over time or diminish after the initial implementation.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis study offers compelling support for the integration of AR into fashion design education, highlighting its significant impact on student motivation, stress reduction, and creative engagement. Although performance outcomes did not reach statistical significance, consistent mean differences and medium effect sizes suggest promising trends favoring technology-assisted instruction over traditional methods. Crucially, the psychological and experiential benefits of AR were both clear and statistically significant. Students reported high levels of motivation and engagement (mean score\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;4.33 on a 5-point Likert scale), alongside a 16% reduction in perceived stress (p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.001) following AR-based lessons. These findings suggest that AR reduces cognitive barriers to creative experimentation by making complex content more accessible, interactive, and visually intuitive, thereby lowering academic pressure and fostering a more exploratory learning environment. Pedagogically, this implies that AR can be strategically leveraged to enhance student-centered learning, particularly in design disciplines where abstract concepts and visual thinking are critical. By simplifying intricate processes and encouraging immersive engagement, AR empowers students to take creative risks and iterate more freely. Overall, AR is a valuable tool in fashion education, effectively boosting motivation, reducing stress, and nurturing creative thinking. These insights support its strategic integration into design curricula. However, further research with larger, more diverse samples is needed to generalize these findings and solidify the link to performance outcomes.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eData availability\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAll data supporting the findings of this study are included in the article. For additional information or access to specific data not found in the manuscript, please contact the corresponding author or any of the co-authors, who will accommodate requests based on availability and established confidentiality policies.\u003c/p\u003e\n\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAcknowledgements\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWe sincerely thank the three lace designers at Dong Guan Best Pacific Textile Ltd. (Dongguan, China) for their expert guidance in selecting innovative lace designs and providing valuable insights on lace design development. Their expertise greatly contributed to this research.\u003c/p\u003e\n\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCompeting interests\u003c/strong\u003e \u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors declare no competing interests.\u003c/p\u003e\n\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEthical statements\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe research reported in this article has obtained ethics approval from the Institutional Review Board (IRB) of The Hong Kong Polytechnic University (approval number: HSEARS20250416003; date of approval: July 01, 2024). All procedures performed in this study involving human participants were in accordance with the ethical standards of the institutional and/or national research committee and with the 1964 Helsinki Declaration and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards.\u003c/p\u003e\n\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eInformed consent\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eElectronic informed consents were obtained from all participants before the start of the survey in September 2024. Participants were required to review and acknowledge the consent form. The consent form outlined the study\u0026rsquo;s purpose (e.g., stimulate students\u0026apos; interest in their studies, promote self-learning, enhance creativity, and reduce stress levels), the use of the collected data (i.e., solely for scientific research and publication purposes with no personally identifiable information retained), the confidentiality of private information, participant rights (including the right of withdrawal at any time without punishment), and no potential risk of this survey. Participants indicated their consent by selecting the \u0026ldquo;Agree\u0026rdquo; option on the introduction page, which then provided access to the formal survey.\u003c/p\u003e\n\n\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFunding \u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis work was supported by the Seed Fund for Quality Education, School of Fashion and Textiles, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University (Grant number: 5-88H8).\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAk\u0026ccedil;ayır M, Ak\u0026ccedil;ayır G (2017) Advantages and challenges associated with augmented reality for education: A systematic review of the literature. 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J Eng Fibers Fabr 16. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1177/15589250211019023\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1177/15589250211019023\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"humanities-and-social-sciences-communications","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"palcomms","sideBox":"Learn more about [Humanities \u0026 Social Sciences Communications](http://www.nature.com/palcomms/)","snPcode":"41599","submissionUrl":"https://submission.springernature.com/new-submission/41599/3","title":"Humanities and Social Sciences Communications","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"stoa","reportingPortfolio":"Nature AJ","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":false},"keywords":"Augmented Reality, Fashion Design Education, Creativity, Engagement, Stress Reduction, Mixed-methods, Higher Education","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7996048/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-7996048/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eAugmented reality (AR) offers immersive learning potential, yet its use in fashion design education remains limited. This mixed-methods study evaluates AR-integrated versus traditional education in a university fashion design course. 45 university students were randomly assigned to a control group (CG) or study group (SG). Learning outcomes were assessed based on students' lace design portfolio, including functionality, aesthetics, and creativity. While quantitative data on student perceptions and attitudes were collected via post-intervention questionnaires. Though qualitative performance gains on the lace portfolios were non-significant, AR accounted for 75% of the top-ranked creative designs. Additionally, AR significantly boosted motivation and engagement (overall mean perception scores\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;4.33/5) and greatly reduced perceived stress (p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.001; 16% decrease). The findings support AR as a valuable tool for enhancing motivation, reducing stress, and fostering creativity in fashion education.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Developing and evaluating an augmented reality (AR) module for lace design: study on enhancing student creativity and engagement","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2026-02-17 10:39:45","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7996048/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2026-02-12T08:16:43+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvited","content":"","date":"2025-12-19T08:25:54+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2025-11-22T09:06:16+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"checksComplete","content":"","date":"2025-11-11T07:51:41+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"Humanities and Social Sciences Communications","date":"2025-11-11T07:48:34+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"humanities-and-social-sciences-communications","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"palcomms","sideBox":"Learn more about [Humanities \u0026 Social Sciences Communications](http://www.nature.com/palcomms/)","snPcode":"41599","submissionUrl":"https://submission.springernature.com/new-submission/41599/3","title":"Humanities and Social Sciences Communications","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"stoa","reportingPortfolio":"Nature AJ","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":false}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"434d9d17-9deb-47ff-8e38-4502095dede9","owner":[],"postedDate":"February 17th, 2026","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"under-review","subjectAreas":[{"id":62790310,"name":"Social science/Education"},{"id":62790311,"name":"Biological sciences/Psychology"},{"id":62790312,"name":"Social science/Psychology"}],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-02-17T10:39:46+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2026-02-17 10:39:45","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-7996048","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-7996048","identity":"rs-7996048","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"XKTyCvWXoU3ODBz1xrDgd","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}