Bacteriological and physicochemical analysis of water from different sources in a rural community of Jos South Local Government Area (LGA), Plateau State. Nigeria

Bacteriological and physicochemical analysis of water from different sources in a rural community of Jos South Local Government Area (LGA), Plateau State. 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Nigeria Pam Martin Zang, Sati Lubis, Jean Claude Ndayishimiye, Meseko Josephine, and 4 more This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-4168181/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Background Clean water is essential for the health and survival of all life forms. Surface and underground water polluted by microbes and chemicals exacerbates issues of water scarcity. This continues to negatively affect the well-being of most people in developing countries like Nigeria and K-Vom, in Plateau State. Thus, this study aimed to determine the bacteriological and physicochemical parameters of water samples from borehole, tap, well, and rain water in K-Vom community of Jos South Local Government area. Methods Water samples from five locations underwent detailed analysis. Coliform presence was assessed using Eosin methylene blue agar and various equipment were used to assess physicochemical parameters like pH, temperature, turbidity, Phosphates, Sulphates, Nitrates, total hardness, total suspended solids, COD, and BOD following standard guidelines as specified by the U.S Environmental Protection Agency. Results Escherichia coli dominated as the most prominent organisms, indicating bacterial contamination. Tap water (e.g., NVRI compound) recorded the least Total Heterotrophic Bacterial (THB) count of 1.2x10 2 and 2MPN/100ml for Total Coliform Count (TCC), while Well water sources, particularly those from Angwan Madugu, had the highest contamination, with a THB count of 8.5x10 4 and 800-1500MPN/100ml for Coliforms. Physicochemical parameters generally complied with WHO limits, except for Total Suspended Solids (TSS) and Nitrates (Means: 0.14mg/L, 74.9mg/L). Their t-Test values were 2.69 and 2.91, with non-significant p-values (0.075 and 0.062) respectively. BOD also recorded a low t-score (2.94) with a non-significant p-value (0.060). Conclusions Though most Physicochemical conditions met WHO standards, local water sources are generally unfit due to bacterial contamination. Hence, simple water treatment practices are recommended. The study suggests further tests and comprehensive evaluations, extending beyond the locality, for a more thorough understanding of water quality parameters in future investigations. Bacteriological Coliforms E. coli Physicochemical parameters Kaduna Vom Plateau State Figures Figure 1 1. INTRODUCTION Water remains a vital component of the environment considering the key role it plays in the sustainability and survival of every earthly life [ 1 , 2 ]. As a necessity, it makes up about 70–90% total mass of living cells [ 3 ]. Aside it’s need by plants, both humans and animals require a lot of its consumption daily for their existence [ 4 ]. Access to potable drinking water is a basic human right that is indispensable to well-being and a factor of proper strategy for health fortification [ 5 ]. According to recent UNICEF and the World Health Organization reports, billions of individuals world-wide suffer from continuous dearth of access to water, hygiene and sanitation. Around 2.2, 3 and 4.2 billion individuals do not enjoy safely purified water facilities, suffer a deficiency of handwashing services and lack carefully managed sanitation amenities [ 6 ]. Sadly, most of these people affected live in communities found in sub-Saharan Africa and Asia. In recent times, water’s necessity has been continuously growing due to factors like rising growth in population, modernization and other anthropogenic activities [ 7 , 8 ]. For example, the 2021 World Water Development Report of UNESCO, stated that worldwide fresh-water usage which has been increasing by one percent annually since the 1980s, has grown six-times in the past century [ 9 ]. Globally avenues related to obtaining uncontaminated safe water and sanitation remains a public concern especially in Low-Middle income nations like Nigeria, where people continually go through a dearth of means to portable water from sufficient sanitation amenities alongside improved sources [ 10 ]. In 2012, the United Nations in its move to safe-guard the world and guarantee healthy living, initiated seventeen Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) in place of Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) with goal number 6 being “Clean water and Sanitation” [ 11 ]. It is imperative to observe how Nigeria, a UN member country is progressing in relation to attaining the goal on access to portable water with respect to amount and quality, eons after the enactment of the universal SDGs. The quality of drinking water in emerging countries is worrisome and the negative health outcomes of water contamination remains the foremost cause of sicknesses and deaths from these nations [ 12 ]. The Nigerian citizens like other under-develop countries are among billion individuals who are deprived of means to harmless drinking water, as barely just one out of every three Nigerians living in the rural and city areas have means to piped-water source networks in their compounds for consumption, and persons having these can still suffer from undependable and inferior provision [ 13 ]. As such many families fall back to community taps and non-piped water provisions like springs, boreholes, manually burrowed wells, and water sellers [ 14 ]. Because many rural community residents world-wide obtain their water source primarily from dams, rivers, spring sources and from superficial tunneled wells [ 15 , 16 ] rising contamination as a result of urbanization, industrialization and agricultural activities is rendering existing water sources impractical and hazardous to well-being [ 17 ]. Though a great majority of community drinking-water quality problems are related to faecal contamination from coliforms and bacteria, a substantial amount of these problems can occur as a result of chemical pollution arising from a diversity of artificial and natural causes. To establish whether these hitches exist, chemical investigation must be done [ 18 , 19 ]. Although, the determination of a varied series of parameters on a steady basis can be very costly, predominantly in the case of supplies that meet the needs of small numbers of persons. In built-up parts and cities, ground sources of water like deep wells and boreholes institute key avenues of drinking water. These sources get contaminated through processes like solid municipal waste leachates from waste yards [ 20 ] in addition to manufacturing seepage [ 21 ] which all constitute a major public health concern. Right from the end of the 19th century, engaging the use of coliforms precisely Escherichia coli as a pointer of microbiological water quality began from their initial isolation from feaces [ 22 ]. Coliforms are habitually found in varied natural settings, with some of them being telluric, but their natural abode is not drinking water. Their occurrence in drinking water should at best be looked at as suggestive of or likely threat of bacteriological water quality decline. Total coliform count in treated water samples which should normally be coliform-absent can imply quality failure, treatment ineptitude, disinfectant mishaps [ 23 ], intrusion arising from contamination into the potable water stock [ 24 , 25 ] or resurgence glitches [ 26 ] from the supply structure, which should not as a consequence be accepted. Drinking water sources in Nigeria have been discovered to be contaminated with some microbes like Staphylococcus aureus and Pseudomonas species apart from coliforms [ 27 ]. From the chemical view-point, metals such as iron, aluminum, chromium, and calcium have been discovered as surface and packaged sachet-water contaminants [ 28 , 29 ]. Lead, cadmium, nickel and manganese have also been reported above permissible levels from groundwater [ 30 ] with other contaminants such as fluoride. Besides, light Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAH) are also present in some Nigerian location groundwaters above permissible limits [ 29 , 31 ]. As opined by the World Health Organization, 80 percent of diseases are water related, and of these 80% illnesses, [ 12 ] stated that child deaths account for 50% due to poor-quality water intake, with more than fifty diseases arising from same cause. Cancer, neurological disorders, respiratory illnesses, cardiovascular disease, and diarrhea are among the ailments linked to contaminated water [ 32 ]. Addressing water scarcity in poor nations like Nigeria is crucial and urgent actions are needed to prevent water-borne diseases like cholera and typhoid which are prevalent due to poverty and poor hygiene. Over sixty million Nigerians lack access to clean water, leading to the consumption of contaminated water with severe public health consequences [ 33 , 34 , 18 , 19 ]. This study therefore was aimed at determining the bacteriological and physicochemical parameters of water samples from borehole, tap, well, and rain water in K-Vom community of Jos South Local Government area. 2. MATERIALS AND METHODS 2.1 Materials/Equipment : The materials and equipment used for the research analysis were HACH/DR 900 spectrometer, DR 2000 (HACH) spectrophotometer and TDS meters, wagtech pH meter, beakers, and conical flask 2.2 Study Design and Area This study employed the cross-sectional approach and was conducted within the month of June, 2022. The area of the study is known as Kaduna Vom (K-Vom) (Fig. 1 ), a locality in Jos South Local government area (LGA) of Plateau State. K-Vom is located between latitude 7°56 North and longitude 8°53 East and lies an altitude of about 1,280m above Sea. 2.3 Sample collection Two water samples were aseptically collected from each water source in 1liter sterile containers (i.e., from 2 taps, 4 boreholes and 5 each Wells and Rain water sources) randomly selected from five (5) locations within the study area. These locations were National Veterinary Research Institute (NVRI) compound, Chaha road area, Angwan Mission, Angwan Madugu, and Angwan Gada respectively. A total of 32 samples having 2L of each water sample were obtained from the 5 aforementioned selected sample sites in the locality. Hand gloves were used to collect sterile samples which were placed in cold ice pack before being transported to the various laboratories for analysis less than six hours after collection. 2.4 Statistical Analysis Data obtained was recorded in Microsoft-Excel spreadsheet and imported to Stata 17 statistical package. Descriptive analysis for replicate independent Means, comparison using independent sample t-test, Standard error of the mean, Standard deviation, p-values at 95% confidence level was done. 2.5.1 Bacteriological analysis Media preparation and Bacterial isolation Plates of Nutrient agar (NA), Blood Agar (BA), Salmonella Shigella agar (SSA), and MacConkey (MCA) agars were prepared according to the manufacturer’s specification and number of dishes needed for bacterial identification. After a 10 − 5 serial dilution of water samples from various sources, dried NA plates were inoculated with 1.5ml of the samples from the 10 − 3 plate through the spread plate technique, to obtain the various heterotrophic bacteria counts and incubated at 37°C for 24hrs. Upon macroscopic identification of discrete bacterial colonies, isolates were picked and further sub-cultured on BA, SSA, and MCA agars to obtain pure cultures of enteric and gram-positive organisms. Isolates from these pure culture media were then identified using the standard microbial methods according to [ 36 ] and tests like Gram’s reaction and biochemical tests like Sugar fermentation Methyl Red-Voges Proskauer test, Citrate utilization, Indole, growth in Triple Sugar Iron agar, Catalase, Coagulase, Oxidase, Hydrogen sulfide (H 2 S) production, Motility, Urease, sporulation features and Kligler Iron agar tests, were employed to identify the bacteria species. Cultural and morphological appearances of isolates from the pure culture were categorized using the conclusive Bergey’s bacteriology manual [ 37 ]. Membrane Filter technique From the 1L sampled containers, 100ml of each source’s specimen was taken and filtered through 0.45µm pore size, 47millimeter diameter membrane filters and incubated aseptically on dried plates of Eosin Methylene blue (EMB) agars as described by [ 38 ]. Before performing the agar plate Coliform count method as described by [ 39 ] the plates were incubated at 37 o C for 24-48hrs for E coli detection through the Most Probable Number (MPN/100ml) of the sample, done in three stages being the presumptive, confirmative and completed tests. 2.5.2 Physicochemical analysis Samples collected from various sources were analyzed using automated laboratory equipment via prescribed standard methods for the analysis of drinking or wastewater as stipulated by the United States Environmental Protection Agency [ 40 ]. pH and Temperature determination were done at the sample site. For instance, a Wagtech pH meter was dipped inside a buffer solution of 7.0 to calibrate the instrument after which it was dipped into the various samples and reading was taken one after the other from each of the water samples. The temperature was measured by dipping the thermometer about a centimetre into the immediately collected 1 litre water specimen for about three (3) minutes before recording the values. The constituent Nitrates, Phosphate and Sulphate ions were assayed using the spectroscopic approach with HACH/DR 900 equipment. The sample’s turbidity and total dissolved solids were determined using DR 2000 (HACH) spectrophotometer and TDS meters accordingly. 3. RESULTS Total heterotrophic bacteria (THB), Total coliform (E. coli) and Faecal coliform counts The result of bacteriological analysis of the water samples obtained from the study location in (Table 1 ) showed Escherichia coli as the predominant bacteria, followed by Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Klebsiella aerogenes. Others were Salmonella typhi, Shigella flexneri, Staphylococcus aureus, Enterococcus faecalis and Bacillus subtilis . These bacteria isolated from the four water sources in the study area, presented a Total heterotrophic bacterial (THB) and Total Coliform (TC) counts with Well water, especially that from Angwan Madugu having the most contamination (i.e., 8.5x10 4 CFU/ml) and 800-1500MPN/100ml), and 13 MPN/100ml for Faecal coliforms. This source was followed by Borehole water that recorded 68MPN/100ml TC count from Angwan Mission and 35MPN/100ml from Angwan Gada’s boreholes. Tap water had the lest feacal contamination and presence of other Enterobacteria, aside Enterococcus faecalis with Angwan Mission’s Well having the most contamination with Pseudomonas aeruginosa (2.2x10 3 ), Chaha road area’s Borehole had the most Klebsiella aerogenes (2.5x10 2 ) bacteria, while Angwan Gada’s well recorded the highest Salmonella typhi presence (2.4x10 3 ). The highest number of Enterococcus faecalis (i.e., 1.6x10 3 ) was seen in Angwan Madugu’s Rain water source, with same area’s well water recording the utmost (2.2x10 3 ) Shigella flexneri water. The reason for this bacteria presence may be ascribed to the fact that Angwan Madugu being a slum with old houses has a lot of unhygienic areas like toilets, dump sites closer to most of their unsealed wells. Table 1 Total heterotrophic bacteria (THB), total coliform ( E. coli) and faecal coliform counts from water samples in Kaduna Vom, Jos South LGA, Plateau state Sample site THB (CFU/ml) Total ( E. coli ) coliform (MPN/100ml) Faecal coliform (MPN/100ml) Pseudomonas aeruginosa (CFU/ml) Klebsiella aerogenes (CFU/ml) Salmonella typhi (CFU/ml) Enterococcus faecalis (CFU/ml) Shigella flexneri (CFU/ml) Tap 1 1.2x10 2 2 0 OND OND OND OND OND Tap 2 1.3x10 2 3 0 OND 1.2 x10 2 OND OND OND Well 1 2.5x10 3 38 4 2.2 x10 2 2.4 x10 2 OND OND OND Well 2 2.8x10 3 48 7 2.5 x10 2 OND OND OND 2.1 x10 2 Well 3 3.5x10 3 55 5 OND 1.8x10 3 2.2x10 2 OND OND Well 4 5.3x10 4 140 9 2.2x10 3 2.5x10 3 2.4x10 2 OND OND Well 5 8.5x10 4 800–1500 13 OND 2.3x10 2 2.0x10 3 1.5x10 2 2.2x10 3 Borehole 1 1.4x10 3 8 1 1.2x10 2 OND OND OND OND Borehole 2 1.8x10 3 15 1 1.8x10 2 2.5x10 2 OND OND OND Borehole 3 2.4x10 3 35 4 2.1x10 2 1.5x10 3 OND OND OND Borehole 4 3.8x10 3 68 5 1.5x10 2 OND 1.2x10 2 OND 1.3x10 3 Rain 1 2.1x10 2 18 2 1.4x10 3 OND OND 1.5x10 3 OND Rain 2 1.75x10 2 15 2 OND 1.5x10 3 OND OND OND Rain 3 2.2x10 2 20 2 1.2x10 2 OND OND 1.2x10 2 OND Rain 4 2.3x10 2 25 3 1.3x10 2 OND 1.5x10 2 OND OND Rain 5 2.3x10 4 35 4 OND 2.1x10 2 1.8x10 2 1.6x10 3 OND KEY : OND- Organism Not Detected 1 = NVRI compound, 2 = Chaha road area , 3 = Angwan Gada, 4 = Angwan Mission, 5 = Angwan Madugu Bacteria isolated from water sources in the study area, health-related conditions and reference From the various bacteria isolated from water sources within the study area, their health-related conditions and citations (Table 2 ). Escherichia coli being the most prominent bacteria isolated from all water sources within the locality has most strains that are harmless. Though some virulent strains cause urinary tract infections, gastroenteritis, and neonatal meningitis, while others have been connected to food poisoning [ 41 ]. Apart from E. coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa which typically infects the pulmonary tract is most times an opportunistic organism found in immunosuppressed persons and causes urinary tract infections, burns and wounds infections [ 42 , 27 ]. It was the second most abundant bacterial water contaminant present in 10 water sources, followed by Klebsiella aerogenes which causes diseases like Pneumonia, septicemia, spondylitis, and ankylosing [ 43 ]. Bacillus subtilis which is implicated to allergic reactions in individuals on repeated exposure, food poisoning, bacteremia, endocarditis, pneumonia, and septicemia [ 44 , 45 ] was present in only 2 water sources being wells at Chaha road area and Borehole at Angwan Mission. Wells in Angwan Gada, Angwan Mission and Angwan Madugu along with Rain waters from Angwan Mission and Angwan Madugu were all contaminated with Salmonella typhi. Shigella flexneri was observed only in well water sources from Chaha road area and Angwan Madugu. While Enterococcus faecalis was isolated from Angwan Madugu’s well water and Rain waters sources from NVRI compound, Angwan Gada and Angwan Madugu. Staphylococcus aureus was found in only 2 water sources being Angwan Madugu well water and Chaha road area’s Rain water, Results revealed that the water source with the least bacterial contaminants was Tap within the NVRI compound and Well water from Angwan Madugu had the most bacterial contaminants Table 2 Water sources, bacteria isolated in the study area, health-related conditions and reference Water source Bacteria Isolated Health risk/Disease(s) associated Reference Tap 1 (pipe) E. coli E. coli : Most strains are harmless but some strains are associated with food poisoning and virulent strains may cause urinary tract infections, gastroenteritis, and neonatal meningitis [ 41 ] Tap 2 (pipe) E. coli, Klebsiella aerogenes Well 1 E. coli, Klebsiella aerogenes, P. aeruginosa Well 2 E. coli, Bacillus subtilis, P. aeruginosa, Shigella flexneri P. aeruginosa : Occurs as an opportunistic organism found in immunosuppressed individuals and classically infects the pulmonary tract and urinary tract infections, burns and wounds infections. [ 42 , 27 ] Well 3 E. coli, Klebsiella aerogenes, Salmonella typhi , Well 4 E. coli¸ Klebsiella aerogenes, Salmonella typhi, P. aeruginosa Klebsiella aerogenes : Implicated to diseases such as Pneumonia, septicemia, spondylitis, and ankylosing [ 43 ] Well 5 E. coli, Staph. aureus, Klebsiella aerogenes, Salmonella typhi, Enterococcus faecalis, Shigella flexneri Bacillus subtilis : Causes allergic reactions in persons with repeated exposure, food poisoning, bacteremia, endocarditis, pneumonia, and septicemia [ 44 , 45 ] Borehole 1 E. coli, P. aeruginosa Salmonella typhi : Causes food-borne acute gastroenteritis, enterocolitis, invasive bacteraemia, typhoid fever [ 46 , 47 ] Borehole 2 E. coli, Klebsiella aerogenes, P. aeruginosa Borehole 3 E. coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Klebsiella aerogenes Borehole 4 E. coli¸ P. aeruginosa, Salmonella typhi, Bacillus subtilis Shigella flexneri : Shigellosis, dysentery, bacteremia and other extraintestinal infections [ 48 , 46 ] Rain 1 E. coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Enterococcus faecalis Enterococcus faecalis : Associated with Nosocomial infections like catheter-related urinary tract infections, bacteremia, endocarditis, neonatal sepsis, surgical and burn wound infections, and more rarely meningitis [ 49 , 50 ] Rain 2 Klebsiella aerogenes, E. coli, Staph. aureus Rain 3 E. coli, P. aeruginosa, Enterococcus faecalis , Staphycoccus aureus . It commonly leads to abscess formation and causes skin infections like Scalded skin syndrome, folliculitis, furuncle, carbuncle, impetigo and Toxic shock syndrome. Sometimes cause pneumonia, endocarditis, bacteremia & osteomyelitis. Some elaborate strains produce toxins that cause gastroenteritis, and Staphylococcal food poisoning [ 51 , 52 ] Rain 4 Salmonella typhi, E. coli, P. aeruginosa Rain 5 E. coli, Klebsiella aerogenes, Salmonella typhi, Enterococcus faecalis KEY : E-Escherichia, P- Pseudomonas , Staph- Staphylococcus Physicochemical characteristics of water sources The Mean results for the Physicochemical parameters like pH, Turbidity, Total Suspended Solids (TSS), Total Dissolved solids (TDS), Total Hardness, Nitrates, Phosphate, Sulphate, Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD), and Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) are presented in Table 3 . (a, b, c & d). The sum of 2 tap water samples, 3 Boreholes, and 4 each of Rain and Well water sources were tabulated with the various Means. The mean values for all the physicochemical parameters assessed from Tap water [Table 3 (a)] were all within the WHO permissible limits, apart from the TSS (0.09) which was above the WHO standard. Other parameters tested from Well water [Table 3 . (b)] had Mean values that were within WHO standard limits aside TSS (0.25) and BOD (10.5). From the mean values obtained from Borehole water sources, Table 3 (c), only TSS, Nitrates and Phosphates values (0.02, 150 and 5.7) were above the WHO permissible limits. And finally, mean values observed from Rain water sources Table 3 (d), showed most physicochemical measurements falling within the WHO standard limits, apart from those obtained for TSS and Nitrates which were 0.20 and 65.5 respectively Table 3 (a) Physicochemical characteristics of Tap (pipe-borne) water sources Water source pH T 0 C Turbidity (NTU) TSS (mg/L) TDS TH Nitrate (mg/L) Phosphate Sulphate COD BOD Tap 1. 6.1 25.8 2.4 0.15 135 190 28.8 2.2 1.7 0.16 6.6 Tap 2. 6.3 27.2 2.6 0.03 261 150 48.4 2.8 2.3 0.14 5.8 Mean 6.2 26.5 2.5 0.09 198 170 38.6 2.5 2.0 0.15 6.2 Permissible limit 6.5–8.5 25–30 5.0 0.01 < 300 100–500 < 50 1 - <5.0 250 30–350 6–10 Table 3 (b) Physicochemical characteristics of Well water sources Water source pH T 0 C Turbidity (NTU) TSS (mg/L) TDS TH Nitrate (mg/L) Phosp-hate Sulphate COD BOD Well 1. 6.40 23.5 3.6 0.31 260 220 42.5 3.7 2.8 0,21 9.5 Well 2. 6.20 21.5 3.5 0.15 310 210 55.0 3.9 3.1 0.18 8.5 Well 3. 6.00 22.0 3.9 0.09 280 185 38.2 2.5 3.3 0.30 12.6 Well 4. 6.15 24.0 2.8 0.50 240 260 37.3 4.1 2.8 0.28 10.9 Well 5 6.50 23.0 4.2 0.2 260 275 53.5 4.8 3.0 0.23 11.0 Mean 6.25 22.8 3.6 0.25 270 230 45.3 3.8 3.0 0.24 10.5 Permissible limit 6.5–8.5 25–30 5.0 0.01 < 300 100–500 < 50 1 - <5.0 250 30–350 6–10 Table 3 (c) Physicochemical characteristics of Borehole water sources Water source pH T 0 C Turbidity (NTU) TSS (mg/L) TDS TH Nitrate (mg/L) Phosp-hate Sulphate COD BOD Borehole 1. 6.3 28.5 3.5 0.02 130 270 155 6.5 2.5 0.20 8.9 Borehole 2. 6.5 27.5 3.0 0.01 115 275 150 5.6 3.0 0.19 8.3 Borehole 3. 6.4 27.0 2.5 0.02 110 285 135 4.9 2.3 0.23 8.6 Borehole 4. 6.2 29 3.8 0.03 125 290 160 5.8 2.2 0.26 8.2 Mean 6.35 28 3.2 0.02 120 280 150 5.7 2.5 0.22 8.5 Permissible limit 6.5–8.5 25–30 5.0 0.01 < 300 100–500 < 50 1 - <5.0 250 30–350 6–10 Table 3 (d) Physicochemical characteristics of Rain water sources Water source pH T 0 C Turbidity (NTU) TSS (mg/L) TDS TH Nitrate (mg/L) Phosphate Sulphate COD BOD Rain 1. 6.3 24.9 4.0 0.10 200 175 65.0 4.2 4.95 0.20 7.2 Rain 2. 6.1 24.4 3.9 0.30 240 186 64.6 5.2 4.05 0.10 7.9 Rain 3. 6.5 25.0 3.6 0.20 225 195 66.2 4.3 5.50 0.16 7.0 Rain 4. 6.7 26.7 4.2 0.09 235 196 62.8 4.1 4.60 0.25 7.4 Rain 5 6.8 26.5 4.3 0.31 250 198 68.9 4.7 4.90 0.29 8.0 Mean 6.5 25.5 4.0 0.20 230 190 65.5 4.5 4.80 0.20 7.5 Permissible limit 6.5–8.5 25–30 5.0 0.01 < 300 100–500 < 50 1 - <5.0 250 30–350 6–10 Statistical Analysis for the Physicochemical parameters of water samples from four water sources in Kaduna Vom, Jos South LGA, Plateau state The summarized physicochemical parameters and Statistical analysis of water samples from the four water sources in the locality (Table 4 ), showed rain water having the highest pH of 6.50 Mean of 6.33 ± 0.07 Standard error, 0.132 Standard Deviation, with the highest t-Test score value of 95.63, and a very significant p-value of 0.001 falling between a 95% close range Confidence Interval of 6.11–6.54. Borehole water source recorded the highest temperature of 28 0 C with Mean of 26.95 0 C±0.59 Standard error, Standard Deviation of 1.173, a high t-Test score of 45.94, a very significant p-value of 0.001 falling between a 95% close range confidence interval of 25.08–28.82. Various other parameters like Turbidity, TDS, Total Hardness, Phosphate, Sulphate and COD had high t-Test scores with significant p-value at 95% close range confidence intervals, while Well water had the highest TSS of 0.25mg/L, with Mean value 0. 14 ± 0.05, SD 0.104, low t-Test score of 2.69 and a non-significant p-value of 0.075(95% CI of -0.03-0.31). Other parameter like Nitrates and BOD also recorded low t-Test score values of 2.91 for Nitrates and 2.94. Nitrates had a Mean of 74.9 ± 25.7 SE, SD 51.39, and non-significant p-value of 0.062 (95%CI wide range of -6.92-156.62), while BOD had a Mean of 6.13 ± 2.08 SE, a Standard deviation of 4.17 with a non-significant p-value of 0.060 (95% CI wide range of 0.50 to12.75) accordingly. Table 4 Summarized Physicochemical parameters and Statistical analysis of water from four sources in Kaduna Vom, Jos South LGA, Plateau state Test Parameter (Unit) Water source WHO Limits Total Mean ± SE Standard Dev. t-Test p-value 95% Confidence Interval Borehole Tap Rain Well pH 6.35 6.20 6.50 6.25 6.5–8.5 6.33 ± 0.07 0.132 95.63 0.001 ⁕⁕ 6.11–6.54 Temperature ( o C) 28.0 26.5 25.5 27.80 25–30 26.95 ± 0.59 1.173 45.94 0.001 ⁕⁕ 25.08–28.82 Turbidity (NTU) 3.2 2.5 4.0 3.6 5.0 3.33 ± 0.32 0.640 10.40 0.002 ⁕ 2.31–4.34 Total Suspended Solid (mg/L) 0.02 0.09 0.20 0.25 0.01 0.14 ± 0.05 0.104 2.69 0.075 -0.03-0.31 Total Dissolved Solid (mg/L) 120 198 230 270 < 300 204.5 ± 31.78 63.568 6.43 0.008 ⁕ 103.35-305.65 Total hardness (mg/L) 280 170 190 230 100–500 217.5 ± 24.28 48.563 8.96 0.003 ⁕ 140.23-294.77 Nitrate (mg/L) 120.0 38.6 65.5 45.3 < 50 74.9 ± 25.7 51.39 2.91 0.062 -6.92-156.62 Phosphate (mg/L) 5.70. 2.50 4.50 3.80 1 - <5.0 4.13 ± 0.67 1.338 6.17 0.009 ⁕ 2.00-6.25 Sulphate (mg/L) 2.50 2.00 4.80 3.00 250 3.08 ± 0.61 1.220 5.04 0.015 ⁕ 1.13–5.02 Chemical Oxygen Demand (mg/L) 0.22 0.15 0.20 0.24 30–350 0.20 ± 0.02 0.039 10.49 0.002 ⁕ 0.14-0 .26 Biological Oxygen Demand (mg/L) 4.80 2.20 5.50 12.00 6–10 6.13 ± 2.08 4.17 2.94 0.060 -0.50-12.75 * = Significant p-value , ** Very significant p-value 4. DISCUSSION The THB count obtained from water samples analyzed (Table 1 ) revealed the presence of various heterotrophic bacteria in all the water sources. The heterotrophic bacterial limit according to WHO in clean water states that such should not exceed 100CFU/mL [ 53 , 54 ]. But as regards this study, the heterotrophic bacteria counts exceeded the WHO limits signifying that the water sources had high bacterial contamination, hence certified unfit for direct consumption. These THB count results ranged from 1.2x10 2 in NVRI Tap water to 8.5x10 4 CFU/ml in Anguwan Madugu Well. This outcome was in-tune with several research findings like the one from Plateau state’s neighboring state of Kaduna, conducted by [ 7 ] in Samaru, Zaria; others from within the state by [ 55 , 56 ] and the most recent outcome in Jos South LGA in particular by [ 35 ]. This rampant water contamination can be attributed to poor dumping and unsanitary conditions that most times persist in rural Nigerian communities. Bacterial contamination can arise due to seepage and runoffs from waste and faecal materials, which happens mostly during the rainy season and this study was conducted at such a time [ 7 ]. Contaminated water sources are mostly implicated in causing diseases like typhoid, diarrhoea, Cholera, gastroenteritis, dysentery, urinary tract contagions etc. [ 57 , 58 ]. Tap water recorded the least microbial contamination from the study location compared to other water sources, perhaps due to the prior treatment such sources receive most times before distribution. This was closely related to the study by [ 59 ] who reported such water as being the second least polluted water source for domestic use in Jos and environs. The presence of Escherichia coli being the most common faecal indicator of water sample contamination as seen in the research findings, is a sign of the occurrence of other enteric agents [ 60 ]. Well water sources, followed by Rainwater had the most microbial contamination, possibly because hand dug wells serve as main water sources in rural areas and are more susceptible to pollution from dirty surroundings as opined by [ 7 ], or lack of proper well sanitary seals, use of unclean drawer containers and ropes, or non-hygienic practices done by people while fetching water from wells, as explained by the same outcome of [ 61 ] thesis work across the state, with the study location inclusive. Rain water was second to well water, probably as a result of the dirt that sometimes reside on housing roofs which can seep into the water when rain falls, or using unclean containers for water collection/storage, an activity employed by many rural dwellers most frequently to ameliorate water scarcity. The most prominent bacteria isolated from the study’s water sources (E. coli) implied a faecal contamination of all the water sources sampled in the research, possibly given the poor sanitary and hygienic conditions seen in the study area. The second bacteria to E. coli in the study being Pseudomonas aeruginosa was consistent with findings from the work of [ 27 ] who also explained how the bacteria has been associated with resistance to most antimicrobial agents making infections difficult to treat. Pseudomonas aeruginosa has been found from studies to be dogged as a water establishment pollutant [ 62 ]. This organism being an opportunistic pathogen, when ingested can cause illness in immunosuppressed individuals [ 63 ]. Other gram-negative bacteria like Klebsiella aerogenes, Salmonella typhi and Shigella flexneri , apart from gram positive Enterococcus faecalis were all indicative of serious faecal contamination of water sources. These organisms are implicated in causing several diseases like Pneumonia, septicemia, Salmonellosis, gastroenteritis, endocarditis, neonatal sepsis, surgical and burn wound infections, Shigellosis, dysentery etc. Many studies consistent with this research have revealed similar findings that reinforced the presence of all these organisms in various water sources in many parts of the state, alongside some related consequences to cite a few [ 56 , 59 , 35 ]. From the Physicochemical viewpoint, the studies established that most of the parameters assessed were within the WHO stipulated limits aside from TSS and Nitrates which exceeded the normal range. Though the TSS values recorded from this study were inconsistent with findings from the research conducted by [ 35 ] in the same Jos South of Plateau state. This outcome on Nitrates, which is implicated in causing methemoglobinemia in under six months old infants, adverse pregnancy conditions like unprompted abortion, low birth weight, fetal losses, intrauterine growth impedance, congenital deformities etc. [ 64 ]; was consistent with the high levels they recorded which were higher than the WHO acceptable limits. They opined that the higher nitrate levels discovered from their research could be a result of nitrate leaching into the water table that could have occurred from factors related to the soil type, geology, rate of Nitrogen utilization by crops in the study location, style employed during fertilizer application, and rate of nitrate conversion by microbes in the area. Considering that more than 85% of the locality’s residents engage in one type of farming or the other especially crop farming, livestock rearing and lots of poultry farming, it’s most probable that such Nitrates comefrom artificial fertilizers and manures [ 64 ] used by individuals staying in the locality. Another possible factor could come from the fact that the NVRI sited in this locality where the study was conducted has many farms, hence makes the residents get lots of natural fertilizer for their farms, leading to high nitrates seeping into the water table. Although [ 35 ] presumed that the relatively high nitrate figures could have been associated with sewage leaching from pit latrines, a rampant sanitary system that is in practice within the K/Vom locality and also due to the close proximity of wells and other water sources to waste dumps sites observed in the area. Study findings showed a relatively high TSS from some water sources in Calabar metropolis [ 39 ]. This was similar to that recorded in the study area and could be implicated to poor hygienic practices by residents in the area when fetching water, because of unclean fetching containers especially from hand dug wells and since most of them as confirmed by [ 60 ] lacked concrete linings and proper covering seals, hence the high TSS. 5. CONCLUSION The study reveals elevated Total Heterotrophic Bacteria (THB) counts in water sources, surpassing WHO limits, indicating high bacterial contamination and making the water unfit for direct consumption. Escherichia coli was the most prominent enterobacteria present in the five water sources, pointing to widespread faecal contamination. Pseudomonas aeruginosa , an antimicrobial-resistant bacterium coexists, emphasizing incidence of water pollution challenges. Other gram-negative bacteria like Klebsiella aerogenes , Salmonella typhi and Shigella flexneri , apart from gram positive bacteria like Enterococcus faecalis , further indicate severe faecal contamination, aligning with previous findings in the region. Most Physicochemical parameters were generally within the WHO limits, except for Total Suspended Solids (TSS) and Nitrates, which surpass acceptable levels. Nitrate sources may stem from farming practices, non-sanitary activities regarding wastes management and dump sites; and proximity to a veterinary institute, contributing to adverse health implications. The study underscores urgent intervention measures to address water quality issues in the area. Limitations of the study This research was carried out in a small locality within one of the five districts of Jos South LGA. Given how vast the Vwang district is where the study site is situated, future studies involving a broader sampling range within the district, and the entire LGA are advised to provide more comprehensive data on the bacteriological and physicochemical parameters investigated in the study area. Also, additional physicochemical parameters like Conductivity, Odour, Colour, Dissolve Oxygen, and presence of heavy metals like Iron, Lead, Zinc, Chromium, Cadmium and Arsenic were not assessed. These points thus limited the in-depth and wider proportionate representativeness such work would have presented if the tests were carried and sample location was bigger. Abbreviations BA : Blood Agar, BOD: Biological Oxygen Demand, COD: Chemical Oxygen Demand, EMB: Eosin Methylene Blue LGA: Local Government Area, MPN: Most Probable Number, NVRI: National Veterinary Research Institute, SDG: Sustainable Development Goals, SSA: Salmonella Shigella Agar, TCC: Total Coliform Count, TDS: Total Dissolved Solids, THB: Total Heterotrophic Bacteria, TSS: Total Suspended Solids, UNESCO: United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization UNICEF: United Nations Children Fund Declarations Ethics approval Ethical clearance was not sought for this study. Consent for publication Not applicable Availability of data and materials The research data is available with the corresponding author. Authors’ contributions PMZ conceptualized the study, spearheaded microbiological analysis, and took part in the manuscript development. S L conducted the Physicochemical analysis of water specimens. SKA and ARR conducted the bacteriological analysis of water samples. JCN conducted the data analysis and manuscript prove reading. VEY and ARR collected the water samples. MJ and SIA wrote the first draft. Acknowledgments We appreciate the head and leader of the K-Vom community Da manjei Mwatkwon Badung for granting us the permission to conduct this research. We also acknowledge all the support we received from the entire residents during the period of sample collection. Funding This study did not receive any sponsorship or funds from any external source(s) but was fully funded by the resources of the various authors who also took part in the research. Conflict of interests The study participants declare no conflict of interest in any way during and after carrying out this research. References Egberongbe HO, Bello OO, Solate AT, et al. Microbiological evaluation of stream water for domestic use in rural areas: A case study of Ijebu North Local government, Ogun state, Nigeria. Journal of Natural Sciences, Engineering and Technology 11 (2012): 93-103. 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Chukwu Anthonia C, Duguryil Z, Gambo Nanbol N, Lubis S, Kitka D. Assessment of the Physicochemical and Bacteriological Content of Some Drinking Water Sources in Jos South LGA in Northern Senatorial District of Plateau State Nigeria. Asian J. Appl. Chem. Res. 2023;14(2):36-45. Cheesbrough M. District laboratory practice in tropical countries, part 2. Cambridge university press; 2005. Holt JG, Krieg NR, Sneath PH, Staley JT, Williams ST. Bergey's Manual of determinate bacteriology. American Public Health Association. Standard methods for the examination of water and wastewater. American Public Health Association.; 1926. Akubuenyi FC, Uttah EC, Enyi-Idoh KH. Microbiological and physicochemical assessment of major sources of water for domestic uses in Calabar Metropolis Cross River state, Nigeria. Transnational Journal of Science and Technology. 2013 Feb;3(2):31-44. Clancy JL, Bukhari Z, McCuin RM, Matheson Z, Fricker CR. USEPA method 1622. 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Salmonella, Shigella, and yersinia. Clinics in laboratory medicine. 2015 Jun 1;35(2):225-46. Sanderson KE, Liu SL, Tang L, Johnston RN. Salmonella Typhi and Salmonella Paratyphi A. InMolecular medical microbiology 2015 Jan 1 (pp. 1275-1306). Academic Press. Appannanavar SB, Goyal K, Garg R, Ray P, Rathi M, Taneja N. Shigellemia in a post renal transplant patient: a case report and literature review. The journal of infection in developing countries. 2014 Feb 13;8(02:237-9. Dubin K, Pamer EG. Enterococci and their interactions with the intestinal microbiome. Microbiology spectrum. 2017 Dec 30;5(6):10-128. Ramos S, Silva V, Dapkevicius MD, Igrejas G, Poeta P. Enterococci, from harmless bacteria to a pathogen. Microorganisms. 2020 Jul 25;8(8):1118. Struelens MJ. Molecular epidemiologic typing systems of bacterial pathogens: current issues and perpectives. Memórias do Instituto Oswaldo Cruz. 1998;93:581-6. Ghalehnoo ZR. Diseases caused by Staphylococcus aureus. Int. J. Med. Health Res. 2018 Jan;4(11):65-7. World Health Organization. Guidelines for drinking-water quality. World Health Organization; 2002. Water S, World Health Organization. Guidelines for drinking-water quality. Vol. 1, Recommendations. Junaid SA, Agina SE. Sanitary survey of drinking water quality in Plateau State, Nigeria. British Biotechnology Journal. 2014 Dec 1;4(12):1313.. Miner CA, Dakhin AP, Zoakah AI, Afolaranmi TO, Envuladu EA. Household drinking water; knowledge and practice of purification in a community of Lamingo, Plateau state, Nigeria. J Environ Res Manag. 2015;6:230-6. Orji MU, Ezenwaje EE, Anyaegbunam BC. Spatial appraisal of shallow well water pollution in Awka, Nigeria. Nigerian Journal of Microbiology. 2006;20(3):1389-4.. Nwidu LL, Oveh B, Okoriye T, Vaikosen NA. Assesment of the water quality and prevalence of water borne diseases in Amassoma, Niger Delta, Nigeria. African Journal of Biotechnology. 2008;7(17). Jurbe DF, Bigwan EI, Ayanbimpe GM, Davou VK, Abashi NL, Raplong HH, Fyaktu EJ. Bacterial contamination of water sources for domestic use in JOS and environs. Petridis H. E. Coli O157: H7, a Potential Health Concern. University of Florida Cooperative Extension Service, Institute of Food and Agriculture Sciences, EDIS; 1998. Iduh CE. Identification and antimicrobial susceptibility profile of pathogenic Escherichia coli in drinking water sources in Jos, Nigeria (Doctoral dissertation) 2022. Morais PV, Mesquita C, Andrade JL, Da Costa MS. Investigation of persistent colonization by Pseudomonas aeruginosa-like strains in a spring water bottling plant. Applied and Environmental Microbiology. 1997 Mar;63(3):851-6. Environment Agency, UK (EAUK). The Microbiology of Drinking Water - Part 1–Water Quality and Public Health. 2002. Ward MH, Brender JD. Drinking water nitrate and human health. Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-4168181","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":285314556,"identity":"0f8d2c1d-843e-4110-8327-dd776c51f577","order_by":0,"name":"Pam Martin Zang","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Pam","middleName":"Martin","lastName":"Zang","suffix":""},{"id":285314559,"identity":"8f6d2baf-8bab-4238-89bb-35b4c1b724a7","order_by":1,"name":"Sati Lubis","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Sati","middleName":"","lastName":"Lubis","suffix":""},{"id":285314561,"identity":"07359b38-2356-403c-8904-d333866ee923","order_by":2,"name":"Jean Claude Ndayishimiye","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAA40lEQVRIiWNgGAWjYBACxgYGBomPfySY7duBLAYDC+K0SM5ssGE34DkA0iJBnE3SvA1p/AYSCSA2EVqY288evM2747C0ueTzqxt+FEgw8Ld3J+B3WE9esuXcM4eNLWfnlN3sATpM4szZDfi1zOAxk3jDdjiZ4XZO2g0eoBYDiVwitPCwHa5vuHkm7eYfYrVI8ralMRvcYD92mzhbenKMLWecsWGW7Mlhuy1jIMFD0C+G7WcMb3yokGDmZz/+7OabPzZy/O29BLQ0wJk8BmASr3IQkEcw2R8QVD0KRsEoGAUjEwAAzfNH9YsrFTQAAAAASUVORK5CYII=","orcid":"","institution":"University of Burundi","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Jean","middleName":"Claude","lastName":"Ndayishimiye","suffix":""},{"id":285314564,"identity":"a4f48d3a-0a19-4db9-9a9c-57ef4ccbeb3d","order_by":3,"name":"Meseko Josephine","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Meseko","middleName":"","lastName":"Josephine","suffix":""},{"id":285314565,"identity":"5b37eed2-874a-4f0a-ae66-5c8838871fd5","order_by":4,"name":"Samson Kumzhira Adamu","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"University of Maiduguri","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Samson","middleName":"Kumzhira","lastName":"Adamu","suffix":""},{"id":285314566,"identity":"02c057c5-f9d0-49b5-ad41-fb13a49b291a","order_by":5,"name":"Saidu Idris Ahmad","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Murtala Muhammad Specialist Hospital Kano","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Saidu","middleName":"Idris","lastName":"Ahmad","suffix":""},{"id":285314567,"identity":"d7b8b53e-1e8d-4c84-a785-277ff2718480","order_by":6,"name":"Adamu Rottemwa Ruth","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Adamu","middleName":"Rottemwa","lastName":"Ruth","suffix":""},{"id":285314568,"identity":"d6661fb6-1170-4475-8270-ae3b0f4b0d4e","order_by":7,"name":"Vwot Ezekiel Yakubu","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Vwot","middleName":"Ezekiel","lastName":"Yakubu","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2024-03-26 08:18:50","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-4168181/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-4168181/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":54031194,"identity":"68d5987d-996c-4c04-bc19-4d92c1b4f10c","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-04-03 16:03:19","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":4138728,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eMap of Jos South LGA showing Vom, in Plateau State, Nigeria. 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INTRODUCTION","content":"\u003cp\u003eWater remains a vital component of the environment considering the key role it plays in the sustainability and survival of every earthly life [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e]. As a necessity, it makes up about 70\u0026ndash;90% total mass of living cells [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e]. Aside it\u0026rsquo;s need by plants, both humans and animals require a lot of its consumption daily for their existence [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e]. Access to potable drinking water is a basic human right that is indispensable to well-being and a factor of proper strategy for health fortification [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e]. According to recent UNICEF and the World Health Organization reports, billions of individuals world-wide suffer from continuous dearth of access to water, hygiene and sanitation. Around 2.2, 3 and 4.2\u0026nbsp;billion individuals do not enjoy safely purified water facilities, suffer a deficiency of handwashing services and lack carefully managed sanitation amenities [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e]. Sadly, most of these people affected live in communities found in sub-Saharan Africa and Asia. In recent times, water\u0026rsquo;s necessity has been continuously growing due to factors like rising growth in population, modernization and other anthropogenic activities [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e]. For example, the 2021 World Water Development Report of UNESCO, stated that worldwide fresh-water usage which has been increasing by one percent annually since the 1980s, has grown six-times in the past century [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e]. Globally avenues related to obtaining uncontaminated safe water and sanitation remains a public concern especially in Low-Middle income nations like Nigeria, where people continually go through a dearth of means to portable water from sufficient sanitation amenities alongside improved sources [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e]. In 2012, the United Nations in its move to safe-guard the world and guarantee healthy living, initiated seventeen Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) in place of Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) with goal number 6 being \u0026ldquo;Clean water and Sanitation\u0026rdquo; [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e]. It is imperative to observe how Nigeria, a UN member country is progressing in relation to attaining the goal on access to portable water with respect to amount and quality, eons after the enactment of the universal SDGs. The quality of drinking water in emerging countries is worrisome and the negative health outcomes of water contamination remains the foremost cause of sicknesses and deaths from these nations [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe Nigerian citizens like other under-develop countries are among billion individuals who are deprived of means to harmless drinking water, as barely just one out of every three Nigerians living in the rural and city areas have means to piped-water source networks in their compounds for consumption, and persons having these can still suffer from undependable and inferior provision [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e]. As such many families fall back to community taps and non-piped water provisions like springs, boreholes, manually burrowed wells, and water sellers [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e]. Because many rural community residents world-wide obtain their water source primarily from dams, rivers, spring sources and from superficial tunneled wells [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e15\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e] rising contamination as a result of urbanization, industrialization and agricultural activities is rendering existing water sources impractical and hazardous to well-being [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThough a great majority of community drinking-water quality problems are related to faecal contamination from coliforms and bacteria, a substantial amount of these problems can occur as a result of chemical pollution arising from a diversity of artificial and natural causes. To establish whether these hitches exist, chemical investigation must be done [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e]. Although, the determination of a varied series of parameters on a steady basis can be very costly, predominantly in the case of supplies that meet the needs of small numbers of persons. In built-up parts and cities, ground sources of water like deep wells and boreholes institute key avenues of drinking water. These sources get contaminated through processes like solid municipal waste leachates from waste yards [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e] in addition to manufacturing seepage [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e] which all constitute a major public health concern.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eRight from the end of the 19th century, engaging the use of coliforms precisely \u003cem\u003eEscherichia coli\u003c/em\u003e as a pointer of microbiological water quality began from their initial isolation from feaces [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e22\u003c/span\u003e]. Coliforms are habitually found in varied natural settings, with some of them being telluric, but their natural abode is not drinking water. Their occurrence in drinking water should at best be looked at as suggestive of or likely threat of bacteriological water quality decline. Total coliform count in treated water samples which should normally be coliform-absent can imply quality failure, treatment ineptitude, disinfectant mishaps [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e23\u003c/span\u003e], intrusion arising from contamination into the potable water stock [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e24\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e25\u003c/span\u003e] or resurgence glitches [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e26\u003c/span\u003e] from the supply structure, which should not as a consequence be accepted.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDrinking water sources in Nigeria have been discovered to be contaminated with some microbes like \u003cem\u003eStaphylococcus aureus\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003ePseudomonas species\u003c/em\u003e apart from coliforms [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e27\u003c/span\u003e]. From the chemical view-point, metals such as iron, aluminum, chromium, and calcium have been discovered as surface and packaged sachet-water contaminants [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e28\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e29\u003c/span\u003e]. Lead, cadmium, nickel and manganese have also been reported above permissible levels from groundwater [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e30\u003c/span\u003e] with other contaminants such as fluoride. Besides, light Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAH) are also present in some Nigerian location groundwaters above permissible limits [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e29\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e31\u003c/span\u003e]. As opined by the World Health Organization, 80 percent of diseases are water related, and of these 80% illnesses, [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e] stated that child deaths account for 50% due to poor-quality water intake, with more than fifty diseases arising from same cause.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eCancer, neurological disorders, respiratory illnesses, cardiovascular disease, and diarrhea are among the ailments linked to contaminated water [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e32\u003c/span\u003e]. Addressing water scarcity in poor nations like Nigeria is crucial and urgent actions are needed to prevent water-borne diseases like cholera and typhoid which are prevalent due to poverty and poor hygiene. Over sixty million Nigerians lack access to clean water, leading to the consumption of contaminated water with severe public health consequences [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e33\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e34\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e]. This study therefore was aimed at determining the bacteriological and physicochemical parameters of water samples from borehole, tap, well, and rain water in K-Vom community of Jos South Local Government area.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"2. MATERIALS AND METHODS","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e2.1 Materials/Equipment\u003c/strong\u003e: The materials and equipment used for the research analysis were HACH/DR 900 spectrometer, DR 2000 (HACH) spectrophotometer and TDS meters, wagtech pH meter, beakers, and conical flask\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e2.2 Study Design and Area\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThis study employed the cross-sectional approach and was conducted within the month of June, 2022. The area of the study is known as Kaduna Vom (K-Vom) (Fig. \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e), a locality in Jos South Local government area (LGA) of Plateau State. K-Vom is located between latitude 7\u0026deg;56 North and longitude 8\u0026deg;53 East and lies an altitude of about 1,280m above Sea.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec4\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e2.3 Sample collection\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTwo water samples were aseptically collected from each water source in 1liter sterile containers (i.e., from 2 taps, 4 boreholes and 5 each Wells and Rain water sources) randomly selected from five (5) locations within the study area. These locations were National Veterinary Research Institute (NVRI) compound, Chaha road area, Angwan Mission, Angwan Madugu, and Angwan Gada respectively. A total of 32 samples having 2L of each water sample were obtained from the 5 aforementioned selected sample sites in the locality. Hand gloves were used to collect sterile samples which were placed in cold ice pack before being transported to the various laboratories for analysis less than six hours after collection.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec5\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e2.4 Statistical Analysis\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eData obtained was recorded in Microsoft-Excel spreadsheet and imported to Stata 17 statistical package. Descriptive analysis for replicate independent Means, comparison using independent sample t-test, Standard error of the mean, Standard deviation, p-values at 95% confidence level was done.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cdiv id=\"Sec6\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e2.5.1 Bacteriological analysis\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cul\u003e\n \u003cli\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMedia preparation and Bacterial isolation\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/li\u003e\n \u003c/ul\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePlates of Nutrient agar (NA), Blood Agar (BA), Salmonella Shigella agar (SSA), and MacConkey (MCA) agars were prepared according to the manufacturer\u0026rsquo;s specification and number of dishes needed for bacterial identification. After a 10\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;5\u003c/sup\u003e serial dilution of water samples from various sources, dried NA plates were inoculated with 1.5ml of the samples from the 10\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;3\u003c/sup\u003e plate through the spread plate technique, to obtain the various heterotrophic bacteria counts and incubated at 37\u0026deg;C for 24hrs. Upon macroscopic identification of discrete bacterial colonies, isolates were picked and further sub-cultured on BA, SSA, and MCA agars to obtain pure cultures of enteric and gram-positive organisms. Isolates from these pure culture media were then identified using the standard microbial methods according to [\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e36\u003c/span\u003e] and tests like Gram\u0026rsquo;s reaction and biochemical tests like Sugar fermentation Methyl Red-Voges Proskauer test, Citrate utilization, Indole, growth in Triple Sugar Iron agar, Catalase, Coagulase, Oxidase, Hydrogen sulfide (H\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eS) production, Motility, Urease, sporulation features and Kligler Iron agar tests, were employed to identify the bacteria species. Cultural and morphological appearances of isolates from the pure culture were categorized using the conclusive Bergey\u0026rsquo;s bacteriology manual [\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e37\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cul\u003e\n \u003cli\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMembrane Filter technique\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/li\u003e\n \u003c/ul\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFrom the 1L sampled containers, 100ml of each source\u0026rsquo;s specimen was taken and filtered through 0.45\u0026micro;m pore size, 47millimeter diameter membrane filters and incubated aseptically on dried plates of Eosin Methylene blue (EMB) agars as described by [\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e38\u003c/span\u003e]. Before performing the agar plate Coliform count method as described by [\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e39\u003c/span\u003e] the plates were incubated at 37\u003csup\u003eo\u003c/sup\u003eC for 24-48hrs for \u003cem\u003eE coli\u003c/em\u003e detection through the Most Probable Number (MPN/100ml) of the sample, done in three stages being the presumptive, confirmative and completed tests.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cdiv id=\"Sec7\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e2.5.2 Physicochemical analysis\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSamples collected from various sources were analyzed using automated laboratory equipment via prescribed standard methods for the analysis of drinking or wastewater as stipulated by the United States Environmental Protection Agency [\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e40\u003c/span\u003e]. pH and Temperature determination were done at the sample site. For instance, a Wagtech pH meter was dipped inside a buffer solution of 7.0 to calibrate the instrument after which it was dipped into the various samples and reading was taken one after the other from each of the water samples. The temperature was measured by dipping the thermometer about a centimetre into the immediately collected 1 litre water specimen for about three (3) minutes before recording the values.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe constituent Nitrates, Phosphate and Sulphate ions were assayed using the spectroscopic approach with HACH/DR 900 equipment. The sample\u0026rsquo;s turbidity and total dissolved solids were determined using DR 2000 (HACH) spectrophotometer and TDS meters accordingly.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"3. RESULTS","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTotal heterotrophic bacteria (THB), Total coliform\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cstrong\u003e(E. coli)\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cstrong\u003eand Faecal coliform counts\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe result of bacteriological analysis of the water samples obtained from the study location in (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e) showed \u003cem\u003eEscherichia coli\u003c/em\u003e as the predominant bacteria, followed by \u003cem\u003ePseudomonas aeruginosa\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eKlebsiella aerogenes.\u003c/em\u003e Others were \u003cem\u003eSalmonella typhi, Shigella flexneri, Staphylococcus aureus, Enterococcus faecalis and Bacillus subtilis\u003c/em\u003e. These bacteria isolated from the four water sources in the study area, presented a Total heterotrophic bacterial (THB) and Total Coliform (TC) counts with Well water, especially that from Angwan Madugu having the most contamination (i.e., 8.5x10\u003csup\u003e4\u003c/sup\u003eCFU/ml) and 800-1500MPN/100ml), and 13 MPN/100ml for Faecal coliforms. This source was followed by Borehole water that recorded 68MPN/100ml TC count from Angwan Mission and 35MPN/100ml from Angwan Gada\u0026rsquo;s boreholes.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTap water had the lest feacal contamination and presence of other Enterobacteria, aside \u003cem\u003eEnterococcus faecalis\u003c/em\u003e with Angwan Mission\u0026rsquo;s Well having the most contamination with \u003cem\u003ePseudomonas aeruginosa\u003c/em\u003e (2.2x10\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e), Chaha road area\u0026rsquo;s Borehole had the most \u003cem\u003eKlebsiella aerogenes\u003c/em\u003e (2.5x10\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e) bacteria, while Angwan Gada\u0026rsquo;s well recorded the highest \u003cem\u003eSalmonella typhi\u003c/em\u003e presence (2.4x10\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e). The highest number of \u003cem\u003eEnterococcus faecalis\u003c/em\u003e (i.e., 1.6x10\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e) was seen in Angwan Madugu\u0026rsquo;s Rain water source, with same area\u0026rsquo;s well water recording the utmost (2.2x10\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e) \u003cem\u003eShigella flexneri\u003c/em\u003e water. The reason for this bacteria presence may be ascribed to the fact that Angwan Madugu being a slum with old houses has a lot of unhygienic areas like toilets, dump sites closer to most of their unsealed wells.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n\u003ctable id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTotal heterotrophic bacteria (THB), total coliform (\u003cem\u003eE. coli)\u003c/em\u003e and faecal coliform counts from water samples in Kaduna Vom, Jos South LGA, Plateau state\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/caption\u003e\n\u003cthead\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSample site\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTHB (CFU/ml)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTotal (\u003cem\u003eE. coli\u003c/em\u003e) coliform\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e(MPN/100ml)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFaecal coliform\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e(MPN/100ml)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ePseudomonas aeruginosa\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e(CFU/ml)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eKlebsiella aerogenes\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e(CFU/ml)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSalmonella typhi\u003c/em\u003e (CFU/ml)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eEnterococcus faecalis\u003c/em\u003e (CFU/ml)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eShigella flexneri\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e(CFU/ml)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/thead\u003e\n\u003ctbody\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTap 1\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e1.2x10\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOND\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOND\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOND\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOND\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOND\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTap 2\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e1.3x10\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOND\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e1.2 x10\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOND\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOND\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOND\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWell 1\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e2.5x10\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e38\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e2.2 x10\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e2.4 x10\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOND\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOND\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOND\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWell 2\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e2.8x10\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e48\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e2.5 x10\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOND\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOND\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOND\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e2.1 x10\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWell 3\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e3.5x10\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e55\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOND\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e1.8x10\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e2.2x10\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOND\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOND\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWell 4\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e5.3x10\u003csup\u003e4\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e140\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e2.2x10\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e2.5x10\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e2.4x10\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOND\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOND\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWell 5\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e8.5x10\u003csup\u003e4\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e800\u0026ndash;1500\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e13\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOND\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e2.3x10\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e2.0x10\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e1.5x10\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e2.2x10\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBorehole 1\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e1.4x10\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e1.2x10\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOND\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOND\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOND\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOND\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBorehole 2\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e1.8x10\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e15\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e1.8x10\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e2.5x10\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOND\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOND\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOND\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBorehole 3\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e2.4x10\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e35\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e2.1x10\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e1.5x10\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOND\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOND\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOND\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBorehole 4\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e3.8x10\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e68\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e1.5x10\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOND\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e1.2x10\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOND\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e1.3x10\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eRain 1\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e2.1x10\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e18\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e1.4x10\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOND\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOND\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e1.5x10\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOND\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eRain 2\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e1.75x10\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e15\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOND\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e1.5x10\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOND\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOND\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOND\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eRain 3\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e2.2x10\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e1.2x10\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOND\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOND\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e1.2x10\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOND\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eRain 4\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e2.3x10\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e25\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e1.3x10\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOND\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e1.5x10\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOND\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOND\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eRain 5\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e2.3x10\u003csup\u003e4\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e35\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOND\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e2.1x10\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e1.8x10\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e1.6x10\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOND\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003ctfoot\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd colspan=\"9\"\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eKEY\u003c/strong\u003e: OND-\u003cstrong\u003eOrganism Not Detected 1\u003c/strong\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;\u003cstrong\u003eNVRI compound, 2\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Chaha road area\u003c/strong\u003e, \u003cstrong\u003e3\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Angwan Gada, 4\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Angwan Mission, 5\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Angwan Madugu\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tfoot\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eBacteria isolated from water sources in the study area, health-related conditions and reference\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFrom the various bacteria isolated from water sources within the study area, their health-related conditions and citations (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e). \u003cem\u003eEscherichia coli\u003c/em\u003e being the most prominent bacteria isolated from all water sources within the locality has most strains that are harmless. Though some virulent strains cause urinary tract infections, gastroenteritis, and neonatal meningitis, while others have been connected to food poisoning [\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e41\u003c/span\u003e]. Apart from \u003cem\u003eE. coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa which\u003c/em\u003e typically infects the pulmonary tract is most times an opportunistic organism found in immunosuppressed persons and causes urinary tract infections, burns and wounds infections [\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e42\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e27\u003c/span\u003e]. It was the second most abundant bacterial water contaminant present in 10 water sources, followed by \u003cem\u003eKlebsiella aerogenes\u003c/em\u003e which causes diseases like Pneumonia, septicemia, spondylitis, and ankylosing [\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e43\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eBacillus subtilis\u003c/em\u003e which is implicated to allergic reactions in individuals on repeated exposure, food poisoning, bacteremia, endocarditis, pneumonia, and septicemia [\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e44\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e45\u003c/span\u003e] was present in only 2 water sources being wells at Chaha road area and Borehole at Angwan Mission. Wells in Angwan Gada, Angwan Mission and Angwan Madugu along with Rain waters from Angwan Mission and Angwan Madugu were all contaminated with \u003cem\u003eSalmonella typhi. Shigella flexneri\u003c/em\u003e was observed only in well water sources from Chaha road area and Angwan Madugu. While \u003cem\u003eEnterococcus faecalis\u003c/em\u003e was isolated from Angwan Madugu\u0026rsquo;s well water and Rain waters sources from NVRI compound, Angwan Gada \u003cem\u003eand\u003c/em\u003e Angwan Madugu. \u003cem\u003eStaphylococcus aureus\u003c/em\u003e was found in only 2 water sources being Angwan Madugu well water and Chaha road area\u0026rsquo;s Rain water, Results revealed that the water source with the least bacterial contaminants was Tap within the NVRI compound and Well water from Angwan Madugu had the most bacterial contaminants\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n\u003ctable id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWater sources, bacteria isolated in the study area, health-related conditions and reference\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/caption\u003e\n\u003cthead\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWater source\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBacteria Isolated\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHealth risk/Disease(s) associated\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eReference\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/thead\u003e\n\u003ctbody\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTap 1 (pipe)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eE. coli\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd rowspan=\"3\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eE. coli\u003c/strong\u003e: Most strains are harmless but some strains are associated with food poisoning and virulent strains may cause urinary tract infections, gastroenteritis, and neonatal meningitis\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd rowspan=\"3\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e[\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e41\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTap 2 (pipe)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eE. coli, Klebsiella aerogenes\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eWell 1\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eE. coli, Klebsiella aerogenes, P. aeruginosa\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eWell 2\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eE. coli, Bacillus subtilis, P. aeruginosa, Shigella flexneri\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd rowspan=\"2\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eP. aeruginosa\u003c/strong\u003e: Occurs as an opportunistic organism found in immunosuppressed individuals and classically infects the pulmonary tract and urinary tract infections, burns and wounds infections.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd rowspan=\"2\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e[\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e42\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e27\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eWell 3\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eE. coli, Klebsiella aerogenes, Salmonella typhi\u003c/em\u003e,\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eWell 4\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eE. coli\u0026cedil; Klebsiella aerogenes, Salmonella typhi, P. aeruginosa\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eKlebsiella aerogenes\u003c/strong\u003e: Implicated to diseases such as Pneumonia, septicemia, spondylitis, and ankylosing\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e[\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e43\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eWell 5\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eE. coli, Staph. aureus, Klebsiella aerogenes, Salmonella typhi, Enterococcus faecalis, Shigella flexneri\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eBacillus subtilis\u003c/strong\u003e: Causes allergic reactions in persons with repeated exposure, food poisoning, bacteremia, endocarditis, pneumonia, and septicemia\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e[\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e44\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e45\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eBorehole 1\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eE. coli, P. aeruginosa\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd rowspan=\"3\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSalmonella typhi\u003c/strong\u003e: Causes food-borne acute gastroenteritis, enterocolitis, invasive bacteraemia, typhoid fever\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd rowspan=\"3\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e[\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e46\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e47\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eBorehole 2\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eE. coli, Klebsiella aerogenes, P. aeruginosa\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eBorehole 3\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eE. coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Klebsiella aerogenes\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eBorehole 4\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eE. coli\u0026cedil; P. aeruginosa, Salmonella typhi, Bacillus subtilis\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eShigella flexneri\u003c/strong\u003e: Shigellosis, dysentery, bacteremia and other extraintestinal infections\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e[\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e48\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e46\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eRain 1\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eE. coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Enterococcus faecalis\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd rowspan=\"2\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEnterococcus faecalis\u003c/strong\u003e: Associated with Nosocomial infections like catheter-related urinary tract infections, bacteremia, endocarditis, neonatal sepsis, surgical and burn wound infections, and more rarely meningitis\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd rowspan=\"2\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e[\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e49\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e50\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eRain 2\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eKlebsiella aerogenes, E. coli, Staph. aureus\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eRain 3\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eE. coli, P. aeruginosa, Enterococcus faecalis\u003c/em\u003e,\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd rowspan=\"3\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eStaphycoccus aureus\u003c/strong\u003e. It commonly leads to abscess formation and causes skin infections like Scalded skin syndrome, folliculitis, furuncle, carbuncle, impetigo and Toxic shock syndrome. Sometimes cause pneumonia, endocarditis, bacteremia \u0026amp; osteomyelitis. Some elaborate strains produce toxins that cause gastroenteritis, and Staphylococcal food poisoning\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd rowspan=\"3\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e[\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e51\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e52\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eRain 4\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSalmonella typhi, E. coli, P. aeruginosa\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eRain 5\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eE. coli, Klebsiella aerogenes, Salmonella typhi, Enterococcus faecalis\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003ctfoot\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd colspan=\"4\"\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eKEY\u003c/strong\u003e: E-Escherichia, P- \u003cem\u003ePseudomonas\u003c/em\u003e, Staph-\u003cem\u003eStaphylococcus\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tfoot\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ePhysicochemical characteristics of water sources\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe Mean results for the Physicochemical parameters like pH, Turbidity, Total Suspended Solids (TSS), Total Dissolved solids (TDS), Total Hardness, Nitrates, Phosphate, Sulphate, Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD), and Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) are presented in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e. (a, b, c \u0026amp; d). The sum of 2 tap water samples, 3 Boreholes, and 4 each of Rain and Well water sources were tabulated with the various Means. The mean values for all the physicochemical parameters assessed from Tap water [Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e(a)] were all within the WHO permissible limits, apart from the TSS (0.09) which was above the WHO standard. Other parameters tested from Well water [Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e. (b)] had Mean values that were within WHO standard limits aside TSS (0.25) and BOD (10.5). From the mean values obtained from Borehole water sources, Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e(c), only TSS, Nitrates and Phosphates values (0.02, 150 and 5.7) were above the WHO permissible limits. And finally, mean values observed from Rain water sources Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e(d), showed most physicochemical measurements falling within the WHO standard limits, apart from those obtained for TSS and Nitrates which were 0.20 and 65.5 respectively\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n\u003ctable id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e(a)\u003c/strong\u003e Physicochemical characteristics of Tap (pipe-borne) water sources\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/caption\u003e\n\u003cthead\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWater source\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003epH\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eT\u003csup\u003e0\u003c/sup\u003eC\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTurbidity (NTU)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTSS (mg/L)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTDS\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTH\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNitrate (mg/L)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ePhosphate\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSulphate\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eCOD\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBOD\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/thead\u003e\n\u003ctbody\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTap 1.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e6.1\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e25.8\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e2.4\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e0.15\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e135\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e190\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e28.8\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e2.2\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e1.7\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e0.16\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e6.6\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTap 2.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e6.3\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e27.2\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e2.6\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e0.03\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e261\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e150\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e48.4\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e2.8\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e2.3\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e0.14\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e5.8\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMean\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e6.2\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e26.5\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e2.5\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e0.09\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e198\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e170\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e38.6\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e2.5\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e2.0\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e0.15\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e6.2\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ePermissible limit\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e6.5\u0026ndash;8.5\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e25\u0026ndash;30\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e5.0\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e0.01\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;300\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e100\u0026ndash;500\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;50\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e1 - \u0026lt;5.0\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e250\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e30\u0026ndash;350\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e6\u0026ndash;10\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"colspec\" align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ctable id=\"Tab4\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e(b)\u003c/strong\u003e Physicochemical characteristics of Well water sources\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/caption\u003e\n\u003cthead\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWater source\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003epH\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eT\u003csup\u003e0\u003c/sup\u003eC\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTurbidity (NTU)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTSS (mg/L)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTDS\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTH\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNitrate (mg/L)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ePhosp-hate\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSulphate\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eCOD\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBOD\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/thead\u003e\n\u003ctbody\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWell 1.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e6.40\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e23.5\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e3.6\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e0.31\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e260\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e220\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e42.5\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e3.7\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e2.8\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e0,21\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e9.5\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWell 2.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e6.20\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e21.5\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e3.5\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e0.15\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e310\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e210\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e55.0\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e3.9\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e3.1\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e0.18\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e8.5\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWell 3.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e6.00\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e22.0\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e3.9\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e0.09\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e280\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e185\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e38.2\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e2.5\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e3.3\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e0.30\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e12.6\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWell 4.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e6.15\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e24.0\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e2.8\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e0.50\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e240\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e260\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e37.3\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e4.1\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e2.8\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e0.28\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e10.9\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWell 5\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e6.50\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e23.0\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e4.2\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e0.2\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e260\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e275\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e53.5\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e4.8\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e3.0\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e0.23\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e11.0\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMean\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e6.25\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e22.8\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e3.6\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e0.25\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e270\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e230\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e45.3\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e3.8\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e3.0\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e0.24\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e10.5\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ePermissible limit\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e6.5\u0026ndash;8.5\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e25\u0026ndash;30\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e5.0\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e0.01\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;300\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e100\u0026ndash;500\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;50\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e1 - \u0026lt;5.0\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e250\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e30\u0026ndash;350\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e6\u0026ndash;10\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"colspec\" align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ctable id=\"Tab5\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e(c)\u003c/strong\u003e Physicochemical characteristics of Borehole water sources\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/caption\u003e\n\u003cthead\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWater source\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003epH\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eT\u003csup\u003e0\u003c/sup\u003eC\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTurbidity (NTU)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTSS (mg/L)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTDS\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTH\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNitrate (mg/L)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ePhosp-hate\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSulphate\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eCOD\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBOD\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/thead\u003e\n\u003ctbody\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBorehole 1.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e6.3\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e28.5\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e3.5\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e0.02\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e130\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e270\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e155\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e6.5\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e2.5\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e0.20\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e8.9\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBorehole 2.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e6.5\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e27.5\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e3.0\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e0.01\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e115\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e275\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e150\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e5.6\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e3.0\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e0.19\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e8.3\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBorehole 3.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e6.4\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e27.0\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e2.5\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e0.02\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e110\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e285\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e135\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e4.9\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e2.3\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e0.23\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e8.6\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBorehole 4.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e6.2\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e29\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e3.8\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e0.03\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e125\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e290\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e160\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e5.8\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e2.2\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e0.26\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e8.2\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMean\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e6.35\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e28\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e3.2\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e0.02\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e120\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e280\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e150\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e5.7\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e2.5\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e0.22\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e8.5\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ePermissible limit\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e6.5\u0026ndash;8.5\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e25\u0026ndash;30\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e5.0\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e0.01\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;300\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e100\u0026ndash;500\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;50\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e1 - \u0026lt;5.0\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e250\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e30\u0026ndash;350\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e6\u0026ndash;10\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"colspec\" align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ctable id=\"Tab6\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e(d)\u003c/strong\u003e Physicochemical characteristics of Rain water sources\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/caption\u003e\n\u003cthead\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWater source\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003epH\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eT\u003csup\u003e0\u003c/sup\u003eC\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTurbidity (NTU)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTSS (mg/L)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTDS\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTH\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNitrate (mg/L)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ePhosphate\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSulphate\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eCOD\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBOD\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/thead\u003e\n\u003ctbody\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eRain 1.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e6.3\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e24.9\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e4.0\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e0.10\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e200\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e175\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e65.0\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e4.2\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e4.95\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e0.20\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e7.2\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eRain 2.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e6.1\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e24.4\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e3.9\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e0.30\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e240\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e186\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e64.6\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e5.2\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e4.05\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e0.10\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e7.9\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eRain 3.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e6.5\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e25.0\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e3.6\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e0.20\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e225\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e195\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e66.2\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e4.3\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e5.50\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e0.16\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e7.0\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eRain 4.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e6.7\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e26.7\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e4.2\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e0.09\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e235\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e196\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e62.8\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e4.1\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e4.60\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e0.25\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e7.4\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eRain 5\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e6.8\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e26.5\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e4.3\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e0.31\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e250\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e198\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e68.9\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e4.7\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e4.90\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e0.29\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e8.0\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMean\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e6.5\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e25.5\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e4.0\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e0.20\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e230\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e190\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e65.5\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e4.5\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e4.80\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e0.20\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e7.5\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ePermissible limit\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e6.5\u0026ndash;8.5\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e25\u0026ndash;30\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e5.0\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e0.01\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;300\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e100\u0026ndash;500\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;50\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e1 - \u0026lt;5.0\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e250\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e30\u0026ndash;350\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e6\u0026ndash;10\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eStatistical Analysis for the Physicochemical parameters of water samples from four water sources in Kaduna Vom, Jos South LGA, Plateau state\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe summarized physicochemical parameters and Statistical analysis of water samples from the four water sources in the locality (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e), showed rain water having the highest pH of 6.50 Mean of 6.33\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.07 Standard error, 0.132 Standard Deviation, with the highest t-Test score value of 95.63, and a very significant p-value of 0.001 falling between a 95% close range Confidence Interval of 6.11\u0026ndash;6.54. Borehole water source recorded the highest temperature of 28\u003csup\u003e0\u003c/sup\u003eC with Mean of 26.95\u003csup\u003e0\u003c/sup\u003eC\u0026plusmn;0.59 Standard error, Standard Deviation of 1.173, a high t-Test score of 45.94, a very significant p-value of 0.001 falling between a 95% close range confidence interval of 25.08\u0026ndash;28.82. Various other parameters like Turbidity, TDS, Total Hardness, Phosphate, Sulphate and COD had high t-Test scores with significant p-value at 95% close range confidence intervals, while Well water had the highest TSS of 0.25mg/L, with Mean value 0. 14\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.05, SD 0.104, low t-Test score of 2.69 and a non-significant p-value of 0.075(95% CI of -0.03-0.31). Other parameter like Nitrates and BOD also recorded low t-Test score values of 2.91 for Nitrates and 2.94. Nitrates had a Mean of 74.9\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;25.7 SE, SD 51.39, and non-significant p-value of 0.062 (95%CI wide range of -6.92-156.62), while BOD had a Mean of 6.13\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.08 SE, a Standard deviation of 4.17 with a non-significant p-value of 0.060 (95% CI wide range of 0.50 to12.75) accordingly.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n\u003ctable id=\"Tab7\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 4\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSummarized Physicochemical parameters and Statistical analysis of water from four sources in Kaduna Vom, Jos South LGA, Plateau state\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/caption\u003e\n\u003cthead\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003cth rowspan=\"2\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTest Parameter\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e(Unit)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth colspan=\"3\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWater source\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth rowspan=\"2\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWHO Limits\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth rowspan=\"2\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTotal Mean\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;SE\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth rowspan=\"2\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eStandard\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDev.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth rowspan=\"2\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003et-Test\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth rowspan=\"2\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ep-value\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth rowspan=\"2\" align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e95% Confidence\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eInterval\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eBorehole\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTap\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eRain\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eWell\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/th\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/thead\u003e\n\u003ctbody\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003epH\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e6.35\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e6.20\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e6.50\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e6.25\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e6.5\u0026ndash;8.5\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e6.33\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.07\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e0.132\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e95.63\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e0.001\u003c/strong\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e⁕⁕\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e6.11\u0026ndash;6.54\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTemperature (\u003csup\u003eo\u003c/sup\u003e C)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e28.0\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e26.5\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e25.5\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e27.80\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e25\u0026ndash;30\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e26.95\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.59\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e1.173\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e45.94\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e0.001\u003c/strong\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e⁕⁕\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e25.08\u0026ndash;28.82\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTurbidity (NTU)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e3.2\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e2.5\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e4.0\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e3.6\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e5.0\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e3.33\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.32\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e0.640\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e10.40\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e0.002\u003c/strong\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e⁕\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e2.31\u0026ndash;4.34\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTotal Suspended Solid (mg/L)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e0.02\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e0.09\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e0.20\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e0.25\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e0.01\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e0.14\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.05\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e0.104\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e2.69\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e0.075\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e-0.03-0.31\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTotal Dissolved Solid (mg/L)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e120\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e198\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e230\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e270\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;300\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e204.5\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;31.78\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e63.568\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e6.43\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e0.008\u003c/strong\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e⁕\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e103.35-305.65\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTotal hardness (mg/L)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e280\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e170\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e190\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e230\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e100\u0026ndash;500\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e217.5\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;24.28\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e48.563\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e8.96\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e0.003\u003c/strong\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e⁕\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e140.23-294.77\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNitrate (mg/L)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e120.0\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e38.6\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e65.5\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e45.3\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;50\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e74.9\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;25.7\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e51.39\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e2.91\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e0.062\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e-6.92-156.62\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ePhosphate (mg/L)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e5.70.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e2.50\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e4.50\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e3.80\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e1 - \u0026lt;5.0\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e4.13\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.67\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e1.338\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e6.17\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e0.009\u003c/strong\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e⁕\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e2.00-6.25\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSulphate (mg/L)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e2.50\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e2.00\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e4.80\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e3.00\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e250\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e3.08\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.61\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e1.220\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e5.04\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e0.015\u003c/strong\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e⁕\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e1.13\u0026ndash;5.02\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eChemical Oxygen Demand (mg/L)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e0.22\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e0.15\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e0.20\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e0.24\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e30\u0026ndash;350\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e0.20\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.02\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e0.039\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e10.49\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e0.002\u003c/strong\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e⁕\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e0.14-0 .26\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBiological Oxygen Demand (mg/L)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e4.80\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e2.20\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e5.50\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e12.00\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e6\u0026ndash;10\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\"\u0026plusmn;\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e6.13\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.08\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e4.17\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e2.94\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e0.060\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e-0.50-12.75\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003ctfoot\u003e\n\u003ctr\u003e\n\u003ctd colspan=\"11\"\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e*\u003c/strong\u003e =\u003cem\u003eSignificant p-value\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cstrong\u003e**\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cem\u003eVery significant p-value\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n\u003c/tr\u003e\n\u003c/tfoot\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"4. DISCUSSION","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe THB count obtained from water samples analyzed (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e) revealed the presence of various heterotrophic bacteria in all the water sources. The heterotrophic bacterial limit according to WHO in clean water states that such should not exceed 100CFU/mL [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR53\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e53\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR54\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e54\u003c/span\u003e]. But as regards this study, the heterotrophic bacteria counts exceeded the WHO limits signifying that the water sources had high bacterial contamination, hence certified unfit for direct consumption. These THB count results ranged from 1.2x10\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e in NVRI Tap water to 8.5x10\u003csup\u003e4\u003c/sup\u003e CFU/ml in Anguwan Madugu Well. This outcome was in-tune with several research findings like the one from Plateau state\u0026rsquo;s neighboring state of Kaduna, conducted by [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e] in Samaru, Zaria; others from within the state by [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR55\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e55\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR56\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e56\u003c/span\u003e] and the most recent outcome in Jos South LGA in particular by [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e35\u003c/span\u003e]. This rampant water contamination can be attributed to poor dumping and unsanitary conditions that most times persist in rural Nigerian communities. Bacterial contamination can arise due to seepage and runoffs from waste and faecal materials, which happens mostly during the rainy season and this study was conducted at such a time [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e]. Contaminated water sources are mostly implicated in causing diseases like typhoid, diarrhoea, Cholera, gastroenteritis, dysentery, urinary tract contagions etc. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR57\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e57\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR58\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e58\u003c/span\u003e]. Tap water recorded the least microbial contamination from the study location compared to other water sources, perhaps due to the prior treatment such sources receive most times before distribution. This was closely related to the study by [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR59\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e59\u003c/span\u003e] who reported such water as being the second least polluted water source for domestic use in Jos and environs. The presence of \u003cem\u003eEscherichia coli\u003c/em\u003e being the most common faecal indicator of water sample contamination as seen in the research findings, is a sign of the occurrence of other enteric agents [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR60\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e60\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWell water sources, followed by Rainwater had the most microbial contamination, possibly because hand dug wells serve as main water sources in rural areas and are more susceptible to pollution from dirty surroundings as opined by [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e], or lack of proper well sanitary seals, use of unclean drawer containers and ropes, or non-hygienic practices done by people while fetching water from wells, as explained by the same outcome of [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR61\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e61\u003c/span\u003e] thesis work across the state, with the study location inclusive. Rain water was second to well water, probably as a result of the dirt that sometimes reside on housing roofs which can seep into the water when rain falls, or using unclean containers for water collection/storage, an activity employed by many rural dwellers most frequently to ameliorate water scarcity.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe most prominent bacteria isolated from the study\u0026rsquo;s water sources \u003cem\u003e(E. coli)\u003c/em\u003e implied a faecal contamination of all the water sources sampled in the research, possibly given the poor sanitary and hygienic conditions seen in the study area. The second bacteria to \u003cem\u003eE. coli\u003c/em\u003e in the study being \u003cem\u003ePseudomonas aeruginosa\u003c/em\u003e was consistent with findings from the work of [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e27\u003c/span\u003e] who also explained how the bacteria has been associated with resistance to most antimicrobial agents making infections difficult to treat. \u003cem\u003ePseudomonas aeruginosa\u003c/em\u003e has been found from studies to be dogged as a water establishment pollutant [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR62\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e62\u003c/span\u003e]. This organism being an opportunistic pathogen, when ingested can cause illness in immunosuppressed individuals [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR63\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e63\u003c/span\u003e]. Other gram-negative bacteria like \u003cem\u003eKlebsiella aerogenes, Salmonella typhi\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eShigella flexneri\u003c/em\u003e, apart from gram positive \u003cem\u003eEnterococcus faecalis\u003c/em\u003e were all indicative of serious faecal contamination of water sources. These organisms are implicated in causing several diseases like Pneumonia, septicemia, Salmonellosis, gastroenteritis, endocarditis, neonatal sepsis, surgical and burn wound infections, Shigellosis, dysentery etc. Many studies consistent with this research have revealed similar findings that reinforced the presence of all these organisms in various water sources in many parts of the state, alongside some related consequences to cite a few [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR56\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e56\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR59\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e59\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e35\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFrom the Physicochemical viewpoint, the studies established that most of the parameters assessed were within the WHO stipulated limits aside from TSS and Nitrates which exceeded the normal range. Though the TSS values recorded from this study were inconsistent with findings from the research conducted by [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e35\u003c/span\u003e] in the same Jos South of Plateau state. This outcome on Nitrates, which is implicated in causing methemoglobinemia in under six months old infants, adverse pregnancy conditions like unprompted abortion, low birth weight, fetal losses, intrauterine growth impedance, congenital deformities etc. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR64\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e64\u003c/span\u003e]; was consistent with the high levels they recorded which were higher than the WHO acceptable limits. They opined that the higher nitrate levels discovered from their research could be a result of nitrate leaching into the water table that could have occurred from factors related to the soil type, geology, rate of Nitrogen utilization by crops in the study location, style employed during fertilizer application, and rate of nitrate conversion by microbes in the area. Considering that more than 85% of the locality\u0026rsquo;s residents engage in one type of farming or the other especially crop farming, livestock rearing and lots of poultry farming, it\u0026rsquo;s most probable that such Nitrates comefrom artificial fertilizers and manures [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR64\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e64\u003c/span\u003e] used by individuals staying in the locality. Another possible factor could come from the fact that the NVRI sited in this locality where the study was conducted has many farms, hence makes the residents get lots of natural fertilizer for their farms, leading to high nitrates seeping into the water table. Although [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e35\u003c/span\u003e] presumed that the relatively high nitrate figures could have been associated with sewage leaching from pit latrines, a rampant sanitary system that is in practice within the K/Vom locality and also due to the close proximity of wells and other water sources to waste dumps sites observed in the area. Study findings showed a relatively high TSS from some water sources in Calabar metropolis [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e39\u003c/span\u003e]. This was similar to that recorded in the study area and could be implicated to poor hygienic practices by residents in the area when fetching water, because of unclean fetching containers especially from hand dug wells and since most of them as confirmed by [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR60\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e60\u003c/span\u003e] lacked concrete linings and proper covering seals, hence the high TSS.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"5. CONCLUSION","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe study reveals elevated Total Heterotrophic Bacteria (THB) counts in water sources, surpassing WHO limits, indicating high bacterial contamination and making the water unfit for direct consumption. \u003cem\u003eEscherichia coli\u003c/em\u003e was the most prominent enterobacteria present in the five water sources, pointing to widespread faecal contamination. \u003cem\u003ePseudomonas aeruginosa\u003c/em\u003e, an antimicrobial-resistant bacterium coexists, emphasizing incidence of water pollution challenges. Other gram-negative bacteria like \u003cem\u003eKlebsiella aerogenes\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eSalmonella typhi\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eShigella flexneri\u003c/em\u003e, apart from gram positive bacteria like \u003cem\u003eEnterococcus faecalis\u003c/em\u003e, further indicate severe faecal contamination, aligning with previous findings in the region. Most Physicochemical parameters were generally within the WHO limits, except for Total Suspended Solids (TSS) and Nitrates, which surpass acceptable levels. Nitrate sources may stem from farming practices, non-sanitary activities regarding wastes management and dump sites; and proximity to a veterinary institute, contributing to adverse health implications. The study underscores urgent intervention measures to address water quality issues in the area.\u003c/p\u003e "},{"header":"Limitations of the study","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis research was carried out in a small locality within one of the five districts of Jos South LGA. Given how vast the Vwang district is where the study site is situated, future studies involving a broader sampling range within the district, and the entire LGA are advised to provide more comprehensive data on the bacteriological and physicochemical parameters investigated in the study area. Also, additional physicochemical parameters like Conductivity, Odour, Colour, Dissolve Oxygen, and presence of heavy metals like Iron, Lead, Zinc, Chromium, Cadmium and Arsenic were not assessed. These points thus limited the in-depth and wider proportionate representativeness such work would have presented if the tests were carried and sample location was bigger.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Abbreviations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eBA\u003c/em\u003e: Blood Agar, \u003cem\u003eBOD:\u003c/em\u003e Biological Oxygen Demand, \u003cem\u003eCOD:\u003c/em\u003e Chemical Oxygen Demand, \u003cem\u003eEMB:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003eEosin Methylene Blue \u003cem\u003eLGA:\u003c/em\u003e Local Government Area, \u003cem\u003eMPN:\u003c/em\u003e Most Probable Number, \u003cem\u003eNVRI:\u003c/em\u003e National Veterinary Research Institute, \u003cem\u003eSDG:\u003c/em\u003e Sustainable Development Goals, \u003cem\u003eSSA:\u003c/em\u003e Salmonella Shigella Agar, \u003cem\u003eTCC:\u003c/em\u003e Total Coliform Count, \u003cem\u003eTDS:\u003c/em\u003e Total Dissolved Solids, \u003cem\u003eTHB:\u003c/em\u003e Total Heterotrophic Bacteria, \u003cem\u003eTSS:\u003c/em\u003e Total Suspended Solids, \u003cem\u003eUNESCO:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003eUnited Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization \u003cem\u003eUNICEF:\u003c/em\u003e United Nations Children Fund\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEthics approval\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eEthical clearance was not sought for this study.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConsent for publication\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNot applicable\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAvailability of data and materials\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe research data is available with the corresponding author.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAuthors\u0026rsquo; contributions\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ePMZ conceptualized the study, spearheaded microbiological analysis, and took part in the manuscript development. S L conducted the Physicochemical analysis of water specimens. SKA and ARR conducted the bacteriological analysis of water samples. JCN conducted the data analysis and manuscript prove reading. VEY and ARR collected the water samples. MJ and SIA wrote the first draft.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAcknowledgments\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWe appreciate the head and leader of the K-Vom community Da manjei Mwatkwon Badung for granting us the permission to conduct this research. We also acknowledge all the support we received from the entire residents during the period of sample collection.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFunding\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis study did not receive any sponsorship or funds from any external source(s) but was fully funded by the resources of the various authors who also took part in the research.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConflict of interests\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe study participants declare no conflict of interest in any way during and after carrying out this research.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eEgberongbe HO, Bello OO, Solate AT, et al. Microbiological evaluation of stream water for domestic use in rural areas: A case study of Ijebu North Local government, Ogun state, Nigeria. Journal of Natural Sciences, Engineering and Technology 11 (2012): 93-103. \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eOwolabi JB, Olaitan JO, Alao AA, Deile AK, Ige OO. Bacteriological and physicochemical assessment of water from student hostels of Osun State University, Main Campus, Osogbo, Southwest Nigeria. Covenant Journal of Physical and Life Sciences. 2014 Jun 24.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAlberts B, Johnson A, Lewis J, Raff M, Roberts K, Walter P. Molecular Biology of the Cell, Garland Science; 2002. Bray D. Cell movements: from molecules to motility. 2nd ed: Garland Science. 2000.Alberts \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eNester EW, Corbett RI, Lema M, Nester EW. Student Study Guide for Use with\u0026quot; Microbiology a Human Perspective 4th Ed\u0026quot;. McGraw-Hill; 2004.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eWorld Health Organization. Guidelines for drinking-water quality. 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Drinking water nitrate and human health.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Bacteriological, Coliforms, E. coli, Physicochemical parameters, Kaduna Vom, Plateau State","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-4168181/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-4168181/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003ch2\u003eBackground\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eClean water is essential for the health and survival of all life forms. Surface and underground water polluted by microbes and chemicals exacerbates issues of water scarcity. This continues to negatively affect the well-being of most people in developing countries like Nigeria and K-Vom, in Plateau State. Thus, this study aimed to determine the bacteriological and physicochemical parameters of water samples from borehole, tap, well, and rain water in K-Vom community of Jos South Local Government area.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eMethods\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eWater samples from five locations underwent detailed analysis. Coliform presence was assessed using Eosin methylene blue agar and various equipment were used to assess physicochemical parameters like pH, temperature, turbidity, Phosphates, Sulphates, Nitrates, total hardness, total suspended solids, COD, and BOD following standard guidelines as specified by the U.S Environmental Protection Agency.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eResults\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cem\u003eEscherichia coli\u003c/em\u003e dominated as the most prominent organisms, indicating bacterial contamination. Tap water (e.g., NVRI compound) recorded the least Total Heterotrophic Bacterial (THB) count of 1.2x10\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e and 2MPN/100ml for Total Coliform Count (TCC), while Well water sources, particularly those from Angwan Madugu, had the highest contamination, with a THB count of 8.5x10\u003csup\u003e4\u003c/sup\u003e and 800-1500MPN/100ml for Coliforms. Physicochemical parameters generally complied with WHO limits, except for Total Suspended Solids (TSS) and Nitrates (Means: 0.14mg/L, 74.9mg/L). Their t-Test values were 2.69 and 2.91, with non-significant p-values (0.075 and 0.062) respectively. BOD also recorded a low t-score (2.94) with a non-significant p-value (0.060).\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eConclusions\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThough most Physicochemical conditions met WHO standards, local water sources are generally unfit due to bacterial contamination. Hence, simple water treatment practices are recommended. The study suggests further tests and comprehensive evaluations, extending beyond the locality, for a more thorough understanding of water quality parameters in future investigations.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Bacteriological and physicochemical analysis of water from different sources in a rural community of Jos South Local Government Area (LGA), Plateau State. 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