Evaluation of vegetable oil as oviposition deterrent for management of old-world bollworm, Helicoverpa armigera (Hübner) in cotton

Evaluation of vegetable oil as oviposition deterrent for management of old-world bollworm, Helicoverpa armigera (Hübner) in cotton | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Evaluation of vegetable oil as oviposition deterrent for management of old-world bollworm, Helicoverpa armigera (Hübner) in cotton Rachna Pande, Dr Shah Vivek, Prabhulinga T, Shivaji Thube, Pooja Ghonge, and 2 more This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-5304099/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Published Journal Publication published 25 Jul, 2025 Read the published version in Journal of Plant Diseases and Protection → Version 1 posted 6 You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Oviposition deterrents are the semiochemicals that provide the first line of defense by modifying the behavior of conspecific females. In the present study, the oviposition deterrent effect of four fatty acids (linoleic, palmitic, myristic, and stearic acid) and six vegetable oils (groundnut, rice bran, safflower, sesame, soybean, and sunflower) having fatty acids was confirmed in bioassay under laboratory condition at different concentration against the old-world bollworm Helicoverpa armigera . The value of the avoidance index (AI) and percent effective deterrence (PED) confirmed the role of fatty acids and vegetable oils as an oviposition deterrent. It was found that there was a negative correlation between the ratio of the number of eggs laid and the concentrations of fatty acids tested against H. armigera . The efficacy of fatty acids and vegetable oil as oviposition deterrents concerning AI and PED was observed as palmitic acid (AI= 0.57, PED= 73%) > myristic acid (0.53, 69%) > stearic acid (0.52, 68%) > linoleic acid (0.51, 67%) and sunflower (0,50, 66%) > safflower (0.48, 65%) > groundnut (0.46, 63%) > sesame (0.44, 61%) > rice bran and soybean (0.43, 60%) respectively. Validation of the present findings was demonstrated by the field studies conducted during 2019-2020, 2020-21, and 2021-22. The results of the field study ensured the effectiveness of vegetable oils as an oviposition deterrent by reducing egg-laying. Hence, the present work manifests vegetable oils as a promising oviposition deterrent and proves their proficiency in the ethological pest management of H. armigera . Avoidance index ethological pest management Fatty acids percent effective deterrence Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 1. Introduction The noctuid cotton bollworm, Helicoverpa armigera (Hüber) is a polyphagous pest with a broad geographic distribution including Africa (EPPO 2014 ), America (Specht et al. 2013 ), Asia (Karim 2000 ), Europe (Kriticos et al. 2015 ) and Oceania (Zalucki et al. 1986 ) has always been a serious concern. The development of insecticide resistance (Hussain et al. 2015 ; Srinivas et al. 2004 ; Wang et al. 2021 ) is one of the contributing factors that makes it a notorious pest of many crops as worldwide chemical control is the only option to control this pest. Polyphagous nature, nocturnal flight up to 1000 km (Pedgley 1985 ), and high fertility of female moths make it a destructive insect pest. In cotton, larvae of H. armigera damage the squares, flowers, and bolls including the leaves (Pande et al. 2019 ) causing yield loss. Since the last decades, the cotton yield in India has stagnated at 500 kg/ha. In India, during 2022-23 the cotton yield was 443 kg/ha which was lower than the world average yield (768 kg/ha) (ICAC 2024 ). To resolve the issue transgenic cotton was introduced in India in 2002. Due to variations in the expression of toxins in different plant parts (Kranthi et al. 2005 ) larvae of H. armigera were found to feed on Bt-cotton (Prasad et al. 2009 ) even successful reproduction was also observed (Ranjith et al. 2010 ) in India. Likewise, other reports indicating the survival of H. armigera or its close relative on Bt cotton have come into the picture from different parts of the world (Ahmad et al. 2019 ; Bahar et al. 2019 ; Luttrell et al. 2004 ). All these reports signify the necessity of alternative management tactics to control H. armigera which can also be useful in delaying the outbreak soon. Ecologically sustainable management including soft chemicals i.e. semiochemicals can be considered as an option for the ethological pest management of H. armigera that specifically alters the behaviour of insects (Zehnder et al. 2007 ). Semiochemicals are the chemicals that administer the insect behaviour including oviposition, feeding, host finding, and mating in different situations. It may be released from any stage of the insect. Like in H. armigera female moths avoid egg-laying on preoccupied hosts and tend to lay the individual egg. Oviposition deterrent also comes under the semiochemical which is still an underutilized option in pest management as the proper identification and evaluation are the limiting factors (Pande et al. 2019 ). Worldwide many researchers have endeavoured to identify the oviposition deterrent from different insects’ sources i.e., egg, faecal pellets, whole body wash, tarsal extract, etc. (Li and Ishikawa 2005 ; Pande et al. 2019 , 2022 ; Shah et al. 2020 2023 ; Xu et al. 2006 ). Hence, in the present experiment already identified compounds that were four fatty acids viz., linoleic, palmitic, myristic, and stearic acid from egg and faecal pellets (Pande et al. 2019 ) were evaluated for the oviposition deterrent effect against the H. armigera under laboratory condition. Based on the findings of laboratory evaluation of the fatty acids, vegetable oils containing these fatty acids were selected and evaluated under laboratory and field conditions to deploy the possibilities of eco-friendly options for ethological pest management of H. armigera . 2. Materials and Methods 2.1 Insect culture collection and maintenance Eggs and larval populations of old-world bollworms were collected and maintained according to Pande et al. 2019 . Larvae were collected from Gossypium hirsutum (Cotton var. Suraj) cultivated in ICAR- Central Institute for Cotton Research (ICAR-CICR) Nagpur (21°04’48.39” N 78°06’58.02” E) Maharashtra India and were reared under controlled condition (relative humidity 65 ± 5% RH; photoperiod 15L: 9D; temperature 30 ± 2 0 C) on natural food (square of Cotton var. Suraj) in insectary of ICAR-CICR, Nagpur. 2.2 Bioassay Bioassays were conducted using identified compounds (> 99% purity, procured from Sigma-Aldrich) to evaluate their role as oviposition deterrents under similar conditions as those used for larval rearing Pande et al. ( 2019 ). An improved bioassay method of oviposition deterrent (Pande et al. 2022 ) was used to evaluate the identified compounds and vegetable oils under laboratory conditions. Experimental concentrations (0.2, 0.4, 0.6, 0.8, and 1.0%) with seven replications for each concentration of identified compounds (linoleic, palmitic, myristic, and stearic acid) were used for treating the oviposition substrate keeping methanol (diluent) as control. Once the role of the compounds was confirmed the vegetable oils (groundnut, rice bran, safflower, sesame, soybean, and sunflower) having these fatty acids in different ratios (Orsavova et al. 2015 ; Amat Sairin 2022) were used for further laboratory study at concentrations of 0.2, 0.4, 0.6, 0.8 1.0, 2.0 and 3.0% with four replications. The muslin cloths were thoroughly dipped for uniform treatment coverage on the complete surface. The experiments were terminated on the 5th day after the treatment and the numbers of eggs for control (C) and treatment (T) were counted as described in Pande et al., 2022 . The data obtained were further subjected to the statistical analysis. 2.3 Field study All the selected vegetable oils (groundnut, rice bran, safflower, sesame, soybean, and sunflower) were evaluated on the Cotton variety Suraj ( G. hirsutum ) in the field condition at ICAR-CICR, Nagpur for three years (years 2020, 2021, 2022) under randomized block design with nine treatments each comprising three replications. Oils evaluated in the laboratory study were applied with 1, 2, and 4% concentrations diluted in water with triton x-100 (@0.1%) (Kumar et al. 2012 ) under the field condition to get proper tank mix. Recommended insecticides (I1 = Coragen 18.5 SC @ 0.3ml/liter and I2 = Emamectin benzoate 5 SG 0.5g/liter) were used as a positive control (GOI 2024 ). The timing of the first spray was made based on the peak activity of adult moths in the region (Ravi et al. 2005 ) and their incidence in the present experiment field. The first application of oils was initiated at 55 days after sowing (DAS) and the second application after 30 days of the first spray i.e., 85 DAS. After the spray, data on the number of eggs were recorded at 3, 5, 10, and 15 days after treatment (DAT), from randomly selected 10 plants/treatments excluding border row. The result was interpreted by comparing the data with the economic threshold limit (ETL) of Helicoverpa armigera i.e. 1egg/plant (Nagrare et al. 2013 ). The obtained data were further subjected to suitable statistical analysis. The benefit-cost ratio (BCR) was also calculated based on yield increase due to treatment over control (no treatment) and the cost of the treatments. BCR = Net Profit over control due to treatment/cost of treatment 2.4 Statistical Analysis The data collected on the total number of eggs laid in each replication were summed up and compared between the control (C) and treatment (T). The results are presented as a. Avoidance index (Ai): Ai = (C − T)/(C + T) (Renwick and Radke 1980 ). Ai = 1 indicates complete rejection of the test material. b. Percent effective deterrence (PED) was calculated by using the formula PED% = (NC − NT / NC) *100 Where, NC = Number of eggs in control, NT = Number of eggs in treatment All the data obtained in the laboratory and field experiments were analyzed using suitable statistical methods using the statistical software SPSS Version 16.0 (SPSS 2007 ). The analysis of variance (ANOVA) was performed to measure the variance in the experiment. Tukey’s HSD (Honest significant difference) test at P = 0.05 level of significance was executed to compare the mean values of treatment. Through regression analysis, the relationship between the concentrations of fatty acids and the number of eggs laid by gravid females was established. 3. Result In the present study, the selected vegetable oils were chosen based on bioassay findings using pure compounds which confirmed different levels of oviposition deterrent effects against female H. armigera in laboratory conditions. 3.1 Bioassay of pure compounds The number of eggs laid by the female decreased significantly with increasing concentration of individual compounds compared with control. The mean number of eggs laid across all replications in each set of experiments, which involved four different fatty acids, elicited different oviposition responses from gravid females. The relationship between increasing concentrations of fatty acids and the number of eggs laid is shown in Fig. 1 . The mean number of eggs laid in control (562.71 ± 20.01) was significant (P = 0.05) with those exposed to fatty acids, even at the lowest concentration of fatty acids (0.2%). At the lowest concentration of 0.2% myristic acid (373.14 ± 9.51) and stearic acid (370.00 ± 6.15) were more effective (P = 0.05) at reducing egg-laying, as compared to palmitic acid (471.29 ± 35.11) and linoleic (410.71 ± 19.76) (P = 0.05). However, at the highest concentration (1.0%), palmitic acid exhibited the highest deterrence (149.71 ± 6.45) significant (P = 0.05) than the other three fatty acids Table 1 . There was a negative correlation between the number of eggs laid and the concentrations of fatty acids tested against H. armigera with a regression coefficient close to 1 in each fatty acid (Fig. 2 ). The corresponding regression equations for palmitic, linoleic, myristic, and stearic acid were as follows: Eggs = -410.52 x palmitic conc. + 565.61 (R² = 0.992), Eggs = -383.318 x linoleic conc. + 542.83 (R² = 0.948), Eggs = -394.55 x myristic conc. + 522.89 (R² = 0.924) and Eggs = -370.54 x stearic conc. + 520.68 (R² = 0.912) respectively. Table 1 Average the number of eggs by H. armigera at the highest concentration (1%) of fatty acids Compounds Avg. no. of eggs Palmitic acid 149.71 ± 16.75 a Linoleic acid 179.85 ± 19.69 b Myristic acid 170.71 ± 10.76 b Stearic acid 175.86 ± 10.45 b Data superscripts with the same letters are not significant at P = 0.05 using Tukey’s HSD The deterrence effect of fatty acids on egg-laying can be visualized in Fig. 1 . The value of Ai and PED for deterrence effect for each fatty acid has been depicted in Table 2 . Myristic (Ai 0.20 ± 0.03 and PED 32.99 ± 3.60%) and stearic acid (Ai 0.20 ± 0.04 and PED 33.64 ± 3.06%) recorded higher values of Ai and PED compared to the other two fatty acids at lowest concentration (0.2%). However, the reverse was true in the case of palmitic acid as Ai and PED values were highest in 1.0% concentration (Ai 0.70 ± 0.03 and PED 73.39 ± 1.69%) compared with control and other treatments. The Ai and PED (%) values in four major fatty acid treatments when compared with control varied from 0.09 ± 0.05–0.57 ± 0.03 and 16.25 ± 5.09–73.39 ± 1.69% for palmitic, 0.16 ± 0.03–0.51 ± 0.02 and 26.40 ± 4.46–67.83 ± 1.25% for linoleic, 0.20 ± 0.03–0.53 ± 0.01 and 32.99 ± 3.60–69.41 ± 1.23% for myristic and 0.20 ± 0.02–0.52 ± 0.01 and 33.64 ± 3.06–68.58 ± 1.05% for stearic acid. Under laboratory conditions, pure fatty acids demonstrated their efficacy as an oviposition deterrent. Table 2 Avoidance index (Ai) and Percentage effective deterrence (PED) of old-world bollworm females to different treatments of fatty acids identified from larval faecal pellets Sl/No. Treatments Avoidance index PED 1 Control 0.00a 0.00a concentrations of palmitic acid 2 0.2% 0.09 ± 0.05b 16.25 ± 5.09b 3 0.4% 0.15 ± 0.04bc 26.71 ± 3.29bc 4 0.6% 0.24 ± 0.03c 38.92 ± 3.88c 5 0.8% 0.43 ± 0.03d 60.35 ± 1.52d 6 1.0% 0.57 ± 0.03e 73.39 ± 1.69d concentrations of linoleic acid 7 0.2% 0.16 ± 0.03b 26.40 ± 4.46b 8 0.4% 0.19 ± 0.03b 32.05 ± 3.54b 9 0.6% 0.23 ± 0.03b 37.07 ± 3.42b 10 0.8% 0.47 ± 0.02c 64.21 ± 1.68c 11 1.0% 0.51 ± 0.02c 67.83 ± 1.25c concentrations of myristic acid 12 0.2% 0.20 ± 0.03b 32.99 ± 3.60b 13 0.4% 0.25 ± 0.02bc 40.55 ± 3.32bc 14 0.6% 0.33 ± 0.02c 49.45 ± 2.04c 15 0.8% 0.49 ± 0.02d 65.59 ± 1.53d 16 1.0% 0.53 ± 0.01d 69.41 ± 1.23d concentrations of stearic acid 17 0.2% 0.20 ± 0.02b 33.64 ± 3.06b 18 0.4% 0.24 ± 0.02bc 40.36 ± 3.05bc 19 0.6% 0.32 ± 0.02cd 48.31 ± 2.12cd 20 0.8% 0.40 ± 0.03d 57.06 ± 3.01d 21 1.0% 0.52 ± 0.01e 68.58 ± 1.05e Note: Values followed by the same letters are not significant at P = 0.05 Tukey's HSD * Percentage effective deterrence (PED) values based on the average number of eggs laid in different treatments 3.2 Laboratory Bioassay of oils All the identified compounds caused nearly 50% mortality at higher concentrations. Therefore, oils containing these fatty acids in varying ratios were selected for further evaluation under laboratory conditions. All the tested vegetable oils showed oviposition deterrent effects at different concentrations, exhibiting a significant reduction in egg-laying compared to the control which was apparent from the average number of eggs laid under different treatments (Fig. 3 ). Among all the oils, the lowest average egg-laying was recorded at the highest concentration (3.0%) of sunflower oil (215.75 ± 5.28 eggs). At the same concentration, the highest egg-laying was observed in rice bran oil (256.75 ± 4.75 eggs) and soybean oil (256.5 ± 6.60 eggs). However, even at the lowest concentration (0.2%), all the oils reduced the average egg-laying which was significant with control. At the lowest concentration, the minimum average egg-laying was recorded in sunflower (469.5 ± 17.08 eggs) and the maximum was in groundnut (560.00 ± 11.51 eggs). Based on average egg-laying data AI and PED of all the oils were calculated (Table 3 ). Significant increases in Ai and PED were observed with increasing concentration compared to control (P = 0.05). Sunflower oil had the highest Ai value (0.50 ± 0.01) followed by safflower (0.48 ± 0.02) and groundnut (0.46 ± 0.02) at the highest concentration of 3.0%. At the lowest concentration of 0.2%, again the highest Ai was recorded in sunflower oil (0.16 ± 0.02) followed by sesame (0.14 ± 0.01) and rice bran oil (0.13 ± 0.02). Similarly, the highest value of PED (66.75 ± 0.74%) was recorded for sunflower oil at the highest concentration of 3.0% followed by Safflower (65.09.75 ± 1.84) and Groundnut (63.14 ± 1.5). Among the tested oils for oviposition deterrence under laboratory conditions, three oils viz ., sunflower, safflower, and groundnut oils showed the most promising results at the highest concentration. The PED value of oils was recorded up to 60%. Table 3 Avoidance index (Ai) and Percentage effective deterrence (PED) of old-world bollworm females to different oils Sl/No. Treatments Avoidance index PED 1 Control 0.00a 0.00a concentrations of Groundnut 2 0.2% 0.07 ± 0.01b 13.61 ± 2.23b 3 0.4% 0.12 ± 0.01bc 21.84 ± 1.72b 4 0.6% 0.19 ± 0.02cd 31.48 ± 3.05c 5 0.8% 0.24 ± 0.02d 39.04 ± 2.18c 6 1.0% 0.32 ± 0.02e 48.64 ± 2.25d 7 2.0% 0.37 ± 0.01e 54.09 ± 1.30de 8 3.0% 0.46 ± 0.02f 63.14 ± 1.56e concentrations of Sunflower 2 0.2% 0.16 ± 0.02b 27.52 ± 3.45b 3 0.4% 0.24 ± 0.02bc 38.52 ± 2.03c 4 0.6% 0.26 ± 0.01c 41.39 ± 1.35c 5 0.8% 0.31 ± 0.02cd 46.81 ± 2.12cd 6 1.0% 0.34 ± 0.01de 51.11 ± 1.34de 7 2.0% 0.40 ± 0.03e 57.45 ± 2.97ef 8 3.0% 0.50 ± 0.01f 66.74 ± 0.74g concentrations of Rice bran 2 0.2% 0.13 ± 0.02b 22.14 ± 3.86b 3 0.4% 0.20 ± 0.02c 33.82 ± 2.15c 4 0.6% 0.23 ± 0.01cd 37.78 ± 1.86cd 5 0.8% 0.27 ± 0.01de 42.94 ± 1.02de 6 1.0% 0.33 ± 0.01ef 49.32 ± 1.41ef 7 2.0% 0.39 ± 0.02fg 55.79 ± 1.82fg 8 3.0% 0.43 ± 0.01g 60.43 ± 0.59g concentrations of Soybean 2 0.2% 0.12 ± 0.03b 21.46 ± 4.05b 3 0.4% 0.19 ± 0.02bc 32.48 ± 2.83c 4 0.6% 0.26 ± 0.01cd 40.80 ± 1.57cd 5 0.8% 0.31 ± 0.01de 46.81 ± 1.60de 6 1.0% 0.34 ± 0.01ef 51.28 ± 0.71ef 7 2.0% 0.39 ± 0.02fg 56.44 ± 2.00ef 8 3.0% 0.43 ± 0.01g 60.44 ± 1.16f concentrations of Safflower 2 0.2% 0.10 ± 0.01b 18.43 ± 1.23b 3 0.4% 0.17 ± 0.01c 28.80 ± 1.84c 4 0.6% 0.25 ± 0.01d 39.69 ± 1.15d 5 0.8% 0.25 ± 0.01d 40.07 ± 0.64d 6 1.0% 0.32 ± 0.01e 48.30 ± 1.55e 7 2.0% 0.42 ± 0.01f 58.71 ± 1.12f 8 3.0% 0.48 ± 0.02g 65.09 ± 1.84g concentrations of Sesame 2 0.2% 0.14 ± 0.01b 24.51 ± 1.72b 3 0.4% 0.21 ± 0.01c 34.12 ± 1.15c 4 0.6% 0.24 ± 0.01cd 39.10 ± 1.54cd 5 0.8% 0.27 ± 0.01de 42.24 ± 0.91de 6 1.0% 0.30 ± 0.01e 46.69 ± 0.87e 7 2.0% 0.38 ± 0.01f 54.84 ± 1.15f 8 3.0% 0.44 ± 0.02g 60.89 ± 1.51g Note: Values followed by the same letters are not significant at P = 0.05 Tukey's HSD * Percentage effective deterrence (PED) values based on the average number of eggs laid in different treatments 3.3 Field experiment The average data from three years (2019-20, 2020-21, 2021-22) of field experiments are represented in Tables 4 & 5 . Two sprays of all the treatments were applied at 30-day intervals, and it was observed that all the treatments were significant with control (P = 0.05). The mean number of eggs remained below the economic threshold level (ETL) in all the treatments except the control. In both the sprays, all oils (1% 2%, and 4%) were on par with the insecticides at 3, 5, 10, and 15 DAT. During the first spray at 1% concentration, 3 days after treatment (DAT) all oils were on par with insecticide, and the lowest number of Helicoverpa eggs (0.23 ± 0.12) was observed in Insecticide 1 (I1 = Coragen 18.5 SC) followed by rice bran oil (0.27 ± 0.06) and insecticide 2 (I2 = Emamectin benzoate 5 SG) (0.28 ± 0.05). A significant difference was noted at 5, 10, and 15 DAT (P = 0.05). At 5 DAT, the minimum number of eggs was in I2 (0.14 ± 0.01), followed by I1 (0.16 ± 0.05) and rice bran oil (0.30 ± 0.04). At 10 DAT I1 and I2 were on par (0.12) followed by soybean and rice bran oil (0.38 ± 0.07). At 15 DAT, the minimum number of eggs was in I1 (0.11 ± 0.01) followed by I2 (0.14 ± 0.01), soybean (0.45 ± 0.06), and rice bran (0.46 ± 0.04) in sequence although these differences were non-significant. At 2% concentration, all oils were on par with insecticides at 3,5,10 and 15 DAT. At 3 DAT, the lowest egg-laying was observed in rice bran oil (0.15 ± 0.04) followed by I1 (0.23 ± 0.12), I2, and groundnut oil (0.28 ± 0.05). At 5 DAT, the performance of the rice bran oil and I2 was on par with the lowest egg-laying (0.14 ± 0.01), followed by I1 (0.16 ± 0.05) and soybean oil (0.21 ± 0.04). At 10 DAT, the minimum egg-laying was observed in I1 and I2 (0.12 ± 0.02) followed by rice bran (0.22 ± 0.07) and ground nut oil (0.23 ± 0.02). At 15 DAT, minimum egg-laying was observed in I1 (0.11 ± 0.01), followed by I2 (0.14 ± 0.01) and Soybean oil (0.28 ± 0.07). At 4% concentration, all oils were on par with insecticides at 3,5,10 and 15 DAT, similar to previous concentrations (1% and 2%). At 3 DAT, the minimum egg-laying was observed in rice bran oil (0.08 ± 0.04) followed by groundnut (0.12 ± 0.04) and sunflower (0.17 ± 0.09). Similar to 3DAT, at 5 DAT, rice bran was the most effective oil having the lowest egg-laying (0.10 ± 0.00) followed by groundnut (0.11 ± 0.05) and I2 (0.14 ± 0.01). The pattern was more or less similar at 10 DAT and 15 DAT. At 10 DAT the lowest egg-laying was observed in I1 and I2 (0.12 ± 0.01), followed by groundnut and soybean oils (0.14 ± 0.03 and 0.13 ± 0.03). At 15 DAT, the lowest egg-laying was found in I1 (0.11 ± 0.01) followed by groundnut and soybean oils (0.13 ± 0.03). During the second spray at the lowest concentration (1%), at 3DAT, a minimum number of egg-laying was observed in both the insecticides; I1 and I2 (0.31 ± 0.11), followed by rice bran oil (0.32 ± 0.04) and groundnut oil (0.46 ± 0.06). At 5 DAT, the least number of eggs were observed in I2 (0.22 ± 0.09) followed by I1 (0.25 ± 0.06) and two oils viz., rice bran, sunflower (0.37 ± 0.06). At 10 and 15 DAT, similar egg-laying patterns were observed, with the lowest count in I1 (0.18 ± 0.06) followed by I2 (0.19 ± 0.04) and rice bran (0.37 ± 0.06 and 0.42 ± 0.05) respectively. At 2% concentration, at 3 DAT, the minimum egg-laying was recorded in rice bran (0.19 ± 0.02) followed by groundnut oil (0.28 ± 0.07) and soybean oil, I1, I2 (all 0.31 ± 0.07). At 5 DAT, the minimum egg-laying was recorded in rice bran (0.21 ± 0.08), followed by I2 (0.22 ± 0.09) and I1 (0.25 ± 0.06). At 10 and 15 DAT, I1 showed the better results with the minimum egg-laying (0.18 ± 0.06), followed by I2 (0.19 ± 0.09) and rice bran (0.21 ± 0.05 & 0.26 ± 0.02 respectively). At the highest concentration (4%), at 3, 5, and 10 DAT, the minimum egg-laying was observed in rice bran oil (0.10 ± 0.00, 0.16 ± 0.05, 0.14 ± 0.05 respectively) followed by groundnut oil (0.20 ± 0.02, 0.18 ± 0.06, 0.17 ± 0.04 respectively). However, a different pattern was observed at 15 DAT, where the minimum number of egg-laying was recorded in I1(0.18 ± 0.06) followed by I2 and rice bran oil (0.19 ± 0.04, 0.19 ± 0.03 respectively). The accordant results of the field and laboratory were recorded in the present study. When comparing the efficacy of treatments, it is found that rice bran, sunflower, soybean, and groundnut oils showed promising results performing on par with the insecticides. The oviposition deterrent effects of the oil may explain these findings. The cost/benefit ratio of different treatments is shown in Fig. 4 for each concentration. The figure indicated that the highest cost/benefit ratio (25.7:1) was obtained with 2 sprays of rice bran oil @1%, followed by 2 sprays of groundnut oil (20.1:1), while the lowest was in I1 (1.7:1). At 2% concentration, the same pattern was observed, with the highest cost/benefit ratio in rice bran (13.0), followed by groundnut (10.5), and the lowest in I1 (1.7). At 4% concentration, a different trend was recorded, with the highest benefit/ cost ratio in Sunflower oil (11.5), followed by I2 (9.6), and the lowest in rice bran oil (5.3). 4. Discussion The current study concentrated on the role of fatty acids as an oviposition deterrent under laboratory conditions and the utilization of vegetable oils having these fatty acids as an eco-friendly alternative under field conditions against H. armigera . Oviposition deterrent compounds deter females from laying the egg on the substrate already occupied by the egg of the same species. These compounds alter the behavior of females and provide the first line of defense to the crop hence it comes under ethological pest management. Various insect-derived materials (egg, faecal pellets, tarsi, abdomen, scales, and anal tuft) have been used for the extraction of oviposition deterrents using a wide array of solvents and extraction methods. Most of the reports conclude with a common opinion on the chemical composition of these substances largely constituted of fatty acids and their methyl esters (Hilker 1985 ; Sakai et al. 1986 ; Thie´ry and Le Quere 1991; Blaakmeer et al. 1994 ; Thie´ry et al. 1995; Gabel and Thiery 1996 ; Mudd et al. 1997 ; Li et al. 2001 ; Li and Ishikawa 2004, 2005 ; Pande et al. 2019 ). Among the identified fatty acids viz., palmitic (hexadecanoic), linoleic (9,12- octadecadienoic), myristic (tetradecanoic), stearic acid (octadecanoic) (Pande et al. 2019 ) showed significant oviposition deterring effects in our experiments. In the present study the environmental setup, used for bioassay studies was the same as used for the rearing of H. armigera because any alteration in laboratory setup may cause a change in physiological aspects of the test insect. Similarly, palmitic acid in egg or frass extracts of H. armigera was identified by Li et al. ( 2001 ) as exhibiting an oviposition deterrent effect. Olfactory perception of oviposition deterring fatty acids like hexadecanoic, octadecanoic, and tetradecanoic acid along with their corresponding methyl esters was studied against Asian corn borer, O. furnacalis where mated female showed considerable electroantennogram response (Liu et al. 2008 ; Guo and Li 2009 ). Studies on the identification of oviposition deterrents from faecal pellets of pink bollworm and their evaluation under laboratory conditions have shown the role of linoleic acid as major fatty acid imparting deterrence (Shah et al. 2020 ). Hashema et al. (2013) tested faecal pellet extract from Spodoptera littoralis and found higher oviposition deterrence with growth in larval instar. Ethanolic extract of S. littoralis faecal pellet showed the presence of fatty acid esters of which hexadecanoic acid and tetradecanoic acid were found to be most effective in producing oviposition deterrence effect in Phthorimaea operculella females (Ahmed et al. 2015 ). In the present study, a significant deterrence was observed on egg deposition by the females on the treated surface that was increased with the increase in concentration as in the study conducted by Shah et al. ( 2023 ). The avoidance index values across all four fatty acids fall in the range of 0.09–0.57 in the present research experiment. The values obtained in the present study can be comparable to avoidance index values (0.28–0.55) of four Ostrinia species found by Li and Ishikawa (2004) and for H. armigera by Pande et al. ( 2022 ). However, in Agrotis segetum (Anderson and Lofqvist 1996 ) and O. nubilalis (Dittrick et al. 1983 ) an avoidance index of 0.8 has also been reported. Similarly, effective deterrence in the present experiment ranged from 16.25 ± 5.09–73.39 ± 1.69% across all the treatments which were similar to the findings of Pande et al. 2022 . Howlader and Ambadkar ( 1995 ) found 82% deterrence against conspecific females using hexane extract of whole-body wash of tobacco beetle, Lasioderma serricorne. The results were also corroborated by the prior study by Shah et al. 2020 who had reported an avoidance index of 0.8 and PED up to 86% of fatty acids (oleic and linoleic) against the female of Pectinophora gossypiella . Based on the above findings, vegetable oils were selected and evaluated under laboratory and field conditions. The efficacy of vegetable oils as an oviposition deterrent is well-proven for different insects. In laboratory conditions, all the oils (groundnut, rice bran, safflower, sesame, soybean, and sunflower) individually in a range of concentrations were significant with control which was supported by the findings of Shah et al. 2023 against the pink bollworm Pectinophora gossypiella (Saunders). In the laboratory five vegetable oils viz., castor, cottonseed, peanut, soybean, and sunflower were evaluated against the adult and nymph of the sweet potato whitefly, Bemisia tabaci (Gennadius), showed that residue of oils had prevented the whiteflies from settling down on the treated surface because of oviposition deterrent effect (Fenigstein et al. 2001 ). In the present study, the avoidance index and PED values across all the oils showed a promising oviposition deterrence effect in the range of 0.07–0.50 and 13.61–66.14% respectively. The findings are validated by the results shown in literature against pink bollworm P. gossypiella (Saunders) (Shah et al. 2023 ) where AI and PED were up to 0.7 and 84% respectively for tested vegetable oils (groundnut, rice bran, safflower, sesame, soybean, and sunflower). The potential of four oils viz., cottonseed oil, fish liver oil, neem oil, and summer oil as an oviposition deterrent was studied in the laboratory against the female pear psylla Cacopsylla pyri (Linnaeus). The findings confirmed the roles of oil as an oviposition deterrent especially the fish-liver oil and summer oil deter 100% of females up to three weeks and 75% up to four weeks after treatment in the laboratory (Erler 2024). In the present finding, safflower oil was effective in laboratory conditions as reported by Erler and Tosun 2017 . Additionally, sunflower and groundnut showed promising results under laboratory conditions supported by Shah et al. ( 2023 ) who reported groundnut as one of the effective oils against the Pectinophora gossypiella . In the present study average data of three years showed the efficacy of oils under the field condition. In laboratory conditions, the range of concentration was 0.2–3.0%, and caused around 50% reduction in egg-laying at 1% concentration. At 3% all the oils showed a decrease in the mean number of egg-laying and the % reduction in egg-laying was up to 60% or more. Considering the variability of environmental factors at the field level, 4% concentration was selected as the highest concentration under the field study. It was observed that in all the concentrations oils showed promising results and the highest concentration (4%) of oil had the lowest egg-laying. All the oils (even at 1%) were effective up to two weeks (total observation period) after spray especially the rice bran, soybean, groundnut, and sunflower oil. Oviposition deterrent potential of castor oil, maize, rapeseed, and safflower was 100% up to three weeks and it was 70% up to four weeks against the winter form female of pear psylla, Cacopsylla pyri (Linnaeus) under field condition (Erler and Tosun 2017 ). Occasionally, rice bran, soybean, groundnut, and sunflower oil exhibited their efficacy as most were on par with insecticides or better than the insecticide in the present experiment. Vegetable oils viz., groundnut, soybean, and sunflower can impart the oviposition deterrent effect for up to three weeks for P. gossypiella (Shah et al. 2023 ) which is in corroboration of our findings. Sunflower oil at a concentration of 0.25 to 1% can reduce egg-laying of pulse beetles, Callosobruchus maculatus (Fabricius), on black gram seeds (Rahman and Talukdar 2006). Cherries treated with 0.25%v/v solution of Telmion a rapeseed oil product showed a 90% reduction in egg-laying of the European cherry fruit fly, Rhagoletis cerasi (Linnaeus) (Daniel 2014 ). A study on three oils viz., Babassu, coconut oil, and degummed soybean against the coconut mite Aceria guerreronis keifer revealed the role of oil as a repellant for coconut mites (Oliveira et al. 2017 ). Even in a comparative study of essential oils vs vegetable oils, it is proven that vegetable oils were more effective in deterring the oviposition of female Queensland fruit fly Bactrocera tryoni on apple fruits (Hidayat et al. 2014 ). In the present finding, safflower oil was effective in laboratory conditions as reported by Erler and Tosun 2017 but not promising in field conditions to other oils and insecticides which can be supported by the findings of Shah et al. 2023 . In another study, the insecticidal activity of four oils namely castor oil, Pongamia oil, sesame oil, and neem oil was evaluated against the adult of Bemisia tabaci (Gennadius) under laboratory and field conditions. All the oils cause a reduction in the population of whiteflies in both conditions with a maximum in castor oil (Kumar et al. 2019 ). Our study also showed promising efficacy of sesame as reflected by the AI and PED ranging from 0.14–0.44 and 24.51–60.89 respectively. In field study also sesame was better than control and comparable with insecticides. The findings based on field and laboratory studies show that vegetable oils can be an option to replace insecticides at any level of a window-based approach for managing H. armigera . The mechanism coupled with the oviposition deterrent effect of oils involves mainly two factors viz., physical and behavioral. The physical factor concerns the oily layer acting as a physical barrier on the oviposition substrate hence females don’t accept the surface for egg-laying. The oily surface also hinders the ability of female moths to perch on the treated plant surface. The volatiles emitted from the plant work as an orientation cue for the females. Volatiles released from the oil change the ratio of volatile clouds in the crop ecosystem and disorient the female insect from the target site. This reason is well documented that various mineral oils also exhibit the oviposition deterrent effect in many insects like citrus leaf miner, Phyllocnistis citrella Linnaeus citrus psylla, D. citri kuwayama (Rae et al.1996), codling moth, Cydia pomonella Linnaeus (Riedl et al. 1995 ), citrus psylla, D. citri kuwayama (Rae et al. 1997 ), European corn borer, Ostrinia nubilalis (Hubner) and H. armigera (Hubner) (Menash et al. 2005), fruit fly Bactrocera tryoni Froggatt (Liu et al. 2002 ), greenhouse whitefly, Trialeurodes vaporariorum (Pavela and Herda 2007 ) and white apple leafhopper, Typhlocyba pomarica McAtee (Fernandez et al. 2001 ). In the present work plan oils were selected based on effective fatty acids specific to H.armigera . Hence these oils will be safer for natural enemies also. It has been reported that coconut oil was lethal to the coconut mite Aceria guerreronis keifer but was safer for its predatory mite, Typhlodromus ornatus (Freitas et al. 2018 ). Cotton is an insect-dominant crop which reflects the extensive use of insecticides. Insecticide use is pervasive among cotton growers and can cause hazardous impacts on plants, soil, water, human health, and ultimately the environment which upsurges the issue of insecticide resistance, resurgence, and secondary pest outbreak from time to time. The average data of the field study of three tears revealed that rice bran, sunflower, soybean, and groundnut oils were on par with insecticides up to 15 DAT in both sprays. However, the concentration of oil had an impact on the efficacy. At 1% concentration, the best treatments were insecticides on all the days after treatment (3,5,10, 15 DAT). However, at 2% concentration oils were better up to 5 DAT and at 4% concentration oils performed better efficacy up to 10 DAT (in the second spray). Hence the present study gives a new direction for replacing hazardous insecticides with safer vegetable oil that plays a vital role in the ethological management of H. armigera by influencing their behavior. Spraying of oil deters the female from egg-laying on the host plant and provides a first-line defense to the crop. The vegetable oils used in the present study have fatty acids in different ratios and were found promising in laboratory conditions. The cost-benefit ratio of oils confirmed the utility of these oils as an economically viable option for IPM and organic farming. 5. Conclusions Consistency in the efficacy of oils under lab and field conditions proved the role of oils in the ethological pest management of H. armigera . Oils considerably reduced the egg-laying in treated plots, ultimately reducing the insect pests load, square damage in the initial crop stage, and boll damage in the later crop stage of cotton. However further research on application methodology, and oil disintegration under environmental conditions after the spray must be explored. Declarations Competing Interests and Funding : The authors have no relevant financial or non-financial interests to disclose. Acknowledgment: The authors thank the Director, ICAR-Central Institute for Cotton Research, Nagpur for all the financial support. References Ahmad S, Cheema HMN, Khan AA, Khan RSA, Ahmed JN (2019) Resistance status of Helicoverpa armigera against Bt cotton in Pakistan. Transgenic Res 28:199–212 Ahmed AAI, Hashem MY, El-Shershaby MMA, Khalil SSH (2015) Impact of ethanolic extract of Spodoptera littoralis (Boisd.) larval frass on oviposition deterrent of Phthorimaea operculella (Zeller) adult females. egypt j biol pest control 25:51–55 Amat Sairin M, Abd Aziz S, Yoke Mun C, Khaled AY, Rokhani FZ (2022) Analysis and prediction of the major fatty acids in vegetable oils using dielectric spectroscopy at 5–30 MHz. 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Annu Rev Entomol 52:57–80 Tables Table 4 and 5 are available in the Supplementary Files section. Supplementary Files Tables4and5.docx Cite Share Download PDF Status: Published Journal Publication published 25 Jul, 2025 Read the published version in Journal of Plant Diseases and Protection → Version 1 posted Editorial decision: Major revisions 02 Dec, 2024 Reviewers agreed at journal 03 Nov, 2024 Reviewers invited by journal 03 Nov, 2024 Editor invited by journal 26 Oct, 2024 Editor assigned by journal 25 Oct, 2024 First submitted to journal 21 Oct, 2024 You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-5304099","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":373553685,"identity":"8c073ae0-6d73-4c97-9f65-e02618ebb487","order_by":0,"name":"Rachna Pande","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAA30lEQVRIiWNgGAWjYHACNhiD8QGQ4OEjXgsbA7MBSAsbXsVoWtgkUCzFBczbDz97XFDDIGcu33ys8muOnQzQtoePbuDRInMmzdx4xjEGY8s2trTbstuSgQ5jMzbOwaNFgiGHTRqoLHHDMR6z25LbmIFsHjZpvFr43wC1/GOoB2kpltxWT4QWCaAtvG0MCQZALYwftx0mRsszM2nePgnDDcfSkqUZtx3nYWMm5Bf+5GfSPN9s5A0OHz748ee2ant+9uaHj/FpgekEk8w8YJKwcgRg/EGK6lEwCkbBKBgxAAAlEjl52oY7VgAAAABJRU5ErkJggg==","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5563-6319","institution":"","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Rachna","middleName":"","lastName":"Pande","suffix":""},{"id":373553686,"identity":"a504b9f3-3a6b-4055-86eb-8fcee1849408","order_by":1,"name":"Dr Shah Vivek","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"Dr","firstName":"Shah","middleName":"","lastName":"Vivek","suffix":""},{"id":373553687,"identity":"a43cd949-6d0a-4174-b16c-fab9999f3aa7","order_by":2,"name":"Prabhulinga T","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Prabhulinga","middleName":"","lastName":"T","suffix":""},{"id":373553688,"identity":"9f466ae1-c11c-4db3-890c-83a51d5a2944","order_by":3,"name":"Shivaji Thube","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Shivaji","middleName":"","lastName":"Thube","suffix":""},{"id":373553689,"identity":"b0fdf59b-2640-4b58-a118-99a7df70fa11","order_by":4,"name":"Pooja Ghonge","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Pooja","middleName":"","lastName":"Ghonge","suffix":""},{"id":373553690,"identity":"6b92f9fa-b00a-40e3-ac21-af1cb9f2f53c","order_by":5,"name":"GT Behere","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"GT","middleName":"","lastName":"Behere","suffix":""},{"id":373553691,"identity":"f36582df-e921-452b-904e-af3a518162cb","order_by":6,"name":"YG Prasad","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"YG","middleName":"","lastName":"Prasad","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2024-10-21 11:46:56","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-5304099/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-5304099/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[{"content":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s41348-025-01127-9","type":"published","date":"2025-07-25T15:58:22+00:00"}],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":68989279,"identity":"09e8d56e-af55-472e-bdc5-c136a89c2993","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-11-14 09:09:04","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":372367,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eThe average number of eggs laid by \u003c/strong\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eH. armigera \u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/em\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eunder different concentrations of fatty acids\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eValues are the mean of replication. ± SE bars followed by the same letters are not significant at p=0.05 Tukey’s HSD\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5304099/v1/ded81e06ffcc0ad580154be1.png"},{"id":68989278,"identity":"dba488ce-e0c6-4eae-9f82-8ade2672c39c","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-11-14 09:09:04","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":88091,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eOviposition deterrence effect of fatty acids against old world bollworm, \u003c/strong\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eH. armigera\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/em\u003e\u003cstrong\u003efemale expressed as linear regression\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5304099/v1/c96bccf40ed3bfa00c223c6b.png"},{"id":68989481,"identity":"054f8a45-8183-42a7-b7ea-d438ab467ba3","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-11-14 09:17:04","extension":"png","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":438864,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eThe average number of eggs laid by \u003c/strong\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eH. armigera \u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/em\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eunder different concentrations of vegetable oils\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eValues are the mean of replication. ± SE bars followed by the same letters are not significant at p=0.05 Tukey’s HSD\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"3.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5304099/v1/85e88bdd7904b1523c46fe2c.png"},{"id":68989282,"identity":"c89b87e1-f33c-4a06-aab0-d62e9646a426","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-11-14 09:09:04","extension":"png","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":35965,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCost/Benefit ratio (BCR) analysis of treatments\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"4.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5304099/v1/0c0e73b23bf34e2408e73e4d.png"},{"id":88506209,"identity":"c1559b1a-90b7-4e3c-ac45-2d106c6b2260","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-08-07 07:32:35","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":1895032,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5304099/v1/ebf7923e-432c-4e76-a9e5-b79d933352ee.pdf"},{"id":68989280,"identity":"7ec796de-d90d-4d68-9ec0-d4bf45ab9481","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-11-14 09:09:04","extension":"docx","order_by":1,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":29305,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Tables4and5.docx","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5304099/v1/14869fd44e5c58f4895be93c.docx"}],"financialInterests":"","formattedTitle":"Evaluation of vegetable oil as oviposition deterrent for management of old-world bollworm, Helicoverpa armigera (Hübner) in cotton","fulltext":[{"header":"1. Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe noctuid cotton bollworm, \u003cem\u003eHelicoverpa armigera\u003c/em\u003e (H\u0026uuml;ber) is a polyphagous pest with a broad geographic distribution including Africa (EPPO \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e), America (Specht et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR56\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e), Asia (Karim \u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2000\u003c/span\u003e), Europe (Kriticos et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e) and Oceania (Zalucki et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR63\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1986\u003c/span\u003e) has always been a serious concern. The development of insecticide resistance (Hussain et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e; Srinivas et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR58\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2004\u003c/span\u003e; Wang et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR61\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e) is one of the contributing factors that makes it a notorious pest of many crops as worldwide chemical control is the only option to control this pest. Polyphagous nature, nocturnal flight up to 1000 km (Pedgley \u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1985\u003c/span\u003e), and high fertility of female moths make it a destructive insect pest. In cotton, larvae of \u003cem\u003eH. armigera\u003c/em\u003e damage the squares, flowers, and bolls including the leaves (Pande et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e) causing yield loss. Since the last decades, the cotton yield in India has stagnated at 500 kg/ha. In India, during 2022-23 the cotton yield was 443 kg/ha which was lower than the world average yield (768 kg/ha) (ICAC \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). To resolve the issue transgenic cotton was introduced in India in 2002. Due to variations in the expression of toxins in different plant parts (Kranthi et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e) larvae of \u003cem\u003eH. armigera\u003c/em\u003e were found to feed on Bt-cotton (Prasad et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e) even successful reproduction was also observed (Ranjith et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR48\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e) in India. Likewise, other reports indicating the survival of \u003cem\u003eH. armigera\u003c/em\u003e or its close relative on Bt cotton have come into the picture from different parts of the world (Ahmad et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; Bahar et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; Luttrell et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2004\u003c/span\u003e). All these reports signify the necessity of alternative management tactics to control \u003cem\u003eH. armigera\u003c/em\u003e which can also be useful in delaying the outbreak soon. Ecologically sustainable management including soft chemicals i.e. semiochemicals can be considered as an option for the ethological pest management of \u003cem\u003eH. armigera\u003c/em\u003e that specifically alters the behaviour of insects (Zehnder et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR64\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2007\u003c/span\u003e). Semiochemicals are the chemicals that administer the insect behaviour including oviposition, feeding, host finding, and mating in different situations. It may be released from any stage of the insect. Like in \u003cem\u003eH. armigera\u003c/em\u003e female moths avoid egg-laying on preoccupied hosts and tend to lay the individual egg. Oviposition deterrent also comes under the semiochemical which is still an underutilized option in pest management as the proper identification and evaluation are the limiting factors (Pande et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). Worldwide many researchers have endeavoured to identify the oviposition deterrent from different insects\u0026rsquo; sources i.e., egg, faecal pellets, whole body wash, tarsal extract, etc. (Li and Ishikawa \u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e; Pande et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Shah et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR53\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan citationid=\"CR55\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Xu et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR62\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e). Hence, in the present experiment already identified compounds that were four fatty acids viz., linoleic, palmitic, myristic, and stearic acid from egg and faecal pellets (Pande et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e) were evaluated for the oviposition deterrent effect against the \u003cem\u003eH. armigera\u003c/em\u003e under laboratory condition. Based on the findings of laboratory evaluation of the fatty acids, vegetable oils containing these fatty acids were selected and evaluated under laboratory and field conditions to deploy the possibilities of eco-friendly options for ethological pest management of \u003cem\u003eH. armigera\u003c/em\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"2. Materials and Methods","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e2.1 Insect culture collection and maintenance\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eEggs and larval populations of old-world bollworms were collected and maintained according to Pande et al. \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e. Larvae were collected from \u003cem\u003eGossypium hirsutum\u003c/em\u003e (Cotton var. Suraj) cultivated in ICAR- Central Institute for Cotton Research (ICAR-CICR) Nagpur (21\u0026deg;04\u0026rsquo;48.39\u0026rdquo; N 78\u0026deg;06\u0026rsquo;58.02\u0026rdquo; E) Maharashtra India and were reared under controlled condition (relative humidity 65\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;5% RH; photoperiod 15L: 9D; temperature 30\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2\u003csup\u003e0\u003c/sup\u003eC) on natural food (square of Cotton var. Suraj) in insectary of ICAR-CICR, Nagpur.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec4\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e2.2 Bioassay\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBioassays were conducted using identified compounds (\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;99% purity, procured from Sigma-Aldrich) to evaluate their role as oviposition deterrents under similar conditions as those used for larval rearing Pande et al. (\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). An improved bioassay method of oviposition deterrent (Pande et al. \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e) was used to evaluate the identified compounds and vegetable oils under laboratory conditions. Experimental concentrations (0.2, 0.4, 0.6, 0.8, and 1.0%) with seven replications for each concentration of identified compounds (linoleic, palmitic, myristic, and stearic acid) were used for treating the oviposition substrate keeping methanol (diluent) as control. Once the role of the compounds was confirmed the vegetable oils (groundnut, rice bran, safflower, sesame, soybean, and sunflower) having these fatty acids in different ratios (Orsavova et al. \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e; Amat Sairin 2022) were used for further laboratory study at concentrations of 0.2, 0.4, 0.6, 0.8 1.0, 2.0 and 3.0% with four replications. The muslin cloths were thoroughly dipped for uniform treatment coverage on the complete surface. The experiments were terminated on the 5th day after the treatment and the numbers of eggs for control (C) and treatment (T) were counted as described in Pande et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e. The data obtained were further subjected to the statistical analysis.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec5\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e2.3 Field study\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAll the selected vegetable oils (groundnut, rice bran, safflower, sesame, soybean, and sunflower) were evaluated on the Cotton variety Suraj (\u003cem\u003eG. hirsutum\u003c/em\u003e) in the field condition at ICAR-CICR, Nagpur for three years (years 2020, 2021, 2022) under randomized block design with nine treatments each comprising three replications. Oils evaluated in the laboratory study were applied with 1, 2, and 4% concentrations diluted in water with triton x-100 (@0.1%) (Kumar et al. \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e) under the field condition to get proper tank mix. Recommended insecticides (I1\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Coragen 18.5 SC @ 0.3ml/liter and I2\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Emamectin benzoate 5 SG 0.5g/liter) were used as a positive control (GOI \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). The timing of the first spray was made based on the peak activity of adult moths in the region (Ravi et al. \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e) and their incidence in the present experiment field. The first application of oils was initiated at 55 days after sowing (DAS) and the second application after 30 days of the first spray i.e., 85 DAS. After the spray, data on the number of eggs were recorded at 3, 5, 10, and 15 days after treatment (DAT), from randomly selected 10 plants/treatments excluding border row. The result was interpreted by comparing the data with the economic threshold limit (ETL) of \u003cem\u003eHelicoverpa armigera\u003c/em\u003e i.e. 1egg/plant (Nagrare et al. \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e). The obtained data were further subjected to suitable statistical analysis. The benefit-cost ratio (BCR) was also calculated based on yield increase due to treatment over control (no treatment) and the cost of the treatments.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBCR\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Net Profit over control due to treatment/cost of treatment\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec6\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e2.4 Statistical Analysis\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe data collected on the total number of eggs laid in each replication were summed up and compared between the control (C) and treatment (T). The results are presented as\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cspan\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ea. Avoidance index (Ai): Ai = (C\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;T)/(C\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;T) (Renwick and Radke \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1980\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAi\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1 indicates complete rejection of the test material.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eb. Percent effective deterrence (PED) was calculated by using the formula\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePED% = (NC\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;NT / NC) *100\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWhere, NC\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Number of eggs in control, NT\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Number of eggs in treatment\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAll the data obtained in the laboratory and field experiments were analyzed using suitable statistical methods using the statistical software SPSS Version 16.0 (SPSS \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2007\u003c/span\u003e). The analysis of variance (ANOVA) was performed to measure the variance in the experiment. Tukey\u0026rsquo;s HSD (Honest significant difference) test at P\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.05 level of significance was executed to compare the mean values of treatment.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThrough regression analysis, the relationship between the concentrations of fatty acids and the number of eggs laid by gravid females was established.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"3. Result","content":"\u003cp\u003eIn the present study, the selected vegetable oils were chosen based on bioassay findings using pure compounds which confirmed different levels of oviposition deterrent effects against female \u003cem\u003eH. armigera\u003c/em\u003e in laboratory conditions.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e3.1 Bioassay of pure compounds\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe number of eggs laid by the female decreased significantly with increasing concentration of individual compounds compared with control. The mean number of eggs laid across all replications in each set of experiments, which involved four different fatty acids, elicited different oviposition responses from gravid females. The relationship between increasing concentrations of fatty acids and the number of eggs laid is shown in Fig. \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e. The mean number of eggs laid in control (562.71\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;20.01) was significant (P\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.05) with those exposed to fatty acids, even at the lowest concentration of fatty acids (0.2%). At the lowest concentration of 0.2% myristic acid (373.14\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;9.51) and stearic acid (370.00\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;6.15) were more effective (P\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.05) at reducing egg-laying, as compared to palmitic acid (471.29\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;35.11) and linoleic (410.71\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;19.76) (P\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.05). However, at the highest concentration (1.0%), palmitic acid exhibited the highest deterrence (149.71\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;6.45) significant (P\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.05) than the other three fatty acids Table \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e. There was a negative correlation between the number of eggs laid and the concentrations of fatty acids tested against \u003cem\u003eH. armigera\u003c/em\u003e with a regression coefficient close to 1 in each fatty acid (Fig. \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e). The corresponding regression equations for palmitic, linoleic, myristic, and stearic acid were as follows: Eggs = -410.52 x palmitic conc. + 565.61 (R\u0026sup2; = 0.992), Eggs = -383.318 x linoleic conc. + 542.83 (R\u0026sup2; = 0.948), Eggs = -394.55 x myristic conc. + 522.89 (R\u0026sup2; = 0.924) and Eggs = -370.54 x stearic conc. + 520.68 (R\u0026sup2; = 0.912) respectively.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003ctable id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAverage the number of eggs by \u003cem\u003eH. armigera\u003c/em\u003e at the highest concentration (1%) of fatty acids\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003c/caption\u003e\n \u003cthead\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCompounds\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAvg. no. of eggs\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/thead\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePalmitic acid\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e149.71\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;16.75\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLinoleic acid\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e179.85\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;19.69\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMyristic acid\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e170.71\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;10.76\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eStearic acid\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e175.86\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;10.45\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n \u003ctfoot\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\"\u003eData superscripts with the same letters are not significant at P\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.05 using Tukey\u0026rsquo;s HSD\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tfoot\u003e\n \u003c/table\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe deterrence effect of fatty acids on egg-laying can be visualized in Fig. \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e. The value of Ai and PED for deterrence effect for each fatty acid has been depicted in Table \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e. Myristic (Ai 0.20\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.03 and PED 32.99\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;3.60%) and stearic acid (Ai 0.20\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.04 and PED 33.64\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;3.06%) recorded higher values of Ai and PED compared to the other two fatty acids at lowest concentration (0.2%). However, the reverse was true in the case of palmitic acid as Ai and PED values were highest in 1.0% concentration (Ai 0.70\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.03 and PED 73.39\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.69%) compared with control and other treatments. The Ai and PED (%) values in four major fatty acid treatments when compared with control varied from 0.09\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.05\u0026ndash;0.57\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.03 and 16.25\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;5.09\u0026ndash;73.39\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.69% for palmitic, 0.16\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.03\u0026ndash;0.51\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.02 and 26.40\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;4.46\u0026ndash;67.83\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.25% for linoleic, 0.20\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.03\u0026ndash;0.53\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01 and 32.99\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;3.60\u0026ndash;69.41\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.23% for myristic and 0.20\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.02\u0026ndash;0.52\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01 and 33.64\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;3.06\u0026ndash;68.58\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.05% for stearic acid. Under laboratory conditions, pure fatty acids demonstrated their efficacy as an oviposition deterrent.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003ctable id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAvoidance index (Ai) and Percentage effective deterrence (PED) of old-world bollworm females to different treatments of fatty acids identified from larval faecal pellets\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003c/caption\u003e\n \u003cthead\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSl/No.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTreatments\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAvoidance index\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePED\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/thead\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eControl\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.00a\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.00a\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003econcentrations of palmitic acid\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.2%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.09\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.05b\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e16.25\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;5.09b\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.4%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.15\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.04bc\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e26.71\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;3.29bc\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.6%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.24\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.03c\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e38.92\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;3.88c\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.8%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.43\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.03d\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e60.35\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.52d\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.0%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.57\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.03e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e73.39\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.69d\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003econcentrations of linoleic acid\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.2%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.16\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.03b\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e26.40\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;4.46b\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.4%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.19\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.03b\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e32.05\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;3.54b\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e9\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.6%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.23\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.03b\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e37.07\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;3.42b\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.8%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.47\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.02c\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e64.21\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.68c\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e11\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.0%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.51\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.02c\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e67.83\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.25c\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003econcentrations of myristic acid\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.2%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.20\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.03b\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e32.99\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;3.60b\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e13\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.4%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.25\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.02bc\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e40.55\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;3.32bc\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e14\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.6%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.33\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.02c\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e49.45\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.04c\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e15\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.8%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.49\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.02d\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e65.59\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.53d\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e16\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.0%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.53\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01d\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e69.41\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.23d\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003econcentrations of stearic acid\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e17\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.2%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.20\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.02b\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e33.64\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;3.06b\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e18\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.4%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.24\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.02bc\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e40.36\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;3.05bc\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e19\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.6%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.32\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.02cd\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e48.31\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.12cd\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.8%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.40\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.03d\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e57.06\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;3.01d\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e21\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.0%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.52\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e68.58\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.05e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n \u003ctfoot\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"4\"\u003eNote: Values followed by the same letters are not significant at P\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.05 Tukey\u0026apos;s HSD\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"4\"\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e*\u003c/strong\u003ePercentage effective deterrence (PED) values based on the average number of eggs laid in different treatments\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tfoot\u003e\n \u003c/table\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec9\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e3.2 Laboratory Bioassay of oils\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAll the identified compounds caused nearly 50% mortality at higher concentrations. Therefore, oils containing these fatty acids in varying ratios were selected for further evaluation under laboratory conditions. All the tested vegetable oils showed oviposition deterrent effects at different concentrations, exhibiting a significant reduction in egg-laying compared to the control which was apparent from the average number of eggs laid under different treatments (Fig. \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e). Among all the oils, the lowest average egg-laying was recorded at the highest concentration (3.0%) of sunflower oil (215.75\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;5.28 eggs). At the same concentration, the highest egg-laying was observed in rice bran oil (256.75\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;4.75 eggs) and soybean oil (256.5\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;6.60 eggs). However, even at the lowest concentration (0.2%), all the oils reduced the average egg-laying which was significant with control. At the lowest concentration, the minimum average egg-laying was recorded in sunflower (469.5\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;17.08 eggs) and the maximum was in groundnut (560.00\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;11.51 eggs). Based on average egg-laying data AI and PED of all the oils were calculated (Table \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e). Significant increases in Ai and PED were observed with increasing concentration compared to control (P\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.05). Sunflower oil had the highest Ai value (0.50\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01) followed by safflower (0.48\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.02) and groundnut (0.46\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.02) at the highest concentration of 3.0%. At the lowest concentration of 0.2%, again the highest Ai was recorded in sunflower oil (0.16\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.02) followed by sesame (0.14\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01) and rice bran oil (0.13\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.02). Similarly, the highest value of PED (66.75\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.74%) was recorded for sunflower oil at the highest concentration of 3.0% followed by Safflower (65.09.75\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.84) and Groundnut (63.14\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.5). Among the tested oils for oviposition deterrence under laboratory conditions, three oils \u003cem\u003eviz\u003c/em\u003e., sunflower, safflower, and groundnut oils showed the most promising results at the highest concentration. The PED value of oils was recorded up to 60%.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003ctable id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAvoidance index (Ai) and Percentage effective deterrence (PED) of old-world bollworm females to different oils\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003c/caption\u003e\n \u003cthead\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSl/No.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTreatments\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAvoidance index\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePED\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/thead\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eControl\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.00a\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.00a\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003econcentrations of Groundnut\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.2%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.07\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01b\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e13.61\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.23b\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.4%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.12\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01bc\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e21.84\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.72b\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.6%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.19\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.02cd\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e31.48\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;3.05c\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.8%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.24\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.02d\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e39.04\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.18c\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.0%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.32\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.02e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e48.64\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.25d\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.0%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.37\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e54.09\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.30de\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.0%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.46\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.02f\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e63.14\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.56e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"4\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003econcentrations of Sunflower\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.2%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.16\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.02b\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e27.52\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;3.45b\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.4%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.24\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.02bc\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e38.52\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.03c\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.6%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.26\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01c\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e41.39\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.35c\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.8%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.31\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.02cd\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e46.81\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.12cd\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.0%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.34\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01de\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e51.11\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.34de\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.0%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.40\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.03e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e57.45\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.97ef\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.0%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.50\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01f\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e66.74\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.74g\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"4\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003econcentrations of Rice bran\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.2%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.13\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.02b\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e22.14\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;3.86b\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.4%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.20\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.02c\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e33.82\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.15c\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.6%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.23\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01cd\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e37.78\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.86cd\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.8%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.27\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01de\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e42.94\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.02de\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.0%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.33\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01ef\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e49.32\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.41ef\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.0%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.39\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.02fg\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e55.79\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.82fg\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.0%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.43\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01g\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e60.43\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.59g\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"4\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003econcentrations of Soybean\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.2%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.12\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.03b\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e21.46\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;4.05b\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.4%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.19\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.02bc\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e32.48\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.83c\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.6%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.26\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01cd\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e40.80\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.57cd\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.8%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.31\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01de\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e46.81\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.60de\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.0%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.34\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01ef\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e51.28\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.71ef\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.0%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.39\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.02fg\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e56.44\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.00ef\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.0%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.43\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01g\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e60.44\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.16f\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"4\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003econcentrations of Safflower\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.2%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.10\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01b\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e18.43\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.23b\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.4%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.17\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01c\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e28.80\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.84c\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.6%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.25\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01d\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e39.69\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.15d\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.8%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.25\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01d\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e40.07\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.64d\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.0%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.32\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e48.30\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.55e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.0%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.42\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01f\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e58.71\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.12f\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.0%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.48\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.02g\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e65.09\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.84g\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"4\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003econcentrations of Sesame\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.2%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.14\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01b\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e24.51\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.72b\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.4%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.21\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01c\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e34.12\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.15c\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.6%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.24\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01cd\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e39.10\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.54cd\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.8%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.27\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01de\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e42.24\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.91de\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.0%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.30\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e46.69\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.87e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.0%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.38\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01f\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e54.84\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.15f\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.0%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.44\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.02g\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e60.89\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.51g\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n \u003ctfoot\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"4\"\u003eNote: Values followed by the same letters are not significant at P\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.05 Tukey\u0026apos;s HSD\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"4\"\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e*\u003c/strong\u003ePercentage effective deterrence (PED) values based on the average number of eggs laid in different treatments\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tfoot\u003e\n \u003c/table\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec10\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e3.3 Field experiment\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe average data from three years (2019-20, 2020-21, 2021-22) of field experiments are represented in Tables \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e \u0026amp; \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e. Two sprays of all the treatments were applied at 30-day intervals, and it was observed that all the treatments were significant with control (P\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.05). The mean number of eggs remained below the economic threshold level (ETL) in all the treatments except the control. In both the sprays, all oils (1% 2%, and 4%) were on par with the insecticides at 3, 5, 10, and 15 DAT.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cbr\u003eDuring the first spray at 1% concentration, 3 days after treatment (DAT) all oils were on par with insecticide, and the lowest number of Helicoverpa eggs (0.23\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.12) was observed in Insecticide 1 (I1\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Coragen 18.5 SC) followed by rice bran oil (0.27\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.06) and insecticide 2 (I2\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Emamectin benzoate 5 SG) (0.28\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.05). A significant difference was noted at 5, 10, and 15 DAT (P\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.05). At 5 DAT, the minimum number of eggs was in I2 (0.14\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01), followed by I1 (0.16\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.05) and rice bran oil (0.30\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.04). At 10 DAT I1 and I2 were on par (0.12) followed by soybean and rice bran oil (0.38\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.07). At 15 DAT, the minimum number of eggs was in I1 (0.11\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01) followed by I2 (0.14\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01), soybean (0.45\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.06), and rice bran (0.46\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.04) in sequence although these differences were non-significant.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAt 2% concentration, all oils were on par with insecticides at 3,5,10 and 15 DAT. At 3 DAT, the lowest egg-laying was observed in rice bran oil (0.15\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.04) followed by I1 (0.23\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.12), I2, and groundnut oil (0.28\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.05). At 5 DAT, the performance of the rice bran oil and I2 was on par with the lowest egg-laying (0.14\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01), followed by I1 (0.16\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.05) and soybean oil (0.21\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.04). At 10 DAT, the minimum egg-laying was observed in I1 and I2 (0.12\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.02) followed by rice bran (0.22\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.07) and ground nut oil (0.23\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.02). At 15 DAT, minimum egg-laying was observed in I1 (0.11\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01), followed by I2 (0.14\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01) and Soybean oil (0.28\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.07). At 4% concentration, all oils were on par with insecticides at 3,5,10 and 15 DAT, similar to previous concentrations (1% and 2%). At 3 DAT, the minimum egg-laying was observed in rice bran oil (0.08\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.04) followed by groundnut (0.12\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.04) and sunflower (0.17\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.09). Similar to 3DAT, at 5 DAT, rice bran was the most effective oil having the lowest egg-laying (0.10\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.00) followed by groundnut (0.11\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.05) and I2 (0.14\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01). The pattern was more or less similar at 10 DAT and 15 DAT. At 10 DAT the lowest egg-laying was observed in I1 and I2 (0.12\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01), followed by groundnut and soybean oils (0.14\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.03 and 0.13\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.03). At 15 DAT, the lowest egg-laying was found in I1 (0.11\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01) followed by groundnut and soybean oils (0.13\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.03).\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDuring the second spray at the lowest concentration (1%), at 3DAT, a minimum number of egg-laying was observed in both the insecticides; I1 and I2 (0.31\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.11), followed by rice bran oil (0.32\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.04) and groundnut oil (0.46\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.06). At 5 DAT, the least number of eggs were observed in I2 (0.22\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.09) followed by I1 (0.25\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.06) and two oils viz., rice bran, sunflower (0.37\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.06). At 10 and 15 DAT, similar egg-laying patterns were observed, with the lowest count in I1 (0.18\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.06) followed by I2 (0.19\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.04) and rice bran (0.37\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.06 and 0.42\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.05) respectively.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAt 2% concentration, at 3 DAT, the minimum egg-laying was recorded in rice bran (0.19\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.02) followed by groundnut oil (0.28\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.07) and soybean oil, I1, I2 (all 0.31\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.07). At 5 DAT, the minimum egg-laying was recorded in rice bran (0.21\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.08), followed by I2 (0.22\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.09) and I1 (0.25\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.06). At 10 and 15 DAT, I1 showed the better results with the minimum egg-laying (0.18\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.06), followed by I2 (0.19\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.09) and rice bran (0.21\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.05 \u0026amp; 0.26\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.02 respectively). At the highest concentration (4%), at 3, 5, and 10 DAT, the minimum egg-laying was observed in rice bran oil (0.10\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.00, 0.16\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.05, 0.14\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.05 respectively) followed by groundnut oil (0.20\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.02, 0.18\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.06, 0.17\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.04 respectively). However, a different pattern was observed at 15 DAT, where the minimum number of egg-laying was recorded in I1(0.18\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.06) followed by I2 and rice bran oil (0.19\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.04, 0.19\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.03 respectively).\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe accordant results of the field and laboratory were recorded in the present study. When comparing the efficacy of treatments, it is found that rice bran, sunflower, soybean, and groundnut oils showed promising results performing on par with the insecticides. The oviposition deterrent effects of the oil may explain these findings. The cost/benefit ratio of different treatments is shown in Fig. \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e for each concentration. The figure indicated that the highest cost/benefit ratio (25.7:1) was obtained with 2 sprays of rice bran oil @1%, followed by 2 sprays of groundnut oil (20.1:1), while the lowest was in I1 (1.7:1). At 2% concentration, the same pattern was observed, with the highest cost/benefit ratio in rice bran (13.0), followed by groundnut (10.5), and the lowest in I1 (1.7). At 4% concentration, a different trend was recorded, with the highest benefit/ cost ratio in Sunflower oil (11.5), followed by I2 (9.6), and the lowest in rice bran oil (5.3).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"4. Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe current study concentrated on the role of fatty acids as an oviposition deterrent under laboratory conditions and the utilization of vegetable oils having these fatty acids as an eco-friendly alternative under field conditions against \u003cem\u003eH. armigera\u003c/em\u003e. Oviposition deterrent compounds deter females from laying the egg on the substrate already occupied by the egg of the same species. These compounds alter the behavior of females and provide the first line of defense to the crop hence it comes under ethological pest management.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eVarious insect-derived materials (egg, faecal pellets, tarsi, abdomen, scales, and anal tuft) have been used for the extraction of oviposition deterrents using a wide array of solvents and extraction methods. Most of the reports conclude with a common opinion on the chemical composition of these substances largely constituted of fatty acids and their methyl esters (Hilker \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1985\u003c/span\u003e; Sakai et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR52\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1986\u003c/span\u003e; Thie\u0026acute;ry and Le Quere 1991; Blaakmeer et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1994\u003c/span\u003e; Thie\u0026acute;ry et al. 1995; Gabel and Thiery \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1996\u003c/span\u003e; Mudd et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1997\u003c/span\u003e; Li et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2001\u003c/span\u003e; Li and Ishikawa 2004, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e; Pande et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). Among the identified fatty acids viz., palmitic (hexadecanoic), linoleic (9,12- octadecadienoic), myristic (tetradecanoic), stearic acid (octadecanoic) (Pande et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e) showed significant oviposition deterring effects in our experiments. In the present study the environmental setup, used for bioassay studies was the same as used for the rearing of \u003cem\u003eH. armigera\u003c/em\u003e because any alteration in laboratory setup may cause a change in physiological aspects of the test insect. Similarly, palmitic acid in egg or frass extracts of \u003cem\u003eH. armigera\u003c/em\u003e was identified by Li et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2001\u003c/span\u003e) as exhibiting an oviposition deterrent effect. Olfactory perception of oviposition deterring fatty acids like hexadecanoic, octadecanoic, and tetradecanoic acid along with their corresponding methyl esters was studied against Asian corn borer, \u003cem\u003eO. furnacalis\u003c/em\u003e where mated female showed considerable electroantennogram response (Liu et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e; Guo and Li \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e). Studies on the identification of oviposition deterrents from faecal pellets of pink bollworm and their evaluation under laboratory conditions have shown the role of linoleic acid as major fatty acid imparting deterrence (Shah et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR53\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). Hashema et al. (2013) tested faecal pellet extract from \u003cem\u003eSpodoptera littoralis\u003c/em\u003e and found higher oviposition deterrence with growth in larval instar. Ethanolic extract of \u003cem\u003eS. littoralis\u003c/em\u003e faecal pellet showed the presence of fatty acid esters of which hexadecanoic acid and tetradecanoic acid were found to be most effective in producing oviposition deterrence effect in \u003cem\u003ePhthorimaea operculella\u003c/em\u003e females (Ahmed et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e). In the present study, a significant deterrence was observed on egg deposition by the females on the treated surface that was increased with the increase in concentration as in the study conducted by Shah et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR55\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe avoidance index values across all four fatty acids fall in the range of 0.09\u0026ndash;0.57 in the present research experiment. The values obtained in the present study can be comparable to avoidance index values (0.28\u0026ndash;0.55) of four \u003cem\u003eOstrinia\u003c/em\u003e species found by Li and Ishikawa (2004) and for \u003cem\u003eH. armigera\u003c/em\u003e by Pande et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). However, in \u003cem\u003eAgrotis segetum\u003c/em\u003e (Anderson and Lofqvist \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1996\u003c/span\u003e) and \u003cem\u003eO. nubilalis\u003c/em\u003e (Dittrick et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1983\u003c/span\u003e) an avoidance index of 0.8 has also been reported. Similarly, effective deterrence in the present experiment ranged from 16.25\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;5.09\u0026ndash;73.39\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.69% across all the treatments which were similar to the findings of Pande et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e. Howlader and Ambadkar (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1995\u003c/span\u003e) found 82% deterrence against conspecific females using hexane extract of whole-body wash of tobacco beetle, \u003cem\u003eLasioderma serricorne.\u003c/em\u003e The results were also corroborated by the prior study by Shah et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR53\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e who had reported an avoidance index of 0.8 and PED up to 86% of fatty acids (oleic and linoleic) against the female of \u003cem\u003ePectinophora gossypiella\u003c/em\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eBased on the above findings, vegetable oils were selected and evaluated under laboratory and field conditions. The efficacy of vegetable oils as an oviposition deterrent is well-proven for different insects. In laboratory conditions, all the oils (groundnut, rice bran, safflower, sesame, soybean, and sunflower) individually in a range of concentrations were significant with control which was supported by the findings of Shah et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR55\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e against the pink bollworm \u003cem\u003ePectinophora gossypiella\u003c/em\u003e (Saunders). In the laboratory five vegetable oils viz., castor, cottonseed, peanut, soybean, and sunflower were evaluated against the adult and nymph of the sweet potato whitefly, \u003cem\u003eBemisia tabaci\u003c/em\u003e (Gennadius), showed that residue of oils had prevented the whiteflies from settling down on the treated surface because of oviposition deterrent effect (Fenigstein et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2001\u003c/span\u003e). In the present study, the avoidance index and PED values across all the oils showed a promising oviposition deterrence effect in the range of 0.07\u0026ndash;0.50 and 13.61\u0026ndash;66.14% respectively. The findings are validated by the results shown in literature against pink bollworm \u003cem\u003eP. gossypiella\u003c/em\u003e (Saunders) (Shah et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR55\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e) where AI and PED were up to 0.7 and 84% respectively for tested vegetable oils (groundnut, rice bran, safflower, sesame, soybean, and sunflower). The potential of four oils viz., cottonseed oil, fish liver oil, neem oil, and summer oil as an oviposition deterrent was studied in the laboratory against the female pear psylla \u003cem\u003eCacopsylla pyri\u003c/em\u003e (Linnaeus). The findings confirmed the roles of oil as an oviposition deterrent especially the fish-liver oil and summer oil deter 100% of females up to three weeks and 75% up to four weeks after treatment in the laboratory (Erler 2024). In the present finding, safflower oil was effective in laboratory conditions as reported by Erler and Tosun \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e. Additionally, sunflower and groundnut showed promising results under laboratory conditions supported by Shah et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR55\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e) who reported groundnut as one of the effective oils against the \u003cem\u003ePectinophora gossypiella\u003c/em\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn the present study average data of three years showed the efficacy of oils under the field condition. In laboratory conditions, the range of concentration was 0.2\u0026ndash;3.0%, and caused around 50% reduction in egg-laying at 1% concentration. At 3% all the oils showed a decrease in the mean number of egg-laying and the % reduction in egg-laying was up to 60% or more. Considering the variability of environmental factors at the field level, 4% concentration was selected as the highest concentration under the field study. It was observed that in all the concentrations oils showed promising results and the highest concentration (4%) of oil had the lowest egg-laying. All the oils (even at 1%) were effective up to two weeks (total observation period) after spray especially the rice bran, soybean, groundnut, and sunflower oil. Oviposition deterrent potential of castor oil, maize, rapeseed, and safflower was 100% up to three weeks and it was 70% up to four weeks against the winter form female of pear psylla, \u003cem\u003eCacopsylla pyri\u003c/em\u003e (Linnaeus) under field condition (Erler and Tosun \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). Occasionally, rice bran, soybean, groundnut, and sunflower oil exhibited their efficacy as most were on par with insecticides or better than the insecticide in the present experiment. Vegetable oils viz., groundnut, soybean, and sunflower can impart the oviposition deterrent effect for up to three weeks for \u003cem\u003eP. gossypiella\u003c/em\u003e (Shah et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR55\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e) which is in corroboration of our findings. Sunflower oil at a concentration of 0.25 to 1% can reduce egg-laying of pulse beetles, \u003cem\u003eCallosobruchus maculatus\u003c/em\u003e (Fabricius), on black gram seeds (Rahman and Talukdar 2006). Cherries treated with 0.25%v/v solution of Telmion a rapeseed oil product showed a 90% reduction in egg-laying of the European cherry fruit fly, \u003cem\u003eRhagoletis cerasi\u003c/em\u003e (Linnaeus) (Daniel \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e). A study on three oils viz., Babassu, coconut oil, and degummed soybean against the coconut mite \u003cem\u003eAceria guerreronis\u003c/em\u003e keifer revealed the role of oil as a repellant for coconut mites (Oliveira et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). Even in a comparative study of essential oils vs vegetable oils, it is proven that vegetable oils were more effective in deterring the oviposition of female Queensland fruit fly \u003cem\u003eBactrocera tryoni\u003c/em\u003e on apple fruits (Hidayat et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn the present finding, safflower oil was effective in laboratory conditions as reported by Erler and Tosun \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e but not promising in field conditions to other oils and insecticides which can be supported by the findings of Shah et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR55\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e. In another study, the insecticidal activity of four oils namely castor oil, Pongamia oil, sesame oil, and neem oil was evaluated against the adult of \u003cem\u003eBemisia tabaci\u003c/em\u003e (Gennadius) under laboratory and field conditions. All the oils cause a reduction in the population of whiteflies in both conditions with a maximum in castor oil (Kumar et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). Our study also showed promising efficacy of sesame as reflected by the AI and PED ranging from 0.14\u0026ndash;0.44 and 24.51\u0026ndash;60.89 respectively. In field study also sesame was better than control and comparable with insecticides.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe findings based on field and laboratory studies show that vegetable oils can be an option to replace insecticides at any level of a window-based approach for managing \u003cem\u003eH. armigera\u003c/em\u003e. The mechanism coupled with the oviposition deterrent effect of oils involves mainly two factors viz., physical and behavioral. The physical factor concerns the oily layer acting as a physical barrier on the oviposition substrate hence females don\u0026rsquo;t accept the surface for egg-laying. The oily surface also hinders the ability of female moths to perch on the treated plant surface. The volatiles emitted from the plant work as an orientation cue for the females. Volatiles released from the oil change the ratio of volatile clouds in the crop ecosystem and disorient the female insect from the target site. This reason is well documented that various mineral oils also exhibit the oviposition deterrent effect in many insects like citrus leaf miner, \u003cem\u003ePhyllocnistis citrella\u003c/em\u003e Linnaeus citrus psylla, \u003cem\u003eD. citri\u003c/em\u003e kuwayama (Rae et al.1996), codling moth, \u003cem\u003eCydia pomonella\u003c/em\u003e Linnaeus (Riedl et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR51\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1995\u003c/span\u003e), citrus psylla, \u003cem\u003eD. citri\u003c/em\u003e kuwayama (Rae et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1997\u003c/span\u003e), European corn borer, \u003cem\u003eOstrinia nubilalis\u003c/em\u003e (Hubner) and \u003cem\u003eH. armigera\u003c/em\u003e (Hubner) (Menash et al. 2005), fruit fly \u003cem\u003eBactrocera tryoni\u003c/em\u003e Froggatt (Liu et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2002\u003c/span\u003e), greenhouse whitefly, \u003cem\u003eTrialeurodes vaporariorum\u003c/em\u003e (Pavela and Herda \u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2007\u003c/span\u003e) and white apple leafhopper, \u003cem\u003eTyphlocyba pomarica\u003c/em\u003e McAtee (Fernandez et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2001\u003c/span\u003e). In the present work plan oils were selected based on effective fatty acids specific to \u003cem\u003eH.armigera\u003c/em\u003e. Hence these oils will be safer for natural enemies also. It has been reported that coconut oil was lethal to the coconut mite \u003cem\u003eAceria guerreronis\u003c/em\u003e keifer but was safer for its predatory mite, \u003cem\u003eTyphlodromus ornatus\u003c/em\u003e (Freitas et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eCotton is an insect-dominant crop which reflects the extensive use of insecticides. Insecticide use is pervasive among cotton growers and can cause hazardous impacts on plants, soil, water, human health, and ultimately the environment which upsurges the issue of insecticide resistance, resurgence, and secondary pest outbreak from time to time. The average data of the field study of three tears revealed that rice bran, sunflower, soybean, and groundnut oils were on par with insecticides up to 15 DAT in both sprays. However, the concentration of oil had an impact on the efficacy. At 1% concentration, the best treatments were insecticides on all the days after treatment (3,5,10, 15 DAT). However, at 2% concentration oils were better up to 5 DAT and at 4% concentration oils performed better efficacy up to 10 DAT (in the second spray). Hence the present study gives a new direction for replacing hazardous insecticides with safer vegetable oil that plays a vital role in the ethological management of \u003cem\u003eH. armigera\u003c/em\u003e by influencing their behavior. Spraying of oil deters the female from egg-laying on the host plant and provides a first-line defense to the crop. The vegetable oils used in the present study have fatty acids in different ratios and were found promising in laboratory conditions. The cost-benefit ratio of oils confirmed the utility of these oils as an economically viable option for IPM and organic farming.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"5. Conclusions","content":"\u003cp\u003eConsistency in the efficacy of oils under lab and field conditions proved the role of oils in the ethological pest management of \u003cem\u003eH. armigera\u003c/em\u003e. Oils considerably reduced the egg-laying in treated plots, ultimately reducing the insect pests load, square damage in the initial crop stage, and boll damage in the later crop stage of cotton. However further research on application methodology, and oil disintegration under environmental conditions after the spray must be explored.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003ch2\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCompeting Interests\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eand Funding\u003c/strong\u003e:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors have no relevant financial or non-financial interests to disclose.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eAcknowledgment:\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors thank the Director, ICAR-Central Institute for Cotton Research, Nagpur for all the financial support.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eAhmad S, Cheema HMN, Khan AA, Khan RSA, Ahmed JN (2019) Resistance status of \u003cem\u003eHelicoverpa armigera\u003c/em\u003e against Bt cotton in Pakistan. 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J Insect Sci 6:1-10\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eRanjith MT, Prabhuraj A, Srinivasa YB (2010) Survival and reproduction of natural populations of \u003cem\u003eHelicoverpa armigera\u003c/em\u003e on Bt-cotton hybrids in Raichur, India. Curr Sci 99: 11\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eRavi KC, Mohan KS, Manjunath TM, Head G, Patil BV, Angeline Greba DP, Premalatha K, Peter J Rao NGV (2005) Relative Abundance of \u003cem\u003eHelicoverpa armigera\u003c/em\u003e (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) on Different Host Crops in India and the Role of These Crops as Natural Refuge for \u003cem\u003eBacillus thuringiensis\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e Cotton. Environ Entomol 34(1):59-69\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eRenwick JAA, Radke CD (1980) An oviposition deterrent associated with frass from feeding larvae of the cabbage looper, \u003cem\u003eTrichoplusia ni\u003c/em\u003e (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae). 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Annu Rev Entomol 52:57\u0026ndash;80\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"},{"header":"Tables","content":"\u003cp\u003eTable 4 and 5 are available in the Supplementary Files section.\u003c/p\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":true,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":true,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"journal-of-plant-diseases-and-protection","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"jpdp","sideBox":"Learn more about [Journal of Plant Diseases and Protection](https://www.springer.com/journal/41348)","snPcode":"41348","submissionUrl":"https://www.editorialmanager.com/jpdp","title":"Journal of Plant Diseases and Protection","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"Springer Hybrid","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":false},"keywords":"Avoidance index, ethological pest management, Fatty acids, percent effective deterrence","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-5304099/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-5304099/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eOviposition deterrents are the semiochemicals that provide the first line of defense by modifying the behavior of conspecific females. In the present study, the oviposition deterrent effect of four fatty acids (linoleic, palmitic, myristic, and stearic acid) and six vegetable oils (groundnut, rice bran, safflower, sesame, soybean, and sunflower) having fatty acids was confirmed in bioassay under laboratory condition at different concentration against the old-world bollworm \u003cem\u003eHelicoverpa armigera\u003c/em\u003e. The value of the avoidance index (AI) and percent effective deterrence (PED) confirmed the role of fatty acids and vegetable oils as an oviposition deterrent. It was found that there was a negative correlation between the ratio of the number of eggs laid and the concentrations of fatty acids tested against \u003cem\u003eH. armigera\u003c/em\u003e. The efficacy of fatty acids and vegetable oil as oviposition deterrents concerning AI and PED was observed as palmitic acid (AI= 0.57, PED= 73%) \u0026gt; myristic acid (0.53, 69%) \u0026gt; stearic acid (0.52, 68%) \u0026gt; linoleic acid (0.51, 67%) and sunflower (0,50, 66%) \u0026gt; safflower (0.48, 65%) \u0026gt; groundnut (0.46, 63%) \u0026gt; sesame (0.44, 61%) \u0026gt; rice bran and soybean (0.43, 60%) respectively. Validation of the present findings was demonstrated by the field studies conducted during 2019-2020, 2020-21, and 2021-22. The results of the field study ensured the effectiveness of vegetable oils as an oviposition deterrent by reducing egg-laying. Hence, the present work manifests vegetable oils as a promising oviposition deterrent and proves their proficiency in the ethological pest management of \u003cem\u003eH. armigera\u003c/em\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Evaluation of vegetable oil as oviposition deterrent for management of old-world bollworm, Helicoverpa armigera (Hübner) in cotton","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2024-11-14 09:08:46","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-5304099/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"decision","content":"Major revisions","date":"2024-12-02T08:29:03+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"","date":"2024-11-04T02:14:58+00:00","index":0,"fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2024-11-04T01:19:01+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvited","content":"Journal of Plant Diseases and Protection","date":"2024-10-26T10:40:26+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2024-10-25T05:31:35+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"Journal of Plant Diseases and Protection","date":"2024-10-21T07:46:08+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"journal-of-plant-diseases-and-protection","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"jpdp","sideBox":"Learn more about [Journal of Plant Diseases and Protection](https://www.springer.com/journal/41348)","snPcode":"41348","submissionUrl":"https://www.editorialmanager.com/jpdp","title":"Journal of Plant Diseases and Protection","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"Springer Hybrid","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":false}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"836bd561-12c9-4f35-85ee-4c4dcf22ed8b","owner":[],"postedDate":"November 14th, 2024","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"published-in-journal","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2025-08-07T07:21:17+00:00","versionOfRecord":{"articleIdentity":"rs-5304099","link":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s41348-025-01127-9","journal":{"identity":"journal-of-plant-diseases-and-protection","isVorOnly":false,"title":"Journal of Plant Diseases and Protection"},"publishedOn":"2025-07-25 15:58:22","publishedOnDateReadable":"July 25th, 2025"},"versionCreatedAt":"2024-11-14 09:08:46","video":"","vorDoi":"10.1007/s41348-025-01127-9","vorDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s41348-025-01127-9","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-5304099","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-5304099","identity":"rs-5304099","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"qtupq5eGEP_6zYnWcrvyt","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}