The Relationship Between Preschoolers’ Self-Care Skills, Fathers’ Involvement, and Maternal Gatekeeping Perceptions

The Relationship Between Preschoolers’ Self-Care Skills, Fathers’ Involvement, and Maternal Gatekeeping Perceptions | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article The Relationship Between Preschoolers’ Self-Care Skills, Fathers’ Involvement, and Maternal Gatekeeping Perceptions Esra SERT, Meral TANER DERMAN This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-8190632/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract This study, using a correlational survey design, examined the relationships among fathers’ perceptions of maternal gatekeeping, their involvement levels, and their children’s self-care skills among preschoolers aged 48–66 months. The sample consisted of 400 fathers and their 400 children attending preschool education. Data were collected using the Father Involvement Scale (FIS), the Maternal Gatekeeping Scale for the Preschool Period (3–6 years) – Father Form, and the Self-Care Skills Scale for Preschool Children (36–72 months) – Teacher Form. Analyses included t-tests, one-way ANOVA, and correlation analysis. Findings revealed no significant relationship between father involvement and the child’s gender; however, fathers were more engaged in the primary care of daughters. Fathers with more children reported higher involvement in leisure activities and emotional closeness, while those with lower socioeconomic status exhibited greater overall involvement. Maternal gatekeeping was negatively associated with father involvement, whereas children’s self-care skills were positively correlated with fathers’ involvement. The study recommends preschool-based workshops and awareness programs to strengthen paternal participation and support children’s self-care skill development. Self-care Father Involvement Maternal Gatekeeping Preschool Attention and Closeness Arbitrary Occupation Primary Care INTRODUCTION The period from birth to six years represents a foundational stage in human development, during which environmental stimuli and parental interactions have long-term effects on cognitive, emotional, linguistic, and moral domains (Shonkoff & Phillips, 2000 ). Within this period, both parents’ involvement plays a vital role in shaping children’s emerging capacities for autonomy, empathy, and regulation. Although maternal roles have been historically emphasized, the father’s contribution to early development has gained increasing recognition in recent decades. Paternal Involvement Traditionally, the father’s role was associated with authority, protection, and economic provision rather than emotional closeness (Pontes et al., 2009 ). Since the 1970s, social changes such as women’s increasing participation in the workforce and evolving gender norms have contributed to the transformation of paternal identity (Kuzucu, 2011 ; Korkmaz & Korkut, 2012 ). Fathers who engage positively in caregiving contribute to their children’s emotional stability and social competence. Paternal involvement encompasses direct interaction, accessibility, and responsibility for child-related needs (Lamb et al., 1985 ). Modern frameworks add dimensions of warmth and supervision (Hofferth, 2000 ). Research indicates that father involvement is multidimensional, influenced by cultural expectations, maternal attitudes, and workplace flexibility. High-quality paternal involvement supports children’s cognitive, social, and linguistic development (Sarkadi et al., 2008 ). Empirical evidence supports that paternal engagement positively affects children’s socioemotional, cognitive, and language development (Huerta et al., 2013 ). Fathers’ active participation contributes to higher self-esteem, social adaptability, and academic readiness (Flouri & Buchanan, 2003 ). Conversely, limited paternal interaction is associated with delayed socioemotional adjustment and increased behavioral difficulties (Downer & Mendez, 2005 ). In several countries, initiatives such as Early Head Start (USA), Nordic Family Programs (Scandinavia), and Elternzeit (Germany) have promoted active father involvement through parental leave and education programs (Brandth & Kvande, 2009 ; Possinger, 2013 ). In Türkiye, contemporary family education initiatives increasingly emphasize the father’s role in early childhood programs (Aydın & Erkan, 2021 ). Maternal Gatekeeping Maternal gatekeeping refers to mothers’ beliefs and behaviors that either facilitate or restrict fathers’ engagement in childcare (Allen & Hawkins, 1999 ). In Turkish contexts, the Maternal Gatekeeping Scale has been adapted and validated, demonstrating its relevance for understanding father–mother–child dynamics. Mothers’ openness to shared parenting positively predicts fathers’ involvement, which, in turn, enhances children’s emotional security (Alakoç et al., 2025 ). Self-Care Skills and Influencing Factors For a child’s attitudes to transform into desired behaviors and to develop positive habits, it is crucial to provide an appropriate environment during the early years of life. The basic habits acquired in early childhood contribute to a child’s autonomy and sense of social belonging. Self-care skills are essential for maintaining physical, emotional, and psychological well-being (Dinçer et al., 2017 ). Delays in acquiring self-care skills between the ages of 0 and 6 can negatively impact social, emotional, and cognitive development. For example, children who have not yet developed toilet training or who cannot eat independently may experience difficulties in social environments and may act shyly in peer relationships (Konya, 2007 ). Therefore, self-care skills are among the fundamental behaviors that should be developed through preschool education programs, encompassing areas such as personal hygiene, dressing, eating, resting, avoiding danger, and engaging in health-promoting behaviors (MEB, 2013). The development of self-care skills is shaped by the interaction of individual and environmental factors. A child’s personality traits, gender, and interests play a role, but family attitudes, educational environments, and available opportunities are equally influential (Fawcett, 2005 ). Acquiring a skill and transforming it into a lasting habit are distinct processes; the continuity of these behaviors depends on both individual maturity and environmental support (Çetin Doğan & Koçer, 2020 ). From around 24 months of age, children begin to observe and imitate the adults around them, learning hygiene and organizational skills through daily routines. Providing them with opportunities to perform tasks independently—such as washing their hands or clearing the table—is essential (MEGEP, 2016 ). Observing and modeling adult behaviors in everyday life helps children grow into organized and responsible individuals (Dinçer et al., 2017 ). Parents’ attitudes toward their children play a decisive role in the development of self-care skills. Overprotective parenting may hinder a child’s autonomy and self-confidence, whereas supportive, patient, and guiding approaches facilitate the long-term acquisition of these skills (Schaefer & Bell, 1958 ; Demirtaş, 2001 ). Inappropriate parental behaviors—such as allowing children to play games or watch television during meals—can lead to appetite problems and selective eating (Bekem et al., 2003 ). Similarly, introducing toilet training through pressure or punishment, without considering the child’s developmental readiness, may cause emotional and developmental issues (Çalışır et al., 2011 ). In conclusion, fostering self-care skills is closely linked not only to individual maturity but also to parental attitudes, environmental arrangements, and adult role models. Providing a supportive and encouraging environment helps children acquire and internalize these skills. The mastery of self-care behaviors lays the foundation for children to become independent, healthy, and responsible individuals within society (Dinçer et al., 2017 ). Personal care skills, often referred to as daily living skills, are essential for maintaining independence and well-being across various settings, including home, school, and other environments. These skills encompass personal hygiene, dressing, eating, and other self-care activities that enable individuals to function autonomously and maintain their appearance and health (Varol, 2005 ). Existing literature has extensively examined paternal involvement in early childhood development. Studies have explored paternal engagement during prenatal periods and the first year of life (Nugent, 1991 ), its impact on children's cognitive development and academic skills (Aydoğmuş, 2018 ; Dubowitz et al., 2001 ; Şahin & Özbey, 2009 ), and how factors such as fathers' age, education level, children's gender, and preschool attendance influence paternal involvement (Çatıkkaş, 2008 rşimşek et al., 2007 ; İzci, 2013 lıç & Şahin, 2018 ; Nkwake, 2009 ; Şahin & Demiriz, 2014 ). Additionally, research has investigated the relationship between paternal involvement and maternal gatekeeping behaviors (Akgöz-Aktaş, 2021 ; Altenburger et al., 2018 ; Bouchard & Lee, 2000 ; Dickie, 1987 ; Lamb, 1997 ; Van Egeren & Hawkins, 2004 ). Furthermore, studies have examined the effects of father education programs on paternal involvement (Pekkarakaş, 2010 ; Taşkın & Erkan, 2009 ; Ünüvar & Senemoğlu, 2010 ). However, there is a notable gap in research specifically exploring the relationship between paternal involvement, maternal gatekeeping, and children's self-care skills in preschool-aged children. Given that early childhood is a critical period for the development of self-care skills, which are foundational for autonomy and social integration, understanding the dynamics between parental involvement and children's self-care abilities is crucial. The development of these skills is influenced by various factors, including parental attitudes, environmental support, and individual maturity (Çetin Doğan & Koçer, 2020 ). Moreover, the role of fathers in supporting the acquisition of self-care skills has been increasingly recognized, highlighting the need for a comprehensive understanding of how both parents' involvement impacts children's development in this area. This study aims to fill this research gap by examining the relationship between paternal involvement, maternal gatekeeping perceptions, and children's self-care skill levels among preschool-aged children. By focusing on this triadic interaction, the research seeks to provide insights into how parental dynamics influence children's development of essential life skills. Understanding these relationships can inform educational practices and parental guidance, ultimately contributing to the holistic development of children during this formative stage. This study, therefore, aims to address the following research questions: To what extent do fathers’ involvement levels and maternal gatekeeping perceptions vary according to fathers’ educational attainment, socioeconomic status, number of children, age, child’s gender, and preschool attendance duration? Do children’s self-care skill levels differ significantly according to their age, gender, number of siblings, preschool attendance duration, and their parents’ educational and socioeconomic status? Is there a significant relationship among children’s self-care skill levels, fathers’ involvement levels, and perceptions of maternal gatekeeping? METHOD Research Design This study employs the relational survey model, a type of quantitative research method. Quantitative studies involve systematic collection, processing, and analysis of data to produce reliable findings (Gürbüz & Şahin, 2018 ). The relational survey model specifically examines correlations between two or more quantitative variables, determining the degree and direction of relationships using a correlation coefficient (Fraenkel et al., 2012 ). The primary aim of correlational research is to understand relationships among variables without implying causation (Bekman, 2022 ). Study Group The study population consists of children aged 48–66 months enrolled in preschool education and their fathers. The sample comprised 400 fathers whose children attended official kindergartens affiliated with the Bursa Directorate of National Education. Mothers were also included to assess the consistency of fathers’ perceptions of maternal gatekeeping behaviors. Participants were selected using simple random sampling to ensure each individual in the population had an equal probability of selection (Çepni, 2018 ). Specifically, an eligibility list of fathers from 12 kindergartens was obtained. Each participant was assigned a unique identification number, and selection was performed using computer-generated random numbers (RAND function in Excel). This method ensured methodological transparency and minimized potential researcher bias (Etikan & Bala, 2017 ). Demographic analysis revealed that most mothers were aged 31–35 (n = 169, 42.25%), whereas most fathers were aged 36–40 (n = 149, 37.25%). Concerning education, the majority of mothers (n = 170, 42.5%) and fathers (n = 170, 42.5%) held a bachelor’s degree. Regarding socioeconomic status, most participants (n = 231, 57.75%) belonged to the middle socioeconomic level. Data Collection Tools The Father Involvement Scale (FIS) , developed by Sımsıkı and Şendil ( 2014 ), was created to assess how often and in what ways fathers engage with their children aged 36–72 months. The scale includes 37 items divided into three main areas: Arbitrary Occupation (AO), Attention and Closeness (AC), and Primary Care (PC). The AO section, with 17 items, focuses on how fathers spend enjoyable and playful time with their children through shared activities and games. The AC section, consisting of 12 items, looks at fathers’ emotional involvement—how they show care, interest, and affection toward their children. The PC section, with 8 items, examines fathers’ participation in fulfilling their children’s basic needs, such as hygiene and caregiving. Each item is rated on a five-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (never) to 5 (always), where higher scores indicate stronger involvement. In this study, the Cronbach’s alpha coefficients were .88 for AO, .83 for AC, .81 for PC, and .91 for the overall scale, reflecting strong internal consistency and reliability. Preschool Period (3–6 Years) Maternity Gatekeeping Scale – Father Form (PPMGS-F) : Originally developed by Fagan and Barnett ( 2003 ) for mothers and adapted into Turkish for fathers by Karabulut and Şendil ( 2017 ), this six-item, five-point Likert scale measures fathers’ perceptions of the extent to which mothers restrict or facilitate paternal involvement in childcare. Response options range from “Strongly Disagree” (1) to “Completely Agree” (5), with higher scores reflecting stronger maternal gatekeeping behaviors. Cronbach’s alpha for the Turkish adaptation in this study was .86, confirming high reliability. The Self-Care Skills Scale for Preschool Children (36–72 Months) – Teacher Form : The scale was originally developed by Dinçer et al. ( 2017 ) and employs a three-point rating system (not important – important – very important) to assess the perceived importance of self-care skills. A section for unobservable items is also included and left unscored. Teachers complete the form based on their direct observations of children’s self-care behaviors. The final version consists of 46 items distributed across four factors: (1) Dressing and Undressing, (2) Order and Tidiness, (3) Feeding, and (4) Toilet and Personal Care. The scale has demonstrated excellent internal consistency, with a reported Cronbach’s alpha of .95 (Dinçer et al., 2017 ). In the present study, the reliability analysis similarly yielded a Cronbach’s alpha of .95. Data Collection Procedure Ethical approval was obtained from the X University Social Sciences and Humanities Research Ethics Committee, and a research permit was obtained from the Ministry of National Education. During the 2021–2022 academic year, Parent Volunteering Consent Forms and data collection tools were distributed to 12 kindergartens in Bursa. The researcher personally delivered the scales, held meetings with kindergarten principals to secure permission, and coordinated with classroom teachers for voluntary participation. Teachers distributed scales to participating parents under administrative supervision, and parents were allowed adequate time to complete them. Fathers could contact the researcher for clarifications. Out of 421 fathers approached, 400 completed the scales fully, providing usable data. Blank forms from non-participating parents were collected to ensure data completeness. Data Analysis Data were analyzed using SPSS 26. Demographic and scale items were coded and screened for missing values and outliers. Normality was assessed via skewness, kurtosis, and Shapiro–Wilk tests, and all values fell within acceptable ranges (− 1.5 to + 1.5), confirming parametric assumptions (Ghasemi & Zahediasl, 2012 ; Tabachnick & Fidell, 2019 ). Levene’s Test confirmed homogeneity of variances. Parametric analyses were conducted where appropriate, including independent samples t -tests for pairwise comparisons, one-way ANOVA for multiple group comparisons, and Pearson correlation for continuous variable relationships. Post hoc comparisons employed Games–Howell tests when variances were unequal. In addition to statistical significance, effect sizes were calculated to evaluate the magnitude of group differences and relationships. Cohen’s d values were reported for t -tests and eta-squared (η²) for ANOVA analyses, following Cohen’s ( 1988 ) conventions for small, medium, and large effects. All tables were reviewed for internal consistency in variable labels, descriptive statistics, and reporting format. Results This section of the study presents the descriptive and statistical analyses of the data collected for research purposes. Findings Based on Demographic Characteristic Analyses examined whether fathers’ involvement levels (measured by the Fathers Involvement Scale – FIS) and perceptions of maternity gatekeeping (measured by the Preschool Period Maternity Gatekeeping Scale – PPMGS) differed significantly based on educational status, socioeconomic level, number of children, age, gender, and duration of school attendance. The results of the Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) for fathers’ educational status are presented in Table 1 . Table 1 Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) Results in Terms of Fathers’ Educational Status Scale Education Status n X̄ sd ANOVA Sum of squares Mean square F p Post Hoc Ƞ 2 FIS 1 13 82,69 18,6 BG 4487,18 897,43 2,52 ,029* 2 > 5 0,03 2 15 90,33 26,66 WG 140126,57 355,65 3 125 79,47 19,51 Total 144613,75 4 44 75,06 15,10 5 170 75,27 18,26 6 33 75,96 19,85 AO 1 13 41,76 11,91 BG 1605,26 321,05 2,683 ,021* 2 > 4; 2 > 5; 2 > 6 0,03 2 15 48,46 15,12 WG 47145,34 119,66 3 125 40,75 10,85 Total 48750,60 4 44 38,45 9,01 5 170 38,80 11,03 6 33 38,39 10,49 AC 1 13 17,38 5,76 BG 203,73 40,75 1,754 ,121 2 15 19,33 6,90 WG 9151,05 23,23 3 125 16,28 4,91 Total 9354,78 4 44 15,72 3,41 5 170 15,95 4,70 6 33 17,00 5,11 PC 1 13 23,53 5,30 BG 380,38 76,07 1,657 ,144 2 15 22,53 7,92 WG 18088,73 45,91 3 125 22,44 7,21 Total 18469,11 4 44 20,88 6,23 5 170 20,51 6,60 6 33 20,57 6,57 2,196 ,054 PPMGS 1 13 22,00 6,78 BG 254,27 50,85 2 15 21,13 5,01 WG 9124,69 23,16 3 125 24,42 4,53 Total 9378,96 4 44 24,68 3,96 5 170 23,50 4,99 6 33 23,27 4,95 SCS 1 13 102,31 16,51 BG 2712,16 542,43 ,942 ,454 2 15 108,80 21,23 WG 226887,48 575,86 3 125 107,39 21,32 Total 229599,64 4 44 107,27 25,13 5 170 102,21 25,41 6 33 107,00 27,77 * p < 0.05, BG = Between Groups, WG = Within Groups, 1. Primary School, 2. Secondary School, 3. High School, 4. Associate Degree, 5. Bachelor degree, 6. Master's degree and above One-way ANOVA results indicate that fathers’ overall involvement (FIS) and engagement in Arbitrary Occupation (AO) significantly differed by education level (FIS: F(5,394) = 2.52, p = .029; AO: F(5,394) = 2.68, p = .021), with post hoc tests showing higher scores for certain education groups. No significant differences were observed for Attention and Closeness (AC), Primary Care (PC), maternal gatekeeping perceptions (PPMGS), or children’s self-care skills (SCS). Effect sizes were small (η² ≈ .03), suggesting limited practical impact. Independent samples t-tests were conducted to examine whether fathers’ involvement levels and maternal gatekeeping behaviors differed according to socioeconomic status (SES). The findings are presented in Table 2 . Table 2 Independent Samples t-Test Results for FIS Subscales by Group Scales SES N X̄ Sd. t df p d AO Low-middle 238 41,05 11,11 2,78 398 ,006* 0,28 High to very high 162 37,95 10,75 AC Low-middle 238 16,65 4,99 1,80 398 ,07 High to very high 162 15,77 4,59 PC Low-middle 238 21,67 6,66 1,187 398 ,236 High to very high 162 20,85 7,00 FIS Low-middle 238 79,37 18,95 2,50 398 ,013* 0,25 High to very high 162 74,56 18,86 PPMGS Low-middle 238 23,32 5,03 -2,19 398 ,029 High to very high 162 24,40 4,50 SCS Low-middle 238 79,58 24,54 0,72 398 ,47 High to very high 162 77,81 23,22 * (p < 0,05) Independent samples t-tests indicate that fathers’ overall involvement (FIS) and engagement in Arbitrary Occupation (AO) were significantly higher in the low-to-middle SES group compared to the high-to-very-high SES group (FIS: t(398) = 2.50, p = .013, d = 0.25; AO: t(398) = 2.78, p = .006, d = 0.28). No significant differences were observed for Attention and Closeness (AC), Primary Care (PC), or children’s self-care skills (SCS). Mothers’ gatekeeping perceptions (PPMGS) were higher in the high-to-very-high SES group (t(398) = -2.19, p = .029). Effect sizes indicate small to moderate practical significance. The analysis of variance (ANOVA) was conducted to determine whether there are statistically significant differences in the mean scores of the Fathers Involvement Scale (FIS) and its sub-dimensions, as well as the Preschool Period (3–6 Years) Maternity Gatekeeping Scale (PPMGS) – Father Form and Self Care Scale, based on the number of children fathers have. The results are presented in Table 3 . Table 3 ANOVA Results by Number of Children Scales Number of Children n X̄ sd ANOVA Sum of squares Mean square F p Post Hoc Ƞ2 FIS 1 132 74,50 17,12 BG 2924,40 1462,20 4,097 ,017* 1 < 3 0,02 2 240 78,12 19,96 WG 141689,35 356,90 3 28 85,17 17,20 Total 144613,75 AO 1 132 37,43 9,26 BG 1690,57 845,29 7,131 ,001* 1 < 2; 1 < 3 0,03 2 240 40,45 11,66 WG 47060,02 118,54 3 28 45,32 11,07 Total 48750,60 AC 1 132 15,74 4,89 BG 164,26 82,13 3,548 ,030* 1 < 3 0,02 2 240 16,35 4,75 WG 9190,52 23,15 3 28 18,39 4,89 Total 9354,78 PC 1 132 21,32 6,63 BG ,50 ,252 ,0005 ,995 2 240 21,32 6,99 WG 18468,61 46,52 3 28 21,46 6,11 Total 18469,11 PPMGS 1 132 24,06 4,63 BG 45,73 22,867 ,973 ,379 2 240 23,71 5,03 WG 9333,23 23,509 3 28 22,67 4,10 Total 9378,96 SCS 1 132 106,26 24,80 BG 1256,14 628,07 1,09 , 337 2 240 103,78 23,62 WG 228343,50 575,17 3 28 109,96 23,13 Total 229599,64 * (p < 0,05) Number of Children: 1: One Child, 2: 2 Children, 3: 3 and more children One-way ANOVA results indicate that fathers’ overall involvement (FIS), engagement in Arbitrary Occupation (AO), and Attention and Closeness (AC) significantly differed by number of children (FIS: F(2,397) = 4.10, p = .017, η² = .02; AO: F(2,397) = 7.13, p = .001, η² = .03; AC: F(2,397) = 3.55, p = .030, η² = .02), with post hoc tests showing higher involvement for fathers with three children compared to one child. No significant differences were observed for Primary Care (PC), maternal gatekeeping perceptions (PPMGS), or children’s self-care skills (SCS). Effect sizes indicate small practical significance. The analysis of variance (ANOVA) was conducted to determine whether there are statistically significant differences in the mean scores of the Fathers Involvement Scale (FIS) and its sub-dimensions, as well as the Preschool Period (3–6 Years) Maternity Gatekeeping Scale (PPMGS) – Father Form and Self Care Scale, based on the age of the child. The results are presented in Table 4 . Table 4 Mean Scores by Age of Child Scales Child's Age n X̄ sd t p FIS 48–60 Months 106 76,20 18,27 -,77 ,44 61–66 Months 294 77,86 19,31 AO 48–60 Months 106 38,65 10,20 -1,25 ,63 61–66 Months 294 40,21 11,33 AC 48–60 Months 106 16,52 5,98 ,58 ,56 61–66 Months 294 16,20 4,36 PC 48–60 Months 106 21,02 6,30 -,54 ,59 61–66 Months 294 21,44 6,98 PPMGS 48–60 Months 106 23,56 5,17 ,23 ,63 61–66 Months 294 23,82 4,73 SCS 48–60 Months 106 101,23 25,22 -1,91 ,06 61–66 Months 294 106,40 23,42 * (p < 0,05) Independent samples t-tests indicate no significant differences between age groups (48–60 months vs. 61–66 months) for fathers’ overall involvement (FIS), Arbitrary Occupation (AO), Attention and Closeness (AC), Primary Care (TPC), maternal gatekeeping perceptions (PPMGS), or children’s self-care skills (SCS) (all p > .05), although SCS approached significance (t = -1.91, p = .057). The analysis of variance (ANOVA) was conducted to determine whether there are statistically significant differences in the mean scores of the Fathers Involvement Scale (FIS) and its sub-dimensions, as well as the Preschool Period (3–6 Years) Maternity Gatekeeping Scale (PPMGS) – Father Form and Self Care Scale, based on the gender of the children. The results are presented in Table 5 . Table 5 Mean Scores by Gender of Child Scales Gender n X̄ sd t p d FIS Girl 214 79,66 19,55 2,54 ,011* ,26 Boy 186 74,84 18,54 AO Girl 214 40,23 11,53 ,85 ,39 Boy 186 39,29 10,47 AC Girl 214 16,38 4,94 ,40 ,69 Boy 186 16,18 4,73 PC Girl 214 23,04 6,97 5,60 ,000 * ,58 Boy 186 19,36 6,04 PPMGS Girl 214 23,61 4,83 -,65 ,51 Boy 186 23,93 4,87 SCS Girl 214 76,52 21,56 -2,095 0,037* ,21 Boy 186 81,55 26,234 * (p < 0,05) Independent samples t-tests indicate that fathers’ overall involvement (FIS) and Primary Care (TPC) were significantly higher for girls than boys (FIS: t(398) = 2.54, p = .011, d = 0.26; TPC: t(398) = 5.60, p < .001, d = 0.58). Children’s self-care skills (SCS) were also significantly higher for boys (t(398) = -2.10, p = .037, d = 0.21). No significant gender differences were found for Arbitrary Occupation (AO), Attention and Closeness (AC), or maternal gatekeeping perceptions (PPMGS). As all descriptive statistics and Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) results showed no statistically significant differences based on school attendance duration, they are presented together in a single table (Table 6 ). Table 6 Descriptive Statistics and ANOVA Results of the Fathers’ Involvement Scale (FIS) and Preschool Period Maternal Gatekeeping Scale (PPMGS) by Duration of School Attendance Scales Duration of School Attendance n X̄ SD ANOVA Sum of Squares Mean Square F p FIS One Year 297 77,31 19,14 BG 186,29 93,14 ,256 ,774 Two Years 75 76,94 18,65 WG 144427,46 363,78 Three Years 28 79,85 19,46 Total 144613,75 AO One Year 297 39,99 11,30 BG 57,90 28,95 ,236 ,790 Two Years 75 39,01 9,93 WG 48692,70 122,65 Three Years 28 39,78 11,44 Total 48750,60 AC One Year 297 16,12 4,73 BG 37,75 18,87 ,804 ,448 Two Years 75 16,61 5,38 WG 9317,03 23,47 Three Years 28 17,17 4,48 Total 9354,78 PC One Year 297 21,19 6,69 BG 74,05 37,02 ,799 ,450 Two Years 75 21,32 7,33 WG 18395,06 46,33 Three Years 28 22,89 6,46 Total 18469,11 PPMGS One Year 297 23,62 4,82 BG 21,88 10,94 ,464 ,629 Two Years 75 24,22 5,30 WG 9357,08 23,57 Three Years 28 23,89 3,75 Total 9378,96 SCS One Year 297 103,73 24,25 BG 1983,33 991,67 1,73 ,179 Two Years 75 108,48 24,46 WG 227616,31 573,34 Three Years 28 109,61 18,59 Total 229599,64 One-way ANOVA results examining fathers’ involvement and children’s self-care skills according to the duration of school attendance indicated that there were no statistically significant differences across groups for any of the measures ( p > .05). Specifically, the Fathers Involvement Scale (FIS), its subdimensions Arbitrary Occupation (AO), Attention and Closeness (AC), Primary Care (PC), the Preschool Period (3–6 Years) Maternity Gatekeeping Scale (PPMGS), and Self-Care Skills (SCS) scores did not differ significantly among children attending school for one year, two years, or three years. These results suggest that the duration of preschool attendance does not appear to have a measurable impact on fathers’ involvement in various domains or on children’s self-care competencies. A correlation analysis was conducted to examine the relationships among the mean scores of the Preschool Period (3–6 Years) Maternity Gatekeeping Scale (PPMGS) – Father Form, its subdimensions, the Fathers Involvement Scale (FIS), and children’s Self-Care Skills (SCS). The results are presented in Table 7 . Table 7 Pearson Correlations Among Fathers’ Involvement, Its Subdimensions, Maternal Gatekeeping, and Children’s Self-Care Skills Scale Pearson Correlation AC AO PC PPMGS SCS FIS r ,736 ,92 ,778 -,24 -,03 p ,00** ,00** ,00** ,00** ,55 n 400 400 400 400 400 AC r ,575 ,414 -,276 -,06 p ,00** ,00** ,00** ,23 n 400 400 400 400 AO r ,543 -,215 ,006 p ,00** ,00** ,89 n 400 400 400 PC r -,131 -,052 p ,00** ,303 n 400 400 PPMGS r ,017 p ,736 n 400 (** p < 0,01) Pearson correlation analyses were conducted to examine the relationships among fathers’ involvement, its subdimensions, maternal gatekeeping, and children’s self-care skills. The total Fathers Involvement Scale (FIS) score showed strong positive correlations with Attention and Closeness (AC; r = .736, p < .01), Amusement and Occupation (AO; r = .920, p < .01), and Primary Care (PC; r = .778, p < .01), indicating that higher overall paternal involvement is associated with greater engagement across these subdimensions. The FIS score was negatively correlated with maternal gatekeeping (PPMGS; r = − .24, p < .01), suggesting that higher paternal involvement is related to lower perceived maternal gatekeeping. No significant correlation was observed between FIS and children’s self-care skills (SCS; r = − .03, p = .55). Among the subdimensions, AC was moderately correlated with AO (r = .575, p < .01) and PC (r = .414, p < .01), and negatively correlated with PPMGS (r = − .276, p < .01), indicating consistency in paternal engagement patterns and its inverse relationship with maternal gatekeeping. AO was also moderately correlated with PC (r = .543, p < .01), but not with SCS (r = .006, p = .89). Finally, PC showed a small negative correlation with PPMGS (r = − .131, p .05). Overall, these results suggest that while paternal involvement subdimensions are strongly interrelated and inversely associated with maternal gatekeeping, they are not significantly correlated with children’s self-care skills in this sample. Discussion Father Involvement Fathers’ educational level is a significant factor influencing their involvement. The present study found that fathers with a secondary school education reported higher total scores on the Fathers’ Involvement Scale (FIS) and in the Arbitrary Occupation (AO) compared to fathers holding a bachelor’s degree. However, no significant differences were observed in Attention and Closeness (AC), Primary Care (PC), or maternal gatekeeping perceptions (PPMGS). This suggests that lower- and mid-educated fathers may spend more direct time in caregiving and emotional engagement, while the quality and diversity of cognitive or play-based interactions appear relatively stable across educational levels (Lamb & Tamis-LeMonda, 1981 ; Marsiglio, 1991 ). It should be noted that interpretations regarding higher-educated fathers’ work demands or involvement patterns are speculative and not directly derived from the current findings; they are offered as possible explanations based on prior research (Harris & Morgan, 1991 ; Easterbrooks & Goldberg, 1984 ). As fathers’ education levels increase, they tend to occupy higher-quality jobs, resulting in less time available for direct childcare (Harris & Morgan, 1991 ). This explanation is hypothetical and should be considered as a potential interpretation rather than a direct conclusion from this study. Conversely, higher-educated fathers may approach child care more consciously, showing greater involvement in primary care, particularly for daughters (Easterbrooks & Goldberg, 1984 ). Additionally, fathers with high income and flexible work arrangements may participate more actively in child-rearing, demonstrating more gender-neutral caregiving and greater awareness of fatherhood roles (Ahmeduzzaman & Roopnarine, 1992 ; Cabrera et al., 2000 ; Bonney et al., 1999 ; Fagan & Barnett, 2003 ). These points are presented as contextual discussion, not as findings directly measured in this study. Research also indicates that fathers’ role perception improves when mothers are employed, reflecting broader social shifts toward shared parental responsibilities (Deleş & Kaytez, 2020 ; Tamis-LeMonda et al., 2012 ). Father involvement is closely linked to socioeconomic status. Fathers with lower socioeconomic status showed higher involvement levels, whereas those with higher income levels exhibited lower participation. While some studies suggest no significant association between parental involvement and socioeconomic status (Çiftçi, 2014 ; Meral & Cavkaytar, 2012 ), other research indicates that fathers’ involvement may decrease as socioeconomic status rises due to increased work demands (Kuzucu, 2011 ). It should be emphasized that the current study does not directly measure work demands, so these explanations remain speculative. In the Turkish context, low-income fathers may engage more actively in their children’s education, while high-income fathers with flexible schedules participate more in overall child-rearing (Evans, 1997 ). The influence of the number of children on paternal involvement remains inconclusive in the literature. In the present study, fathers’ involvement increased with a higher number of children, which may reflect an effort to alleviate the mother’s caregiving burden (Ishii-Kuntz et al., 2004 ). However, contrasting findings suggest that as the number of children rises, fathers may engage less individually with each child and may employ more authoritarian or disciplinary approaches (Paquette et al., 2000 ; Akgöz-Aktaş, 2021 ; Mızrakçı, 1994 ). Fathers of only one child tend to participate more actively in shared play and interactive activities than fathers with multiple children (Deleş & Kaytez, 2020 ; Kuruçırak, 2010 ; Mehall et al., 2009 ; Şahin & Demiriz, 2014 ). While larger families can offer fathers more parenting experience, they also make it more difficult to maintain close emotional bonds and to attend equally to each child’s self-care and play needs, which may influence overall involvement (Paquette et al., 2000 ; Seçer et al., 2007 ; Şahin, 2012 ). In this study, fathers of three children reported higher involvement levels than those with only one child. Nonetheless, interpretations such as compensating for maternal caregiving responsibilities remain hypothetical and were not directly examined within this research. Child age did not significantly influence fathers’ overall involvement in this study. However, a closer look at the data revealed that fathers of children aged 48–60 months tended to show slightly higher engagement in the Attention and Closeness domain. The literature presents mixed findings on this topic: while some studies suggest that father involvement increases as children grow older (Barnett & Baruch, 1987 ; De Luccie, 1995 ; Fagan & Cherson, 2015 ), others report no significant relationship (Aydın-Kılıç, 2016 ; Coley & Morris, 2001 ; Kanat, 2022 ). One plausible explanation for the observed pattern in our study is that younger preschool-aged children require more hands-on support with self-care and daily routines, which may naturally prompt fathers to be more attentive and emotionally engaged (Yavuzer, 2017 ; Deleş & Kaytez, 2020 ). It is important to note, however, that any interpretation regarding why younger children receive more attention remains speculative and should be considered as a contextual discussion rather than a direct conclusion from the current findings. Overall paternal involvement did not differ significantly by child gender; however, fathers demonstrated greater engagement in caregiving activities with their daughters, particularly in primary care tasks. This finding is consistent with previous research suggesting that fathers may feel more comfortable adopting nurturing roles with daughters due to socially constructed gender expectations (McGill, 2014 ; Gaunt, 2008 ; Katz-Wise et al., 2013 ). In contrast, fathers often promote autonomy and competence in sons through play-based interactions rather than caregiving routines. Social role theory helps explain these gendered dynamics by highlighting how culturally accepted norms shape parental behaviors. In this study, while fathers were more involved in direct caregiving with daughters, boys exhibited stronger self-care skills. The interpretation that these patterns stem from socialized gender norms remains a plausible yet untested explanation, as such constructs were not directly measured within the study. The duration of children’s preschool attendance did not significantly influence fathers’ involvement or maternal gatekeeping (Varol, 2022 ). However, existing research indicates that extended participation in preschool programs may foster the development of children’s self-care skills (Demiriz & Dinçer, 2001 ; Dinçer et al., 2017 ; Orçan Kaçan et al., 2019 ; Yalçın et al., 2013 ; Küçük, 2009 ). While this relationship aligns with the broader literature, it should be interpreted as a contextual discussion rather than a direct finding of the present study. Maternal Gatekeeping Maternal gatekeeping behaviors appeared to be only minimally influenced by fathers’ educational levels, although previous studies suggest that highly educated mothers may balance supportive and restrictive behaviors more effectively. Mothers from lower-income families tended to exhibit stronger gatekeeping tendencies that could limit fathers’ involvement, and having a greater number of children was also associated with increased maternal control over caregiving roles. Gatekeeping behaviors are often more prominent during the preschool years and tend to decrease as children transition into formal schooling. Gender differences were also observed, with mothers engaging more in caregiving for daughters than for sons. Although longer preschool attendance may contribute to reduced maternal gatekeeping, this relationship should be interpreted contextually. A low but significant negative correlation between paternal involvement and maternal gatekeeping was consistent with previous research, indicating that higher maternal gatekeeping can diminish fathers’ participation in childcare (Cannon et al., 2008 ; Van Egeren & Hawkins, 2004 ). Fathers’ confidence in parenting appears to be strengthened by supportive maternal attitudes, whereas excessive gatekeeping may hinder paternal engagement (Bouchard & Lee, 2000 ; Akgöz-Aktaş, 2021 ; Moluz, 2022 ; Bağçivan, 2020 ). The explanatory statements regarding these associations are presented as theoretical interpretations rather than empirically tested conclusions within the current study. Self-Care Skills Fathers’ educational level, socioeconomic status, and the number of children may influence the development of children’s self-care skills. Fathers with higher education levels are more likely to provide conscious and intentional support, whereas children from lower-income families may demonstrate less advanced self-care abilities. Consistent with previous research, extended preschool attendance appears to positively contribute to the development of daily living skills, particularly in areas such as eating, dressing, and personal hygiene (Demiriz & Dinçer, 2001 ; Dinçer et al., 2017 ; Orçan Kaçan et al., 2019 ; Yalçın et al., 2013 ; Küçük, 2009 ). Although paternal involvement did not directly correlate with self-care skills in the present study, the broader literature emphasizes that both parents’ supportive behaviors are critical for fostering children’s independence and confidence (Kartal et al., 2010 ; Orçan Kaçan et al., 2019 ). The interpretations suggesting that higher-educated fathers or longer preschool attendance may enhance self-care should therefore be understood as contextual insights rather than empirically tested conclusions within this study. Limitations and Implications for Practice Limitations This study was limited to fathers of preschool children aged 48–66 months, restricting the generalizability of the findings to other developmental stages. Data were based on self-reports, which may involve perception or desirability biases. Additionally, cultural and socioeconomic factors specific to the study context may limit broader applicability. The cross-sectional design prevents causal interpretations between paternal involvement, maternal gatekeeping, and children’s self-care skills. Future research should employ longitudinal and mixed-method designs to better capture the dynamic and reciprocal nature of these relationships. Implications for Practice and Policy Findings highlight the importance of promoting balanced and gender-neutral caregiving within families. Fathers were more engaged in the primary care of daughters, suggesting that traditional gender norms still shape caregiving behaviors. Awareness programs and preschool-based workshops can encourage fathers to participate equally in the care of both sons and daughters. Fathers with higher education levels showed greater caregiving involvement, indicating the need for accessible parenting education programs for fathers of all backgrounds. Providing seminars and digital resources can strengthen fathers’ emotional and caregiving roles. Although socioeconomic status and number of children influenced father participation, these associations appear context-dependent. Policymakers can support paternal engagement through family-friendly workplace policies such as paternity leave and flexible working arrangements. A low-level negative correlation between maternal gatekeeping and father involvement suggests that couple-based interventions are needed to promote shared childcare responsibilities. Counseling and communication-focused workshops can help mothers adopt a more supportive role, enhancing co-parenting balance. Preschool institutions can also play a proactive role by organizing father-inclusive activities—such as father–child events and flexible parent meetings—to sustain fathers’ engagement throughout early childhood. Finally, future research should explore paternal involvement in families of children with special needs and examine how early intervention programs can sustain active fatherhood across developmental stages. In sum, this study highlights the multifaceted nature of paternal involvement and maternal gatekeeping during the preschool period. While fathers’ education, socioeconomic background, and number of children contribute to variations in involvement, the relational interplay between fathers and mothers remains a central factor. Encouraging fathers’ participation through supportive educational, social, and policy frameworks can promote healthier family relationships and enhance children’s developmental outcomes. Future work should continue to bridge research, practice, and policy to cultivate a more inclusive and equitable model of modern fatherhood. Declarations Author Contribution This draft article is derived from Author1's master's thesis conducted under the supervision of Author2. The research was designed with Author1 under the supervision of Author2. The data collection process was conducted by Author1 and the data analysis was carried out by Author1 under the supervision of Author2. Findings and Discussion section was written by Author1. The draft of the article was prepared by Author2. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-8190632","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":553826762,"identity":"b85735ee-6413-49b1-8e02-e931fb59f8f7","order_by":0,"name":"Esra SERT","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"İstanbul Provincial Directorate of National Education","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Esra","middleName":"","lastName":"SERT","suffix":""},{"id":553826763,"identity":"a80bba12-5371-474a-8489-2ad3b530480e","order_by":1,"name":"Meral TANER DERMAN","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAA2UlEQVRIiWNgGAWjYPACGwY+BgYDEIuxgaBiNjCZBqJhWpiJ0nKYBC2685ufPfi453xim0Tyxo9fGGxkNxzgP/YBnxazY2zmhjOe3QZqSSuWlmFIM95wgJl5Bn4tDGbSPAdAWnIMpCUYDieCtOB1mNkx9m/Sfw6cA2kx/i3B8J8YLTxm0gwHDoC0mEl+YDhAjJacMsmeA8nGbTzPyqwZDJKNZx5mNsav5fDxbRI/DtjJ9rMnb775o8JOtu9442O8WlAAMw8oagjFJApg/EGK6lEwCkbBKBgxAAC00EgPgkaN3gAAAABJRU5ErkJggg==","orcid":"","institution":"Bursa Uludağ University","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Meral","middleName":"TANER","lastName":"DERMAN","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2025-11-24 07:53:28","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8190632/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-8190632/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":97664572,"identity":"8f5f2c26-d435-44d6-a037-35ed253aac07","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-08 09:10:27","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":1515314,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8190632/v1/b551acf2-0010-471e-97a0-b9fed59d5ced.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"The Relationship Between Preschoolers’ Self-Care Skills, Fathers’ Involvement, and Maternal Gatekeeping Perceptions","fulltext":[{"header":"INTRODUCTION","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe period from birth to six years represents a foundational stage in human development, during which environmental stimuli and parental interactions have long-term effects on cognitive, emotional, linguistic, and moral domains (Shonkoff \u0026amp; Phillips, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR87\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2000\u003c/span\u003e). Within this period, both parents\u0026rsquo; involvement plays a vital role in shaping children\u0026rsquo;s emerging capacities for autonomy, empathy, and regulation. Although maternal roles have been historically emphasized, the father\u0026rsquo;s contribution to early development has gained increasing recognition in recent decades.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003ePaternal Involvement\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTraditionally, the father\u0026rsquo;s role was associated with authority, protection, and economic provision rather than emotional closeness (Pontes et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR82\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e). Since the 1970s, social changes such as women\u0026rsquo;s increasing participation in the workforce and evolving gender norms have contributed to the transformation of paternal identity (Kuzucu, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR63\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e; Korkmaz \u0026amp; Korkut, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR61\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e). Fathers who engage positively in caregiving contribute to their children\u0026rsquo;s emotional stability and social competence. Paternal involvement encompasses direct interaction, accessibility, and responsibility for child-related needs (Lamb et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR67\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1985\u003c/span\u003e). Modern frameworks add dimensions of warmth and supervision (Hofferth, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2000\u003c/span\u003e). Research indicates that father involvement is multidimensional, influenced by cultural expectations, maternal attitudes, and workplace flexibility. High-quality paternal involvement supports children\u0026rsquo;s cognitive, social, and linguistic development (Sarkadi et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR84\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e). Empirical evidence supports that paternal engagement positively affects children\u0026rsquo;s socioemotional, cognitive, and language development (Huerta et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR52\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e). Fathers\u0026rsquo; active participation contributes to higher self-esteem, social adaptability, and academic readiness (Flouri \u0026amp; Buchanan, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2003\u003c/span\u003e). Conversely, limited paternal interaction is associated with delayed socioemotional adjustment and increased behavioral difficulties (Downer \u0026amp; Mendez, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e). In several countries, initiatives such as Early Head Start (USA), Nordic Family Programs (Scandinavia), and Elternzeit (Germany) have promoted active father involvement through parental leave and education programs (Brandth \u0026amp; Kvande, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e; Possinger, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR83\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e). In T\u0026uuml;rkiye, contemporary family education initiatives increasingly emphasize the father\u0026rsquo;s role in early childhood programs (Aydın \u0026amp; Erkan, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eMaternal Gatekeeping\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eMaternal gatekeeping refers to mothers\u0026rsquo; beliefs and behaviors that either facilitate or restrict fathers\u0026rsquo; engagement in childcare (Allen \u0026amp; Hawkins, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1999\u003c/span\u003e). In Turkish contexts, the \u003cem\u003eMaternal Gatekeeping Scale\u003c/em\u003e has been adapted and validated, demonstrating its relevance for understanding father\u0026ndash;mother\u0026ndash;child dynamics. Mothers\u0026rsquo; openness to shared parenting positively predicts fathers\u0026rsquo; involvement, which, in turn, enhances children\u0026rsquo;s emotional security (Alako\u0026ccedil; et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eSelf-Care Skills and Influencing Factors\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFor a child\u0026rsquo;s attitudes to transform into desired behaviors and to develop positive habits, it is crucial to provide an appropriate environment during the early years of life. The basic habits acquired in early childhood contribute to a child\u0026rsquo;s autonomy and sense of social belonging. Self-care skills are essential for maintaining physical, emotional, and psychological well-being (Din\u0026ccedil;er et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). Delays in acquiring self-care skills between the ages of 0 and 6 can negatively impact social, emotional, and cognitive development. For example, children who have not yet developed toilet training or who cannot eat independently may experience difficulties in social environments and may act shyly in peer relationships (Konya, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR60\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2007\u003c/span\u003e). Therefore, self-care skills are among the fundamental behaviors that should be developed through preschool education programs, encompassing areas such as personal hygiene, dressing, eating, resting, avoiding danger, and engaging in health-promoting behaviors (MEB, 2013).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe development of self-care skills is shaped by the interaction of individual and environmental factors. A child\u0026rsquo;s personality traits, gender, and interests play a role, but family attitudes, educational environments, and available opportunities are equally influential (Fawcett, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e). Acquiring a skill and transforming it into a lasting habit are distinct processes; the continuity of these behaviors depends on both individual maturity and environmental support (\u0026Ccedil;etin Doğan \u0026amp; Ko\u0026ccedil;er, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFrom around 24 months of age, children begin to observe and imitate the adults around them, learning hygiene and organizational skills through daily routines. Providing them with opportunities to perform tasks independently\u0026mdash;such as washing their hands or clearing the table\u0026mdash;is essential (MEGEP, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR73\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). Observing and modeling adult behaviors in everyday life helps children grow into organized and responsible individuals (Din\u0026ccedil;er et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eParents\u0026rsquo; attitudes toward their children play a decisive role in the development of self-care skills. Overprotective parenting may hinder a child\u0026rsquo;s autonomy and self-confidence, whereas supportive, patient, and guiding approaches facilitate the long-term acquisition of these skills (Schaefer \u0026amp; Bell, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR85\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1958\u003c/span\u003e; Demirtaş, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2001\u003c/span\u003e). Inappropriate parental behaviors\u0026mdash;such as allowing children to play games or watch television during meals\u0026mdash;can lead to appetite problems and selective eating (Bekem et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2003\u003c/span\u003e). Similarly, introducing toilet training through pressure or punishment, without considering the child\u0026rsquo;s developmental readiness, may cause emotional and developmental issues (\u0026Ccedil;alışır et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e). In conclusion, fostering self-care skills is closely linked not only to individual maturity but also to parental attitudes, environmental arrangements, and adult role models. Providing a supportive and encouraging environment helps children acquire and internalize these skills. The mastery of self-care behaviors lays the foundation for children to become independent, healthy, and responsible individuals within society (Din\u0026ccedil;er et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003ePersonal care skills, often referred to as daily living skills, are essential for maintaining independence and well-being across various settings, including home, school, and other environments. These skills encompass personal hygiene, dressing, eating, and other self-care activities that enable individuals to function autonomously and maintain their appearance and health (Varol, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR97\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eExisting literature has extensively examined paternal involvement in early childhood development. Studies have explored paternal engagement during prenatal periods and the first year of life (Nugent, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR78\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1991\u003c/span\u003e), its impact on children's cognitive development and academic skills (Aydoğmuş, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; Dubowitz et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2001\u003c/span\u003e; Şahin \u0026amp; \u0026Ouml;zbey, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR89\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e), and how factors such as fathers' age, education level, children's gender, and preschool attendance influence paternal involvement (\u0026Ccedil;atıkkaş, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003erşimşek et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR48\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2007\u003c/span\u003e; İzci, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR54\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003elı\u0026ccedil; \u0026amp; Şahin, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR59\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; Nkwake, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR77\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e; Şahin \u0026amp; Demiriz, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR91\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e). Additionally, research has investigated the relationship between paternal involvement and maternal gatekeeping behaviors (Akg\u0026ouml;z-Aktaş, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Altenburger et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; Bouchard \u0026amp; Lee, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2000\u003c/span\u003e; Dickie, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1987\u003c/span\u003e; Lamb, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR65\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1997\u003c/span\u003e; Van Egeren \u0026amp; Hawkins, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR96\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2004\u003c/span\u003e). Furthermore, studies have examined the effects of father education programs on paternal involvement (Pekkarakaş, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR81\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e; Taşkın \u0026amp; Erkan, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR94\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e; \u0026Uuml;n\u0026uuml;var \u0026amp; Senemoğlu, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR95\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e However, there is a notable gap in research specifically exploring the relationship between paternal involvement, maternal gatekeeping, and children's self-care skills in preschool-aged children. Given that early childhood is a critical period for the development of self-care skills, which are foundational for autonomy and social integration, understanding the dynamics between parental involvement and children's self-care abilities is crucial. The development of these skills is influenced by various factors, including parental attitudes, environmental support, and individual maturity (\u0026Ccedil;etin Doğan \u0026amp; Ko\u0026ccedil;er, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). Moreover, the role of fathers in supporting the acquisition of self-care skills has been increasingly recognized, highlighting the need for a comprehensive understanding of how both parents' involvement impacts children's development in this area.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis study aims to fill this research gap by examining the relationship between paternal involvement, maternal gatekeeping perceptions, and children's self-care skill levels among preschool-aged children. By focusing on this triadic interaction, the research seeks to provide insights into how parental dynamics influence children's development of essential life skills. Understanding these relationships can inform educational practices and parental guidance, ultimately contributing to the holistic development of children during this formative stage. This study, therefore, aims to address the following research questions:\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003col\u003e\u003cspan\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003eTo what extent do fathers\u0026rsquo; involvement levels and maternal gatekeeping perceptions vary according to fathers\u0026rsquo; educational attainment, socioeconomic status, number of children, age, child\u0026rsquo;s gender, and preschool attendance duration?\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003eDo children\u0026rsquo;s self-care skill levels differ significantly according to their age, gender, number of siblings, preschool attendance duration, and their parents\u0026rsquo; educational and socioeconomic status?\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003eIs there a significant relationship among children\u0026rsquo;s self-care skill levels, fathers\u0026rsquo; involvement levels, and perceptions of maternal gatekeeping?\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"METHOD","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec6\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eResearch Design\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis study employs the relational survey model, a type of quantitative research method. Quantitative studies involve systematic collection, processing, and analysis of data to produce reliable findings (G\u0026uuml;rb\u0026uuml;z \u0026amp; Şahin, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). The relational survey model specifically examines correlations between two or more quantitative variables, determining the degree and direction of relationships using a correlation coefficient (Fraenkel et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e). The primary aim of correlational research is to understand relationships among variables without implying causation (Bekman, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eStudy Group\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe study population consists of children aged 48\u0026ndash;66 months enrolled in preschool education and their fathers. The sample comprised 400 fathers whose children attended official kindergartens affiliated with the Bursa Directorate of National Education. Mothers were also included to assess the consistency of fathers\u0026rsquo; perceptions of maternal gatekeeping behaviors.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eParticipants were selected using simple random sampling to ensure each individual in the population had an equal probability of selection (\u0026Ccedil;epni, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). Specifically, an eligibility list of fathers from 12 kindergartens was obtained. Each participant was assigned a unique identification number, and selection was performed using computer-generated random numbers (RAND function in Excel). This method ensured methodological transparency and minimized potential researcher bias (Etikan \u0026amp; Bala, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDemographic analysis revealed that most mothers were aged 31\u0026ndash;35 (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;169, 42.25%), whereas most fathers were aged 36\u0026ndash;40 (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;149, 37.25%). Concerning education, the majority of mothers (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;170, 42.5%) and fathers (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;170, 42.5%) held a bachelor\u0026rsquo;s degree. Regarding socioeconomic status, most participants (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;231, 57.75%) belonged to the middle socioeconomic level.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eData Collection Tools\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003col\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eThe Father Involvement Scale (FIS)\u003c/em\u003e, developed by Sımsıkı and Şendil (\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e), was created to assess how often and in what ways fathers engage with their children aged 36\u0026ndash;72 months. The scale includes 37 items divided into three main areas: Arbitrary Occupation (AO), Attention and Closeness (AC), and Primary Care (PC). The AO section, with 17 items, focuses on how fathers spend enjoyable and playful time with their children through shared activities and games. The AC section, consisting of 12 items, looks at fathers\u0026rsquo; emotional involvement\u0026mdash;how they show care, interest, and affection toward their children. The PC section, with 8 items, examines fathers\u0026rsquo; participation in fulfilling their children\u0026rsquo;s basic needs, such as hygiene and caregiving. Each item is rated on a five-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (never) to 5 (always), where higher scores indicate stronger involvement. In this study, the Cronbach\u0026rsquo;s alpha coefficients were .88 for AO, .83 for AC, .81 for PC, and .91 for the overall scale, reflecting strong internal consistency and reliability.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ePreschool Period (3\u0026ndash;6 Years) Maternity Gatekeeping Scale \u0026ndash; Father Form (PPMGS-F)\u003c/em\u003e: Originally developed by Fagan and Barnett (\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2003\u003c/span\u003e) for mothers and adapted into Turkish for fathers by Karabulut and Şendil (\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e), this six-item, five-point Likert scale measures fathers\u0026rsquo; perceptions of the extent to which mothers restrict or facilitate paternal involvement in childcare. Response options range from \u0026ldquo;Strongly Disagree\u0026rdquo; (1) to \u0026ldquo;Completely Agree\u0026rdquo; (5), with higher scores reflecting stronger maternal gatekeeping behaviors. Cronbach\u0026rsquo;s alpha for the Turkish adaptation in this study was .86, confirming high reliability.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eThe Self-Care Skills Scale for Preschool Children (36\u0026ndash;72 Months) \u0026ndash; Teacher Form\u003c/em\u003e: The scale was originally developed by Din\u0026ccedil;er et al. (\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e) and employs a three-point rating system (not important \u0026ndash; important \u0026ndash; very important) to assess the perceived importance of self-care skills. A section for unobservable items is also included and left unscored. Teachers complete the form based on their direct observations of children\u0026rsquo;s self-care behaviors. The final version consists of 46 items distributed across four factors: (1) Dressing and Undressing, (2) Order and Tidiness, (3) Feeding, and (4) Toilet and Personal Care. The scale has demonstrated excellent internal consistency, with a reported Cronbach\u0026rsquo;s alpha of .95 (Din\u0026ccedil;er et al., \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). In the present study, the reliability analysis similarly yielded a Cronbach\u0026rsquo;s alpha of .95.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eData Collection Procedure\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eEthical approval\u0026nbsp;was obtained from the X University Social Sciences and Humanities Research Ethics Committee, and a research permit was obtained from the Ministry of National Education. During the 2021\u0026ndash;2022 academic year, Parent Volunteering Consent Forms and data collection tools were distributed to 12 kindergartens in Bursa.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe researcher personally delivered the scales, held meetings with kindergarten principals to secure permission, and coordinated with classroom teachers for voluntary participation. Teachers distributed scales to participating parents under administrative supervision, and parents were allowed adequate time to complete them. Fathers could contact the researcher for clarifications. Out of 421 fathers approached, 400 completed the scales fully, providing usable data. Blank forms from non-participating parents were collected to ensure data completeness.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec9\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eData Analysis\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eData were analyzed using SPSS 26. Demographic and scale items were coded and screened for missing values and outliers. Normality was assessed via skewness, kurtosis, and Shapiro\u0026ndash;Wilk tests, and all values fell within acceptable ranges (\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1.5 to +\u0026thinsp;1.5), confirming parametric assumptions (Ghasemi \u0026amp; Zahediasl, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e; Tabachnick \u0026amp; Fidell, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). Levene\u0026rsquo;s Test confirmed homogeneity of variances. Parametric analyses were conducted where appropriate, including independent samples \u003cem\u003et\u003c/em\u003e-tests for pairwise comparisons, one-way ANOVA for multiple group comparisons, and Pearson correlation for continuous variable relationships. Post hoc comparisons employed Games\u0026ndash;Howell tests when variances were unequal. In addition to statistical significance, effect sizes were calculated to evaluate the magnitude of group differences and relationships. Cohen\u0026rsquo;s \u003cem\u003ed\u003c/em\u003e values were reported for \u003cem\u003et\u003c/em\u003e-tests and eta-squared (\u0026eta;\u0026sup2;) for ANOVA analyses, following Cohen\u0026rsquo;s (\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1988\u003c/span\u003e) conventions for small, medium, and large effects. All tables were reviewed for internal consistency in variable labels, descriptive statistics, and reporting format.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Results","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis section of the study presents the descriptive and statistical analyses of the data collected for research purposes.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eFindings Based on Demographic Characteristic\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eAnalyses examined whether fathers\u0026rsquo; involvement levels (measured by the Fathers Involvement Scale \u0026ndash; FIS) and perceptions of maternity gatekeeping (measured by the Preschool Period Maternity Gatekeeping Scale \u0026ndash; PPMGS) differed significantly based on educational status, socioeconomic level, number of children, age, gender, and duration of school attendance.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe results of the Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) for fathers\u0026rsquo; educational status are presented in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAnalysis of Variance (ANOVA) Results in Terms of Fathers\u0026rsquo; Educational Status\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"12\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c9\" colnum=\"9\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c10\" colnum=\"10\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c11\" colnum=\"11\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c12\" colnum=\"12\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eScale\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEducation Status\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003en\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eX̄\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003esd\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eANOVA\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSum of squares\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMean square\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eF\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ep\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePost Hoc\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eȠ\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"5\" rowspan=\"6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eFIS\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e13\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e82,69\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e18,6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBG\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4487,18\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e897,43\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\" morerows=\"5\" rowspan=\"6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2,52\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\" morerows=\"5\" rowspan=\"6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e,029*\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\" morerows=\"5\" rowspan=\"6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c12\" morerows=\"5\" rowspan=\"6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0,03\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e15\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e90,33\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e26,66\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eWG\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e140126,57\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e355,65\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e125\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e79,47\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e19,51\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTotal\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e144613,75\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e44\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e75,06\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e15,10\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e170\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e75,27\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e18,26\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e33\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e75,96\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e19,85\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"5\" rowspan=\"6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eAO\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e13\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e41,76\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e11,91\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBG\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1605,26\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e321,05\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\" morerows=\"4\" rowspan=\"5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2,683\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\" morerows=\"5\" rowspan=\"6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e,021*\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\" morerows=\"5\" rowspan=\"6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;4; 2\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;5; 2\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c12\" morerows=\"5\" rowspan=\"6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0,03\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e15\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e48,46\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e15,12\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eWG\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e47145,34\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e119,66\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e125\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e40,75\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e10,85\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTotal\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e48750,60\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e44\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e38,45\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e9,01\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e170\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e38,80\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e11,03\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e33\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e38,39\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e10,49\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"5\" rowspan=\"6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eAC\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e13\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e17,38\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5,76\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBG\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e203,73\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e40,75\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\" morerows=\"5\" rowspan=\"6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1,754\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\" morerows=\"5\" rowspan=\"6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e,121\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e15\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e19,33\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6,90\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eWG\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e9151,05\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e23,23\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e125\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e16,28\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4,91\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTotal\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e9354,78\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e44\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e15,72\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3,41\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e170\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e15,95\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4,70\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e33\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e17,00\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5,11\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"5\" rowspan=\"6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003ePC\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e13\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e23,53\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5,30\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBG\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e380,38\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e76,07\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\" morerows=\"4\" rowspan=\"5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1,657\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\" morerows=\"4\" rowspan=\"5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e,144\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e15\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e22,53\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7,92\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eWG\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e18088,73\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e45,91\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e125\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e22,44\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7,21\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTotal\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e18469,11\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e44\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e20,88\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6,23\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e170\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e20,51\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6,60\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e33\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e20,57\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6,57\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\" morerows=\"6\" rowspan=\"7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2,196\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\" morerows=\"6\" rowspan=\"7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e,054\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"5\" rowspan=\"6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003ePPMGS\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e13\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e22,00\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6,78\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBG\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e254,27\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e50,85\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e15\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e21,13\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5,01\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eWG\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e9124,69\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e23,16\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e125\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e24,42\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4,53\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTotal\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e9378,96\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e44\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e24,68\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3,96\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e170\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e23,50\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4,99\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e33\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e23,27\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4,95\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"5\" rowspan=\"6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eSCS\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e13\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e102,31\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e16,51\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBG\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2712,16\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e542,43\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\" morerows=\"5\" rowspan=\"6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e,942\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\" morerows=\"5\" rowspan=\"6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e,454\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e15\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e108,80\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e21,23\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eWG\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e226887,48\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e575,86\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e125\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e107,39\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e21,32\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTotal\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e229599,64\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e44\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e107,27\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e25,13\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e170\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e102,21\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e25,41\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e33\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e107,00\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e27,77\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003ctfoot\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"12\"\u003e* p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05, BG\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Between Groups, WG\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Within Groups, 1. Primary School, 2. Secondary School, 3. High School, 4. Associate Degree, 5. Bachelor degree, 6. Master's degree and above\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tfoot\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eOne-way ANOVA results indicate that fathers\u0026rsquo; overall involvement (FIS) and engagement in Arbitrary Occupation (AO) significantly differed by education level (FIS: F(5,394)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;2.52, p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.029; AO: F(5,394)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;2.68, p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.021), with post hoc tests showing higher scores for certain education groups. No significant differences were observed for Attention and Closeness (AC), Primary Care (PC), maternal gatekeeping perceptions (PPMGS), or children\u0026rsquo;s self-care skills (SCS). Effect sizes were small (η\u0026sup2; \u0026asymp; .03), suggesting limited practical impact.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIndependent samples t-tests were conducted to examine whether fathers\u0026rsquo; involvement levels and maternal gatekeeping behaviors differed according to socioeconomic status (SES). The findings are presented in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eIndependent Samples t-Test Results for FIS Subscales by Group\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"9\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c9\" colnum=\"9\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eScales\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSES\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eN\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eX̄\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSd.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003et\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003edf\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ep\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ed\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eAO\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLow-middle\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e238\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e41,05\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e11,11\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2,78\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e398\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e,006*\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0,28\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eHigh to very high\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e162\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e37,95\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e10,75\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eAC\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLow-middle\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e238\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e16,65\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4,99\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1,80\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e398\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e,07\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eHigh to very high\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e162\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e15,77\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4,59\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003ePC\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLow-middle\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e238\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e21,67\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6,66\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1,187\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e398\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e,236\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eHigh to very high\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e162\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e20,85\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7,00\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eFIS\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLow-middle\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e238\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e79,37\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e18,95\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2,50\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e398\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e,013*\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0,25\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eHigh to very high\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e162\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e74,56\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e18,86\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003ePPMGS\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLow-middle\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e238\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e23,32\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5,03\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-2,19\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e398\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e,029\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eHigh to very high\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e162\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e24,40\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4,50\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eSCS\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLow-middle\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e238\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e79,58\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e24,54\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0,72\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e398\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e,47\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eHigh to very high\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e162\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e77,81\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e23,22\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003ctfoot\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"9\"\u003e\u003cb\u003e*\u003c/b\u003e\u003cem\u003e(p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0,05)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tfoot\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIndependent samples t-tests indicate that fathers\u0026rsquo; overall involvement (FIS) and engagement in Arbitrary Occupation (AO) were significantly higher in the low-to-middle SES group compared to the high-to-very-high SES group (FIS: t(398)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;2.50, p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.013, d\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.25; AO: t(398)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;2.78, p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.006, d\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.28). No significant differences were observed for Attention and Closeness (AC), Primary Care (PC), or children\u0026rsquo;s self-care skills (SCS). Mothers\u0026rsquo; gatekeeping perceptions (PPMGS) were higher in the high-to-very-high SES group (t(398) = -2.19, p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.029). Effect sizes indicate small to moderate practical significance.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe analysis of variance (ANOVA) was conducted to determine whether there are statistically significant differences in the mean scores of the Fathers Involvement Scale (FIS) and its sub-dimensions, as well as the Preschool Period (3\u0026ndash;6 Years) Maternity Gatekeeping Scale (PPMGS) \u0026ndash; Father Form and Self Care Scale, based on the number of children fathers have. The results are presented in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eANOVA Results by Number of Children\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"12\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c9\" colnum=\"9\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c10\" colnum=\"10\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c11\" colnum=\"11\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c12\" colnum=\"12\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eScales\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNumber of Children\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003en\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eX̄\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003esd\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eANOVA\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSum of squares\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMean square\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eF\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ep\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePost Hoc\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eȠ2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eFIS\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e132\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e74,50\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e17,12\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBG\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2924,40\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1462,20\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4,097\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e,017*\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c12\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0,02\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e240\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e78,12\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e19,96\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eWG\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e141689,35\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e356,90\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e28\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e85,17\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e17,20\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTotal\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e144613,75\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eAO\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e132\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e37,43\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e9,26\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBG\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1690,57\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e845,29\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7,131\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e,001*\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;2;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c12\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0,03\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e240\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e40,45\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e11,66\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eWG\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e47060,02\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e118,54\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e28\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e45,32\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e11,07\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTotal\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e48750,60\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eAC\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e132\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e15,74\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4,89\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBG\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e164,26\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e82,13\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3,548\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e,030*\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c12\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0,02\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e240\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e16,35\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4,75\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eWG\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e9190,52\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e23,15\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e28\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e18,39\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4,89\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTotal\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e9354,78\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003ePC\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e132\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e21,32\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6,63\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBG\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e,50\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e,252\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e,0005\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e,995\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e240\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e21,32\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6,99\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eWG\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e18468,61\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e46,52\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e28\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e21,46\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6,11\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTotal\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e18469,11\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003ePPMGS\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e132\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e24,06\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4,63\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBG\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e45,73\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e22,867\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e,973\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e,379\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e240\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e23,71\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5,03\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eWG\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e9333,23\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e23,509\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e28\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e22,67\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4,10\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTotal\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e9378,96\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eSCS\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e132\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e106,26\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e24,80\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBG\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1256,14\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e628,07\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e1,09\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e,\u003cem\u003e337\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e240\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e103,78\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e23,62\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eWG\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e228343,50\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e575,17\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e28\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e109,96\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e23,13\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTotal\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e229599,64\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003ctfoot\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"12\"\u003e\u003cb\u003e*\u003c/b\u003e\u003cem\u003e(p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0,05) Number of Children: 1: One Child, 2: 2 Children, 3: 3 and more children\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tfoot\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eOne-way ANOVA results indicate that fathers\u0026rsquo; overall involvement (FIS), engagement in Arbitrary Occupation (AO), and Attention and Closeness (AC) significantly differed by number of children (FIS: F(2,397)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;4.10, p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.017, η\u0026sup2; = .02; AO: F(2,397)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;7.13, p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.001, η\u0026sup2; = .03; AC: F(2,397)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;3.55, p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.030, η\u0026sup2; = .02), with post hoc tests showing higher involvement for fathers with three children compared to one child. No significant differences were observed for Primary Care (PC), maternal gatekeeping perceptions (PPMGS), or children\u0026rsquo;s self-care skills (SCS). Effect sizes indicate small practical significance.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe analysis of variance (ANOVA) was conducted to determine whether there are statistically significant differences in the mean scores of the Fathers Involvement Scale (FIS) and its sub-dimensions, as well as the Preschool Period (3\u0026ndash;6 Years) Maternity Gatekeeping Scale (PPMGS) \u0026ndash; Father Form and Self Care Scale, based on the age of the child. The results are presented in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab4\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 4\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMean Scores by Age of Child\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"7\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eScales\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eChild's Age\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003en\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eX̄\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003esd\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003et\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ep\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eFIS\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e48\u0026ndash;60 Months\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e106\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e76,20\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e18,27\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-,77\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e,44\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e61\u0026ndash;66 Months\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e294\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e77,86\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e19,31\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eAO\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e48\u0026ndash;60 Months\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e106\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e38,65\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e10,20\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-1,25\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e,63\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e61\u0026ndash;66 Months\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e294\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e40,21\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e11,33\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eAC\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e48\u0026ndash;60 Months\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e106\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e16,52\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5,98\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e,58\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e,56\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e61\u0026ndash;66 Months\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e294\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e16,20\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4,36\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003ePC\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e48\u0026ndash;60 Months\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e106\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e21,02\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6,30\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-,54\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e,59\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e61\u0026ndash;66 Months\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e294\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e21,44\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6,98\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003ePPMGS\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e48\u0026ndash;60 Months\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e106\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e23,56\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5,17\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e,23\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e,63\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e61\u0026ndash;66 Months\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e294\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e23,82\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4,73\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eSCS\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e48\u0026ndash;60 Months\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e106\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e101,23\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e25,22\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-1,91\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e,06\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e61\u0026ndash;66 Months\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e294\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e106,40\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e23,42\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003ctfoot\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"7\"\u003e\u003cb\u003e*\u003c/b\u003e\u003cem\u003e(p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0,05)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tfoot\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIndependent samples t-tests indicate no significant differences between age groups (48\u0026ndash;60 months vs. 61\u0026ndash;66 months) for fathers\u0026rsquo; overall involvement (FIS), Arbitrary Occupation (AO), Attention and Closeness (AC), Primary Care (TPC), maternal gatekeeping perceptions (PPMGS), or children\u0026rsquo;s self-care skills (SCS) (all p\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;.05), although SCS approached significance (t = -1.91, p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.057).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe analysis of variance (ANOVA) was conducted to determine whether there are statistically significant differences in the mean scores of the Fathers Involvement Scale (FIS) and its sub-dimensions, as well as the Preschool Period (3\u0026ndash;6 Years) Maternity Gatekeeping Scale (PPMGS) \u0026ndash; Father Form and Self Care Scale, based on the gender of the children. The results are presented in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab5\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 5\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMean Scores by Gender of Child\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"8\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eScales\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eGender\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003en\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eX̄\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003esd\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003et\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ep\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ed\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eFIS\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eGirl\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e214\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e79,66\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e19,55\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2,54\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e,011*\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e,26\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBoy\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e186\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e74,84\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e18,54\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eAO\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eGirl\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e214\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e40,23\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e11,53\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e,85\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e,39\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBoy\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e186\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e39,29\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e10,47\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eAC\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eGirl\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e214\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e16,38\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4,94\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e,40\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e,69\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBoy\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e186\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e16,18\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4,73\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003ePC\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eGirl\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e214\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e23,04\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6,97\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5,60\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e,000\u003cb\u003e*\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e,58\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBoy\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e186\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e19,36\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6,04\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003ePPMGS\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eGirl\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e214\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e23,61\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4,83\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-,65\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e,51\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBoy\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e186\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e23,93\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4,87\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eSCS\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eGirl\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e214\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e76,52\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e21,56\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-2,095\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0,037*\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e,21\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBoy\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e186\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e81,55\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e26,234\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003ctfoot\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"8\"\u003e\u003cb\u003e*\u003c/b\u003e\u003cem\u003e(p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0,05)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tfoot\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIndependent samples t-tests indicate that fathers\u0026rsquo; overall involvement (FIS) and Primary Care (TPC) were significantly higher for girls than boys (FIS: t(398)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;2.54, p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.011, d\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.26; TPC: t(398)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;5.60, p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001, d\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.58). Children\u0026rsquo;s self-care skills (SCS) were also significantly higher for boys (t(398) = -2.10, p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.037, d\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.21). No significant gender differences were found for Arbitrary Occupation (AO), Attention and Closeness (AC), or maternal gatekeeping perceptions (PPMGS).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAs all descriptive statistics and Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) results showed no statistically significant differences based on school attendance duration, they are presented together in a single table (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab6\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 6\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDescriptive Statistics and ANOVA Results of the Fathers\u0026rsquo; Involvement Scale (FIS) and Preschool Period Maternal Gatekeeping Scale (PPMGS) by Duration of School Attendance\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"10\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c9\" colnum=\"9\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c10\" colnum=\"10\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eScales\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDuration of School Attendance\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003en\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eX̄\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSD\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eANOVA\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSum of Squares\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMean Square\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eF\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ep\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eFIS\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eOne Year\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e297\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e77,31\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e19,14\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBG\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e186,29\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e93,14\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e,256\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e,774\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTwo Years\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e75\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e76,94\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e18,65\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eWG\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e144427,46\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e363,78\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eThree Years\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e28\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e79,85\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e19,46\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTotal\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e144613,75\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eAO\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eOne Year\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e297\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e39,99\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e11,30\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBG\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e57,90\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e28,95\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e,236\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e,790\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTwo Years\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e75\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e39,01\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e9,93\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eWG\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e48692,70\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e122,65\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eThree Years\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e28\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e39,78\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e11,44\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTotal\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e48750,60\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eAC\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eOne Year\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e297\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e16,12\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4,73\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBG\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e37,75\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e18,87\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e,804\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e,448\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTwo Years\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e75\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e16,61\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5,38\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eWG\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e9317,03\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e23,47\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eThree Years\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e28\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e17,17\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4,48\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTotal\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e9354,78\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003ePC\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eOne Year\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e297\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e21,19\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6,69\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBG\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e74,05\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e37,02\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e,799\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e,450\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTwo Years\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e75\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e21,32\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7,33\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eWG\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e18395,06\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e46,33\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eThree Years\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e28\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e22,89\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6,46\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTotal\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e18469,11\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003ePPMGS\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eOne Year\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e297\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e23,62\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4,82\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBG\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e21,88\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e10,94\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e,464\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e,629\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTwo Years\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e75\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e24,22\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5,30\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eWG\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e9357,08\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e23,57\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eThree Years\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e28\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e23,89\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3,75\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTotal\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e9378,96\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eSCS\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eOne Year\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e297\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e103,73\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e24,25\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBG\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1983,33\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e991,67\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1,73\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e,179\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTwo Years\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e75\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e108,48\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e24,46\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eWG\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e227616,31\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e573,34\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eThree Years\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e28\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e109,61\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e18,59\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTotal\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e229599,64\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eOne-way ANOVA results examining fathers\u0026rsquo; involvement and children\u0026rsquo;s self-care skills according to the duration of school attendance indicated that there were no statistically significant differences across groups for any of the measures (\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;.05). Specifically, the Fathers Involvement Scale (FIS), its subdimensions Arbitrary Occupation (AO), Attention and Closeness (AC), Primary Care (PC), the Preschool Period (3\u0026ndash;6 Years) Maternity Gatekeeping Scale (PPMGS), and Self-Care Skills (SCS) scores did not differ significantly among children attending school for one year, two years, or three years. These results suggest that the duration of preschool attendance does not appear to have a measurable impact on fathers\u0026rsquo; involvement in various domains or on children\u0026rsquo;s self-care competencies.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eA correlation analysis was conducted to examine the relationships among the mean scores of the Preschool Period (3\u0026ndash;6 Years) Maternity Gatekeeping Scale (PPMGS) \u0026ndash; Father Form, its subdimensions, the Fathers Involvement Scale (FIS), and children\u0026rsquo;s Self-Care Skills (SCS). The results are presented in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab7\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab7\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 7\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePearson Correlations Among Fathers\u0026rsquo; Involvement, Its Subdimensions, Maternal Gatekeeping, and Children\u0026rsquo;s Self-Care Skills\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"8\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eScale\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c3\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePearson Correlation\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAC\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAO\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePC\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePPMGS\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSCS\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" morerows=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eFIS\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003er\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e,736\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e,92\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e,778\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-,24\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-,03\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ep\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e,00**\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e,00**\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e,00**\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e,00**\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e,55\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003en\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e400\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e400\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e400\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e400\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e400\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" morerows=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eAC\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003er\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e,575\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e,414\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-,276\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-,06\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ep\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e,00**\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e,00**\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e,00**\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e,23\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003en\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e400\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e400\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e400\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e400\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" morerows=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eAO\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003er\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e,543\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-,215\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e,006\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ep\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e,00**\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e,00**\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e,89\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003en\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e400\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e400\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e400\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" morerows=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003ePC\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003er\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-,131\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-,052\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ep\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e,00**\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e,303\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003en\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e400\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e400\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" morerows=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003ePPMGS\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003er\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e,017\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ep\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e,736\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003en\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e400\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e(** p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0,01)\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003ePearson correlation analyses were conducted to examine the relationships among fathers\u0026rsquo; involvement, its subdimensions, maternal gatekeeping, and children\u0026rsquo;s self-care skills. The total Fathers Involvement Scale (FIS) score showed strong positive correlations with Attention and Closeness (AC; r\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.736, p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.01), Amusement and Occupation (AO; r\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.920, p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.01), and Primary Care (PC; r\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.778, p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.01), indicating that higher overall paternal involvement is associated with greater engagement across these subdimensions. The FIS score was negatively correlated with maternal gatekeeping (PPMGS; r\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.24, p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.01), suggesting that higher paternal involvement is related to lower perceived maternal gatekeeping. No significant correlation was observed between FIS and children\u0026rsquo;s self-care skills (SCS; r\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.03, p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.55). Among the subdimensions, AC was moderately correlated with AO (r\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.575, p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.01) and PC (r\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.414, p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.01), and negatively correlated with PPMGS (r\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.276, p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.01), indicating consistency in paternal engagement patterns and its inverse relationship with maternal gatekeeping. AO was also moderately correlated with PC (r\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.543, p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.01), but not with SCS (r\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.006, p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.89). Finally, PC showed a small negative correlation with PPMGS (r\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.131, p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.01), whereas no significant relationships were found between any variables and SCS (\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;.05). Overall, these results suggest that while paternal involvement subdimensions are strongly interrelated and inversely associated with maternal gatekeeping, they are not significantly correlated with children\u0026rsquo;s self-care skills in this sample.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Discussion","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec14\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eFather Involvement\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eFathers\u0026rsquo; educational level is a significant factor influencing their involvement. The present study found that fathers with a secondary school education reported higher total scores on the Fathers\u0026rsquo; Involvement Scale (FIS) and in the Arbitrary Occupation (AO) compared to fathers holding a bachelor\u0026rsquo;s degree. However, no significant differences were observed in Attention and Closeness (AC), Primary Care (PC), or maternal gatekeeping perceptions (PPMGS). This suggests that lower- and mid-educated fathers may spend more direct time in caregiving and emotional engagement, while the quality and diversity of cognitive or play-based interactions appear relatively stable across educational levels (Lamb \u0026amp; Tamis-LeMonda, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR66\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1981\u003c/span\u003e; Marsiglio, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR69\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1991\u003c/span\u003e). It should be noted that interpretations regarding higher-educated fathers\u0026rsquo; work demands or involvement patterns are speculative and not directly derived from the current findings; they are offered as possible explanations based on prior research (Harris \u0026amp; Morgan, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR49\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1991\u003c/span\u003e; Easterbrooks \u0026amp; Goldberg, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1984\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAs fathers\u0026rsquo; education levels increase, they tend to occupy higher-quality jobs, resulting in less time available for direct childcare (Harris \u0026amp; Morgan, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR49\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1991\u003c/span\u003e). This explanation is hypothetical and should be considered as a potential interpretation rather than a direct conclusion from this study. Conversely, higher-educated fathers may approach child care more consciously, showing greater involvement in primary care, particularly for daughters (Easterbrooks \u0026amp; Goldberg, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1984\u003c/span\u003e). Additionally, fathers with high income and flexible work arrangements may participate more actively in child-rearing, demonstrating more gender-neutral caregiving and greater awareness of fatherhood roles (Ahmeduzzaman \u0026amp; Roopnarine, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1992\u003c/span\u003e; Cabrera et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2000\u003c/span\u003e; Bonney et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1999\u003c/span\u003e; Fagan \u0026amp; Barnett, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2003\u003c/span\u003e). These points are presented as contextual discussion, not as findings directly measured in this study. Research also indicates that fathers\u0026rsquo; role perception improves when mothers are employed, reflecting broader social shifts toward shared parental responsibilities (Deleş \u0026amp; Kaytez, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Tamis-LeMonda et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR93\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFather involvement is closely linked to socioeconomic status. Fathers with lower socioeconomic status showed higher involvement levels, whereas those with higher income levels exhibited lower participation. While some studies suggest no significant association between parental involvement and socioeconomic status (\u0026Ccedil;ift\u0026ccedil;i, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e; Meral \u0026amp; Cavkaytar, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR72\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e), other research indicates that fathers\u0026rsquo; involvement may decrease as socioeconomic status rises due to increased work demands (Kuzucu, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR63\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e). It should be emphasized that the current study does not directly measure work demands, so these explanations remain speculative. In the Turkish context, low-income fathers may engage more actively in their children\u0026rsquo;s education, while high-income fathers with flexible schedules participate more in overall child-rearing (Evans, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1997\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe influence of the number of children on paternal involvement remains inconclusive in the literature. In the present study, fathers\u0026rsquo; involvement increased with a higher number of children, which may reflect an effort to alleviate the mother\u0026rsquo;s caregiving burden (Ishii-Kuntz et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR53\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2004\u003c/span\u003e). However, contrasting findings suggest that as the number of children rises, fathers may engage less individually with each child and may employ more authoritarian or disciplinary approaches (Paquette et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR80\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2000\u003c/span\u003e; Akg\u0026ouml;z-Aktaş, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Mızrak\u0026ccedil;ı, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR74\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1994\u003c/span\u003e). Fathers of only one child tend to participate more actively in shared play and interactive activities than fathers with multiple children (Deleş \u0026amp; Kaytez, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Kuru\u0026ccedil;ırak, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR62\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e; Mehall et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR71\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e; Şahin \u0026amp; Demiriz, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR91\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e). While larger families can offer fathers more parenting experience, they also make it more difficult to maintain close emotional bonds and to attend equally to each child\u0026rsquo;s self-care and play needs, which may influence overall involvement (Paquette et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR80\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2000\u003c/span\u003e; Se\u0026ccedil;er et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR86\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2007\u003c/span\u003e; Şahin, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR90\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e). In this study, fathers of three children reported higher involvement levels than those with only one child. Nonetheless, interpretations such as compensating for maternal caregiving responsibilities remain hypothetical and were not directly examined within this research.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eChild age did not significantly influence fathers\u0026rsquo; overall involvement in this study. However, a closer look at the data revealed that fathers of children aged 48\u0026ndash;60 months tended to show slightly higher engagement in the Attention and Closeness domain. The literature presents mixed findings on this topic: while some studies suggest that father involvement increases as children grow older (Barnett \u0026amp; Baruch, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1987\u003c/span\u003e; De Luccie, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1995\u003c/span\u003e; Fagan \u0026amp; Cherson, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e), others report no significant relationship (Aydın-Kılı\u0026ccedil;, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e; Coley \u0026amp; Morris, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2001\u003c/span\u003e; Kanat, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR55\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). One plausible explanation for the observed pattern in our study is that younger preschool-aged children require more hands-on support with self-care and daily routines, which may naturally prompt fathers to be more attentive and emotionally engaged (Yavuzer, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR100\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e; Deleş \u0026amp; Kaytez, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). It is important to note, however, that any interpretation regarding why younger children receive more attention remains speculative and should be considered as a contextual discussion rather than a direct conclusion from the current findings.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eOverall paternal involvement did not differ significantly by child gender; however, fathers demonstrated greater engagement in caregiving activities with their daughters, particularly in primary care tasks. This finding is consistent with previous research suggesting that fathers may feel more comfortable adopting nurturing roles with daughters due to socially constructed gender expectations (McGill, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR70\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e; Gaunt, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e; Katz-Wise et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR58\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e). In contrast, fathers often promote autonomy and competence in sons through play-based interactions rather than caregiving routines. Social role theory helps explain these gendered dynamics by highlighting how culturally accepted norms shape parental behaviors. In this study, while fathers were more involved in direct caregiving with daughters, boys exhibited stronger self-care skills. The interpretation that these patterns stem from socialized gender norms remains a plausible yet untested explanation, as such constructs were not directly measured within the study.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe duration of children\u0026rsquo;s preschool attendance did not significantly influence fathers\u0026rsquo; involvement or maternal gatekeeping (Varol, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR98\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). However, existing research indicates that extended participation in preschool programs may foster the development of children\u0026rsquo;s self-care skills (Demiriz \u0026amp; Din\u0026ccedil;er, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2001\u003c/span\u003e; Din\u0026ccedil;er et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e; Or\u0026ccedil;an Ka\u0026ccedil;an et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR79\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; Yal\u0026ccedil;ın et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR99\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e; K\u0026uuml;\u0026ccedil;\u0026uuml;k, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR64\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e). While this relationship aligns with the broader literature, it should be interpreted as a contextual discussion rather than a direct finding of the present study.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec15\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eMaternal Gatekeeping\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eMaternal gatekeeping behaviors appeared to be only minimally influenced by fathers\u0026rsquo; educational levels, although previous studies suggest that highly educated mothers may balance supportive and restrictive behaviors more effectively. Mothers from lower-income families tended to exhibit stronger gatekeeping tendencies that could limit fathers\u0026rsquo; involvement, and having a greater number of children was also associated with increased maternal control over caregiving roles. Gatekeeping behaviors are often more prominent during the preschool years and tend to decrease as children transition into formal schooling. Gender differences were also observed, with mothers engaging more in caregiving for daughters than for sons. Although longer preschool attendance may contribute to reduced maternal gatekeeping, this relationship should be interpreted contextually.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eA low but significant negative correlation between paternal involvement and maternal gatekeeping was consistent with previous research, indicating that higher maternal gatekeeping can diminish fathers\u0026rsquo; participation in childcare (Cannon et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e; Van Egeren \u0026amp; Hawkins, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR96\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2004\u003c/span\u003e). Fathers\u0026rsquo; confidence in parenting appears to be strengthened by supportive maternal attitudes, whereas excessive gatekeeping may hinder paternal engagement (Bouchard \u0026amp; Lee, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2000\u003c/span\u003e; Akg\u0026ouml;z-Aktaş, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Moluz, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR76\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Bağ\u0026ccedil;ivan, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). The explanatory statements regarding these associations are presented as theoretical interpretations rather than empirically tested conclusions within the current study.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec16\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eSelf-Care Skills\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eFathers\u0026rsquo; educational level, socioeconomic status, and the number of children may influence the development of children\u0026rsquo;s self-care skills. Fathers with higher education levels are more likely to provide conscious and intentional support, whereas children from lower-income families may demonstrate less advanced self-care abilities. Consistent with previous research, extended preschool attendance appears to positively contribute to the development of daily living skills, particularly in areas such as eating, dressing, and personal hygiene (Demiriz \u0026amp; Din\u0026ccedil;er, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2001\u003c/span\u003e; Din\u0026ccedil;er et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e; Or\u0026ccedil;an Ka\u0026ccedil;an et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR79\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; Yal\u0026ccedil;ın et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR99\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e; K\u0026uuml;\u0026ccedil;\u0026uuml;k, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR64\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAlthough paternal involvement did not directly correlate with self-care skills in the present study, the broader literature emphasizes that both parents\u0026rsquo; supportive behaviors are critical for fostering children\u0026rsquo;s independence and confidence (Kartal et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR57\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e; Or\u0026ccedil;an Ka\u0026ccedil;an et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR79\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). The interpretations suggesting that higher-educated fathers or longer preschool attendance may enhance self-care should therefore be understood as contextual insights rather than empirically tested conclusions within this study.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec17\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eLimitations and Implications for Practice\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec18\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eLimitations\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis study was limited to fathers of preschool children aged 48\u0026ndash;66 months, restricting the generalizability of the findings to other developmental stages. Data were based on self-reports, which may involve perception or desirability biases. Additionally, cultural and socioeconomic factors specific to the study context may limit broader applicability. The cross-sectional design prevents causal interpretations between paternal involvement, maternal gatekeeping, and children\u0026rsquo;s self-care skills. Future research should employ longitudinal and mixed-method designs to better capture the dynamic and reciprocal nature of these relationships.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec19\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eImplications for Practice and Policy\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eFindings highlight the importance of promoting balanced and gender-neutral caregiving within families. Fathers were more engaged in the primary care of daughters, suggesting that traditional gender norms still shape caregiving behaviors. Awareness programs and preschool-based workshops can encourage fathers to participate equally in the care of both sons and daughters.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFathers with higher education levels showed greater caregiving involvement, indicating the need for accessible parenting education programs for fathers of all backgrounds. Providing seminars and digital resources can strengthen fathers\u0026rsquo; emotional and caregiving roles.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAlthough socioeconomic status and number of children influenced father participation, these associations appear context-dependent. Policymakers can support paternal engagement through family-friendly workplace policies such as paternity leave and flexible working arrangements.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eA low-level negative correlation between maternal gatekeeping and father involvement suggests that couple-based interventions are needed to promote shared childcare responsibilities. Counseling and communication-focused workshops can help mothers adopt a more supportive role, enhancing co-parenting balance.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003ePreschool institutions can also play a proactive role by organizing father-inclusive activities\u0026mdash;such as father\u0026ndash;child events and flexible parent meetings\u0026mdash;to sustain fathers\u0026rsquo; engagement throughout early childhood.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFinally, future research should explore paternal involvement in families of children with special needs and examine how early intervention programs can sustain active fatherhood across developmental stages.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn sum, this study highlights the multifaceted nature of paternal involvement and maternal gatekeeping during the preschool period. While fathers\u0026rsquo; education, socioeconomic background, and number of children contribute to variations in involvement, the relational interplay between fathers and mothers remains a central factor. Encouraging fathers\u0026rsquo; participation through supportive educational, social, and policy frameworks can promote healthier family relationships and enhance children\u0026rsquo;s developmental outcomes. Future work should continue to bridge research, practice, and policy to cultivate a more inclusive and equitable model of modern fatherhood.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003ch2\u003eAuthor Contribution\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis draft article is derived from Author1's master's thesis conducted under the supervision of Author2. The research was designed with Author1 under the supervision of Author2. The data collection process was conducted by Author1 and the data analysis was carried out by Author1 under the supervision of Author2. Findings and Discussion section was written by Author1. The draft of the article was prepared by Author2.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eData Availability\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe datasets generated during and analyzed during the current study are available upon reasonable request.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAhmeduzzaman, M., \u0026amp; Roopnarine, J. L. (1992). 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Remzi Kitabevi.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":true,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Self-care, Father Involvement, Maternal Gatekeeping, Preschool, Attention and Closeness, Arbitrary Occupation, Primary Care","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8190632/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-8190632/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eThis study, using a correlational survey design, examined the relationships among fathers\u0026rsquo; perceptions of maternal gatekeeping, their involvement levels, and their children\u0026rsquo;s self-care skills among preschoolers aged 48\u0026ndash;66 months. The sample consisted of 400 fathers and their 400 children attending preschool education. Data were collected using the Father Involvement Scale (FIS), the Maternal Gatekeeping Scale for the Preschool Period (3\u0026ndash;6 years) \u0026ndash; Father Form, and the Self-Care Skills Scale for Preschool Children (36\u0026ndash;72 months) \u0026ndash; Teacher Form. Analyses included t-tests, one-way ANOVA, and correlation analysis. Findings revealed no significant relationship between father involvement and the child\u0026rsquo;s gender; however, fathers were more engaged in the primary care of daughters. Fathers with more children reported higher involvement in leisure activities and emotional closeness, while those with lower socioeconomic status exhibited greater overall involvement. Maternal gatekeeping was negatively associated with father involvement, whereas children\u0026rsquo;s self-care skills were positively correlated with fathers\u0026rsquo; involvement. The study recommends preschool-based workshops and awareness programs to strengthen paternal participation and support children\u0026rsquo;s self-care skill development.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"The Relationship Between Preschoolers’ Self-Care Skills, Fathers’ Involvement, and Maternal Gatekeeping Perceptions","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-12-03 02:59:25","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8190632/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"46f5f7ff-c7cc-4c43-9a51-7852c0f0d988","owner":[],"postedDate":"December 3rd, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2025-12-03T02:59:25+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2025-12-03 02:59:25","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-8190632","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-8190632","identity":"rs-8190632","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}