What do the narratives tell us about victims and bullies?

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Diana Camila Garzón-Velandia, Nathalia Rey-Gómez, Miguel Eduardo Uribe-Moreno, and 1 more This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-6180184/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract The study analyzes the linguistic markers of personal narratives from victims, bullies, and mixed profiles (individuals who have experienced both roles) in bullying situations across social media. Using statistical and qualitative methods, the research identifies distinct linguistic and psychological categories associated with each role. Victims' language reflects self-focus and emotional distress, often associated with vulnerability and an emphasis on immediate personal experience, including terms related to suffering and mental health challenges. Bullies, conversely, display language that deflects responsibility, often involving group-oriented justifications and evaluative adjectives, highlighting social dominance and externalized behaviors. Mixed profiles exhibit complex language patterns indicating distress, power-seeking, and reduced guilt, possibly driven by previous victimization and a desire for retribution. By identifying these nuanced linguistic features, the study enhances understanding of the psychological and social dynamics underpinning bullying, suggesting that language analysis could inform more precise detection and intervention strategies for both traditional and cyberbullying. These findings underscore the need for empathy-driven and context-sensitive approaches to address bullying effectively in educational and digital settings. bullying natural language processing social media victims aggression Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Introduction School bullying is a prevalent issue affecting children and adolescents worldwide, manifesting in various forms, including physical, verbal, and relational aggression (Craig et al., 2009). Violent environments have significant impacts on the psychosocial development of children who grow up amidst systematic abuse. According to meta-analyses of bullying effects on children, kids who experience bullying in the role of victim tend to have mental health vulnerabilities that make them susceptible to victimization. Similarly, exposure to bullying violence is a risk factor for the development of anxiety, depression, non-suicidal self-harm, psychosomatic problems, suicidal ideation, and suicide attempts (Gini & Pozzoli, 2009 ; Ye et al., 2023 ). The motivations behind bullying behavior and the characteristics of both perpetrators and victims have been extensively studied. Bullies are often perceived as confident and socially dominant, frequently enjoying a higher status among peers compared to victims (Guy et al., 2019 ; Juvonen & Graham, 2014). Victims, in contrast, tend to exhibit traits such as anxiety, low self-esteem, and sensitivity, which may render them more susceptible to victimization and its persistence over time (Sureda-García, 2021). Research indicates that there is a complex interplay between bullying, social dynamics, and individual characteristics. For instance, bullies may specifically target socially marginalized peers, believing these individuals to be 'easy targets' and perceiving less risk of social repercussions for their actions. Furthermore, victims may experience decreased social preference, making them less likely to be included in social interactions, which can create a vicious cycle of isolation and further victimization (Guy et al., 2019 ). Although bullies do not appear to be affected by exposure to violence from the aggressor's perspective, they are at risk for depression, frequent alcohol and drug use, externalizing problems, and poor school adjustment. Usually, in addition to the situations of school violence, there are situations outside of school that they must deal with that lead to the externalization of their emotions in the form of school aggression (Li et al., 2024 ; Moore et al., 2017 ). Children who have experienced violence from both perspectives, as bullies and victims, have the greatest impact when exposed to the whole situation of violence. Effects include poor psychosocial functioning, poor self-control, vulnerability to peer rejection, negative emotions, lowest life satisfaction, and highest risk of depression compared to bullies and victims (Li et al., 2024 ; Ye et al., 2023 ). Additionally, a distinction has been made between two subgroups of aggressors: bullies and bully-victims, the latter being individuals who both perpetrate and experience bullying. Bully-victims often display high levels of reactive aggression and poor social skills, leading to their marginalization within peer groups (Zhong et al., 2022 ). To understand the complexities of bullying dynamics, it is essential to explore the profiles of those involved, particularly the various types of victims and aggressors. Different subgroups exhibit unique traits and face distinct challenges that contribute to the perpetuation of bullying behaviors. Victims, bullies, and bully-victims each display specific psychological and social characteristics that influence their roles in bullying scenarios and their interactions within their social environment. This differentiation provides insight into the motivations and vulnerabilities associated with each group, revealing how individual traits and social contexts interplay to shape the experiences of those involved. Firstly, resilient victims are characterized by their ability to cope with bullying without exhibiting significant negative emotional or behavioral responses. They often possess strong social support networks and coping mechanisms that help them withstand the effects of bullying. This group may report lower levels of distress compared to other victim types, indicating a capacity to recover from adverse experiences (Sapouna & Wolke, 2013 ). Secondly, aggressive victims engage in both victimization and bullying behaviors. They may retaliate against their aggressors and exhibit impulsive aggression. This dual role can stem from feelings of frustration and helplessness, leading them to adopt aggressive strategies as a means of self-defense. Research indicates that this group often faces severe psychological issues, such as high rates of depression and anxiety, due to their complex social interactions and experiences (Kennedy, 2018 ; Shetgiri, 2013 ). Lastly, victims who tend to withdraw from social interactions as a response to bullying may isolate themselves to avoid further victimization. They do not report their experiences of bullying, often due to fear of retaliation or shame, which can exacerbate feelings of loneliness and depression. This withdrawal can lead to a cycle of exclusion, where the lack of social engagement further diminishes their social skills and peer relationships. They may suffer in silence, experiencing significant emotional distress without seeking help or support. This group is often characterized by low self-esteem and may struggle with anxiety and depression as they internalize their experiences without externalizing them (Malamut et al., 2020 ). Unlike victims, who are categorized into different types in the literature based on their characteristics and responses to bullying, aggressors tend to be represented by a more unified profile. Bullies are characterized by their consistent use of intimidation and aggressive behaviors towards others. They often display traits such as high levels of impulsivity, low empathy, moral justification, and a tendency to engage in risky behaviors. These individuals may derive social status or satisfaction from exerting power over their victims, often leading to a cycle of violence and retaliation. Studies have shown that aggressive bullies frequently exhibit externalizing behaviors and may struggle with emotional regulation, which can perpetuate their bullying actions over time (Bjärehed et al., 2019; Lopes de Sousa et al., 2021 ; Martínez-Monteagudo et al., 2019 ). In some research, it has been found that some victims can turn into aggressors and some aggressors could become victims as a change of role in new environments. This group’s use of conflicting emotional and cognitive expressions highlights their complex position in the bullying cycle, where initial victimization can lead to aggressive responses and subsequent guilt (Kennedy, 2018 ; Li et al. 2024 ). These findings reinforce the notion that the roles in bullying are not rigid but fluid, with individuals shifting between victim and perpetrator roles under varying social and personal conditions. Understanding the lived experience of victims, bullies and mixed profiles (bullies and victims) is crucial for the development of effective interventions that are adapted to the needs and motivations of each of the actors involved. These dynamics underscore the necessity for comprehensive interventions that address not only the behavior of bullies but also the vulnerabilities of victims (Jones & Williams, 2019 ; Smith et al., 2020 ). Understanding cognitive, behavioral and emotional cues, such as differential linguistic markers used by victims and bullies could enhance our ability to identify and address these complex social interactions within educational settings. Given that linguistic markers can provide less biased information about the experiences of children involved in bullying situations, in contrast to self-report measures. Linguistic markers related to bullying scenarios Research on linguistic markers within school bullying aims to identify the distinctive language features that separate victims from perpetrators. These markers include lexical and grammatical elements, as well as the emotional tone expressed in communication. Despite its importance, there is a limited number of studies dedicated to uncovering these patterns in bullying contexts. Lexical Features Lexical analysis reveals distinct differences in word usage between bullies and victims. Research indicates that cyberbullying comments often feature a higher word count, an increased frequency of swear words, and a greater reliance on second-person pronouns (e.g., "you") and third-person singular pronouns (e.g., "he," "she") compared to non-bullying comments (Xu, 2021 ). Furthermore, bullies are characterized by a higher density of offensive language, which frequently includes user identifiers such as second-person pronouns directed at the victim. This pattern suggests that bullies use language that is more aggressive and confrontational (Zhong et al., 2022 ). Grammatical Features Grammatical features also play a critical role in distinguishing between the language of bullies and that of their victims. Studies have found that the use of imperative sentences, which convey commands, is more prevalent among bullies, as these constructions often express stronger emotions and sentiments. In contrast, victims' language may reflect a different emotional state, with fewer instances of aggressive language and a tendency toward more passive expressions. This divergence can be observed through the use of negations and interjections, which are more common in victims' comments (Zhong et al., 2022 ). Emotional expression Victims of bullying often exhibit linguistic markers indicative of emotional distress and low self-esteem. Studies have found that victims frequently use language reflecting anxiety, sensitivity, and a lack of confidence, which can contribute to their vulnerability to ongoing victimization. They may employ expressions that convey feelings of isolation or hopelessness, illustrating their struggles with social acceptance and emotional regulation. In contrast, bullies tend to display higher self-esteem and may use language that signifies dominance and confidence, positioning themselves as socially adept within peer group. This difference in emotional expression is critical, as it can impact how each group is perceived by their peers (Wang et al., 2024; Leiner et al., 2014). In line with the importance of developing deferential linguistic profiles for bullying understanding, this study aims to identify differential linguistic markers between victims of school bullying and bullies in order to provide evidence to facilitate the understanding of bullying from different perspectives through language. Method Corpora 238 posts or videos (116 in English and 122 in Spanish) from social media platforms like Reddit, Facebook, and YouTube were analyzed, from countries such as, USA, UK, Ireland, Australia, Spain, Aregentina, Puerto Rico, Colombia and Mexico. These social media were selected because they allowed the diffusion of personal narratives of bullying experiences. Narratives, videos, or posts were chosen if they were first-person narratives of bullying, threats, or comments of violence that were sent or posted directly by the perpetrators. News stories that narrated bullying situations from an external perspective, videos explaining or exemplifying bullying, and reports of bullying situations by third parties were eliminated, given that they do not represent directly experienced bullying. Procedure Once the videos and posts were selected, their content was downloaded directly, or the subtitles were downloaded, as in the case of YouTube videos. Comments replying to the chosen posts were not considered. The content was refined and classified according to the language and the role of the speaker: victim, bully, or mixed profile (bully and victim). Afterward, the texts were placed in a database, complemented with variables such as social network and perspective (bully, victim, or mixed profile). This database was first analyzed through a statistical analysis of textual data performed using SPAD software. This analysis allows us to identify a corpus's most common and characteristic words segmented in one or several categorical variables. In this case, the verbal data were the narratives, and the variable category was the bullying perspective. For this purpose, the text was lemmatized to merge the words into their lexical roots and words with frequencies less than two were eliminated to depurate the text, which allowed us to work with 80.6% of the corpus. As a second step, data was analyzed using Linguistic Inquiry and Word Count - LIWC software. This software analyzes the words in a corpus and classifies them into underlying categories that are placed in dictionaries. The English dictionary of 2022, the Spanish dictionary of Ramirez-Esparza et al. (2007), and the dictionary of intergroup emotions by Garzón et al. (2020) were used. From the percentages obtained in the linguistic categories resulting from the LIWC analysis, ANOVA was performed to determine the differences between the linguistic and psychological categories according to each perspective (victim, bully, and mixed profile). Finally, a qualitative content analysis of the selected narratives was carried out to identify commonalities between the actors, both in English and Spanish. The analysis made it possible to identify different profiles of victims, bullies, and mixed profiles, which enabled us to identify behavior patterns and motivations. Results English linguistic markers On the factorial plane (Fig. 1 ), which is based on the statistical analysis of the textual data, it can be observed that the language of the three types of actors is different, as they are in different quadrants. It is noticeable that the category of mixed profiles is located exactly in the middle between victims and bullies. They are characterized by using words that show the suffering of experiencing violence as a victim (hell, scared, horrible), these words are located in the lower left quadrant, whereas in the lower right quadrant are words that show attempts to avoid being exposed as a victim (tried, bad, fight, against). Victims show verbal behavior in which they refer to the actors they go to for help and to stop episodes of school violence (parents, teachers, class, mom), however, in many cases asking for help can end up fruitless or worse, evidenced in the words (worse and hated). Likewise, the use of words associated with negative emotions (crying, hate, alone, deal) is evident, typical of descriptions of situations of school bullying. However, words such as amazing, happy, and today show an overcoming of the situation of victimization, typical of the reflection of narratives in which bullying is remembered as a past event. Bullies often refer to others in their narratives (friends, group, fun, us) to justify their actions so that the responsibility does not fall solely on them. A cognitive reflection on the situation of violence is observed in words such as think, feel, and wish, which denote remorse, typical of adults who told their stories of bullying as an episode in their life that they regret (wrong, sorry, felt). Based on the analyses performed with the LIWC software, Table 1 shows the English language categories in which statistically significant differences were found based on the ANOVA analysis. In these, it is found that the victims of bullying use more frequently the pronoun I, the category all-none, suggesting polarized thinking, greater use of words associated with mental health risks, and an attentional focus on the family and the present. Bullies use the pronoun “she” or “he" more frequently, and they use more adjectives that tend to be associated with positive or negative evaluations. They also use more words related to the discrepancy between want and should, although more associated words are certitude in their speeches. Emotionally, they have a negative tone, marked by anger and a focus on the past. Mixed profiles show a higher use of words associated with Clout seeking, a higher use of words associated with feeling, and a higher use of words associated with substance use. Table 1 English differential linguistic categories based on role perspective Category Victims Bullies Victims-Bullies I pronoun 9,67 9,22 7,58 All-none 1,88 1,52 0,89 Family 0,63 0,56 0,11 Mental 0,18 0,09 0,00 Risk 0,22 0,17 0,07 Non fluency 0,21 0,14 0,00 Focus present 3,93 2,77 3,88 She - he 1,83 2,81 2,08 Adjectives 5,49 6,43 5,06 Discrepancy 1,74 1,88 0,48 Certitude 0,82 1,07 0,39 Negative tone 3,08 3,86 2,96 Anger 0,21 0,46 0,27 Focus past 8,50 9,92 6,39 Feeling 0,69 0,69 1,01 Substances 0,01 0,02 0,28 Clout 27,18 26,73 33,24 Note: Values in bold correspond to data with statistically significant differences among groups (p < .05). Spanish linguistic markers Despite the different languages, it is noted that the placement of the three types of actors is maintained in Spanish, as well as in English, placing the mixed profiles in the middle between victims and bullies. In Fig. 2 shows the most frequent and characteristic words of the bullies are related to the experiences of childhood in which the experiences of violence are recounted using the pronoun we (nosotros), relating friends (amigos), others (otro). However, there are also words in which responsibility is assumed directly, such as cry (llorar), I saw (veía), I felt (sentía), with me (conmigo), with a perspective of the present (I am) (soy), I belive (creo). Victims use words that refer to the help (ayudar) they asked for from their families (familia) and parents (padres, madre), and how this could result in a worse response (peor). Similarly, words directly related to harassment are found, such as insults (insultos), fat (gorda), fight (pelea), alone (sola). On the other hand, the words used by the mixed profiles denote that from the situations (acoso) they had experienced, they decided (decidí) to make changes (cambiar) with their situation, avoiding the past (pasado) and looking for power (poder) to feel better (major). However, the linguistic categories were slightly different in Spanish, due to the different grammatical structures of the two languages. Table 2 shows the LIWC categories that presented statistically significant differences among groups. It is evident that victims in Spanish focus, as in English, on themselves, although they use more frequently the pronoun “They”, as well as words associated with suffering. Bullies more frequently use the pronoun “We”, as well as words related to jealousy and pleasure. While mixed profiles are characterized by more use of the pronouns, she or he, more words associated with the discrepancy between duty and want, as well as words associated with confusion and guilt. Table 2 Spanish differential linguistic categories based on role perspective Category Victims Bullies Victims-Bullies I pronoun 5,6 4,2 4,2 They 2,7 1,5 2,6 Suffering 1,0 0,6 0,5 We 0,16 0,46 0,21 Pleasure 0,19 0,51 0,16 Jealousy 0,43 0,92 0,43 She - He 5,52 6,36 6,87 Discrepancy 1,17 0,96 2,11 Confusion 0,07 0,01 0,20 Guilt 0,72 0,99 1,02 Note: Values in bold correspond to data with statistically significant differences among groups (p < .05). Different kinds of victims Regarding qualitative content analysis, four different victim profiles were identified in both languages. The first, the resilient victim , recognizes the bullying experience, as evidenced by phrases indicating a desire to overcome the situation. The victims demonstrate an ability to identify their emotions and actively seek ways to cope with the bullying. Many victims ultimately described their experiences as a source of long-term strength. Despite the emotional and psychological toll, some noted that surviving bullying had made them more resilient and confident in adulthood. They emphasized that enduring the trauma gave them a thicker skin and a greater ability to cope with future challenges. A smaller subset of victims, often after enduring extended periods of bullying, lashed out either verbally or physically. This aggressive response was a last resort for most victims, occurring after they had reached their breaking point. However, this response often led to further conflict and trouble with authority figures. These are the characteristics of the second profile, the aggressive victim , who uses language that reflects anger and a desire for revenge or confrontation. Feel the need to regain control and protect themselves. May exhibit similar behaviors toward others as a defense mechanism. Most victims responded to bullying by avoiding their bullies and withdrawing from social interaction. This coping mechanism was seen across age groups and school settings. Many felt safer isolating themselves, even if it led to social exclusion and academic struggles. These are the self-excluded victims who use phrases that justify their isolation, such as "I don't need anyone". Reflect a rejection of social interaction, which may be a defense mechanism, and tend to avoid social situations for fear of being hurt. Finally, many victims internalized the bullying, feeling that they were somehow to blame for their treatment. They questioned their self-worth and often believed that there was something inherently wrong with them. The self-blame exacerbated their emotional struggles and often prevented them from seeking help. This is the main characteristic of silent victims , who avoid talking directly about their experiences and often downplay bullying as a strategy to deal with it indirectly. To repent or not to repent? That is the question. The content that bullies mentioned in their narratives allowed us to identify two different types of profiles. The first, the usual aggressive bully , tends to justify their actions by describing the harassment as "pranks" or downplaying its significance. They often use derogatory language to refer to the victims, using nicknames, insults, or highlighting their physical or psychological characteristics. In some cases, they express a kind of pride or satisfaction in the power they wield over others or do not recognize or downplay their actions in sentences such as "I didn't think I was being a bully" or "I thought we were just having fun". Some adults who recounted their experiences as school bullies as children or adolescents demonstrated a reflective process in which they questioned their role as aggressors, the impact of their actions, and the variables that led them to engage in school violence. These are the repentant aggressors , who are often aware of the pain and emotional consequences of their actions on their victims. They manifest feelings of guilt and regret as they reflect on their past actions and attempt to apologize to their victims or seek ways to make amends. Most bullies, regardless of the type of profile, describe being influenced by peer pressure or the desire to fit in. Group dynamics and following the crowd often play a key role in their behaviors. However, another part describes dysfunctional or abusive home environments, which they believe led them to act out aggressively toward peers. The order of violence matters When analyzing the narratives of children who were victims and bullies, it was found that they reacted differently depending on whether they were victims or bullies first. In the case of those who were first victims and then bullies , they begin to feel powerless, insecure, or afraid, which leads them to retaliate and become bullies, often to regain control and prevent further victimization. Their actions are usually motivated by anger and a desire for revenge. Often feel empowered after retaliating. Over time, however, they may develop feelings of guilt or shame as they reflect on the harm they have caused, although their initial bullying is often seen as justified. However, if they were first bullies and then victims , the children with mixed profiles showed initial behavior driven by a need for control, personal insecurity a lack of empathy, or the necessity of using dominance to control others. Later, they become victims, often experiencing the consequences of their earlier actions. The experience of becoming a victim tends to make them think more deeply about the harm they have caused others, as they now experience it firsthand. Discussion In order to identify linguistic markers that could differentiate the roles of victims, bullies, and mixed profiles (victim-bullies), this research took a sample of social network posts containing personal narratives about bullying. Through different quantitative and qualitative language analyses, we identified characteristic words, linguistic, psychological, and emotional categories, and distinctive profiles in each of the roles and their perspectives. Although slight differences were observed between the languages—and therefore, the cultures—convergences were found in the narratives of bullies, victims, and mixed profiles (both bullies and victims). Victims tend to personalize their narrative focusing on themselves in the present. At the same time, the victims focus their attention on the perpetrators of violence and their current effects. There is an evident use of terms associated with mental health risks and suffering which is consistent with bullying consequences. The results reveal that victims’ narratives are marked by a focus on self-reflection, suffering, and present-oriented expressions, consistent with findings that highlight their emotional distress and self-critical nature (Sureda-García, 2021; Malamut et al., 2020 ). These narratives also underscore the internalized struggles of victims, such as feelings of isolation and helplessness, aligning with the documented consequences of bullying exposure, like anxiety and depression (Moore et al., 2017 ; Ye et al., 2023 ). Victims displayed linguistic patterns characterized by self-focused language, as evidenced by a higher use of the pronoun “I,” which reflects introspection and personal impact. This aligns with research emphasizing that victims often internalize their experiences, leading to self-blame and emotional distress (Sureda-García, 2021). Additionally, victims' narratives contained more words related to suffering, mental health risks, and polarized thinking, indicating a heightened state of vulnerability. The frequent use of words associated with negative emotions such as “crying,” “alone,” and “hate” underscores the emotional toll of bullying, confirming previous findings that link victimization to depression, anxiety, and feelings of helplessness (Gini & Pozzoli, 2009 ; Ye et al., 2023 ). The emotional tone of victims’ language, focused on present circumstances and an attentional emphasis on family and support systems, suggests an ongoing search for help that may not always be effective, as reflected by terms like “worse” and “hated”. The content of their narratives allows for the identification of different victim profiles, such as those who isolate themselves, those who respond aggressively, those who resist the aggression, and those who remain silent in the face of their situation. Overall, a pattern of emotional vulnerability, self-criticism, and derogatory language directed at themselves is identified, along with feelings of fear, hopelessness, and helplessness. The qualitative content analysis provided further depth by revealing the different profiles within victims and bullies. Victims were differentiated into resilient, aggressive, self-excluded, and silent profiles. Resilient victims demonstrated a narrative shift that included positive language, indicating recovery and personal growth post-victimization (Sapouna & Wolke, 2013 ). Aggressive victims, in contrast, employed language that signaled retaliation and frustration, reflecting their struggle to manage bullying through counter-aggression. Self-excluded victims used language that reinforced their isolation, such as “I don’t need anyone,” emphasizing their withdrawal as a coping mechanism, which can exacerbate social exclusion (Malamut et al., 2020 ). Silent victims displayed avoidance of direct references to their experiences and downplayed the severity of the bullying, which is consistent with self-blame and an internalized response to trauma. Bullies showed a consistent tendency to diffuse responsibility, using the pronoun “we” more frequently, dehumanizing their victims, and justifying their actions based on the victim’s characteristics or the social support they received when engaging in violent actions. Aggressors displayed language patterns that reflect deflection of responsibility and group-oriented justifications, resonating with the perception of bullies as socially dominant individuals who often seek power and peer approval (Guy et al., 2019 ; Juvonen & Graham, 2014). The use of terms suggesting external validation and minimization of their actions supports the literature describing bullies as individuals with externalizing behavior who may exhibit low empathy and justify their aggression (Lopes de Sousa et al., 2021 ). This study highlights two distinct types of aggressors, a finding that has not been previously documented in the existing literature. Different profiles of bullies emerge. Some remain ignorant of their aggressive role and do not reflect on their behavior, while others are aware that they have hurt others and feel remorse. The former group tends to use the pronoun “they,” along with a greater frequency of adjectives and conflict-related terms. In contrast, the latter group often uses the pronoun “I” and incorporates more words associated with sadness and positive emotions. While the first profile adopts a defensive and aggressive stance, reinforcing a separation between “them” and “us,” which frames others as adversaries or inferiors, those who recognize their actions and experience regret use more introspective language. The focus on “I” indicates a sense of personal responsibility and a deeper emotional connection. By emphasizing feelings of sadness and remorse, these individuals may be undergoing a process of change, seeking to understand the impact of their actions on others. This contrast in language and self-perception can be crucial for addressing bullying from a more empathetic and constructive perspective. This differentiation suggests that while many bullies may not reflect on their behavior during their school years, some develop a sense of empathy and responsibility later in life (Bjärehed et al., 2019). Ultimately, a mixed profile emerged of individuals who had experienced bullying and subsequently became bullies themselves. These individuals tend to use language that indicates less guilt and a smaller gap between duty and desire, along with a greater tendency to employ terms associated with substance use and a heightened focus on status and leadership. It is important to study the dynamics of this dual role (bully-victims), as it is not static but can change over time or even overlap with each other. It is considered that there is more probability of overlapping in the role of these two actors in the context of cyberbullying than in the traditional school context. In other words, adolescents can be both aggressor/victim on social media. Online role makes it possible to interact anonymously and therefore facilitates both cyberbullying and exposure to online victimization. Therefore, adolescents feel free to attack others, while victims of cyberbullying feel more vulnerable, as bullying occurs in a public and persistent space. In general terms, it has been found that bully-victims could be a representation of the coercive and socially excluded aggressors. (e.g., on social networks) (Esteves et al., 2020; Guy et al., 2019 ). Mixed profiles experience distress and psychological problems more intensely, represented in anxiety, depression and low self-esteem compared to those who have a single role. Individual factors such as personality traits, social skills and low emotional control (impulsivity, hostile aggression, poor conflict management) are features of mixed profiles. Contextual factors such as family dynamics, school culture (relationship with peers, social support) may influence the persistence to this shared role change. This points out the importance of considering this dualistic role when talking about prevention and considering the psychological and social factors that maintain it (Esteves et al., 2020; Haynie et al., 2001 ). The detailed description of linguistic styles and content facilitates an understanding of the motives, emotions, and situations experienced by each role associated with school violence. It emphasizes the development of strategies that promote awareness among bullies regarding their roles and the consequences of their actions, as well as strategies to modify social norms that foster violence in both school and digital environments. Conclusions, limitations and practical implications This study offers a comprehensive view of the linguistic markers and profiles of victims, bullies, and victim-aggressors in bullying scenarios. Through the analysis of personal narratives, we have identified linguistic cues that shed light on the psychological and social experiences of these groups. Victims’ language is marked by self-reflection, expressions of emotional distress, and present-focused narratives that align with their vulnerability and the impact of bullying on their mental health. In contrast, bullies often use language that diffuses responsibility, incorporates group references, and displays evaluative adjectives that reflect their social dominance and externalized behavior. These findings support existing literature while providing new insights into how language can reveal the internal states and coping strategies of individuals involved in bullying. One of the key contributions of this study is the identification of two types of aggressors: typical aggressive bullies and those who express remorse and guilt. This differentiation has not been previously documented in the literature, adding depth to the understanding of aggressor profiles. While some bullies maintain a defensive and dehumanizing language toward their victims, others display markers that suggest self-reflection and a willingness to change. The emergence of these nuanced profiles emphasizes that bullies are not a monolithic group but include individuals with diverse perspectives and levels of empathy. Moreover, the study highlights the mixed profile of bully-victims, who embody characteristics of both victims and aggressors. These individuals use a blend of linguistic markers that reflect suffering, power-seeking, and reduced guilt, suggesting complex motivations driven by past victimization and desire of retaliation. Understanding these linguistic indicators is essential for improving bullying detection methods. However, it is important to consider that the narratives were sampled through convenience sampling, so there are limitations to the generalizability of the data. Furthermore, this is an analysis of limited scope, so it is important to implement more robust machine learning models. By leveraging machine learning and natural language processing models, we can enhance the effectiveness of automated detection systems. These systems could analyze the unique vocabulary, grammar, and emotional nuances present in the narratives of victims, bullies, and those who experience both roles. By incorporating these features into algorithms, we can create tools that more accurately assess text data and recognize patterns indicative of bullying behavior. Such tools could play a vital role in identifying harmful content on online platforms, and even, real life bullying scenarios helping to prevent scholar violence and facilitate timely intervention. Declarations Ethics approval This study was conducted in accordance with the principles of the Declaration of Helsinki. Ethical approval was granted by the Ethics Committee of University Name, under minute number 33, dated October 17, 2023. Consent to Publish Declaration Consent to Publish Declaration does not apply for this paper. Funding statement This study was funded by the University Name through the 2024 internal research grant, approved by the Central Research Committee, under Act 52 dated November 16, 2023. The authors have no relevant financial or non-financial interests to disclose. Author Contribution All authors conceived and designed the analysis; D.C.G.V. Collected the data and performed the analysis. All authors discussed the results and contributed to the final manuscript. Data Availability The data that support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request. References Bjärehed, M., Thornberg, R., Wänström, L., & Gini, G. (2020). Mechanisms of Moral Disengagement and Their Associations with Indirect Bullying, Direct Bullying, and Pro-Aggressive Bystander Behavior. T he Journal of Early Adolescence, 40 (1), 28-55. https://doi.org/10.1177/0272431618824745 Estévez, E., Cañas, E., Estévez, J. F., & Povedano, A. (2020). Continuity and overlap of roles in victims and aggressors of bullying and cyberbullying in adolescence: A systematic review. International journal of environmental research and public health , 17 (20), 7452. doi: 10.3390/ijerph17207452 Gini, G. & Pozzoli, T. (2009). Association Between Bullying and Psychosomatic Problems: A Meta-analysis. Pediatrics , 123 (3), 1059–1065. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2008-1215. Guy, A., Lee, K., & Wolke, D. (2019). Comparisons Between Adolescent Bullies, Victims, and Bully-Victims on Perceived Popularity, Social Impact, and Social Preference. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 10 , 868. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2019.00868 Haynie, D. L., Nansel, T., Eitel, P., Crump, A. D., Saylor, K., Yu, K., & Simons-Morton, B. (2001). Bullies, Victims, and Bully/Victims: Distinct Groups of At-Risk Youth. The Journal of Early Adolescence, 21 (1), 29-49. https://doi.org/10.1177/0272431601021001002 Jones, R., & Williams, T. (2019). Early identification and prevention of cyberbullying in schools: A systematic review. Cyberpsychology: Journal of Psychosocial Research on Cyberspace . 13 (1), 25-37. https://doi.org/10.5817/CP2019-1-3. Kennedy, R. S. (2018). Bully-Victims: An Analysis of Subtypes and Risk Characteristics. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 36 (11-12), 5401–5421. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260517741213 Li, C., Wang, P., & Martin-Moratinos, M. (2024). Traditional bullying and cyberbullying in the digital age and its associated mental health problems in children and adolescents: a meta-analysis. European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 33 , 2895–2909. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00787-022-02128-x Lopes de Sousa, M., Peixoto, M. M., Figueredo, C. S. (2021). The Association between Externalizing and Internalizing Problems with Bullying Engagement in Adolescents: The Mediating Role of Social Skills. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health , 18 (19), 10444. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph181910444 Malamut, S. T., van den Ber, Y., Lansu, T. A., & Cillessen, A. H. (2020). Dyadic nominations of bullying: Comparing types of bullies and their victims. Aggressive Behavior, 46 (3), 232-243. https://doi.org/10.1002/ab.21884 Martínez-Monteagudo, M.C., Delgado, B., García-Fernández, J.M., & Rubio, E. (2019). Cyberbullying, Aggressiveness, and Emotional Intelligence in Adolescence. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health , 16 (24), 5079. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16245079 Menesini, E., & Salmivalli, C. (2017). Bullying in schools: the state of knowledge and effective interventions. Psychology, Health & Medicine, 22 (1), 240–253. https://doi.org/10.1080/13548506.2017.1279740 Moore, S.E., Norman, R.E., Suetani, S., Thomas, H.J., Sly, P.D. & Scott, J.G. (2017). Consequences of bullying victimization in childhood and adolescence: A systematic review and meta-analysis. World Journal of Psychiatry, 7 (1), 60-76. https://doi.org/10.5498/wjp.v7.i1.60 Polanin, J. R., Espelage, D. L., Pigott, T. D., & Betts, J. (2012). A Meta-Analysis of School-Based Bullying Prevention Programs’ Effects on Bystander Intervention Behavior. School Psychology Review , 41 (1), 47–65. https://doi.org/10.1080/02796015.2012.12087375 Radcliffe, A. M., Lumley, M. A., Kendall, J., Stevenson, J. K., & Beltran, J. (2010). Written Emotional Disclosure: Testing Whether Social Disclosure Matters. Journal of social and clinical psychology , 26 (3), 362–384. https://doi.org/10.1521/jscp.2007.26.3.362 Sapouna, M. & Wolke, D. (2013). Resilience to bullying victimization: The role of individual, family and peer characteristics. Child Abuse & Neglect, 37 (11), 997-1006. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2013.05.009 Shetgiri, R. (2013). Bullying and Victimization Among Children. Advances in Pediatrics , 60 (1), 33–51. 10.1016/j.yapd.2013.04.004 Smith, P., Jones, A., & Brown, L. (2020). The impact of school violence on children's psychosocial development: A cross-cultural study. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 61 (5):567-580. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcpp.13209. Sureda-Garcia, I., Valera-Pozo, M., Sanchez-Azanza, V., Adrover-Roig, D., & Aguilar-Mediavilla, E. (2021). Associations Between Self, Peer, and Teacher Reports of Victimization and Social Skills in School in Children with Language Disorders. Frontiers in Psychology, 12 , 718110. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.718110 Xu, Y. (2021). The Invisible Aggressive Fist: Features of Cyberbullying Language in China. International Journal for the Semiotics of Law, 34 , 1041–1064. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11196-020-09746-1 Ye, Z., Wu, D., He, X., Ma, Q., Peng, J., Mao, G., Feng, L. & Tong, Y. (2023). Meta-analysis of the relationship between bullying and depressive symptoms in children and adolescents. BMC Psychiatry 23, 215. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-023-04681-4 Zhong, J., Qiu, J., Sun, M., Jin, X., Zhang, J., Guo, Y., Qiu, X., Xu, Y., Huang, J., & Zheng, Y. (2022) To Be Ethical and Responsible Digital Citizens or Not: A Linguistic Analysis of Cyberbullying on Social Media. Frontiers in Psychology, 13, 861823. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.861823 Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Cite Share Download PDF Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-6180184","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":441134722,"identity":"7f6da104-be0a-460e-a41a-0c7233e598f5","order_by":0,"name":"Diana Camila Garzón-Velandia","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAABBklEQVRIiWNgGAWjYDCCA1CaH0JZ8IApHmK0SDaAORIkaDE4ANHCQFAL3/HjFz9X/LHJM76R/PDzhwoJGf72A4wP3rYxyPPj0CJ5JqdY8gxPWrHZjTRjiQNnJHgkziQwG85tYzCc2YBdi8ENngTJBonDidtu5DBIHGyT4DFgSGCT5m1jSDA4gFNL8s8Gg8OJm2fkMP8Aa+F/wP4bvxb2Y5INCYcTN0jksEFskUhgY8anBegXNsuGA2mJM848M7M4A/LLjYfNknPOSeD0CzDEHt9s+GOT2N+e/PhGRYWNPX9/8sEPb8pscIYYMAoM0EUYQcZL4NTAwMD+AI/kKBgFo2AUjAIgAADdi1ujpyoRKQAAAABJRU5ErkJggg==","orcid":"","institution":"Catholic University of Colombia","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Diana","middleName":"Camila","lastName":"Garzón-Velandia","suffix":""},{"id":441134723,"identity":"21a37638-9640-4d03-bfb2-927b823245e5","order_by":1,"name":"Nathalia Rey-Gómez","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Catholic University of Colombia","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Nathalia","middleName":"","lastName":"Rey-Gómez","suffix":""},{"id":441134724,"identity":"f46d7332-507d-41fa-ba81-8910725ffbfe","order_by":2,"name":"Miguel Eduardo Uribe-Moreno","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Catholic University of Colombia","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Miguel","middleName":"Eduardo","lastName":"Uribe-Moreno","suffix":""},{"id":441134725,"identity":"18073da6-f18a-4d45-983a-d41d0132fbb1","order_by":3,"name":"Marcela Velasco-Salamanca","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Catholic University of Colombia","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Marcela","middleName":"","lastName":"Velasco-Salamanca","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2025-03-07 17:53:10","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6180184/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-6180184/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":80387769,"identity":"83d767a7-ff15-4f57-af3b-d3b445f7f471","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-04-11 10:28:06","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":609753,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eFactorial plane of the most characteristic and frequent words of each type of actor in English.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Fig1.Eng.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6180184/v1/a8c1ccf10780a9c21619a2db.png"},{"id":80386748,"identity":"abc92d20-03bc-494c-9182-b6bf9fdca9d2","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-04-11 10:20:06","extension":"jpg","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":113232,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eFactorial plane of the most characteristic and frequent words of each type of actor in Spanish\u003c/em\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Fig2.Spa.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6180184/v1/945dab12dfde3f02b9cfb43a.jpg"},{"id":82161379,"identity":"5f40ac4e-b09d-4d88-b2e6-b42f75bcbbbd","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-05-07 08:38:46","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":1633587,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6180184/v1/b274e3b9-9598-4295-8624-6d1104c88fd3.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"What do the narratives tell us about victims and bullies?","fulltext":[{"header":"Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eSchool bullying is a prevalent issue affecting children and adolescents worldwide, manifesting in various forms, including physical, verbal, and relational aggression (Craig et al., 2009). Violent environments have significant impacts on the psychosocial development of children who grow up amidst systematic abuse. According to meta-analyses of bullying effects on children, kids who experience bullying in the role of victim tend to have mental health vulnerabilities that make them susceptible to victimization. Similarly, exposure to bullying violence is a risk factor for the development of anxiety, depression, non-suicidal self-harm, psychosomatic problems, suicidal ideation, and suicide attempts (Gini \u0026amp; Pozzoli, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e; Ye et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe motivations behind bullying behavior and the characteristics of both perpetrators and victims have been extensively studied. Bullies are often perceived as confident and socially dominant, frequently enjoying a higher status among peers compared to victims (Guy et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; Juvonen \u0026amp; Graham, 2014). Victims, in contrast, tend to exhibit traits such as anxiety, low self-esteem, and sensitivity, which may render them more susceptible to victimization and its persistence over time (Sureda-Garc\u0026iacute;a, 2021). Research indicates that there is a complex interplay between bullying, social dynamics, and individual characteristics. For instance, bullies may specifically target socially marginalized peers, believing these individuals to be 'easy targets' and perceiving less risk of social repercussions for their actions. Furthermore, victims may experience decreased social preference, making them less likely to be included in social interactions, which can create a vicious cycle of isolation and further victimization (Guy et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAlthough bullies do not appear to be affected by exposure to violence from the aggressor's perspective, they are at risk for depression, frequent alcohol and drug use, externalizing problems, and poor school adjustment. Usually, in addition to the situations of school violence, there are situations outside of school that they must deal with that lead to the externalization of their emotions in the form of school aggression (Li et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e; Moore et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eChildren who have experienced violence from both perspectives, as bullies and victims, have the greatest impact when exposed to the whole situation of violence. Effects include poor psychosocial functioning, poor self-control, vulnerability to peer rejection, negative emotions, lowest life satisfaction, and highest risk of depression compared to bullies and victims (Li et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e; Ye et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAdditionally, a distinction has been made between two subgroups of aggressors: bullies and bully-victims, the latter being individuals who both perpetrate and experience bullying. Bully-victims often display high levels of reactive aggression and poor social skills, leading to their marginalization within peer groups (Zhong et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo understand the complexities of bullying dynamics, it is essential to explore the profiles of those involved, particularly the various types of victims and aggressors. Different subgroups exhibit unique traits and face distinct challenges that contribute to the perpetuation of bullying behaviors. Victims, bullies, and bully-victims each display specific psychological and social characteristics that influence their roles in bullying scenarios and their interactions within their social environment. This differentiation provides insight into the motivations and vulnerabilities associated with each group, revealing how individual traits and social contexts interplay to shape the experiences of those involved.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFirstly, resilient victims are characterized by their ability to cope with bullying without exhibiting significant negative emotional or behavioral responses. They often possess strong social support networks and coping mechanisms that help them withstand the effects of bullying. This group may report lower levels of distress compared to other victim types, indicating a capacity to recover from adverse experiences (Sapouna \u0026amp; Wolke, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSecondly, aggressive victims engage in both victimization and bullying behaviors. They may retaliate against their aggressors and exhibit impulsive aggression. This dual role can stem from feelings of frustration and helplessness, leading them to adopt aggressive strategies as a means of self-defense. Research indicates that this group often faces severe psychological issues, such as high rates of depression and anxiety, due to their complex social interactions and experiences (Kennedy, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; Shetgiri, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eLastly, victims who tend to withdraw from social interactions as a response to bullying may isolate themselves to avoid further victimization. They do not report their experiences of bullying, often due to fear of retaliation or shame, which can exacerbate feelings of loneliness and depression. This withdrawal can lead to a cycle of exclusion, where the lack of social engagement further diminishes their social skills and peer relationships. They may suffer in silence, experiencing significant emotional distress without seeking help or support. This group is often characterized by low self-esteem and may struggle with anxiety and depression as they internalize their experiences without externalizing them (Malamut et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eUnlike victims, who are categorized into different types in the literature based on their characteristics and responses to bullying, aggressors tend to be represented by a more unified profile. Bullies are characterized by their consistent use of intimidation and aggressive behaviors towards others. They often display traits such as high levels of impulsivity, low empathy, moral justification, and a tendency to engage in risky behaviors. These individuals may derive social status or satisfaction from exerting power over their victims, often leading to a cycle of violence and retaliation. Studies have shown that aggressive bullies frequently exhibit externalizing behaviors and may struggle with emotional regulation, which can perpetuate their bullying actions over time (Bj\u0026auml;rehed et al., 2019; Lopes de Sousa et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Mart\u0026iacute;nez-Monteagudo et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn some research, it has been found that some victims can turn into aggressors and some aggressors could become victims as a change of role in new environments. This group\u0026rsquo;s use of conflicting emotional and cognitive expressions highlights their complex position in the bullying cycle, where initial victimization can lead to aggressive responses and subsequent guilt (Kennedy, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; Li et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). These findings reinforce the notion that the roles in bullying are not rigid but fluid, with individuals shifting between victim and perpetrator roles under varying social and personal conditions.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eUnderstanding the lived experience of victims, bullies and mixed profiles (bullies and victims) is crucial for the development of effective interventions that are adapted to the needs and motivations of each of the actors involved. These dynamics underscore the necessity for comprehensive interventions that address not only the behavior of bullies but also the vulnerabilities of victims (Jones \u0026amp; Williams, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; Smith et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). Understanding cognitive, behavioral and emotional cues, such as differential linguistic markers used by victims and bullies could enhance our ability to identify and address these complex social interactions within educational settings. Given that linguistic markers can provide less biased information about the experiences of children involved in bullying situations, in contrast to self-report measures.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eLinguistic markers related to bullying scenarios\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eResearch on linguistic markers within school bullying aims to identify the distinctive language features that separate victims from perpetrators. These markers include lexical and grammatical elements, as well as the emotional tone expressed in communication. Despite its importance, there is a limited number of studies dedicated to uncovering these patterns in bullying contexts.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eLexical Features\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eLexical analysis reveals distinct differences in word usage between bullies and victims. Research indicates that cyberbullying comments often feature a higher word count, an increased frequency of swear words, and a greater reliance on second-person pronouns (e.g., \"you\") and third-person singular pronouns (e.g., \"he,\" \"she\") compared to non-bullying comments (Xu, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). Furthermore, bullies are characterized by a higher density of offensive language, which frequently includes user identifiers such as second-person pronouns directed at the victim. This pattern suggests that bullies use language that is more aggressive and confrontational (Zhong et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eGrammatical Features\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eGrammatical features also play a critical role in distinguishing between the language of bullies and that of their victims. Studies have found that the use of imperative sentences, which convey commands, is more prevalent among bullies, as these constructions often express stronger emotions and sentiments. In contrast, victims' language may reflect a different emotional state, with fewer instances of aggressive language and a tendency toward more passive expressions. This divergence can be observed through the use of negations and interjections, which are more common in victims' comments (Zhong et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eEmotional expression\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eVictims of bullying often exhibit linguistic markers indicative of emotional distress and low self-esteem. Studies have found that victims frequently use language reflecting anxiety, sensitivity, and a lack of confidence, which can contribute to their vulnerability to ongoing victimization. They may employ expressions that convey feelings of isolation or hopelessness, illustrating their struggles with social acceptance and emotional regulation. In contrast, bullies tend to display higher self-esteem and may use language that signifies dominance and confidence, positioning themselves as socially adept within peer group. This difference in emotional expression is critical, as it can impact how each group is perceived by their peers (Wang et al., 2024; Leiner et al., 2014).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn line with the importance of developing deferential linguistic profiles for bullying understanding, this study aims to identify differential linguistic markers between victims of school bullying and bullies in order to provide evidence to facilitate the understanding of bullying from different perspectives through language.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Method","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec7\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eCorpora\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003e238 posts or videos (116 in English and 122 in Spanish) from social media platforms like Reddit, Facebook, and YouTube were analyzed, from countries such as, USA, UK, Ireland, Australia, Spain, Aregentina, Puerto Rico, Colombia and Mexico. These social media were selected because they allowed the diffusion of personal narratives of bullying experiences. Narratives, videos, or posts were chosen if they were first-person narratives of bullying, threats, or comments of violence that were sent or posted directly by the perpetrators. News stories that narrated bullying situations from an external perspective, videos explaining or exemplifying bullying, and reports of bullying situations by third parties were eliminated, given that they do not represent directly experienced bullying.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eProcedure\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eOnce the videos and posts were selected, their content was downloaded directly, or the subtitles were downloaded, as in the case of YouTube videos. Comments replying to the chosen posts were not considered. The content was refined and classified according to the language and the role of the speaker: victim, bully, or mixed profile (bully and victim).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAfterward, the texts were placed in a database, complemented with variables such as social network and perspective (bully, victim, or mixed profile). This database was first analyzed through a statistical analysis of textual data performed using SPAD software. This analysis allows us to identify a corpus's most common and characteristic words segmented in one or several categorical variables. In this case, the verbal data were the narratives, and the variable category was the bullying perspective. For this purpose, the text was lemmatized to merge the words into their lexical roots and words with frequencies less than two were eliminated to depurate the text, which allowed us to work with 80.6% of the corpus.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAs a second step, data was analyzed using \u003cem\u003eLinguistic Inquiry and Word Count\u003c/em\u003e - LIWC software. This software analyzes the words in a corpus and classifies them into underlying categories that are placed in dictionaries. The English dictionary of 2022, the Spanish dictionary of Ramirez-Esparza et al. (2007), and the dictionary of intergroup emotions by Garz\u0026oacute;n et al. (2020) were used. From the percentages obtained in the linguistic categories resulting from the LIWC analysis, ANOVA was performed to determine the differences between the linguistic and psychological categories according to each perspective (victim, bully, and mixed profile).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFinally, a qualitative content analysis of the selected narratives was carried out to identify commonalities between the actors, both in English and Spanish. The analysis made it possible to identify different profiles of victims, bullies, and mixed profiles, which enabled us to identify behavior patterns and motivations.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Results","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec10\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eEnglish linguistic markers\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eOn the factorial plane (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e), which is based on the statistical analysis of the textual data, it can be observed that the language of the three types of actors is different, as they are in different quadrants. It is noticeable that the category of mixed profiles is located exactly in the middle between victims and bullies. They are characterized by using words that show the suffering of experiencing violence as a victim (hell, scared, horrible), these words are located in the lower left quadrant, whereas in the lower right quadrant are words that show attempts to avoid being exposed as a victim (tried, bad, fight, against).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e Victims show verbal behavior in which they refer to the actors they go to for help and to stop episodes of school violence (parents, teachers, class, mom), however, in many cases asking for help can end up fruitless or worse, evidenced in the words (worse and hated). Likewise, the use of words associated with negative emotions (crying, hate, alone, deal) is evident, typical of descriptions of situations of school bullying. However, words such as amazing, happy, and today show an overcoming of the situation of victimization, typical of the reflection of narratives in which bullying is remembered as a past event.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eBullies often refer to others in their narratives (friends, group, fun, us) to justify their actions so that the responsibility does not fall solely on them. A cognitive reflection on the situation of violence is observed in words such as think, feel, and wish, which denote remorse, typical of adults who told their stories of bullying as an episode in their life that they regret (wrong, sorry, felt).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eBased on the analyses performed with the LIWC software, Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e shows the English language categories in which statistically significant differences were found based on the ANOVA analysis. In these, it is found that the victims of bullying use more frequently the pronoun I, the category all-none, suggesting polarized thinking, greater use of words associated with mental health risks, and an attentional focus on the family and the present.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eBullies use the pronoun \u0026ldquo;she\u0026rdquo; or \u0026ldquo;he\" more frequently, and they use more adjectives that tend to be associated with positive or negative evaluations. They also use more words related to the discrepancy between want and should, although more associated words are certitude in their speeches. Emotionally, they have a negative tone, marked by anger and a focus on the past.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMixed profiles show a higher use of words associated with Clout seeking, a higher use of words associated with feeling, and a higher use of words associated with substance use.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eEnglish differential linguistic categories based on role perspective\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"4\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCategory\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVictims\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBullies\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVictims-Bullies\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eI pronoun\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e9,67\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9,22\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7,58\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAll-none\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e1,88\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1,52\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0,89\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFamily\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0,63\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0,56\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0,11\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMental\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0,18\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0,09\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0,00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRisk\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0,22\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0,17\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0,07\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNon fluency\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0,21\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0,14\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0,00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFocus present\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e3,93\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2,77\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3,88\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eShe - he\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1,83\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e2,81\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2,08\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAdjectives\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5,49\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e6,43\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5,06\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDiscrepancy\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1,74\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e1,88\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0,48\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCertitude\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0,82\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e1,07\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0,39\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNegative tone\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3,08\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e3,86\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2,96\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAnger\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0,21\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0,46\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0,27\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFocus past\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8,50\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e9,92\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6,39\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFeeling\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0,69\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0,69\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e1,01\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSubstances\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0,01\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0,02\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0,28\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eClout\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e27,18\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e26,73\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e33,24\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003ctfoot\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"4\"\u003eNote: Values in bold correspond to data with statistically significant differences among groups (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.05).\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tfoot\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eSpanish linguistic markers\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eDespite the different languages, it is noted that the placement of the three types of actors is maintained in Spanish, as well as in English, placing the mixed profiles in the middle between victims and bullies. In Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e shows the most frequent and characteristic words of the bullies are related to the experiences of childhood in which the experiences of violence are recounted using the pronoun we (nosotros), relating friends (amigos), others (otro). However, there are also words in which responsibility is assumed directly, such as cry (llorar), I saw (ve\u0026iacute;a), I felt (sent\u0026iacute;a), with me (conmigo), with a perspective of the present (I am) (soy), I belive (creo). Victims use words that refer to the help (ayudar) they asked for from their families (familia) and parents (padres, madre), and how this could result in a worse response (peor). Similarly, words directly related to harassment are found, such as insults (insultos), fat (gorda), fight (pelea), alone (sola). On the other hand, the words used by the mixed profiles denote that from the situations (acoso) they had experienced, they decided (decid\u0026iacute;) to make changes (cambiar) with their situation, avoiding the past (pasado) and looking for power (poder) to feel better (major).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eHowever, the linguistic categories were slightly different in Spanish, due to the different grammatical structures of the two languages. Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e shows the LIWC categories that presented statistically significant differences among groups. It is evident that victims in Spanish focus, as in English, on themselves, although they use more frequently the pronoun \u0026ldquo;They\u0026rdquo;, as well as words associated with suffering. Bullies more frequently use the pronoun \u0026ldquo;We\u0026rdquo;, as well as words related to jealousy and pleasure. While mixed profiles are characterized by more use of the pronouns, she or he, more words associated with the discrepancy between duty and want, as well as words associated with confusion and guilt.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSpanish differential linguistic categories based on role perspective\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"4\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCategory\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVictims\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBullies\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVictims-Bullies\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eI pronoun\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e5,6\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4,2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4,2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eThey\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e2,7\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1,5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2,6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSuffering\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e1,0\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0,6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0,5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWe\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0,16\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0,46\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0,21\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePleasure\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0,19\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0,51\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0,16\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eJealousy\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0,43\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0,92\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0,43\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eShe - He\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5,52\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6,36\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e6,87\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDiscrepancy\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1,17\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0,96\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e2,11\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eConfusion\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0,07\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0,01\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0,20\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGuilt\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0,72\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0,99\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e1,02\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003ctfoot\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"4\"\u003eNote: Values in bold correspond to data with statistically significant differences among groups (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.05).\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tfoot\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eDifferent kinds of victims\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eRegarding qualitative content analysis, four different victim profiles were identified in both languages. The first, the \u003cem\u003eresilient victim\u003c/em\u003e, recognizes the bullying experience, as evidenced by phrases indicating a desire to overcome the situation. The victims demonstrate an ability to identify their emotions and actively seek ways to cope with the bullying. Many victims ultimately described their experiences as a source of long-term strength. Despite the emotional and psychological toll, some noted that surviving bullying had made them more resilient and confident in adulthood. They emphasized that enduring the trauma gave them a thicker skin and a greater ability to cope with future challenges.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eA smaller subset of victims, often after enduring extended periods of bullying, lashed out either verbally or physically. This aggressive response was a last resort for most victims, occurring after they had reached their breaking point. However, this response often led to further conflict and trouble with authority figures. These are the characteristics of the second profile, the \u003cem\u003eaggressive victim\u003c/em\u003e, who uses language that reflects anger and a desire for revenge or confrontation. Feel the need to regain control and protect themselves. May exhibit similar behaviors toward others as a defense mechanism.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMost victims responded to bullying by avoiding their bullies and withdrawing from social interaction. This coping mechanism was seen across age groups and school settings. Many felt safer isolating themselves, even if it led to social exclusion and academic struggles. These are the \u003cem\u003eself-excluded victims\u003c/em\u003e who use phrases that justify their isolation, such as \"I don't need anyone\". Reflect a rejection of social interaction, which may be a defense mechanism, and tend to avoid social situations for fear of being hurt.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFinally, many victims internalized the bullying, feeling that they were somehow to blame for their treatment. They questioned their self-worth and often believed that there was something inherently wrong with them. The self-blame exacerbated their emotional struggles and often prevented them from seeking help. This is the main characteristic of \u003cem\u003esilent victims\u003c/em\u003e, who avoid talking directly about their experiences and often downplay bullying as a strategy to deal with it indirectly.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eTo repent or not to repent? That is the question.\u003c/b\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe content that bullies mentioned in their narratives allowed us to identify two different types of profiles. The first, the usual \u003cem\u003eaggressive bully\u003c/em\u003e, tends to justify their actions by describing the harassment as \"pranks\" or downplaying its significance. They often use derogatory language to refer to the victims, using nicknames, insults, or highlighting their physical or psychological characteristics. In some cases, they express a kind of pride or satisfaction in the power they wield over others or do not recognize or downplay their actions in sentences such as \"I didn't think I was being a bully\" or \"I thought we were just having fun\".\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSome adults who recounted their experiences as school bullies as children or adolescents demonstrated a reflective process in which they questioned their role as aggressors, the impact of their actions, and the variables that led them to engage in school violence. These are the \u003cem\u003erepentant aggressors\u003c/em\u003e, who are often aware of the pain and emotional consequences of their actions on their victims. They manifest feelings of guilt and regret as they reflect on their past actions and attempt to apologize to their victims or seek ways to make amends.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMost bullies, regardless of the type of profile, describe being influenced by peer pressure or the desire to fit in. Group dynamics and following the crowd often play a key role in their behaviors. However, another part describes dysfunctional or abusive home environments, which they believe led them to act out aggressively toward peers.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec13\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eThe order of violence matters\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eWhen analyzing the narratives of children who were victims and bullies, it was found that they reacted differently depending on whether they were victims or bullies first. In the case of those who were \u003cem\u003efirst victims and then bullies\u003c/em\u003e, they begin to feel powerless, insecure, or afraid, which leads them to retaliate and become bullies, often to regain control and prevent further victimization. Their actions are usually motivated by anger and a desire for revenge. Often feel empowered after retaliating. Over time, however, they may develop feelings of guilt or shame as they reflect on the harm they have caused, although their initial bullying is often seen as justified.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eHowever, if they were \u003cem\u003efirst bullies and then victims\u003c/em\u003e, the children with mixed profiles showed initial behavior driven by a need for control, personal insecurity a lack of empathy, or the necessity of using dominance to control others. Later, they become victims, often experiencing the consequences of their earlier actions. The experience of becoming a victim tends to make them think more deeply about the harm they have caused others, as they now experience it firsthand.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eIn order to identify linguistic markers that could differentiate the roles of victims, bullies, and mixed profiles (victim-bullies), this research took a sample of social network posts containing personal narratives about bullying. Through different quantitative and qualitative language analyses, we identified characteristic words, linguistic, psychological, and emotional categories, and distinctive profiles in each of the roles and their perspectives.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAlthough slight differences were observed between the languages—and therefore, the cultures—convergences were found in the narratives of bullies, victims, and mixed profiles (both bullies and victims). Victims tend to personalize their narrative focusing on themselves in the present. At the same time, the victims focus their attention on the perpetrators of violence and their current effects. There is an evident use of terms associated with mental health risks and suffering which is consistent with bullying consequences.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe results reveal that victims’ narratives are marked by a focus on self-reflection, suffering, and present-oriented expressions, consistent with findings that highlight their emotional distress and self-critical nature (Sureda-García, 2021; Malamut et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). These narratives also underscore the internalized struggles of victims, such as feelings of isolation and helplessness, aligning with the documented consequences of bullying exposure, like anxiety and depression (Moore et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e; Ye et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eVictims displayed linguistic patterns characterized by self-focused language, as evidenced by a higher use of the pronoun “I,” which reflects introspection and personal impact. This aligns with research emphasizing that victims often internalize their experiences, leading to self-blame and emotional distress (Sureda-García, 2021). Additionally, victims' narratives contained more words related to suffering, mental health risks, and polarized thinking, indicating a heightened state of vulnerability. The frequent use of words associated with negative emotions such as “crying,” “alone,” and “hate” underscores the emotional toll of bullying, confirming previous findings that link victimization to depression, anxiety, and feelings of helplessness (Gini \u0026amp; Pozzoli, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e; Ye et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). The emotional tone of victims’ language, focused on present circumstances and an attentional emphasis on family and support systems, suggests an ongoing search for help that may not always be effective, as reflected by terms like “worse” and “hated”.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe content of their narratives allows for the identification of different victim profiles, such as those who isolate themselves, those who respond aggressively, those who resist the aggression, and those who remain silent in the face of their situation. Overall, a pattern of emotional vulnerability, self-criticism, and derogatory language directed at themselves is identified, along with feelings of fear, hopelessness, and helplessness.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe qualitative content analysis provided further depth by revealing the different profiles within victims and bullies. Victims were differentiated into resilient, aggressive, self-excluded, and silent profiles. Resilient victims demonstrated a narrative shift that included positive language, indicating recovery and personal growth post-victimization (Sapouna \u0026amp; Wolke, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e). Aggressive victims, in contrast, employed language that signaled retaliation and frustration, reflecting their struggle to manage bullying through counter-aggression. Self-excluded victims used language that reinforced their isolation, such as “I don’t need anyone,” emphasizing their withdrawal as a coping mechanism, which can exacerbate social exclusion (Malamut et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). Silent victims displayed avoidance of direct references to their experiences and downplayed the severity of the bullying, which is consistent with self-blame and an internalized response to trauma.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eBullies showed a consistent tendency to diffuse responsibility, using the pronoun “we” more frequently, dehumanizing their victims, and justifying their actions based on the victim’s characteristics or the social support they received when engaging in violent actions. Aggressors displayed language patterns that reflect deflection of responsibility and group-oriented justifications, resonating with the perception of bullies as socially dominant individuals who often seek power and peer approval (Guy et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; Juvonen \u0026amp; Graham, 2014). The use of terms suggesting external validation and minimization of their actions supports the literature describing bullies as individuals with externalizing behavior who may exhibit low empathy and justify their aggression (Lopes de Sousa et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study highlights two distinct types of aggressors, a finding that has not been previously documented in the existing literature. Different profiles of bullies emerge. Some remain ignorant of their aggressive role and do not reflect on their behavior, while others are aware that they have hurt others and feel remorse. The former group tends to use the pronoun “they,” along with a greater frequency of adjectives and conflict-related terms. In contrast, the latter group often uses the pronoun “I” and incorporates more words associated with sadness and positive emotions. While the first profile adopts a defensive and aggressive stance, reinforcing a separation between “them” and “us,” which frames others as adversaries or inferiors, those who recognize their actions and experience regret use more introspective language. The focus on “I” indicates a sense of personal responsibility and a deeper emotional connection. By emphasizing feelings of sadness and remorse, these individuals may be undergoing a process of change, seeking to understand the impact of their actions on others. This contrast in language and self-perception can be crucial for addressing bullying from a more empathetic and constructive perspective. This differentiation suggests that while many bullies may not reflect on their behavior during their school years, some develop a sense of empathy and responsibility later in life (Bjärehed et al., 2019).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eUltimately, a mixed profile emerged of individuals who had experienced bullying and subsequently became bullies themselves. These individuals tend to use language that indicates less guilt and a smaller gap between duty and desire, along with a greater tendency to employ terms associated with substance use and a heightened focus on status and leadership. It is important to study the dynamics of this dual role (bully-victims), as it is not static but can change over time or even overlap with each other. It is considered that there is more probability of overlapping in the role of these two actors in the context of cyberbullying than in the traditional school context. In other words, adolescents can be both aggressor/victim on social media. Online role makes it possible to interact anonymously and therefore facilitates both cyberbullying and exposure to online victimization. Therefore, adolescents feel free to attack others, while victims of cyberbullying feel more vulnerable, as bullying occurs in a public and persistent space. In general terms, it has been found that bully-victims could be a representation of the coercive and socially excluded aggressors. (e.g., on social networks) (Esteves et al., 2020; Guy et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMixed profiles experience distress and psychological problems more intensely, represented in anxiety, depression and low self-esteem compared to those who have a single role. Individual factors such as personality traits, social skills and low emotional control (impulsivity, hostile aggression, poor conflict management) are features of mixed profiles. Contextual factors such as family dynamics, school culture (relationship with peers, social support) may influence the persistence to this shared role change. This points out the importance of considering this dualistic role when talking about prevention and considering the psychological and social factors that maintain it (Esteves et al., 2020; Haynie et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2001\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe detailed description of linguistic styles and content facilitates an understanding of the motives, emotions, and situations experienced by each role associated with school violence. It emphasizes the development of strategies that promote awareness among bullies regarding their roles and the consequences of their actions, as well as strategies to modify social norms that foster violence in both school and digital environments.\u003c/p\u003e "},{"header":"Conclusions, limitations and practical implications","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis study offers a comprehensive view of the linguistic markers and profiles of victims, bullies, and victim-aggressors in bullying scenarios. Through the analysis of personal narratives, we have identified linguistic cues that shed light on the psychological and social experiences of these groups. Victims’ language is marked by self-reflection, expressions of emotional distress, and present-focused narratives that align with their vulnerability and the impact of bullying on their mental health. In contrast, bullies often use language that diffuses responsibility, incorporates group references, and displays evaluative adjectives that reflect their social dominance and externalized behavior. These findings support existing literature while providing new insights into how language can reveal the internal states and coping strategies of individuals involved in bullying.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eOne of the key contributions of this study is the identification of two types of aggressors: typical aggressive bullies and those who express remorse and guilt. This differentiation has not been previously documented in the literature, adding depth to the understanding of aggressor profiles. While some bullies maintain a defensive and dehumanizing language toward their victims, others display markers that suggest self-reflection and a willingness to change. The emergence of these nuanced profiles emphasizes that bullies are not a monolithic group but include individuals with diverse perspectives and levels of empathy. Moreover, the study highlights the mixed profile of bully-victims, who embody characteristics of both victims and aggressors. These individuals use a blend of linguistic markers that reflect suffering, power-seeking, and reduced guilt, suggesting complex motivations driven by past victimization and desire of retaliation.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eUnderstanding these linguistic indicators is essential for improving bullying detection methods. However, it is important to consider that the narratives were sampled through convenience sampling, so there are limitations to the generalizability of the data. Furthermore, this is an analysis of limited scope, so it is important to implement more robust machine learning models. By leveraging machine learning and natural language processing models, we can enhance the effectiveness of automated detection systems. These systems could analyze the unique vocabulary, grammar, and emotional nuances present in the narratives of victims, bullies, and those who experience both roles. By incorporating these features into algorithms, we can create tools that more accurately assess text data and recognize patterns indicative of bullying behavior. Such tools could play a vital role in identifying harmful content on online platforms, and even, real life bullying scenarios helping to prevent scholar violence and facilitate timely intervention.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEthics approval\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis study was conducted in accordance with the principles of the Declaration of Helsinki. Ethical approval was granted by the Ethics Committee of University Name, under minute number 33, dated October 17, 2023.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConsent to Publish Declaration\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eConsent to Publish Declaration does not apply for this paper.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFunding statement\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003c/strong\u003eThis study was funded by the University Name through the 2024 internal research grant, approved by the Central Research Committee, under Act 52 dated November 16, 2023. The authors have no relevant financial or non-financial interests to disclose.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAuthor Contribution\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eAll authors conceived and designed the analysis; D.C.G.V. Collected the data and performed the analysis. 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(2022) To Be Ethical and Responsible Digital Citizens or Not: A Linguistic Analysis of Cyberbullying on Social Media.\u003cem\u003e Frontiers in Psychology, 13,\u003c/em\u003e 861823. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.861823 \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"bullying, natural language processing, social media, victims, aggression","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6180184/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-6180184/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eThe study analyzes the linguistic markers of personal narratives from victims, bullies, and mixed profiles (individuals who have experienced both roles) in bullying situations across social media. Using statistical and qualitative methods, the research identifies distinct linguistic and psychological categories associated with each role. Victims' language reflects self-focus and emotional distress, often associated with vulnerability and an emphasis on immediate personal experience, including terms related to suffering and mental health challenges. Bullies, conversely, display language that deflects responsibility, often involving group-oriented justifications and evaluative adjectives, highlighting social dominance and externalized behaviors. Mixed profiles exhibit complex language patterns indicating distress, power-seeking, and reduced guilt, possibly driven by previous victimization and a desire for retribution. By identifying these nuanced linguistic features, the study enhances understanding of the psychological and social dynamics underpinning bullying, suggesting that language analysis could inform more precise detection and intervention strategies for both traditional and cyberbullying. These findings underscore the need for empathy-driven and context-sensitive approaches to address bullying effectively in educational and digital settings.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"What do the narratives tell us about victims and bullies?","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-04-11 10:20:01","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6180184/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"cb379eef-b93f-4a64-97cb-d24392b2ff38","owner":[],"postedDate":"April 11th, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2025-05-07T08:38:27+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2025-04-11 10:20:01","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-6180184","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-6180184","identity":"rs-6180184","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}