An Ethnomedicinal Survey of Traditional Healing Practices of Indigenous Communities in Western Madhya Pradesh, India

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Wagh, Anil Sharma This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-6859613/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Published Journal Publication published 23 Sep, 2025 Read the published version in Genetic Resources and Crop Evolution → Version 1 posted 12 You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract The indigenous communities of Western Madhya Pradesh, India, rely heavily on ethnomedicinal plants to treat various ailments. This study aims to document the indigenous knowledge of tribal healers regarding herbal remedies, supporting conservation efforts and providing a foundation for pharmacological research. Data were collected from 115 traditional healers using semi-structured interviews. Quantitative indices such as relative frequency of citation (RFC), use value (UV) and informant consensus factor (ICF) were applied to analyze plant usage patterns. A total of 174 plant species from 66 families were identified, with herbs being the most commonly used (50%), followed by trees and climbers. Leaves were the most frequently utilized plant part (30.97%), while seeds, stems, and heartwood were less preferred. Common ailments treated included general health issues, with heart diseases and diabetes showing the highest ICF value (0.96). A strong positive correlation (0.046) was observed between RFC and UV. Additionally, 78 ethnomedicinal species were documented for the first time with new claims, and 10 species were newly recorded as ethnomedicinally important in Madhya Pradesh. The study highlights the cultural and medicinal importance of ethnomedicinal plants among indigenous communities, emphasizing the urgent need for conservation due to threats to local flora. Future research, including chemical screening, is necessary to validate the medicinal properties of these plants and promote their sustainable use. Ailments Healers Herbal remedies Indices Validate Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 Figure 6 Figure 7 Figure 8 Introduction In India, over 43% of all flowering plants are recognized for their medicinal properties (Pushpangadan 1995). India boasts a rich ethnic diversity, with a total of 427 tribal communities occured (Dutta and Dutta 2005). The utilization of plants for medicinal purposes has deep roots in ancient Indian literature (Samvat; Charak, Drdhbala 1996). However, systematic investigations in this realm commenced in 1956 (Rao & Henry 1996), gaining momentum in recent times due to the erosion of traditional knowledge and the decline in plant populations. World Health Organization (WHO) reports that up to 80% of the world’s population relies on traditional medicine, with 65% of rural communities using herbs for primary healthcare needs (Ong et al. 2018). This study was conducted in the Jhabua and Alirajpur district of Western Madhya Pradesh, India. These districts are predominantly inhabited by tribal communities, with 87.6% of the population facing poverty, illiteracy, ignorance, and unemployment, while only 28% of the district is forested. The Bhil , one of the largest tribes in India (Census 2011), dominates the study area, deriving its name from the Dravidian word " bil " or " vi l," signifying the bow they traditionally carry for hunting. Within this remote area, access to modern medical facilities is limited, prompting the local tribal community to favour traditional medicines. The Bhilala subtribe, distinct in culture and rituals, coexists within the study area. As modern medical amenities remain distant, the community relies on traditional remedies for their healthcare needs. A review of existing literature indicates sporadic research efforts have been done by some researcher. For instance, Samvatsar and Diwanji (1996) documented 16 ethnomedicinal remedies for dermatological disorders, while in another study (Samvatsar and Diwanji 2000), 13 plant species were identified for treating jaundice. Although some endeavours have been made to investigate the diversity of threatened plants, sacred groves, and ethnomedicinal plants for ailments such as diarrhea, dysentery, and snakebites (Wagh and Jain 2013, 2015, 2018), numerous medicinal plants and their associated traditional uses remain unexplored. To date, no comprehensive report exists regarding the ethnomedicinal knowledge of plants in the Jhabua and Alirajpur district. Previous studies primarily catalogued plant uses, lacking in-depth information on ethnomedicinal practices, sample sizes, informant demographics including age and gender, village coverage, and statistical data analysis. The present study aims to fill this gap by exploring and documenting indigenous plant knowledge, thereby establishing a baseline for further comprehensive investigations into bioactive compounds. Additionally, the study seeks to raise awareness among traditional healers about the importance of medicinal plant conservation. Materials And Methods Study area The study was carried out in Jhabua and Alirajpur districts, situated in the Western region of Madhya Pradesh, positioned at 22' 47 0 N latitude and 71' 35 0 E longitude, with an average altitude of 428 m. above sea level (Fig. 1). Jhabua and Alirajpur district spans a total area of 6,782 km 2 , hosting a combined population of 1,754,047 individuals (Census 2011). The Bhil population constitutes 90% of the demographic, while the combined population of the Bhilalas and Patliyas , two other indigenous communities, accounts for slightly less than 2%. A comprehensive survey encompassed 41 villages across all 12 blocks in Jhabua and Alirajpur district (6 block each). The Bhabhra block witnessed the highest number of village visits, followed by the Alirajpur. The villages within the Bhabhra block are nestled in remote forested areas, characterized by humid conditions. While they once practiced shifting cultivation, they have transitioned to settled cultivation practices. Maize serves as their staple food, with cotton cultivated as a cash crop alongside other crops like paddy, pulses, sugarcane, oilseeds, and wheat. As forest dwellers, they possess expertise in hunting, even capturing ferocious animals using basic weaponry. They excel in harvesting honey, collecting edible roots and fruits, and gathering Mahua (flower of Madhuca longifolia ). Additionally, they engage in fishing and maintain poultry farms as part of their livelihood practices. Sampling and interview of traditional healers Ethnomedicinal insights were gathered through a series of interviews with traditional healers, practitioners of indigenous medicine systems between May 2010 and June 2014. Methodologies employed by previous researchers such as Raghavaiah (1956), Raizada (1966), and Jain (1989) informed the approach to collecting ethnobotanical data. Prior to interviews, explicit consent was obtained from all participants, adhering to the guidelines outlined in the International Society of Ethnobiology Code of Ethics (http://ethnobiology.net/code-of-ethics/). Interviews and discussions were conducted using a local dialect ‘ Bhili ’ to facilitate seamless communication with participants. A total of 115 traditional healers, comprising 79 men and 36 women, were engaged, including 79 Bhil , 25 Bhilala , and 12 Pataya individuals, to gather insights into herbal preparations used for various ailments (Table 1). All plant references provided by traditional healers were cross-validated for authenticity by consulting other traditional practitioners. Traditional healers were specifically queried about plants utilized for ailment treatment, including details on preparation methods and administration modes for prescribed medicines. Authors requested to traditional healers for accompany to procure plant specimens from forested areas. In instances where experienced individuals were unable to accompany to forest areas, fresh specimens were collected with meticulous attention to plant characteristics such as habit, habitat, height, fragrance, taste, flower, and fruit properties. Subsequently, these specimens were presented to the healers to ensure accurate information retrieval. Plant Collection and Identification: Field excursions were conducted along with informants to procure specimens, gathering useful plants from the natural environment. Voucher specimens were prepared following the standardized procedure outlined by Jain and Rao (1976). These voucher specimens were then identified with the help of local flora and referenced literature (Verma et al. 1993; Singh et al. 2001). Valid botanical nomenclature was confirmed through consultation with (https://powo.science.kew.org/) and International Plant Names Index (http://www.ipni.org). Data analysis Our dataset encompasses insights from 115 informants, 174 plant species and a total of 4585 use reports. To delve into the cultural significance of each plant species, we delineated 47 ailments across 14 illness categories, as outlined by Heinrich et al. (1998). Within each illness category, plant species were ranked in descending order based on their frequency of reported use. (i). Informant consensus factor (ICF): In assessing the variability of medicinal plant usage and identifying promising bioactive compound exploration, we computed the informant consensus factor (ICF) following Heinrich et al. (1998). Thus, ICF ranges from 0 to 1, with higher values indicating a consensus among informants regarding the preferred taxa for treating a particular illness category, while lower values signify disagreement among informants regarding the taxa to be employed in treatment within a specific illness category. (ii). Relative frequency of citation (RFC) This index describes the importance of each species and is calculated based on the frequency of citation (FC) representing the number of informants citing the utilization of a particular species using the following equation: The 'FC' value is divided by the overall number of informants participating in the survey ('N'), irrespective of use-categories. Where, 'FC' signifies the number of informants recognizing the usage of a specific plant species, while 'N' stands for the total number of informants involved in the study (Vitalini et al. 2013). (iii). Use value (UV) Assessing the relative importance of each therapeutic plant, UV employs a measure based on the relative usage by informants. It was estimated utilizing the formula by Ahmad et al. (2015), with a minor modification: Where, 'ui' represents the number of use reports mentioned by each informant, and 'N' signifies the total number of informants interviewed for a particular plant species. Pearson correlation analysis was also performed to examine the relationships between RFC and UV. Additionally, the coefficient of determination (r²) was calculated to gauge the cross-species inconsistency in RFC, elucidated by variances in UV. Most of the graphs were generated using GraphPad Prism version 8. Results and discussion Informants, traditional medical practices and beliefs A total of 195 individuals, ranging from 16 to 85 years old, were approached for the present study. However, only 115 participants contributed information on the utilization of plants for treating various ailments. Among these 115 informants, 79 were identified as male and 36 as female traditional healers (Table 1). Within the local community, these healers, comprising 68.69% men and 31.30% women, hold esteemed positions, serving as spiritual guides, counsellors, and healers. Notably, only 36 (31.30%) of the female informants consented to interviews. This gender disparity stems from cultural norms, as male traditional healers exhibit greater openness toward interacting with strangers compared to their female counterparts, who face cultural constraints in such engagements. Studies by Guler et al. (2015) and Abbas et al. (2016) conducted in Turgidly, Turkey, and among the Balti community in Pakistan, respectively, shows cultural restrictions observed in our study. These findings suggest that gender imbalances persist across neighbouring villages, districts, and countries. Analysis of medicinal plant citations from informants aged above 50 years revealed that elderly men and illiterate individuals possess more extensive knowledge of medicinal plants compared to younger, literate counterparts and females (Table 1). These findings align with research conducted elsewhere (Upadhyay et al. 2007; Panghal et al. 2010; Sharma et al. 2024). Furthermore, our study indicates a decline in indigenous medicinal plant knowledge among younger generations, likely attributed to increased access to education, enhanced income opportunities, and diminished interest among youth in inheriting and applying ethnomedicinal knowledge (Table 1). Yinegar et al. (2008) reported similar trends, noting an increase in medicinal plant knowledge with age following a significant erosion of ethnomedicinal plant knowledge within the community. The majority of informants disclosed that they safeguard their medicinal plant knowledge as a closely held secret, primarily passing it down vertically from parent to child, predominantly sons, consistent with observations made by other researchers (Upadhyay et al. 2007; Giday et al. 2009; Panghal et al. 2010; Sharma et al. 2021). Additionally, some informants have ceased practicing traditional medicine due to the increased availability of allopathic medicines. Characteristics of plants used for curing various disorders A comprehensive survey identified a total of 174 taxa spanning 66 families, renowned for their efficacy in treating 47 common ailments, which were further categorized into 14 illness classifications in Western Madhya Pradesh (Table 2). The primary source of medicinal plants predominantly from wild sources, accounting for 97.12%, with a marginal presence from wild-cultivated (2.3%) and cultivated sources (0.58%) throughout the study. This observation resonates with findings by Chander et al. (2015), wherein 100% of medicinal plants used in local medicine were sourced from the wild, underscoring the robust availability and accessibility of wild medicinal resources in the study area. Fabaceae emerged as the most prominent family, boasting the highest species (20), closely followed by Asteraceae (11 species) and Convolvulaceae (7 species). Other noteworthy families included Acanthaceae, Arecaceae, and Asclepiadaceae, each featuring 6 species (Fig. 3). Families such as Fabaceae, Asteraceae, Lamiaceae, Solanaceae, and Poaceae notably dominate in terms of species richness, a trend observed in various pharmacopoeias (Agra et al. 2007; Sharma and Wagh 2024). In terms of life-form diversity among collected plant species, herbs constituted the most frequently utilized category, contributing 50% to medicinal preparations, followed by trees (22.98%), climbers (16.67%), shrubs (5.18%), grasses (3.45%), and epiphytes (1.72%) (Fig. 4). The preferred plant parts for medicinal concoctions among the Bhil and Bhilala tribes were leaves (30.97%), seeds (18.41%), roots (14.65%), stem bark (9.62%), and fruits (7.11%) (Fig. 5). Interestingly, contrary to the general trend observed by Gazzaneo et al. (2005), wherein communities residing near humid forests favour leaves while those in arid regions opt for continuously available bark, our study revealed a prevalence of leaf-based ethnomedicine. This inclination toward leaves underscores a heightened emphasis on medicinal teas (51%), baths (39%), and other leaf-based formulations (Parente and Rosa 2001). Notably, a significant majority (70%) of plant parts utilized were aerial, encompassing leaves, stems, fruits, seeds, and flowers, while only 30% of preparations necessitated whole plants or underground components. This prevalent utilization of aerial parts is promising for local flora conservation, as it mitigates threats to the survival and propagation of these invaluable plants. The predominant modes of plant preparation for ailment treatment were decoction and infusion, constituting 23.34% each, followed by juice (11.5%), powder (10.45%), paste (8.71%), poultice (5.92%), raw or fresh applications (3.13%), and instillation (2.78%) (Fig. 6). Therapeutic Uses A diverse array of 174 plant species were harnessed for alleviating 47 distinct ailments, categorized into 14 classifications including abortifacient, anthelmintic, bone fracture, asthma, constipation, diabetes, malaria, typhoid fever, and snake bite, among others (refer to Tables 2 and 3). Notably, the highest representation of plant species, 34 each, was attributed to the treatment of general health diseases, while gastrointestinal disorders accounted for 33 species, followed closely by inflammation and pain, as well as dermatological conditions, with 32 and 31 species respectively. Genera such as Butea , Cassia , Dioscorea , Euphorbia , Ficus , Habenaria , Solanum , and Terminalia showcased dominance, each boasting 2 species. The prevalence of gastrointestinal, dermatological, and inflammation-related ailments in the region may be attributed to socio-economic factors such as household overcrowding, which facilitates the spread of skin infections, exacerbated by the hot and humid climatic conditions. Consequently, the tribal community effectively employed the local flora, harnessing a total of 96 species to combat these recurrent illnesses. The efficacy of herbal drug formulations correlated with the nature of the ailment and dosage response. Dosing primarily occurred twice daily to coincide with individuals' presence at home during mornings and evenings. Dosages varied among patients and over time, contingent upon the cause and effectiveness of the remedy. Freshly collected plant material from wild habitats, primarily from single species, formed the basis of the majority of remedies. In instances where fresh plant parts were unavailable, dried alternatives were utilized. Oral administration emerged as the preferred mode of application, comprising 67.72% of treatments, followed by topical applications at 29.83%, with inhalation and gargling constituting 1.75% and 0.7% respectively (Fig. 7). Tinospora cordifolia emerged as the most frequently cited plant, garnering 134 citations for treating constipation (16), acting as a blood purifier (81), and combating typhoid fever (37). Terminalia bellirica followed closely with 123 citations, renowned for its efficacy in addressing stomach disorders (97) and purifying the blood (26). Helicteres isora also ranked among the highly cited species with a total of 122 citations, particularly acclaimed for its effectiveness against jaundice (27) and stomach disorders (95). Azadirachta indica accrued 110 citations, valued for its role in treating skin diseases (67), serving as a liver tonic (31), and acting as an abortifacient (12). Other prominently cited species include Vernonia cinerea (102 citations), Hemidesmus indicus (99 citations), Cissus quadrangularis (97 citations), Wrightia tinctoria (95 citations), Gloriosa superba , and Cassia fistula (93 citations each), Barleria prionitis (92 citations), Curcuma pseudomontana (86 citations), and Syzygium heyneanum (85 citations) (Table 2). This abundance of citations underscores the socio-cultural significance of these species within the study area, likely facilitated by their ready availability in the vicinity of the tribal community. The survey underscores the ample availability of medicinal plants, offering a broad spectrum of remedies for addressing human ailments. In subheading, the 14-illness category is discussed. Illness category fever In the study region, various types of fever prevail, including malarial fever, typhoid fever, and pneumonia. These occurrences stem from the tropical conditions conducive to mosquito breeding and the prevalence of unhygienic food and contaminated water, particularly contributing to the prevalence of typhoid fever. Of the fevers encountered, typhoid fever emerges as the most frequent, with a total of 20 plant species utilized for its treatment, accounting for 448 reported uses. The predominant plant parts employed for remedies include leaves and aerial components such as flowers, bark, fruits, seeds, and gums (60%), while other parts like roots, rhizomes, and whole plants contribute the remaining 40%. Decoction remains the preferred mode of administration (refer to Table 3). Within the fever category, Vernonia cineraria emerges as a highly prioritized plant species for malarial fever treatment, supported by observations made in India by Shukla et al. (2010) and Reddy et al. (2012), as well as findings from the Agonlin region of Benin (Allabi et al. 2011). Pharmacological evaluations by Hout et al. (2006), and Arivoli et al. (2011) affirm the antimalarial activity of V. cineraria . Enicostemma littorale finds traditional use in India as a bitter tonic and stomachic, alongside its role in fever reduction (Sankaranarayanan et al. 2010). Traditional healers also employ the hot aqueous extract of E. littorale for dyspepsia and malaria treatment (Murali et al. 2002), with Garad et al. (2012) investigating its antipyretic properties. Tuber extracts of Curcuma pseudomontana are utilized by the Savara, Bagata, and Valmiki tribes of Andhra Pradesh for jaundice and diabetes treatment (Padal et al. 2010). Maridass (2009) explored its antifungal and antibacterial attributes, highlighting its endemic nature in the Indian subcontinent and its understudied pharmacological activities. Tinospora cordifolia finds utility in treating various fevers with coastal tribals employing it for fever, jaundice, chronic diarrhea, and dysentery (Shah 1984). Administration of T. cordifolia stem, with antipyretic effects reported by Rao (1999), and Ashok et al. (2010). In the Unani system, Acorus calamus serves as an emetic, flatulent colic treatment, carminative, bitter tonic, and stimulant (Kartheckiyan and Gajendran 2005), echoing practices among the Oraon tribes of Palamu division, Jharkhand (Marandi et al. 2015a). The Baiga tribe of district Dindori, Madhya Pradesh, employs A. calamus rhizomes for cough, cold, and asthma relief (Prana et al. 2014). Illness category Dermatological disorders In the study area, dermatological disorders predominantly encompass skin diseases, scabies, ringworm, and eczema. Treatment primarily involves the utilization of leaves and aerial parts (90.3%), with minimal use of roots and rhizomes (9.6%). Given that some of these plants possess toxic properties, topical administration in the form of decoctions, infusions, juices, pastes, poultices, and extracts is favoured, while oral administration is rare. Tribal communities in this region regard dermatological disorders as ominous and strive for prompt treatment. Azadirachta indica boasts a plethora of reported biological and pharmacological activities, including antibacterial (Mahfuzul Hoque et al. 2007; Yerima et al. 2012), antifungal, and anti-inflammatory properties (Jabeen et al. 2013; Naik et al. 2014), as well as wound healing attributes (Osunwoke Emeka et al. 2013). It is a constituent of the polyherbal drug "Neem Guard capsules," utilized for various skin disorders and is also incorporated into another polyherbal Ayurvedic formulation for dandruff treatment (Agarwal et al. 2009). Wound healing activity of Tephrosia purpurea has been investigated by Lodhi et al. (2006), demonstrating definite prohealing effects in rats. Ethnomedicinal uses include anthelmintic properties (Ray et al. 2011), kidney stone treatment (Agarwal and Varma 2012), management of liver and urinary disorders (Sainkhedia and Pachaya 2013), and alleviation of inflammation and pain (Sandhya and Ahirwar 2015). Euphorbia fusiformis is reported for the first time in Madhya Pradesh as an ethnomedicinally significant plant, utilized in other parts of India for rheumatism, gout, arthritis, paralysis, and fever treatment (Prakash and Singh 2001; Pullaiah 2002). Natrajan et al. (2007) studied its antimicrobial and antifungal activity, revealing strong efficacy against Cryptococcus neoformans . Leucas aspera leaves find application in psoriasis, chronic rheumatism, chronic skin eruptions, and scabies, serving also as an antibacterial agent (Rahman et al. 2007). Its chloroform and ether extracts exhibit antifungal properties, while wound healing attributes are also noted, along with efficacy in cobra venom poisoning (Akter et al. 2012). Pergularia daemia demonstrates antibacterial activity against gram-positive and gram-negative strains (Packirisamy and Krishna Moorthy 2014), a characteristic also studied by Jogi and Akkewar (2012) and Savitha et al. (2014). While no ethnomedicinal study in Madhya Pradesh aligns with our findings, coherence is observed in other parts of India. For instance, Konda Doras and Nuka Doras tribes of Andhra Pradesh apply latex to cure boils (Rama Rao and Henry 1998), Bargarh district of Orissa uses leaf and root for leprotic wounds (Sen and Behera 2003), and Sabarkantha Kathodi tribes of Gujarat utilize leaf juice for ringworm and scabies treatment (Punjani 2006). Illness category General health The general health illness category encompasses various ailments such as blood purification, epilepsy, hair tonics, dental care, coughs, and colds (refer to Table 3). Among these, the largest number of plant species is utilized as blood purifiers, followed by treatments for mouth ulcers. A total of 34 species are employed to address general health category ailments, accounting for 501 reported uses, representing 12.2% of all reported uses. Leaves emerge as the most commonly used plant parts (37%), with infusion being the preferred mode of administration (26%). Tinospora cordifolia 's crude extract contains a polyclonal B-cell mitogen, enhancing the immune response in mice (Alamgir and Shaikh 2010). Napit (2016) explored the use of T. cordifolia among tribal communities in Shahdol district, Central India, for platelet loss. In the Pind Dadan Khan district of Pakistan, its roots and stems are utilized for treating fever, dysentery, and diarrhea (Iqbal et al. 2011). Hemidesmus indicus roots are peeled and consumed raw as a blood purifier and cooling beverage, wound healing (Ratha et al. 2012), hepatoprotective (Bahati et al. 2012), natriuretic, and saluretic activities (Gadge and Jalapure 2011). Rai et al. (2010) and Aneja et al. (2010) demonstrated the efficacy of the methanolic bark extract of Barleria prionitis against oral bacteria, supporting its use in dental care, alongwith Gupta et al. (2016) showing its effectiveness against dental plaque comparable to CHX. In Ayurvedic medicine, Rauvolfia serpentina roots are employed to alleviate insomnia, traumas, and as a sedative (Agarwal and Mishra 2013), findings consistent with observations in other parts of India (Singh et al. 2010). The Garo tribe of the Madhupur forest region in Bangladesh uses R. serpentina to treat malaria and spleen diseases (Mia et al. 2009). Cassia fistula leaves aid in treating skin burns (Patil and Patil, 2012) and are utilized in Pakistan for cattle diarrhea and joint pain (Mussarat et al. 2014). No ethnomedicinal study in Madhya Pradesh or India aligns with our findings regarding the use of C. fistula decoction as an appetizer, necessitating further pharmacological and phytochemical investigations. Illness category Respiratory disorders The respiratory diseases category encompasses ailments such as asthma and bronchitis (see Table 3). A total of 18 plants were identified for treating respiratory diseases, with 244 recorded use reports. The mode of administration varies among plant species; for instance, Celosia argentea and Cassia tora seeds are smoked and inhaled. While some applications are topical, others are administered orally. Aerial plant parts are predominantly used in treating respiratory diseases. Tylophora indica , a staple in India's traditional medicine system, addresses bronchial asthma, inflammation, bronchitis, allergies, and dermatitis (Faisal and Anis 2005). The dried stem bark of Barleria prionitis serves as an expectorant in whooping cough and as a diaphoretic (Khare 2007; Rai et al. 2010). In Sri Lanka, it is utilized for fever and neuralgia (Ediriweera 2007), while folk healers in Bangladesh employ B. prionitis for anti-inflammatory purposes, as well as cancer and tumour treatment (Mollick et al. 2010). Aegle marmelos leaves act as a laxative and are beneficial in asthma (Reddy et al. 2006). Arul et al. (2004) investigated the alcoholic extract of A. marmelos leaves, revealing positive relaxant effects on guinea pig isolated ileum tracheal chains. Trichosanthes cucumerina is used to treat bronchitis, skin allergies, malaria, and serves as a vermifuge, laxative, emetic, anthelmintic, and cathartic (Reddy et al. 2010). Seed extracts of T. cucumerina exhibit antibacterial activity against various bacterial strains (Shyamsundarachary et al. 2016). Ocimum basilicum finds application in traditional medicine and culinary practices as a renowned source of flavouring principles (Campbell 2009). Chiang et al. (2005) evaluated its antiviral activities, particularly against coxsackie virus B1 and enterovirus 71. Illness category Urinary and rectal diseases The urinary and rectal disease category encompasses kidney and urinary disorders, with a total of 15 plants and 142 reported uses for treating these ailments (Table 3). Urinary disorders are particularly prevalent in the study area, likely due to the tropical humid environment. In Nigeria, Cymbopogon citratus leaves are utilized to address diabetes, inflammation, and nerve disorders (Aibinu et al. 2007). The antibacterial efficacy of Phyllanthus amarus against pathogens causing urinary tract infections has been investigated by Saranraj and Sivasakthivelan (2012). Gbadamosi (2015) explored its activity against Escherichia coli , the causative agent of urinary tract infections. Leonotis nepetifolia' s whole plant tea is beneficial for obesity, piles, rheumatism, urinary bladder, and kidney disorders (Thring and Weitz 2005). Oyedeji et al. (2005) observed antibacterial properties in L. nepetifolia flower and leaf essential oils against clinical isolates. In South Africa, it finds utility in managing asthma and epilepsy (Clement et al. 2005; Ayanwuyi et al. 2009). In the Aravali regions of Rajasthan, Aerva lanata is deployed in kidney stone treatment (Sharma et al. 2011). Soundararajan et al. (2006) investigated the diuretic properties of A. lanata 's alcoholic extract, potentially beneficial in urolithiasis. Kumar et al. (2005) reported an increase in urinary sodium, urine volume, chloride, and potassium levels with the ethanolic extract of A. lanata ' s whole plant. Acanthospermum hispidum serves as an antifeedant (Mshana et al. 2000). Fleischer (2003) highlighted the ethanolic extract of A. hispidum' s leaves and flowering tops for its activity against a broad spectrum of pathogenic bacteria. Illness category Inflammation and Pain The category of inflammation and pain encompasses ailments such as earache, headache, toothache, joint diseases, arthritis, rheumatism, lumbago, and bone fractures (Table 3). A total of 32 species, with 485 reported uses, are employed to alleviate inflammation and pain, with topical applications being preferred over oral administration. Rao et al. (2007) found that the aerial parts of C. quadrangularis , rich in phytoestrogens, mitigate bone loss, as evidenced by DEXA and histopathology. The seed oil of Madhuca longifolia is massaged onto affected joint areas to reduce swelling (Mishra and Padhan 2013). Chakma et al. (2011) reported the anti-inflammatory activity of acetone extract of M. longifolia against carrageenan-induced rat paw edema. Seshagiri et al. (2007) also observed anti-inflammatory effects using ethanolic and crude alkaloid extracts of M. longifolia seed cake in albino rats. A warm tuber paste of Curcuma pseudomontana is topically applied by the Jatapu and Kaya tribes to alleviate body swellings, while the leaves serve as meal plates (Rama Rao 2006). Maridass (2009) noted the anti-inflammatory activity of C. pseudomontana in a carrageenan-induced rat paw edema model. Singh et al. (2010a) highlighted the usefulness of the whole plant paste of Viscum articulatum in treating gout. Limboo tribes in the South-West of Khangchendzonga Biosphere Reserve, Sikkim, India, apply root paste of V. articulatum , Bergenia ciliata , and Kaempferia sikkimensis over fractured or dislocated bones (Badola and Pradhan 2013). Studies by Hu et al. (2011), Mahdy et al. (2014), and Lu et al. (2009) investigated the anti-inflammatory activity of Pueraria tuberosa . Ethnomedicinal research conducted by Shyamala et al. (2016) in Visakhapatnam district, Andhra Pradesh, India, as well as by Bala and Singh (2015) in Satna district, Madhya Pradesh, and Sainkhediya and Ray (2014) in Harda District of Madhya Pradesh, demonstrates coherence with our study. Illness category gastrointestinal disorders Gastrointestinal disorders encompass a series of ailments including stomach disorders, piles, diarrhea, dysentery, constipation, and intestinal disorders, often requiring anthelmintic treatment (Table 3). A total of 33 species, with 671 reported uses, have been employed to address gastrointestinal diseases. Oral administration is the sole mode of medication delivery, with no recommended topical applications for these ailments. Elizabeth et al. (2005) documented the antimicrobial activity of Terminalia bellirica against nine human microbial pathogens. Kumar et al. (2010) investigated the antidiarrheal activity of castor oil. Aqueous and ethanolic extracts of T. bellirica fruit pulp demonstrated a more pronounced antisecretory effect compared to the reduction in gastrointestinal motility. The Ayurvedic properties of Helicteres isora include analgesic, antidiarrheal, wormicidal, urine conservative, and blood purifier effects (Sharma 2012). Additionally, the bark proves beneficial in managing diarrhea and dysentery (Chopra et al. 2012). Hydroalcoholic extracts of Cassia fistula leaves exhibited antidiarrheal activity against various pathogens including Pseudomonas aeruginosa , Aspergillus niger , Streptococcus pyogenes , Staphylococcus aureus , Escherichia coli , Candida albicans , and Aspergillus clavatus (Bhalodia and Shukla 2011). In Karnataka and Tamil Nadu states of India, Wrightia tinctoria is referred to as the "Jaundice curative tree" (Joshi 2000). Methanolic extracts of the plant demonstrated significant gastroprotective activity (65.89%), surpassing the standard drug famotidine (20 mg/kg) (Divakar and Lakshmi 2011). The tuberous roots of Amorphophallus paeoniifolius have traditionally been used for treating piles and abdominal disorders (Misra and Sriram 2001). Nataraj et al. (2011) reported that the methanolic extract of A. paeoniifolius exhibits gastroprotective activity against pylorus ligation-induced gastrotoxicity in albino rats. Illness category Diabetes A total of 17 species, accounting for 407 use reports, were enlisted solely for oral administration in treating diabetes (Table 3). Syzygium heyneanum finds extensive usage in the Jhabua and Alirajpur district for diabetes management, yet no phytopharmacological studies have been conducted on this plant in India. Validation of its medicinal properties necessitates comprehensive phytopharmacological investigations. Sikarwar et al. (2008) documented its usage in Chitrakoot district for diarrhea, dysentery, and leucorrhea, while Shankar et al. (2016) noted its application in rheumatic pain. Holarrhena pubescens features prominently in several Ayurvedic formulations such as Kutaja churna, Kutajarista, and Kutajghan vati, renowned for treating fever, dysentery, bacterial infections, and diarrhea (Lather et al. 2010; Tambekar and Dahikar 2010). Ali et al. (2011) reported the inhibition of α-glucosidase in normoglycemic rats upon oral administration of hydro-methanolic seed extract of H. antidysenterica . Rani et al. (2012) assessed the antidiabetic activity of methanolic and ethyl acetate extracts of W. tinctoria fruit, while Shruthi et al. (2012) evaluated the anti-diabetic potential of its leaf extracts. Borassus flabellifer exhibits diverse biological and pharmacological activities including antioxidant (Pramod et al. 2013), antimalarial (Koudouvo et al. 2011), and immunomodulatory effects (Rios 2010). Goyal et al. (2015) investigated its antidiabetic and antihyperlipidemic effects in streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats. Tribes in Madhya Pradesh store water overnight in a container made from the heartwood of Pterocarpus marsupium , employing it as traditional therapy for diabetes mellitus patients (Grover et al. 2002; Kar et al. 2003). P. marsupium , traditionally employed in diabetes treatment has exhibited diabetes control in experimental animals (Apte et al. 1988; Ahmed et al. 1991). Choudhary et al. (2013) isolated a sesquiterpene lactone from the ethanol extract of Vernonia cinerea , demonstrating significant antihyperglycemic effects upon oral administration at a dose of 500 mg/kg. Sayeed and Ferdous (2013) explored the antidiabetic activity of V. cinerea root paste in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus, while Haque et al. (2013) evaluated its antidiabetic potential. Illness category Liver disorders A total of 15 species, comprising 183 use reports, were enlisted for treating liver diseases. Notably, jaundice emerges as a prevalent ailment in the study area (Table 3). Rural communities in India employ the juice of Cuscuta reflexa to combat jaundice. C. reflexa is also revered for its role in promoting hair growth (Pandit et al. 2008). The methanol extract of C. reflexa has demonstrated efficacy in improving liver function in hepatotoxic rats (Balakrishnan et al. 2010a). Mosua et al. (2008) documented significant hypolipidemic, hypoglycemic, hypotensive, hepatoprotective, and anti-fertility activities in the aqueous leaf extract of Azadirachta indica . Baligar et al. (2014) conducted studies on the hepatoprotective effects of azadirachtin-A, confirming its dose-dependent reduction of hepatocellular necrosis. The Ayurvedic properties of Helicters isora encompass a broad spectrum of therapeutic actions, including diuretic, hypolipidemic, antimicrobial, antiviral, blood purifier, hepatoprotective, wormicidal, antioxidant, anticancer, analgesic, and antidiarrheal activities (Varghese et al. 2012; Kumar and Singh 2014; Dayal et al. 2015). In traditional medicine, Phyllanthus amarus is esteemed for its hepatoprotective, analgesic, anti-inflammatory, antidiabetic, anti-diarrheal, antimicrobial, and antihypertensive properties (Odetola and Akojenu 2000; Adeneye et al. 2006a, b). Ocimum basilicum , commonly known as Basil, has been revered in Ayurvedic and Unani medicine systems for its therapeutic benefits (Gemmell 2009; Bolen 2010). Meera et al. (2009) reported significant hepatoprotective effects in the ethanolic extract of O. basilicum leaves. The ethanol and chloroform extracts of the flowering parts of Leonotis nepetifolia exhibit robust hepatoprotective and anti-inflammatory activities in rats (El-Ansari et al. 2009). Illness category Male Sexual disorder/stimulant Male sexual disorders encompass a series of conditions including aphrodisiac, spermatorrhea, and other related ailments (Table 3). A total of 11 species, with 165 documented use reports, were enlisted for addressing these conditions. Sekar et al. (2009) observed that ethanolic extracts of M. pruriens seeds induced a significant and sustained increase in the sexual activity of normal male rats at a dosage of 200 mg/kg. In Bangladesh, Bhadra et al. (2013) investigated the anti-hyperglycemic activity of M. pruriens seeds. Khan and Khan (2005) documented the aphrodisiac properties of Ficus racemosa , while research by Jahan et al. (2008), Channabasavaraj et al. (2008), and Veerapur et al. (2009) highlighted its antioxidant properties. Govindrajan et al. (2004) evaluated the antioxidant potential of the 50% ethanolic extract of Anogeissus latifolia . Chauhan and Ray (2017) reported the use of A. latifolia gum by women to enhance strength post-delivery. In Thailand, Butea superba is renowned for promoting male potency. Tocharus et al. (2005) noted significant increases in sperm concentration and delayed motility decline over time. Additionally, Cherdshewasart et al. (2010) reported its estrogenic and anti-estrogenic activities. Although limited ethnomedicinal information is available regarding Goniogyna hirta in India, the plant is extensively utilized in the study area for treating male sexual disorders. Further documentation of traditional knowledge concerning this species is warranted to explore its biomolecular properties. Illness category Toxicity complaints A total of 18 plant species, with 287 documented use reports, were enlisted for treating snake bites, scorpion stings, and dog bites (Table 3). The roots were predominantly utilized, and topical application emerged as the preferred method over oral administration. John et al. (2009) and Suryavanshi et al. (2012) investigated the root paste of Gloriosa superba as an antidote against snakebites, noting its central nervous system (CNS) depressant properties. Kumarappan et al. (2011) reported that alcoholic extracts of G. superba provided 90% protection to mice against the minimum lethal dose of venom (LD99). In Sundargarh district, Orissa, India, Prusti and Behera (2007) documented the use of fresh Calotropis gigantea root ground with cow milk as a snakebite antidote. Shade-dried leaves of C. gigantea and Cassia fistula were used to assess antivenom activity, as reported by Pandey et al. (2011), who tested the hydroalcoholic extract of dried leaves for its effects against cobra ( Naja naja ) venom. Although no pharmacological evidence exists regarding the anti-venom property of Sphaeranthus indicus . Nayak et al. (2010) reported its usage in cough remedies and excess bile reduction, with inflorescence paste being administered on an empty stomach in Orissa. Choudhary et al. (2008) and Jain et al. (2011) in Rajasthan noted the application of Arisaema tortuosum tuber paste over snakebite wounds to counteract poison effects. In Pakistan, the rhizome is utilized for treating rheumatism and stomachaches (Hussain et al. 2006), while in Nepal, it is used as an anti-helminthic (Balami 2004). The Irula tribe in Coimbatore district uses the tuber paste as a veterinary antidote (Ganesan and Kumaresan 2017). Ray et al. (2011) corroborated the utility of Diospyros melanoxylon in snakebite treatment, extensively used in the Chotta Nagpur region of Orissa for its antidiabetic properties (Gupta et al. 2009). Several ethnopharmacological studies also underscore its antidiabetic activity (Gupta et al. 2011, 2012; Alqahtani et al. 2013). Illness category Female sexual disorders Female sexual disorders encompass a range of conditions including gonorrhoea, leucorrhoea, menstrual disorders, abortifacient issues, lactation, and conception challenges (Table 3). In total, 28 plant species, documented with 259 use reports, were employed for treatment, predominantly through oral administration via decoction. Leaves emerged as the most commonly utilized plant part, followed by seeds, with Clitorea ternatea being the most frequently cited species for addressing menstrual disorders. Clitorea ternatea has a longstanding tradition in treating sexual ailments, controlling menstrual discharge, serving as an aphrodisiac, and addressing infertility and gonorrhoea. In various regions of Assam, India, the root of this plant has been traditionally employed for treating leucorrhoea, infertility, and other gynaecological disorders (Deka 2015). Chandru et al. (2018) investigated the reproductive stimuli and fertility effects of raw Clitoria ternatea extract, while Balamurugan et al. (2018) highlighted its use in treating gynaecological disorders. In Pakistan, boiled root decoction of Achyranthes aspera is administered post-menstruation to induce sterility in women (Shah et al. 2009). The Oraon tribals of Palamu division, Jharkhand, India, use the root of A. aspera during labour pain and delivery, tying it around the waist, neck, or inserting it into the hair bun (Marandi et al. 2015b). While Strychnos nux-vomica possesses various pharmacological properties, such as anti-convulsant, analgesic, anti-tumour, anti-inflammatory, hepatoprotective, and immunomodulatory effects, no ethnomedicinal or pharmacological use has been recorded thus far related to menstrual disorders or anti-fertility activity. Ramakrishna and Saidulu (2014) reported the use of Cocculus hirsutus in curing leucorrhoea, menorrhagia, gonorrhoea, and menstrual pain in the Adilabad district of Andhra Pradesh. Additionally, Patil et al. (2014) highlighted its aphrodisiac activity in albino rats. Illness category mental disorders A total of 8 plant species, documented with 119 use reports, were employed for addressing mental disorders (see Table 3). Canscora decussata , known as Shankhpushpi, holds significance in both Ayurvedic and indigenous medicinal systems as a brain tonic, alternative, and laxative (Jain et al. 1994; Shah et al. 2000). Nag and De (2008) and Sethiya et al. (2012) delved into the pharmacological effects of C. decussata extract in CNS disorders, while Chitra et al. (2018) reported its anti-Parkinson’s activity in mice. Convolvulus prostratus is noted for its efficacy in treating nervous weakness, insomnia, mental and physical fatigue, and memory loss (Unnikrishnan 2004; Gupta et al. 2005). In Azad Jammu and Kashmir, Pakistan, C. prostratus is used for expelling intestinal worms and as a purgative for constipation (Amjad et al. 2015). The flowers of Madhuca longifolia var. latifolia have been utilized as a cooling agent, demulcent, and astringent, with proven efficacy in increasing sperm count (Sikarwar and Kumar 2005). Dahake et al. (2010) reported its bark's efficacy against itching, swelling, snake poisoning, and diabetes. M. longifolia leaves find application in bronchitis and Cushing’s disease management (Prajapati et al. 2008; Agrawal et al. 2012; Inganakal and Swamy 2013). The paste of A. calamus rhizome is traditionally used in southern India to correct speech defects and enhance memory power (Bhatia et al. 2014), while in China, it aids speech improvement and stroke recovery (Howes and Houghton 2003). α-Asarone, identified in A. calamus , exhibits hypnotic properties and can serve as therapy against insomnia (Radhakrishnan 2017). Centella asiatica , revered as a medicinal herb in ancient systems like Ayurveda and Sushruta Samhita, is renowned for revitalizing nerves and brain cells (Chopra et al. 1986; Diwan et al. 1991). Ramanathan et al. (2007) investigated its neuroprotective properties, while Umka et al. (2016) and Chaisawang et al. (2017) evaluated the preventive effects of ascorbic acid on spatial working memory and neurogenesis defects. Illness category heart diseases A total of 7 plant species, documented with 156 use reports, were identified for addressing cardiac disorders (Table 3). Decoction emerged as the preferred mode of medicine preparation, with oral administration being the recommended method. Multiple pharmacological experiments on Terminalia arjuna , conducted by Maulik et al. (2012), Khaliq et al. (2013), Kokkiripati et al. (2013), Kapoor et al. (2014), and Varghese et al. (2015), aimed to ascertain its precise action and efficacy against cardiovascular diseases. The alkaloids of Rauvolfia serpentina exhibit utility in cardiovascular diseases (Anitha and Kumari 2006). Fiscal (2017) in Laguna, Philippines, utilized R. serpentina leaf decoction for treating cough, while Singh et al. (2015) mentioned its antihypertensive properties. Asdaq et al. (2010) evaluated the cardioprotective effect of hydroalcoholic extract of S. anacardium nuts against isoproterenol (ISO)-induced myocardial damage in rats, while Ali et al. (2015) assessed the antidiabetic activity of the ethanolic extract of S. anacardium bark. Upasani et al. (2017) described the use of S. nux-vomica root bark juice in cow’s milk for treating snakebite, while Poraj et al. (2017) investigated S. nux-vomica poisoning with bradycardia. The hydro-alcoholic lyophilized extract of the whole plant of Tribulus terrestris has been reported to possess cardio-protective properties (Reshma et al. 2016). Methanolic extracts of T. terrestris fruits are considered useful in addressing cardiac disorders (Reshma et al. 2016). Its diverse uses span China, where it's utilized for improving sexual function, cardiac protection, and providing anti-urolithic, antidiabetic, and antioxidant effects (Zhu et al. 2017). Furthermore, it has been used for diuretic and uricosuric effects in Pakistan (Akram et al. 2011) and as a demulcent in Sudan, aiding nephritis and the treatment of inflammatory disorders (Mohammed et al. 2014). Informant consensus factor A classification of 47 ailments was organized into 14 distinct categories following the methodology outlined by Heinrich et al. (1998) (see Table 3). A thorough list of the reported ailments was compiled by analysing survey responses before the disease clustering process taken place. Based on symptoms, causes, or other pertinent criteria, we categorised these illnesses such as dermatological, respiratory disorders, skin ailments, gastrointestinal disorders, and others (Fig. 8). The ICF was computed for the documented plants, ranging from 0.89 to 0.96. A higher ICF value indicates a consensus among informants regarding the use of a particular species for treating a specific ailment, implying stronger evidence of its effectiveness in traditional medicine (Teklehaymanot and Giday 2007). Notably, the category of heart diseases and diabetes achieved one of the highest ICF scores (0.96). Seven plant species were identified for treating heart diseases, while seventeen were recorded for diabetes. The fever and gastrointestinal categories displayed ICF values of 0.95, encompassing twenty and thirty-two plant species, respectively. Similarly, dermatological disorders, toxicity complaints, and mental disorders were associated with a ICF score of 0.94. In contrast, the female sexual disorder category exhibited the lowest ICF score of 0.89. The consistently high ICF values underscore the extensive dissemination of knowledge among informants regarding ethnomedicinal plants and practices. Among gastrointestinal disorders, Terminalia bellirica emerged prominently with 97 documented use reports. In the general health category, Tinospora cordifolia (81 use reports) and Hemidesmus indicus (74 use reports) were prominently featured, with the latter primarily utilized as a blood purifier in the study area. Terminalia bellirica is utilized by locals to address stomach disorders and as a blood purifier, consistent with its classification as an expectorant in Ayurveda. It is a key component of Triphala, an Ayurvedic laxative formulation used to treat common colds, pharyngitis, and constipation (Singh 2011). Modern investigations have validated its laxative properties (Singh 2011). Tinospora cordifolia finds application in treating typhoid fever and stomach disorders, along with its role as a blood purifier. Jain and Baheti (2010) documented its use in combination with sugar for managing typhoid fever, while Rashid (2012) reported its efficacy in gastrointestinal disorder treatment. Hemidesmus indicus , employed as a blood purifier and for managing skin diseases, also serves as an antidote to snakebites among the tribals of Purulia district, West Bengal, India (Chakraborty and Bhattacharjee 2006). Additionally, the Korku community in central India utilizes pounded roots (Kadel and Jain 2008). The leaves of H. indicus exhibit notable wound healing activity, particularly in chronic wounds among diabetic and cancer patients (Moideen et al. 2011). Associations between Relative frequency of citation and use value The relative frequency of citation (RFC) values for the documented plant species displayed a broad spectrum, ranging from 0.008 to 1.16 (Table 2). Tinospora cordifolia , claiming the highest RFC at 1.16, succeeded by Helicteres isora and Terminalia bellirica (1.06 each), Azadirachta indica (0.95), Vernonia cinerea (0.88), Hemidesmus indicus (0.86) and Cissus quadrangularis (0.82). A higher RFC value signifies the extensive and prevalent utilization of these plants among the locals. The significance of the use value of a species lies in providing insights into the relative importance of a specific plant species within the ethnomedicinal practices of local communities. In the current study, the use value demonstrated a variation from 0.06 to 0.68 (Table 2). Notably, certain plants gained recognition for their diverse applications in the study area, as reported by informants. Azadirachta indica stood out with the highest UV of 0.68, followed by Andrographis paniculata at 0.61, Boerhavia diffusa and Aegle marmelos at 0.58, along with Acorus calamus at 0.87, emerging as the most extensively used species. This points to the widespread and frequent utilization of these plants in the documented study area, fuelled by their easy availability and abundance. The correlation analysis unveiled a robust and statistically significant positive association between RFC and UV, evident in the correlation coefficient of 0.423 at p < 0.004. The R 2 value, serving as an indicator of the extent of variability in the data, was computed at 0.046 in this analysis, signifying that 4.6% of the variability in RFC can be elucidated by UV (refer to Table 4 & Fig. 9). These results underscore the potential of this study to impart a meaningful contribution to the comprehension of medicinal plant uses. This, in turn, lays a solid base for laboratory-based investigations delving into the active components of these plants. It is noteworthy that the outcomes of this study align harmoniously with those reported by Vijaykumar et al. (2015) in Kerala and Sharma et al. (2021, 2024) in Vindhyan highlands and Northeastern Madhya Pradesh, India. New ethnomedicinal claims Table 5 illustrates the diverse ethnobotanical uses associated with the following ten species. The hot infusion of Milletia extensa seeds is employed to treat jaundice. In different regions of India, it finds application in managing dermatological disorders (Sharma et al. 2014), piles, dog bites (Panda and Padhy 2008), ethnoveterinary practices (Patil and Patil 2013), and wound healing (Kamble et al. 2010). Fruit instillation of Ludwigia octovalis is utilized for addressing eye diseases, diabetes (Kumar et al. 2012), fungal infections (Buragohain 2011), skin disorders (Prusti and Behera 2007), antidiabetic purposes (Khan and Yadava 2010), and fever (Kumar and Abbas 2012). A root decoction of Indigofera cordifolia is administered orally for jaundice. Notably, this usage is reported here for the first time, contrasting with its lack of documented ethnomedicinal applications in other parts of India. Root infusion of Haplanthodes tentaculatus is prescribed for alleviating menstrual disorders, while in other regions of India, it is known for managing asthma (Kanthale and Biradar 2012). Topical application of Eranthemum roseum root paste on the forehead relieves headaches. Conversely, in other parts of India, it is utilized for treating stomachaches (Mali and Bhadane 2011; Jagtap et al. 2008a) and vertigo (Jagtap et al. 2008b). Oral infusion of Commelina erecta leaves is administered for stomach disorders, whereas in other regions, it is employed for treating rheumatic swelling (Panda and Mishra 2011) and skin ailments (Padal et al. 2013). The whole plant instillation of Catharanthus pusillus serves as a blood purifier, contrasting with its use in other parts of India for lumbago, paralysis, epilepsy, ulcers (Pullaiah 2002). The juice of Buddleja asiatica leaves is utilized to induce abortion. In contrast, in other parts of India, it is employed for diarrhea, fermentation of beverages (Namsa et al. 2011), cuts, and fever in Bangladesh (Biswas et al. 2010). Decoction of Striga anguistifolia seeds is administered for urinary disorders, while in other regions of India, it is known for managing poisonous bites (Savithramma et al. 2014) and contraceptive purposes (Bhogaonkar and Kadam 2006). Comparison of present study with other study conducted in India Comparison was performed between the present study and research conducted in various geographical regions of India (Table 6), as documented by Tangjang et al. (2011), Bhatia et al. (2014), Chander et al. (2015), Kichu et al. (2015), and Rao et al. (2015), with data provided in Table 6. Tangjang et al. (2011) and Kichu et al. (2015) investigated the Eastern Himalayan region, characterized by mountainous terrain, while Chander et al. (2015) focused on the coastal region. Bhatia et al. (2014) and Rao et al. (2015) conducted studies in the Western Himalayan region, encompassing tropical, subtropical, and temperate forest zones. Across these studies, leaves and seeds emerged as the most preferred plant parts for medicinal use (Table 5). Notably, Chander et al. (2015) reported the highest percentage (100%) of wild species utilized for medicine preparation, followed by our study at 90%, indicating significant pressure on wild species. The families Fabaceae and Asteraceae were found to be dominant across ethnobotanical studies, with common ailments including fever, skin disorders, gastrointestinal issues, and respiratory disorders. Comparing our informant consensus factor with other studies, we found the highest values for heart diseases and diabetes (0.96), fever and gastrointestinal disorders (0.95), and dermatological disorders, toxicity complaints, and mental disorders (0.94). Tangjang et al. (2011) reported the highest informant consensus values for fever (0.71), jaundice (0.62), and urological disorders (0.56). Rao et al. (2015) documented the highest values for diabetes (0.96), gastrointestinal disorders (0.92), and respiratory disorders (0.92). Kichu et al. (2015) reported the highest informant values for beer fermentation (0.91), dental disorders (0.90), hypertension, and diabetes (0.87). Chander et al. (2015) found the highest values for infection and infestations (0.79), respiratory disorders (0.77), and gastrointestinal disorders (0.75). Bhatia et al. (2014) documented the highest consensus values for diabetes (0.93), parasites (0.91), and gastrointestinal issues (0.87). The prevalence of diabetes and gastrointestinal disorders across these studies aligns with our findings, consistent with observations made by Bulut and Tuzlaci (2013) in Turgutlu. Furthermore, our study corroborated the use of certain medicinal plants across different regions, such as Aegle marmelos for respiratory issues , Asparagus racemosus for lactation, Azadirachta indica for skin ailments, Terminalia arjuna for cardiac disorders, and Terminalia bellirica for stomach disorders in the Madhupur forest area of Bangladesh (Islam et al. 2014). Similarly, Cuscuta reflexa is used for jaundice in Nepal (Rokaya et al. 2010) and Pakistan (Shinwari and Khan 2000), while Oxalis corniculata treats skin diseases in the Humla district of western Nepal (Rokaya et al. 2010). Trichodesma indicum is employed for snake bites, Cynodon dactylon for piles, and Solanum surratens for toothaches in the Margalla Hills National Park, Islamabad, Pakistan (Shinwari and Khan 2000). Ricinus communis addresses joint diseases, and Cissus quadrangularis aids in bone setting in Bulamogi County, Uganda (Tabuti et al. 2003), suggesting potential pharmacological effectiveness. However, many plants used in our study area for various ailments lack coherence with documented pharmacological activity, while some have not been evaluated for their pharmacological properties. Hence, further pharmacological research is warranted to explore their bio-prospective potential. Conclusion The current investigation underscores the enduring significance of traditional medicines in addressing the fundamental healthcare needs of the Western Madhya Pradesh populace across a series of ailments. The comprehensive analysis reveals a pronounced reliance on traditional remedies, particularly evident in the management of dermatological disorders, inflammation and pain, with each category encompassing a substantial diversity of plant species (25 species each). Similarly, the prevalence of general health diseases (18 species) underscores the widespread nature of these ailments within the study area. The rich biodiversity of medicinal plants in the region, including Milletia extensa , Ludwigia octavalis, Haplanthodes tentaculatus , Eranthemum roseum , Euphorbia fusiformis , Catharanthus pusilus , Enicostema axillare , Costus seciosus , among others, presents a fertile ground for exploration into novel phytochemical compounds and their potential pharmacological applications. This avenue holds promise for the discovery of new herbal remedies and offers insights into the molecular mechanisms underlying their therapeutic properties. However, the sustainability of medicinal plant resources faces significant challenges posed by anthropogenic activities such as deforestation, overgrazing, unregulated harvesting, drought, and forest fires. The relentless exploitation of these botanical resources for medicinal purposes risks the eventual depletion of certain species, highlighting the urgent need for proactive conservation measures. To safeguard both the medicinal plants and the indigenous knowledge associated with their use, concerted efforts are imperative. This entails comprehensive documentation, the identification of key medicinal plants, adoption of sustainable harvesting practices, promotion of cultivation initiatives for priority plant species, implementation of community-driven conservation strategies, and the facilitation of awareness programs within the study area. The findings of this research highlight the importance of directing research initiatives towards the pharmacological evaluation and conservation of medicinal plants in the region. By prioritizing these endeavours, we can foster the sustainable utilization of medicinal plant resources while simultaneously preserving invaluable indigenous knowledge for future generations. Declarations Acknowledgement The corresponding author is thankful to Director, CSIR- National Botanical Research Institute Lucknow, for encouragement and providing facilities to carry out the work. Thanks, are also due to Divisional Forest Officer, Jhabua and Alirajpur (M.P.) for extending facilities during the field work. We are thankful to the local communities to share their valuable knowledge. Funding This project was funded by the Madhya Pradesh State Biodiversity Board, Bhopal (Project code; MPSBB/AMU(PRJ)/2020/2100). Conflict of Interest No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s) CSIR-NBRI communication number: CSIR-NBRI_MS/2024/11/04. Author contributions V.V.W. conceptualized and supervised the study, formal analysis and writing the draft of article and approved the final version of manuscript. A.S. performed the fieldwork, conceptualized methodology, and prepared the draft of the article as well as formal analysis and writing. 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Tables Table 1 Demographic description of the informants of Western Madhya Pradesh, India (N= 115) Informants Female 36 (31.30%) Male 79 (68.69%) Age group Female Male 16-25 0 (00%) 3 (2.60%) 26-35 1 (0.86%) 10 (8.69%) 36-45 4 (3.47%) 12 (10.43%) 46-55 6 (5.21%) 15 (13.04%) 56-65 8 (6.95%) 11 (9.56%) 66-75 10 (8.69%) 17 (14.78%) 76-85 6 (5.21%) 10 (8.69%) >86 1 (0.86%) 1 (0.86%) Educational level Female Male Never attended school 29 (25.21%) 53 (46.08) Attended school for 1-5 classes 4 (3.47%) 11 (9.56%) Attended school 6-10 classes 1 (0.86%) 8 (6.95%) Intermediate (12 th pass) 1 (0.86%) 2 (1.73%) Graduate 0 (00%) 1 (0.86%) Post Graduate 0 (00%) 1 (0.86%) Table 2 is available in the Supplementary Files section. Table 3 Quantitative ethnobotanical analysis of the 14 groups of medical uses in Western Madhya Pradesh, India Illness category Fic Use Reports % Ur tot Taxa % Taxa %Leaf/ Aerial part/ Bark/ Seed/Fruit/Flower % Root/tuber/ Whole plant Fever (FR) Fever (Malaria, fever, pneumonia, typhoid fever) 0.95 448 9.22 20 11.42 60 45 Dermatological disorders (DER) (Leucoderma, leprosy, psoriasis, skin diseases, wound healing, Eczema, wound healing, Scabies) 0.94 518 10.67 31 17.71 90.3 9.6 General health (GEN) (Blood purifiers, epilepsy, hair tonic, eye disorders, dental care, cough and cold, mouth ulcers, Appetizer, Blood pressure) 0.93 501 10.31 34 19.42 82.9 17.1 Respiratory disorders (RP) Respiratory disorders, asthma, Bronchitis) 0.93 244 5.03 18 10.28 88.9 11.1 Urinary and rectal diseases URO) Syphilis, Kidney disorder, Urinary disorders) 0.90 142 2.92 15 8.57 66.7 33.3 Inflammation and Pain (IFP) (Earache, headache, toothache, joint diseases, Arthritis, Rheumatism, Lumbago, Bone fracture) 0.93 485 9.98 32 18.28 64.5 38.7 Gastrointestinal disorders (GAS) Stomach disorders, piles, diarrhoea, Dysentery, constipation, Intestinal disorders, anthelmintic) 0.95 671 13.81 33 18.85 87.5 12.5 Diabetes (DB) DB 0.96 407 8.38 17 9.71 70.6 29.4 Liver disorders (LD) Jaundice) 0.92 183 3.76 15 8.57 66.7 33.3 Male Sexual disorder/stimulant (MSD) (Aphrodisiac, spermatorrhoea, sexual disorders) 0.93 165 3.4 11 6.28 54.5 45.5 Toxicity complaints (PB) (Snake bite, scorpion bite, dog bite) 0.94 287 5.9 18 10.28 33.3 66.7 Female sexual disorders (GYN) Gonorrhoea, leucorrhoea, menstrual disorders, abortifacient, lactation, conception 0.89 259 5.34 28 16 71.4 28.6 Mental disorders (NL) Nervous disorder 0.94 119 2.45 8 4.57 50 50 Heart diseases (CV) Cardiac disorders 0.96 156 3.22 7 4 100 0 Total number of use-reports is 4585; total number of taxa is 175; Fic, Factor Informant Consensus; %Urtot, percentage of use-reports contributed to the total amount of use-reports by the respective illness category; Taxa, total amount of plant species contributing to the use-reports of the respective illness category; %Taxa, percentage of the plant species reported for an illness category in respect to the total amount of reported plants species ; %leaf/aerial part/Bark/ Seed/ Fruit/Flower, percentage of use-reports for the respective illness category that indicate leaves or aerial parts; %root/tuber/whole plant, percentage of use-reports for the respective illness category which indicate roots or tubers. Table 4 Relationship between Relative frequency of citation (RFC) and Use value (UV) of medicinal plants in Western Madhya Pradesh, India Correlation RFC UV RFC Pearson Correlation 1 .423** Significant (2-tailed) .004 N 174 174 UV Pearson Correlation .423** 1 Significant (2-tailed) .004 N 174 174 **Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed) Table 5 Some newly reported ethnomedicinal plant species along with comparison to other studies in India Medicinal plants Present study Other reported ethnomedicinal uses in India Reported pharmacological properties Parts used Ailments treated Use reports Parts used Medicinal uses Buddleja asiatica Leaves Purgative, abortifacient 3 Leaf Diarrhoea and preparation of beverages (Namsa et al., 2011), Cuts and fever (Biswas et al., 2010) Antibacterial and antispasmodic activity (Ali et al., 2011); antifungal (Ali et al., 2015); mosquito repellent (Venkatachalam and Jebanesan, 2001); antihepatotoxic (El-Domiaty et al. 2009) Catharanthus pusillus Whole plant Blood purifier 6 Whole plant Lumbago, paralysis, epilepsy and ulcer (Pullaiah, 2002) Antioxidant activity (Nithya et al., 2016). anti-diabetic (Navitha et al., 2012) Commelina erecta Leaves Stomach disorders 5 Whole plant Rheumatism (Panda and Mishra, 2011) and skin diseases (Padal et al. 2013) - Eranthemum roseum Roots Half headache 2 Root Stomachache (Mali and Bhadane 2011, Jagtap et al., 2008a) and Vertigo (Jagtap et al., 2008b) Antidiabetic (Patil et al., 2014); toxicological activity (Patil et al., 2010) Euphorbia fusiformis Roots Skin diseases, Scorpion bite 45 Tuber Rheumatism, gout, paralysis and arthritis (Prakash and Singh, 2001) Anti-inflammatory (Singh et al., 1984), antibacterial (Ramachandran et al., 2005; Natrajan et al., 2007); diuretic (Ashok et al., 2011) Haplanthodes tentaculatus Root Menstrual disorder 2 Root Asthma (Kanthale and Biradar, 2012) - Indigofera cordifolia Leaves, root Mouth ulcer, Jaundice 3 Whole plant, leaves Diarrhoea, dysentery, vomiting (Qasim et al. 2014) - Ludwigia octovalis Fruit Eye disease 2 Whole plant Diabetes (Kumar et al. 2012) fungal infection (Buragohain, 2011), skin diseases (Prusti and Behera, 2007), antidiabetic (Khan and Yadava, 2010) and for fever (Kumar and Abbas, 2012). Antibacterial and antioxidant activity (Yakob et al., 2012); anti-acne (Smida et al., 2018); hyperglycaemic (Lin et al., 2017); antidiabetic and antiobesity (Morales et al., 2018) Milletia extensa Seeds Jaundice 3 Roots, stem bark Skin diseases (Sharma et al. 2014), piles and dogbite (Panda and Padhy, 2008), ethnoveterinary practices (Patil and Patil, 2013), wound healing (Kamble et al., 2010). Antibacterial and inhibitory activity (Raksat et al., 2019) Striga anguistifolia Seeds Urinary disorders 2 Leaf, seed Poisonous bite (Savithramma et al., 2014), Contraceptive (Bhogaonkar and Kadam, 2006) - Table 6. Comparison of study with other studies of nearby areas in India Wagh and Jain Tangjang et al., (2011) Bhatia et al., (2014) Chander et al., 2015 Kichu et al., (2015) Rao et al., (2015) Geographical area of India Central India Eastern Himalayan region Western Himalayan region Coastal region of India Eastern Himalayan region Western Himalayan region Wild species 97.12% 50% 71.68% 100% 57.7% 77.2% Cultivated species 10% - 15.06 - 34.8% 22.8 Wild /Cultivated 2.3% 50% 13.25 - 7.4% - Total Number Species 174 74 166 78 135 197 Common families Fabaceae Asteraceae Acanthaceae Asclepiadaceae Euphorbiaceae Convolvulaceae Apocynaceae Lamiaceae Asteraceae Solanaceae Zingiberaceae Begoniaceae Poaceae Fabaceae Rutaceae Verbenaceae Asteraceae Solanaceae Lamiaceae Poaceae Fabaceae Amaranthaceae Fabaceae Asteraceae Araceae Caesalpiniacae Zingiberaceae Solanaceae Asteraceae Euphorbiaceae Solanaceae Fabaceae Asteraceae Lamiaceae Rosaceae Liliaceae Solanaceae Informant consensus factor heart diseases and diabetes: 0.96 Fever and Gastrointestinal disorders: 0.95Dermatological disorders, toxicity complaints and mental disorders: 0.94 Fever: 0.71, Jaundice: 0.62 Urological disorders: 0.56. Diabetes :0.93Parasites: 0.91Gastrointestinal disorders: 0.87 Infection and infestations: 0.79 Respiratory Disorders: 0.77 Gastrointestinal Disorders: 0.75. Beer fermentation :0.91, Dental disorders: 0.90, Hypertension and Diabetes: 0.87. Diabetes: 0.96, Gastrointestinal Disorders: 0.92 Respiratory disorders: 0.92. Most preferred plant parts Leaves Seed Root Stem bark Fruit, Whole plant Flower Leaf Fruit Seed Rhizome Root Stem bark Whole plant Leaves Seeds Fruits Root Rhizome Whole plant Latex Bark Flower Twig Stem Fruit rind Tuber Bulb Heartwood Thorn Silk Leaves Root Rhizome Fruit Leaves Fruit drupes Stem Roots Rhizome Seeds Whole plant Flowers Sap Latex Bulbs Leaves Whole plant Roots Seeds Fruits Common ailments Fever Dermatological disorders General health respiratory disorders Urinary and rectal diseases inflammation and pain gastrointestinal disorders Diabetes liver disorders Male sexual disorders/stimulant sexual complaints, female sexual disorders mental disorders heart diseases Fever Jaundice Gastrointestinal disorder General health Respiratory disorder Dermatological disorder Body pains Urological problem Gastrointestinal Physical pains Poisoning Respiratory Skeletomuscular Disorders Urological Andrological/Gynaecological/ birth problems Circulatory Dermatological Diabetes External Parasite Fever Gastrointestinal Inflammation Liver Complaints Ophthalmological Infections and infestations Respiratory system Gastro intestinal system Injuries and trauma General aches and pains Skin disorders Ear, nose, throat problems Reproductive system Nervous system Gastrointestinal ailments Skin related treatments Musculoskeletal problems Flu/cold/fever Hypertension Urinary tract infections and kidney and bladder ailments Snake/insect/dog bites Eye, ear, nose problems Dental ailments Diabetes Malaria Cancer Andrological/gynaecological/birth problems Circulatory disorders Dermatological disorders Diabetes Fevers Gastrointestinal Disorders Liver Disorders Musculoskeletal Disorder Ophthalmological disorders other disorders Parasites Physical pains Poisoning Respiratory disorders rological disorders Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Supplementary Files Table2.docx Cite Share Download PDF Status: Published Journal Publication published 23 Sep, 2025 Read the published version in Genetic Resources and Crop Evolution → Version 1 posted Editorial decision: Revision requested 25 Jul, 2025 Reviews received at journal 24 Jul, 2025 Reviews received at journal 13 Jul, 2025 Reviewers agreed at journal 11 Jul, 2025 Reviewers agreed at journal 11 Jul, 2025 Reviews received at journal 01 Jul, 2025 Reviewers agreed at journal 12 Jun, 2025 Reviewers agreed at journal 11 Jun, 2025 Reviewers invited by journal 11 Jun, 2025 Editor assigned by journal 11 Jun, 2025 Submission checks completed at journal 11 Jun, 2025 First submitted to journal 10 Jun, 2025 You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. Our growing team is made up of researchers and industry professionals working together to solve the most critical problems facing scientific publishing. Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-6859613","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":470393652,"identity":"ee17b9b2-8afa-427b-b984-a7286ce2a309","order_by":0,"name":"Vijay V. Wagh","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAA90lEQVRIiWNgGAWjYDACZoYECEOC+QAzkIRwEojTwpZApBY4kOAxYCZKocFxhoefeRgOy8tH93x7XLjHgsG8vf0Bw8MdeLQcZkiWBmox3Hjn7HbjGc8kGGTOnDFgSDyDW4tkM0MCUMttxo0zcrdJ8xyQYJCQyGFgSGzDqyX5N1CL/cYZOc8gWuSfP8CrhZ+ZIQ1kS+J8iRw2qC0MBgS1WM4x+J+8QSLNTHrGAQkeCZ4cgwP4tLDxn0m+8aYizXb+jORn0gUH6uQk2I8/fPgTjxYGBp4EJh4DYNAdgHJBxAF8GhgY2A8w/gBS8g34lY2CUTAKRsEIBgBFGEkRoD/5EgAAAABJRU5ErkJggg==","orcid":"","institution":"CSIR–National Botanical Research Institute","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Vijay","middleName":"V.","lastName":"Wagh","suffix":""},{"id":470393653,"identity":"fa4e61cd-af07-487d-85b4-abff7fc611f4","order_by":1,"name":"Anil Sharma","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"CSIR–National Botanical Research Institute","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Anil","middleName":"","lastName":"Sharma","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2025-06-10 06:23:32","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6859613/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-6859613/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[{"content":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s10722-025-02620-8","type":"published","date":"2025-09-23T15:57:06+00:00"}],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":84689279,"identity":"4a4b4318-8a1d-4b9f-acfb-ae6ce9f64f1d","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-06-16 09:29:43","extension":"jpeg","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":326369,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eGeographical location of research area, different colour represents different administrative boundaries of Western Madhya Pradesh, India\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"image1.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6859613/v1/c07839056bcdec5e7a9438c7.jpeg"},{"id":84689287,"identity":"4fafc62a-f667-4cca-8983-9b5b99197074","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-06-16 09:29:43","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":82717,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eDominant families of plant species in Western Madhya Pradesh, India\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"image2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6859613/v1/ea6a1e2cb9ce6aa55761d1f2.png"},{"id":84689292,"identity":"00c88c3c-f22f-41d6-bf5b-f33f21d023d7","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-06-16 09:29:43","extension":"png","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":101445,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eGrowth form of plant species in Western Madhya Pradesh, India\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"image3.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6859613/v1/52b60c4e6bfb3a3dbbc54dc8.png"},{"id":84689293,"identity":"86a49829-b043-431c-98b6-11ca845ed993","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-06-16 09:29:43","extension":"png","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":84085,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003ePlant parts used in Western Madhya Pradesh, India\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"image4.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6859613/v1/7f102ba9bf52d4d77ca86603.png"},{"id":84689298,"identity":"7a19a56e-605a-43be-a023-3da3fe15226e","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-06-16 09:29:43","extension":"png","order_by":5,"title":"Figure 5","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":163750,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eDose administrations and their % in Western Madhya Pradesh, India\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"image5.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6859613/v1/9121afe984aef17ab4e866fa.png"},{"id":84691167,"identity":"1c7496c2-5f7f-4e68-9c74-42ea94db7004","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-06-16 09:45:43","extension":"png","order_by":6,"title":"Figure 6","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":76275,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eMode of applications of remedies in Western Madhya Pradesh, India\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"image6.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6859613/v1/59467df27dcb535d602a34b3.png"},{"id":84689303,"identity":"5228e5fe-43f5-4b3c-a51f-9d62b8e1480b","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-06-16 09:29:43","extension":"png","order_by":7,"title":"Figure 7","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":1117771,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eChord diagram representing the informant consensus factor (ICF) attributes for different ailment categories (Nur: number of use reports; Nt: number of taxa; FR: Fever: DER: Dermatological disorders; GEN: General health; RP: Respiratory disorders; URO: Urinary and rectal diseases; IFP: Inflammation and Pain; GAS: Gastrointestinal disorders; DB: Diabetes; LD: Liver disorders; MSD: Male Sexual disorder/stimulant; TB: Toxicity complaints; GYN: Female sexual disorders; NL: Mental disorders; CV: Heart diseases\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"image7.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6859613/v1/9975153d9ff10d008cfbef60.png"},{"id":84690084,"identity":"68553aff-974e-4978-9145-0855b89b6011","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-06-16 09:37:43","extension":"png","order_by":8,"title":"Figure 8","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":72230,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eAssociations between relative frequency of citations (RFC) and use value (UV) of medicinal plants in Western Madhya Pradesh, India\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"image8.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6859613/v1/829d7e55fb3f3508f96fb8f6.png"},{"id":92430424,"identity":"43cac2e1-c871-4431-a6ee-2df5aed58646","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-09-29 16:03:15","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":3249262,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6859613/v1/be2dc77d-d956-487f-bbc0-8a27f541cefe.pdf"},{"id":84690076,"identity":"ff154866-4ddd-416c-9746-bed25166be68","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-06-16 09:37:43","extension":"docx","order_by":1,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":103807,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Table2.docx","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6859613/v1/17a1a692420df863a5fa3bb5.docx"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"An Ethnomedicinal Survey of Traditional Healing Practices of Indigenous Communities in Western Madhya Pradesh, India","fulltext":[{"header":"Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eIn India, over 43% of all flowering plants are recognized for their medicinal properties (Pushpangadan 1995). India boasts a rich ethnic diversity, with a total of 427 tribal communities occured (Dutta and Dutta 2005). The utilization of plants for medicinal purposes has deep roots in ancient Indian literature (Samvat; Charak, Drdhbala 1996). However, systematic investigations in this realm commenced in 1956 (Rao \u0026amp; Henry 1996), gaining momentum in recent times due to the erosion of traditional knowledge and the decline in plant populations. World Health Organization (WHO) reports that up to 80% of the world\u0026rsquo;s population relies on traditional medicine, with 65% of rural communities using herbs for primary healthcare needs (Ong et al. 2018).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis study was conducted in the Jhabua and Alirajpur district of Western Madhya Pradesh, India. These districts are predominantly inhabited by tribal communities, with 87.6% of the population facing poverty, illiteracy, ignorance, and unemployment, while only 28% of the district is forested. The \u003cem\u003eBhil\u003c/em\u003e, one of the largest tribes in India (Census 2011), dominates the study area, deriving its name from the Dravidian word \u0026quot;\u003cem\u003ebil\u003c/em\u003e\u0026quot; or \u0026quot;\u003cem\u003evi\u003c/em\u003el,\u0026quot; signifying the bow they traditionally carry for hunting. Within this remote area, access to modern medical facilities is limited, prompting the local tribal community to favour traditional medicines. The \u003cem\u003eBhilala\u003c/em\u003e subtribe, distinct in culture and rituals, coexists within the study area. As modern medical amenities remain distant, the community relies on traditional remedies for their healthcare needs.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eA review of existing literature indicates sporadic research efforts have been done by some researcher. For instance, Samvatsar and Diwanji (1996) documented 16 ethnomedicinal remedies for dermatological disorders, while in another study (Samvatsar and Diwanji 2000), 13 plant species were identified for treating jaundice. Although some endeavours have been made to investigate the diversity of threatened plants, sacred groves, and ethnomedicinal plants for ailments such as diarrhea, dysentery, and snakebites (Wagh and Jain 2013, 2015, 2018), numerous medicinal plants and their associated traditional uses remain unexplored.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTo date, no comprehensive report exists regarding the ethnomedicinal knowledge of plants in the Jhabua and Alirajpur district. Previous studies primarily catalogued plant uses, lacking in-depth information on ethnomedicinal practices, sample sizes, informant demographics including age and gender, village coverage, and statistical data analysis. The present study aims to fill this gap by exploring and documenting indigenous plant knowledge, thereby establishing a baseline for further comprehensive investigations into bioactive compounds. Additionally, the study seeks to raise awareness among traditional healers about the importance of medicinal plant conservation.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Materials And Methods","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eStudy area\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe study was carried out in Jhabua and Alirajpur districts, situated in the Western region of Madhya Pradesh, positioned at 22\u0026apos; 47\u003csup\u003e0\u003c/sup\u003e N latitude and 71\u0026apos; 35\u003csup\u003e0\u003c/sup\u003e E longitude, with an average altitude of 428 m. above sea level (Fig. 1). Jhabua and Alirajpur district spans a total area of 6,782 km\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e, hosting a combined population of 1,754,047 individuals (Census 2011). The \u003cem\u003eBhil\u003c/em\u003e population constitutes 90% of the demographic, while the combined population of the \u003cem\u003eBhilalas\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003ePatliyas\u003c/em\u003e, two other indigenous communities, accounts for slightly less than 2%.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eA comprehensive survey encompassed 41 villages across all 12 blocks in Jhabua and Alirajpur district (6 block each). The Bhabhra block witnessed the highest number of village visits, followed by the Alirajpur. The villages within the Bhabhra block are nestled in remote forested areas, characterized by humid conditions. While they once practiced shifting cultivation, they have transitioned to settled cultivation practices. Maize serves as their staple food, with cotton cultivated as a cash crop alongside other crops like paddy, pulses, sugarcane, oilseeds, and wheat.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAs forest dwellers, they possess expertise in hunting, even capturing ferocious animals using basic weaponry. They excel in harvesting honey, collecting edible roots and fruits, and gathering Mahua (flower of \u003cem\u003eMadhuca longifolia\u003c/em\u003e). Additionally, they engage in fishing and maintain poultry farms as part of their livelihood practices.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSampling and interview of traditional healers\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eEthnomedicinal insights were gathered through a series of interviews with traditional healers, practitioners of indigenous medicine systems between May 2010 and June 2014. Methodologies employed by previous researchers such as Raghavaiah (1956), Raizada (1966), and Jain (1989) informed the approach to collecting ethnobotanical data. Prior to interviews, explicit consent was obtained from all participants, adhering to the guidelines outlined in the International Society of Ethnobiology Code of Ethics (http://ethnobiology.net/code-of-ethics/).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eInterviews and discussions were conducted using a local dialect \u0026lsquo;\u003cem\u003eBhili\u003c/em\u003e\u0026rsquo; to facilitate seamless communication with participants. A total of 115 traditional healers, comprising 79 men and 36 women, were engaged, including 79 \u003cem\u003eBhil\u003c/em\u003e, 25 \u003cem\u003eBhilala\u003c/em\u003e, and 12 \u003cem\u003ePataya\u003c/em\u003e individuals, to gather insights into herbal preparations used for various ailments (Table 1). All plant references provided by traditional healers were cross-validated for authenticity by consulting other traditional practitioners.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTraditional healers were specifically queried about plants utilized for ailment treatment, including details on preparation methods and administration modes for prescribed medicines. Authors requested to traditional healers for\u0026nbsp;accompany to procure plant specimens from forested areas. In instances where experienced individuals were unable to accompany to forest areas, fresh specimens were collected with meticulous attention to plant characteristics such as habit, habitat, height, fragrance, taste, flower, and fruit properties. Subsequently, these specimens were presented to the healers to ensure accurate information retrieval.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ePlant Collection and Identification:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eField excursions were conducted along with informants to procure specimens, gathering useful plants from the natural environment. Voucher specimens were prepared following the standardized procedure outlined by Jain and Rao (1976). These voucher specimens were then identified with the help of local flora and referenced literature (Verma et al. 1993; Singh et al. 2001). Valid botanical nomenclature was confirmed through consultation with (https://powo.science.kew.org/) and International Plant Names Index (http://www.ipni.org).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eData analysis\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOur dataset encompasses insights from 115 informants, 174 plant species and a total of 4585 use reports. To delve into the cultural significance of each plant species, we delineated 47 ailments across 14 illness categories, as outlined by Heinrich et al. (1998). Within each illness category, plant species were ranked in descending order based on their frequency of reported use.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e(i). Informant consensus factor (ICF):\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eIn assessing the variability of medicinal plant usage and identifying promising bioactive compound exploration, we computed the informant consensus factor (ICF) following Heinrich et al. (1998).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cimg src=\"data:image/png;base64,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\" height=\"44\" width=\"115\"\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThus, ICF ranges from 0 to 1, with higher values indicating a consensus among informants regarding the preferred taxa for treating a particular illness category, while lower values signify disagreement among informants regarding the taxa to be employed in treatment within a specific illness category.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e(ii). Relative frequency of citation (RFC)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis index describes the importance of each species and is calculated based on the frequency of citation (FC) representing the number of informants citing the utilization of a particular species using the following equation:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cimg src=\"data:image/png;base64,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\" height=\"45\" width=\"81\"\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe \u0026apos;FC\u0026apos; value is divided by the overall number of informants participating in the survey (\u0026apos;N\u0026apos;), irrespective of use-categories. Where, \u0026apos;FC\u0026apos; signifies the number of informants recognizing the usage of a specific plant species, while \u0026apos;N\u0026apos; stands for the total number of informants involved in the study (Vitalini et al. 2013).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e(iii). Use value (UV)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAssessing the relative importance of each therapeutic plant, UV employs a measure based on the relative usage by informants. It was estimated utilizing the formula by Ahmad et al. (2015), with a minor modification:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cimg src=\"data:image/png;base64,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\" height=\"44\" width=\"73\"\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWhere, \u0026apos;ui\u0026apos; represents the number of use reports mentioned by each informant, and \u0026apos;N\u0026apos; signifies the total number of informants interviewed for a particular plant species.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ePearson correlation analysis was also performed to examine the relationships between RFC and UV. Additionally, the coefficient of determination (r\u0026sup2;) was calculated to gauge the cross-species inconsistency in RFC, elucidated by variances in UV.\u0026nbsp;Most of the graphs were generated using GraphPad Prism version 8.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Results and discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eInformants, traditional medical practices and beliefs\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eA total of 195 individuals, ranging from 16 to 85 years old, were approached for the present study. However, only 115 participants contributed information on the utilization of plants for treating various ailments. Among these 115 informants, 79 were identified as male and 36 as female traditional healers (Table 1). Within the local community, these healers, comprising 68.69% men and 31.30% women, hold esteemed positions, serving as spiritual guides, counsellors, and healers. Notably, only 36 (31.30%) of the female informants consented to interviews. This gender disparity stems from cultural norms, as male traditional healers exhibit greater openness toward interacting with strangers compared to their female counterparts, who face cultural constraints in such engagements. Studies by Guler et al. (2015) and Abbas et al. (2016) conducted in Turgidly, Turkey, and among the Balti community in Pakistan, respectively, shows cultural restrictions observed in our study. These findings suggest that gender imbalances persist across neighbouring villages, districts, and countries.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAnalysis of medicinal plant citations from informants aged above 50 years revealed that elderly men and illiterate individuals possess more extensive knowledge of medicinal plants compared to younger, literate counterparts and females (Table 1). These findings align with research conducted elsewhere (Upadhyay et al. 2007; Panghal et al. 2010; Sharma et al. 2024). Furthermore, our study indicates a decline in indigenous medicinal plant knowledge among younger generations, likely attributed to increased access to education, enhanced income opportunities, and diminished interest among youth in inheriting and applying ethnomedicinal knowledge (Table 1). Yinegar et al. (2008) reported similar trends, noting an increase in medicinal plant knowledge with age following a significant erosion of ethnomedicinal plant knowledge within the community.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe majority of informants disclosed that they safeguard their medicinal plant knowledge as a closely held secret, primarily passing it down vertically from parent to child, predominantly sons, consistent with observations made by other researchers (Upadhyay et al. 2007; Giday et al. 2009; Panghal et al. 2010;\u0026nbsp;Sharma et al. 2021). Additionally, some informants have ceased practicing traditional medicine due to the increased availability of allopathic medicines.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCharacteristics of plants used for curing various disorders\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eA comprehensive survey identified a total of 174 taxa spanning 66 families, renowned for their efficacy in treating 47 common ailments, which were further categorized into 14 illness classifications\u0026nbsp;in Western Madhya Pradesh (Table 2). The primary source of medicinal plants predominantly from wild sources, accounting for 97.12%, with a marginal presence from wild-cultivated (2.3%) and cultivated sources (0.58%)\u0026nbsp;throughout the study.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;This observation resonates with findings by Chander et al. (2015), wherein 100% of medicinal plants used in local medicine were sourced from the wild, underscoring the robust availability and accessibility of wild medicinal resources in the study area.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFabaceae emerged as the most prominent family, boasting the highest species (20), closely followed by Asteraceae (11 species) and Convolvulaceae (7 species). Other noteworthy families included Acanthaceae, Arecaceae, and Asclepiadaceae, each featuring 6 species (Fig. 3). Families such as Fabaceae, Asteraceae, Lamiaceae, Solanaceae, and Poaceae notably dominate in terms of species richness, a trend observed in various pharmacopoeias (Agra et al. 2007; Sharma and Wagh 2024).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn terms of life-form diversity among collected plant species, herbs constituted the most frequently utilized category, contributing 50% to medicinal preparations, followed by trees (22.98%), climbers (16.67%), shrubs (5.18%), grasses (3.45%), and epiphytes (1.72%) (Fig. 4). The preferred plant parts for medicinal concoctions among the \u003cem\u003eBhil\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eBhilala\u003c/em\u003e tribes were leaves (30.97%), seeds (18.41%), roots (14.65%), stem bark (9.62%), and fruits (7.11%) (Fig. 5). Interestingly, contrary to the general trend observed by Gazzaneo et al. (2005), wherein communities residing near humid forests favour leaves while those in arid regions opt for continuously available bark, our study revealed a prevalence of leaf-based ethnomedicine. This inclination toward leaves underscores a heightened emphasis on medicinal teas (51%), baths (39%), and other leaf-based formulations (Parente and Rosa 2001).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNotably, a significant majority (70%) of plant parts utilized were aerial, encompassing leaves, stems, fruits, seeds, and flowers, while only 30% of preparations necessitated whole plants or underground components. This prevalent utilization of aerial parts is promising for local flora conservation, as it mitigates threats to the survival and propagation of these invaluable plants. The predominant modes of plant preparation for ailment treatment were decoction and infusion, constituting 23.34% each, followed by juice (11.5%), powder (10.45%), paste (8.71%), poultice (5.92%), raw or fresh applications (3.13%), and instillation (2.78%) (Fig. 6).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTherapeutic Uses\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eA diverse array of 174 plant species were harnessed for alleviating 47 distinct ailments, categorized into 14 classifications including abortifacient, anthelmintic, bone fracture, asthma, constipation, diabetes, malaria, typhoid fever, and snake bite, among others (refer to Tables 2 and 3). Notably, the highest representation of plant species, 34 each, was attributed to the treatment of general health diseases, while gastrointestinal disorders accounted for 33 species, followed closely by inflammation and pain, as well as dermatological conditions, with 32 and 31 species respectively. Genera such as \u003cem\u003eButea\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eCassia\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eDioscorea\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eEuphorbia\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eFicus\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eHabenaria\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eSolanum\u003c/em\u003e, and \u003cem\u003eTerminalia\u003c/em\u003e showcased dominance, each boasting 2 species. The prevalence of gastrointestinal, dermatological, and inflammation-related ailments in the region may be attributed to socio-economic factors such as household overcrowding, which facilitates the spread of skin infections, exacerbated by the hot and humid climatic conditions. Consequently, the tribal community effectively employed the local flora, harnessing a total of 96 species to combat these recurrent illnesses.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe efficacy of herbal drug formulations correlated with the nature of the ailment and dosage response. Dosing primarily occurred twice daily to coincide with individuals\u0026apos; presence at home during mornings and evenings. Dosages varied among patients and over time, contingent upon the cause and effectiveness of the remedy. Freshly collected plant material from wild habitats, primarily from single species, formed the basis of the majority of remedies. In instances where fresh plant parts were unavailable, dried alternatives were utilized. Oral administration emerged as the preferred mode of application, comprising 67.72% of treatments, followed by topical applications at 29.83%, with inhalation and gargling constituting 1.75% and 0.7% respectively (Fig. 7).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eTinospora cordifolia\u003c/em\u003e emerged as the most frequently cited plant, garnering 134 citations for treating constipation (16), acting as a blood purifier (81), and combating typhoid fever (37). \u003cem\u003eTerminalia bellirica\u003c/em\u003e followed closely with 123 citations, renowned for its efficacy in addressing stomach disorders (97) and purifying the blood (26). \u003cem\u003eHelicteres isora\u003c/em\u003e also ranked among the highly cited species with a total of 122 citations, particularly acclaimed for its effectiveness against jaundice (27) and stomach disorders (95). \u003cem\u003eAzadirachta indica\u003c/em\u003e accrued 110 citations, valued for its role in treating skin diseases (67), serving as a liver tonic (31), and acting as an abortifacient (12). Other prominently cited species include \u003cem\u003eVernonia cinerea\u003c/em\u003e (102 citations), \u003cem\u003eHemidesmus indicus\u003c/em\u003e (99 citations), \u003cem\u003eCissus quadrangularis\u003c/em\u003e (97 citations), \u003cem\u003eWrightia tinctoria\u003c/em\u003e (95 citations), \u003cem\u003eGloriosa superba\u003c/em\u003e, and \u003cem\u003eCassia fistula\u003c/em\u003e (93 citations each), \u003cem\u003eBarleria prionitis\u003c/em\u003e (92 citations), \u003cem\u003eCurcuma pseudomontana\u003c/em\u003e (86 citations), and \u003cem\u003eSyzygium heyneanum\u003c/em\u003e (85 citations) (Table 2). This abundance of citations underscores the socio-cultural significance of these species within the study area, likely facilitated by their ready availability in the vicinity of the tribal community. The survey underscores the ample availability of medicinal plants, offering a broad spectrum of remedies for addressing human ailments.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn subheading, the 14-illness category is discussed.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eIllness category fever\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn the study region, various types of fever prevail, including malarial fever, typhoid fever, and pneumonia. These occurrences stem from the tropical conditions conducive to mosquito breeding and the prevalence of unhygienic food and contaminated water, particularly contributing to the prevalence of typhoid fever. Of the fevers encountered, typhoid fever emerges as the most frequent, with a total of 20 plant species utilized for its treatment, accounting for 448 reported uses. The predominant plant parts employed for remedies include leaves and aerial components such as flowers, bark, fruits, seeds, and gums (60%), while other parts like roots, rhizomes, and whole plants contribute the remaining 40%. Decoction remains the preferred mode of administration (refer to Table 3).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWithin the fever category, \u003cem\u003eVernonia cineraria\u003c/em\u003e emerges as a highly prioritized plant species for malarial fever treatment, supported by observations made in India by Shukla et al. (2010) and Reddy et al. (2012), as well as findings from the Agonlin region of Benin (Allabi et al. 2011). Pharmacological evaluations by Hout et al. (2006), and Arivoli et al. (2011) affirm the antimalarial activity of \u003cem\u003eV. cineraria\u003c/em\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eEnicostemma littorale\u003c/em\u003e finds traditional use in India as a bitter tonic and stomachic, alongside its role in fever reduction (Sankaranarayanan et al. 2010). Traditional healers also employ the hot aqueous extract of \u003cem\u003eE. littorale\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003efor dyspepsia and malaria treatment (Murali et al. 2002), with Garad et al. (2012) investigating its antipyretic properties.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTuber extracts of \u003cem\u003eCurcuma pseudomontana\u003c/em\u003e are utilized by the Savara, Bagata, and Valmiki tribes of Andhra Pradesh for jaundice and diabetes treatment (Padal et al. 2010). Maridass (2009) explored its antifungal and antibacterial attributes, highlighting its endemic nature in the Indian subcontinent and its understudied pharmacological activities.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eTinospora cordifolia\u003c/em\u003e finds utility in treating various fevers with coastal tribals employing it for fever, jaundice, chronic diarrhea, and dysentery (Shah 1984). Administration of \u003cem\u003eT. cordifolia\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003estem, with antipyretic effects reported by Rao (1999), and Ashok et al. (2010).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn the Unani system, \u003cem\u003eAcorus calamus\u003c/em\u003e serves as an emetic, flatulent colic treatment, carminative, bitter tonic, and stimulant (Kartheckiyan and Gajendran 2005), echoing practices among the Oraon tribes of Palamu division, Jharkhand (Marandi et al. 2015a). The Baiga tribe of district Dindori, Madhya Pradesh, employs \u003cem\u003eA. calamus\u003c/em\u003e rhizomes for cough, cold, and asthma relief (Prana et al. 2014).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eIllness category Dermatological disorders\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn the study area, dermatological disorders predominantly encompass skin diseases, scabies, ringworm, and eczema. Treatment primarily involves the utilization of leaves and aerial parts (90.3%), with minimal use of roots and rhizomes (9.6%). Given that some of these plants possess toxic properties, topical administration in the form of decoctions, infusions, juices, pastes, poultices, and extracts is favoured, while oral administration is rare. Tribal communities in this region regard dermatological disorders as ominous and strive for prompt treatment.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAzadirachta indica\u003c/em\u003e boasts a plethora of reported biological and pharmacological activities, including antibacterial (Mahfuzul Hoque et al. 2007; Yerima et al. 2012), antifungal, and anti-inflammatory properties (Jabeen et al. 2013; Naik et al. 2014), as well as wound healing attributes (Osunwoke Emeka et al. 2013). It is a constituent of the polyherbal drug \u0026quot;Neem Guard capsules,\u0026quot; utilized for various skin disorders and is also incorporated into another polyherbal Ayurvedic formulation for dandruff treatment (Agarwal et al. 2009).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWound healing activity of \u003cem\u003eTephrosia purpurea\u003c/em\u003e has been investigated by Lodhi et al. (2006), demonstrating definite prohealing effects in rats. Ethnomedicinal uses include anthelmintic properties (Ray et al. 2011), kidney stone treatment (Agarwal and Varma 2012), management of liver and urinary disorders (Sainkhedia and Pachaya 2013), and alleviation of inflammation and pain (Sandhya and Ahirwar 2015). \u003cem\u003eEuphorbia fusiformis\u003c/em\u003e is reported for the first time in Madhya Pradesh as an ethnomedicinally significant plant, utilized in other parts of India for rheumatism, gout, arthritis, paralysis, and fever treatment (Prakash and Singh 2001; Pullaiah 2002). Natrajan et al. (2007) studied its antimicrobial and antifungal activity, revealing strong efficacy against \u003cem\u003eCryptococcus neoformans\u003c/em\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eLeucas aspera\u003c/em\u003e leaves find application in psoriasis, chronic rheumatism, chronic skin eruptions, and scabies, serving also as an antibacterial agent (Rahman et al. 2007). Its chloroform and ether extracts exhibit antifungal properties, while wound healing attributes are also noted, along with efficacy in cobra venom poisoning (Akter et al. 2012). \u003cem\u003ePergularia daemia\u003c/em\u003e demonstrates antibacterial activity against gram-positive and gram-negative strains (Packirisamy and Krishna Moorthy 2014), a characteristic also studied by Jogi and Akkewar (2012) and Savitha et al. (2014).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWhile no ethnomedicinal study in Madhya Pradesh aligns with our findings, coherence is observed in other parts of India. For instance, Konda Doras and Nuka Doras tribes of Andhra Pradesh apply latex to cure boils (Rama Rao and Henry 1998), Bargarh district of Orissa uses leaf and root for leprotic wounds (Sen and Behera 2003), and Sabarkantha Kathodi tribes of Gujarat utilize leaf juice for ringworm and scabies treatment (Punjani 2006).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eIllness category General health\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe general health illness category encompasses various ailments such as blood purification, epilepsy, hair tonics, dental care, coughs, and colds (refer to Table 3). Among these, the largest number of plant species is utilized as blood purifiers, followed by treatments for mouth ulcers. A total of 34 species are employed to address general health category ailments, accounting for 501 reported uses, representing 12.2% of all reported uses. Leaves emerge as the most commonly used plant parts (37%), with infusion being the preferred mode of administration (26%).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eTinospora cordifolia\u003c/em\u003e\u0026apos;s crude extract contains a polyclonal B-cell mitogen, enhancing the immune response in mice (Alamgir and Shaikh 2010). Napit (2016) explored the use of \u003cem\u003eT. cordifolia\u003c/em\u003e among tribal communities in Shahdol district, Central India, for platelet loss. In the Pind Dadan Khan district of Pakistan, its roots and stems are utilized for treating fever, dysentery, and diarrhea (Iqbal et al. 2011).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eHemidesmus indicus\u003c/em\u003e roots are peeled and consumed raw as a blood purifier and cooling beverage, wound healing (Ratha et al. 2012), hepatoprotective (Bahati et al. 2012), natriuretic, and saluretic activities (Gadge and Jalapure 2011).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eRai et al. (2010) and Aneja et al. (2010) demonstrated the efficacy of the methanolic bark extract of \u003cem\u003eBarleria prionitis\u003c/em\u003e against oral bacteria, supporting its use in dental care, alongwith Gupta et al. (2016) showing its effectiveness against dental plaque comparable to CHX.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn Ayurvedic medicine, \u003cem\u003eRauvolfia serpentina\u003c/em\u003e roots are employed to alleviate insomnia, traumas, and as a sedative (Agarwal and Mishra 2013), findings consistent with observations in other parts of India (Singh et al. 2010). The Garo tribe of the Madhupur forest region in Bangladesh uses \u003cem\u003eR. serpentina\u003c/em\u003e to treat malaria and spleen diseases (Mia et al. 2009).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eCassia fistula\u003c/em\u003e leaves aid in treating skin burns (Patil and Patil, 2012) and are utilized in Pakistan for cattle diarrhea and joint pain (Mussarat et al. 2014). No ethnomedicinal study in Madhya Pradesh or India aligns with our findings regarding the use of \u003cem\u003eC. fistula\u003c/em\u003e decoction as an appetizer, necessitating further pharmacological and phytochemical investigations.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eIllness category Respiratory disorders\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe respiratory diseases category encompasses ailments such as asthma and bronchitis (see Table 3). A total of 18 plants were identified for treating respiratory diseases, with 244 recorded use reports. The mode of administration varies among plant species; for instance, \u003cem\u003eCelosia argentea\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eCassia tora\u003c/em\u003e seeds are smoked and inhaled. While some applications are topical, others are administered orally. Aerial plant parts are predominantly used in treating respiratory diseases.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eTylophora indica\u003c/em\u003e, a staple in India\u0026apos;s traditional medicine system, addresses bronchial asthma, inflammation, bronchitis, allergies, and dermatitis (Faisal and Anis 2005).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe dried stem bark of \u003cem\u003eBarleria prionitis\u003c/em\u003e serves as an expectorant in whooping cough and as a diaphoretic (Khare 2007; Rai et al. 2010). In Sri Lanka, it is utilized for fever and neuralgia (Ediriweera 2007), while folk healers in Bangladesh employ \u003cem\u003eB. prionitis\u003c/em\u003e for anti-inflammatory purposes, as well as cancer and tumour treatment (Mollick et al. 2010).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAegle marmelos\u003c/em\u003e leaves act as a laxative and are beneficial in asthma (Reddy et al. 2006). Arul et al. (2004) investigated the alcoholic extract of \u003cem\u003eA. marmelos\u003c/em\u003e leaves, revealing positive relaxant effects on guinea pig isolated ileum tracheal chains.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eTrichosanthes cucumerina\u003c/em\u003e is used to treat bronchitis, skin allergies, malaria, and serves as a vermifuge, laxative, emetic, anthelmintic, and cathartic (Reddy et al. 2010). Seed extracts of \u003cem\u003eT. cucumerina\u003c/em\u003e exhibit antibacterial activity against various bacterial strains (Shyamsundarachary et al. 2016).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eOcimum basilicum\u003c/em\u003e finds application in traditional medicine and culinary practices as a renowned source of flavouring principles (Campbell 2009). Chiang et al. (2005) evaluated its antiviral activities, particularly against coxsackie virus B1 and enterovirus 71.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eIllness category Urinary and rectal diseases\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe urinary and rectal disease category encompasses kidney and urinary disorders, with a total of 15 plants and 142 reported uses for treating these ailments (Table 3). Urinary disorders are particularly prevalent in the study area, likely due to the tropical humid environment.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn Nigeria, \u003cem\u003eCymbopogon citratus\u003c/em\u003e leaves are utilized to address diabetes, inflammation, and nerve disorders (Aibinu et al. 2007). The antibacterial efficacy of \u003cem\u003ePhyllanthus amarus\u003c/em\u003e against pathogens causing urinary tract infections has been investigated by Saranraj and Sivasakthivelan (2012). Gbadamosi (2015) explored its activity against \u003cem\u003eEscherichia coli\u003c/em\u003e, the causative agent of urinary tract infections.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eLeonotis nepetifolia\u0026apos;\u003c/em\u003es whole plant tea is beneficial for obesity, piles, rheumatism, urinary bladder, and kidney disorders (Thring and Weitz 2005). Oyedeji et al. (2005) observed antibacterial properties in \u003cem\u003eL. nepetifolia\u003c/em\u003e flower and leaf essential oils against clinical isolates. In South Africa, it finds utility in managing asthma and epilepsy (Clement et al. 2005; Ayanwuyi et al. 2009).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn the Aravali regions of Rajasthan, \u003cem\u003eAerva lanata\u003c/em\u003e is deployed in kidney stone treatment (Sharma et al. 2011). Soundararajan et al. (2006) investigated the diuretic properties of \u003cem\u003eA. lanata\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u0026apos;s alcoholic extract, potentially beneficial in urolithiasis. Kumar et al. (2005) reported an increase in urinary sodium, urine volume, chloride, and potassium levels with the ethanolic extract of \u003cem\u003eA. lanata \u0026apos;\u003c/em\u003es whole plant.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAcanthospermum hispidum\u003c/em\u003e serves as an antifeedant (Mshana et al. 2000). Fleischer (2003) highlighted the ethanolic extract of \u003cem\u003eA. hispidum\u0026apos;\u003c/em\u003es leaves and flowering tops for its activity against a broad spectrum of pathogenic bacteria.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eIllness category Inflammation and Pain\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe category of inflammation and pain encompasses ailments such as earache, headache, toothache, joint diseases, arthritis, rheumatism, lumbago, and bone fractures (Table 3). A total of 32 species, with 485 reported uses, are employed to alleviate inflammation and pain, with topical applications being preferred over oral administration.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eRao et al. (2007) found that the aerial parts of \u003cem\u003eC. quadrangularis\u003c/em\u003e, rich in phytoestrogens, mitigate bone loss, as evidenced by DEXA and histopathology.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe seed oil of \u003cem\u003eMadhuca longifolia\u003c/em\u003e is massaged onto affected joint areas to reduce swelling (Mishra and Padhan 2013). Chakma et al. (2011) reported the anti-inflammatory activity of acetone extract of \u003cem\u003eM. longifolia\u003c/em\u003e against carrageenan-induced rat paw edema. Seshagiri et al. (2007) also observed anti-inflammatory effects using ethanolic and crude alkaloid extracts of \u003cem\u003eM. longifolia\u003c/em\u003e seed cake in albino rats.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eA warm tuber paste of \u003cem\u003eCurcuma pseudomontana\u003c/em\u003e is topically applied by the Jatapu and Kaya tribes to alleviate body swellings, while the leaves serve as meal plates (Rama Rao 2006). Maridass (2009) noted the anti-inflammatory activity of \u003cem\u003eC. pseudomontana\u003c/em\u003e in a carrageenan-induced rat paw edema model.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSingh et al. (2010a) highlighted the usefulness of the whole plant paste of \u003cem\u003eViscum articulatum\u003c/em\u003e in treating gout. Limboo tribes in the South-West of Khangchendzonga Biosphere Reserve, Sikkim, India, apply root paste of \u003cem\u003eV. articulatum\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eBergenia ciliata\u003c/em\u003e, and \u003cem\u003eKaempferia sikkimensis\u003c/em\u003e over fractured or dislocated bones (Badola and Pradhan 2013).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eStudies by Hu et al. (2011), Mahdy et al. (2014), and Lu et al. (2009) investigated the anti-inflammatory activity of \u003cem\u003ePueraria tuberosa\u003c/em\u003e. Ethnomedicinal research conducted by Shyamala et al. (2016) in Visakhapatnam district, Andhra Pradesh, India, as well as by Bala and Singh (2015) in Satna district, Madhya Pradesh, and Sainkhediya and Ray (2014) in Harda District of Madhya Pradesh, demonstrates coherence with our study.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eIllness category gastrointestinal disorders\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eGastrointestinal disorders encompass a series of ailments including stomach disorders, piles, diarrhea, dysentery, constipation, and intestinal disorders, often requiring anthelmintic treatment (Table 3). A total of 33 species, with 671 reported uses, have been employed to address gastrointestinal diseases. Oral administration is the sole mode of medication delivery, with no recommended topical applications for these ailments.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eElizabeth et al. (2005) documented the antimicrobial activity of \u003cem\u003eTerminalia bellirica\u003c/em\u003e against nine human microbial pathogens. Kumar et al. (2010) investigated the antidiarrheal activity of castor oil. Aqueous and ethanolic extracts of \u003cem\u003eT. bellirica\u003c/em\u003e fruit pulp demonstrated a more pronounced antisecretory effect compared to the reduction in gastrointestinal motility.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe Ayurvedic properties of \u003cem\u003eHelicteres isora\u003c/em\u003e include analgesic, antidiarrheal, wormicidal, urine conservative, and blood purifier effects (Sharma 2012). Additionally, the bark proves beneficial in managing diarrhea and dysentery (Chopra et al. 2012). Hydroalcoholic extracts of \u003cem\u003eCassia fistula\u003c/em\u003e leaves exhibited antidiarrheal activity against various pathogens including \u003cem\u003ePseudomonas aeruginosa\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eAspergillus niger\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eStreptococcus pyogenes\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eStaphylococcus aureus\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eEscherichia coli\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eCandida albicans\u003c/em\u003e, and \u003cem\u003eAspergillus clavatus\u003c/em\u003e (Bhalodia and Shukla 2011).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn Karnataka and Tamil Nadu states of India, \u003cem\u003eWrightia tinctoria\u003c/em\u003e is referred to as the \u0026quot;Jaundice curative tree\u0026quot; (Joshi 2000). Methanolic extracts of the plant demonstrated significant gastroprotective activity (65.89%), surpassing the standard drug famotidine (20 mg/kg) (Divakar and Lakshmi 2011).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe tuberous roots of \u003cem\u003eAmorphophallus paeoniifolius\u003c/em\u003e have traditionally been used for treating piles and abdominal disorders (Misra and Sriram 2001). Nataraj et al. (2011) reported that the methanolic extract of \u003cem\u003eA. paeoniifolius\u003c/em\u003e exhibits gastroprotective activity against pylorus ligation-induced gastrotoxicity in albino rats.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eIllness category Diabetes\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eA total of 17 species, accounting for 407 use reports, were enlisted solely for oral administration in treating diabetes (Table 3).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSyzygium heyneanum\u003c/em\u003e finds extensive usage in the Jhabua and Alirajpur district for diabetes management, yet no phytopharmacological studies have been conducted on this plant in India. Validation of its medicinal properties necessitates comprehensive phytopharmacological investigations. Sikarwar et al. (2008) documented its usage in Chitrakoot district for diarrhea, dysentery, and leucorrhea, while Shankar et al. (2016) noted its application in rheumatic pain.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eHolarrhena pubescens\u003c/em\u003e features prominently in several Ayurvedic formulations such as Kutaja churna, Kutajarista, and Kutajghan vati, renowned for treating fever, dysentery, bacterial infections, and diarrhea (Lather et al. 2010; Tambekar and Dahikar 2010). Ali et al. (2011) reported the inhibition of \u0026alpha;-glucosidase in normoglycemic rats upon oral administration of hydro-methanolic seed extract of \u003cem\u003eH. antidysenterica\u003c/em\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eRani et al. (2012) assessed the antidiabetic activity of methanolic and ethyl acetate extracts of \u003cem\u003eW. tinctoria\u003c/em\u003e fruit, while Shruthi et al. (2012) evaluated the anti-diabetic potential of its leaf extracts.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eBorassus flabellifer\u003c/em\u003e exhibits diverse biological and pharmacological activities including antioxidant (Pramod et al. 2013), antimalarial (Koudouvo et al. 2011), and immunomodulatory effects (Rios 2010). Goyal et al. (2015) investigated its antidiabetic and antihyperlipidemic effects in streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTribes in Madhya Pradesh store water overnight in a container made from the heartwood of \u003cem\u003ePterocarpus marsupium\u003c/em\u003e, employing it as traditional therapy for diabetes mellitus patients (Grover et al. 2002; Kar et al. 2003). \u003cem\u003eP. marsupium\u003c/em\u003e, traditionally employed in diabetes treatment has exhibited diabetes control in experimental animals (Apte et al. 1988; Ahmed et al. 1991).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eChoudhary et al. (2013) isolated a sesquiterpene lactone from the ethanol extract of \u003cem\u003eVernonia cinerea\u003c/em\u003e, demonstrating significant antihyperglycemic effects upon oral administration at a dose of 500 mg/kg. Sayeed and Ferdous (2013) explored the antidiabetic activity of \u003cem\u003eV. cinerea\u003c/em\u003e root paste in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus, while Haque et al. (2013) evaluated its antidiabetic potential.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eIllness category Liver disorders\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eA total of 15 species, comprising 183 use reports, were enlisted for treating liver diseases. Notably, jaundice emerges as a prevalent ailment in the study area (Table 3). Rural communities in India employ the juice of \u003cem\u003eCuscuta reflexa\u003c/em\u003e to combat jaundice. \u003cem\u003eC. reflexa\u003c/em\u003e is also revered for its role in promoting hair growth (Pandit et al. 2008). The methanol extract of \u003cem\u003eC. reflexa\u003c/em\u003e has demonstrated efficacy in improving liver function in hepatotoxic rats (Balakrishnan et al. 2010a).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMosua et al. (2008) documented significant hypolipidemic, hypoglycemic, hypotensive, hepatoprotective, and anti-fertility activities in the aqueous leaf extract of \u003cem\u003eAzadirachta indica\u003c/em\u003e. Baligar et al. (2014) conducted studies on the hepatoprotective effects of azadirachtin-A, confirming its dose-dependent reduction of hepatocellular necrosis.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe Ayurvedic properties of \u003cem\u003eHelicters isora\u003c/em\u003e encompass a broad spectrum of therapeutic actions, including diuretic, hypolipidemic, antimicrobial, antiviral, blood purifier, hepatoprotective, wormicidal, antioxidant, anticancer, analgesic, and antidiarrheal activities (Varghese et al. 2012; Kumar and Singh 2014; Dayal et al. 2015).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn traditional medicine, \u003cem\u003ePhyllanthus amarus\u003c/em\u003e is esteemed for its hepatoprotective, analgesic, anti-inflammatory, antidiabetic, anti-diarrheal, antimicrobial, and antihypertensive properties (Odetola and Akojenu 2000; Adeneye et al. 2006a, b).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eOcimum basilicum\u003c/em\u003e, commonly known as Basil, has been revered in Ayurvedic and Unani medicine systems for its therapeutic benefits (Gemmell 2009; Bolen 2010). Meera et al. (2009) reported significant hepatoprotective effects in the ethanolic extract of \u003cem\u003eO. basilicum\u003c/em\u003e leaves. The ethanol and chloroform extracts of the flowering parts of \u003cem\u003eLeonotis nepetifolia\u003c/em\u003e exhibit robust hepatoprotective and anti-inflammatory activities in rats (El-Ansari et al. 2009).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eIllness category Male Sexual disorder/stimulant\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMale sexual disorders encompass a series of conditions including aphrodisiac, spermatorrhea, and other related ailments (Table 3). A total of 11 species, with 165 documented use reports, were enlisted for addressing these conditions. Sekar et al. (2009) observed that ethanolic extracts of \u003cem\u003eM. pruriens\u003c/em\u003e seeds induced a significant and sustained increase in the sexual activity of normal male rats at a dosage of 200 mg/kg. In Bangladesh, Bhadra et al. (2013) investigated the anti-hyperglycemic activity of \u003cem\u003eM. pruriens\u003c/em\u003e seeds.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eKhan and Khan (2005) documented the aphrodisiac properties of \u003cem\u003eFicus racemosa\u003c/em\u003e, while research by Jahan et al. (2008), Channabasavaraj et al. (2008), and Veerapur et al. (2009) highlighted its antioxidant properties.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eGovindrajan et al. (2004) evaluated the antioxidant potential of the 50% ethanolic extract of \u003cem\u003eAnogeissus latifolia\u003c/em\u003e. Chauhan and Ray (2017) reported the use of \u003cem\u003eA. latifolia\u003c/em\u003e gum by women to enhance strength post-delivery.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn Thailand, \u003cem\u003eButea superba\u003c/em\u003e is renowned for promoting male potency. Tocharus et al. (2005) noted significant increases in sperm concentration and delayed motility decline over time. Additionally, Cherdshewasart et al. (2010) reported its estrogenic and anti-estrogenic activities. Although limited ethnomedicinal information is available regarding \u003cem\u003eGoniogyna hirta\u003c/em\u003e in India, the plant is extensively utilized in the study area for treating male sexual disorders. Further documentation of traditional knowledge concerning this species is warranted to explore its biomolecular properties.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eIllness category Toxicity complaints\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eA total of 18 plant species, with 287 documented use reports, were enlisted for treating snake bites, scorpion stings, and dog bites (Table 3). The roots were predominantly utilized, and topical application emerged as the preferred method over oral administration.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eJohn et al. (2009) and Suryavanshi et al. (2012) investigated the root paste of \u003cem\u003eGloriosa superba\u003c/em\u003e as an antidote against snakebites, noting its central nervous system (CNS) depressant properties. Kumarappan et al. (2011) reported that alcoholic extracts of \u003cem\u003eG. superba\u003c/em\u003e provided 90% protection to mice against the minimum lethal dose of venom (LD99).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn Sundargarh district, Orissa, India, Prusti and Behera (2007) documented the use of fresh \u003cem\u003eCalotropis gigantea\u003c/em\u003e root ground with cow milk as a snakebite antidote. Shade-dried leaves of \u003cem\u003eC. gigantea\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eCassia fistula\u003c/em\u003e were used to assess antivenom activity, as reported by Pandey et al. (2011), who tested the hydroalcoholic extract of dried leaves for its effects against cobra (\u003cem\u003eNaja naja\u003c/em\u003e) venom. Although no pharmacological evidence exists regarding the anti-venom property of \u003cem\u003eSphaeranthus indicus\u003c/em\u003e. Nayak et al. (2010) reported its usage in cough remedies and excess bile reduction, with inflorescence paste being administered on an empty stomach in Orissa.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eChoudhary et al. (2008) and Jain et al. (2011) in Rajasthan noted the application of \u003cem\u003eArisaema tortuosum\u003c/em\u003e tuber paste over snakebite wounds to counteract poison effects. In Pakistan, the rhizome is utilized for treating rheumatism and stomachaches (Hussain et al. 2006), while in Nepal, it is used as an anti-helminthic (Balami 2004). The Irula tribe in Coimbatore district uses the tuber paste as a veterinary antidote (Ganesan and Kumaresan 2017).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eRay et al. (2011) corroborated the utility of \u003cem\u003eDiospyros melanoxylon\u003c/em\u003e in snakebite treatment, extensively used in the Chotta Nagpur region of Orissa for its antidiabetic properties (Gupta et al. 2009). Several ethnopharmacological studies also underscore its antidiabetic activity (Gupta et al. 2011, 2012; Alqahtani et al. 2013).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eIllness category Female sexual disorders\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFemale sexual disorders encompass a range of conditions including gonorrhoea, leucorrhoea, menstrual disorders, abortifacient issues, lactation, and conception challenges (Table 3). In total, 28 plant species, documented with 259 use reports, were employed for treatment, predominantly through oral administration via decoction. Leaves emerged as the most commonly utilized plant part, followed by seeds, with \u003cem\u003eClitorea ternatea\u003c/em\u003e being the most frequently cited species for addressing menstrual disorders.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eClitorea ternatea\u003c/em\u003e has a longstanding tradition in treating sexual ailments, controlling menstrual discharge, serving as an aphrodisiac, and addressing infertility and gonorrhoea. In various regions of Assam, India, the root of this plant has been traditionally employed for treating leucorrhoea, infertility, and other gynaecological disorders (Deka 2015). Chandru et al. (2018) investigated the reproductive stimuli and fertility effects of raw \u003cem\u003eClitoria ternatea\u003c/em\u003e extract, while Balamurugan et al. (2018) highlighted its use in treating gynaecological disorders.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn Pakistan, boiled root decoction of\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;Achyranthes aspera\u003c/em\u003e is administered post-menstruation to induce sterility in women (Shah et al. 2009). The Oraon tribals of Palamu division, Jharkhand, India, use the root of \u003cem\u003eA. aspera\u003c/em\u003e during labour pain and delivery, tying it around the waist, neck, or inserting it into the hair bun (Marandi et al. 2015b).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWhile \u003cem\u003eStrychnos nux-vomica\u003c/em\u003e possesses various pharmacological properties, such as anti-convulsant, analgesic, anti-tumour, anti-inflammatory, hepatoprotective, and immunomodulatory effects, no ethnomedicinal or pharmacological use has been recorded thus far related to menstrual disorders or anti-fertility activity.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eRamakrishna and Saidulu (2014) reported the use of\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;Cocculus hirsutus\u003c/em\u003e in curing leucorrhoea, menorrhagia, gonorrhoea, and menstrual pain in the Adilabad district of Andhra Pradesh. Additionally, Patil et al. (2014) highlighted its aphrodisiac activity in albino rats.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eIllness category mental disorders\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eA total of 8 plant species, documented with 119 use reports, were employed for addressing mental disorders (see Table 3). \u003cem\u003eCanscora decussata\u003c/em\u003e, known as Shankhpushpi, holds significance in both Ayurvedic and indigenous medicinal systems as a brain tonic, alternative, and laxative (Jain et al. 1994; Shah et al. 2000). Nag and De (2008) and Sethiya et al. (2012) delved into the pharmacological effects of \u003cem\u003eC. decussata\u003c/em\u003e extract in CNS disorders, while Chitra et al. (2018) reported its anti-Parkinson\u0026rsquo;s activity in mice.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eConvolvulus prostratus\u003c/em\u003e is noted for its efficacy in treating nervous weakness, insomnia, mental and physical fatigue, and memory loss (Unnikrishnan 2004; Gupta et al. 2005). In Azad Jammu and Kashmir, Pakistan, \u003cem\u003eC. prostratus\u003c/em\u003e is used for expelling intestinal worms and as a purgative for constipation (Amjad et al. 2015).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe flowers of \u003cem\u003eMadhuca longifolia\u003c/em\u003e var. \u003cem\u003elatifolia\u003c/em\u003e have been utilized as a cooling agent, demulcent, and astringent, with proven efficacy in increasing sperm count (Sikarwar and Kumar 2005). Dahake et al. (2010) reported its bark\u0026apos;s efficacy against itching, swelling, snake poisoning, and diabetes. \u003cem\u003eM. longifolia\u003c/em\u003e leaves find application in bronchitis and Cushing\u0026rsquo;s disease management (Prajapati et al. 2008; Agrawal et al. 2012; Inganakal and Swamy 2013).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe paste of \u003cem\u003eA. calamus\u003c/em\u003e rhizome is traditionally used in southern India to correct speech defects and enhance memory power (Bhatia et al. 2014), while in China, it aids speech improvement and stroke recovery (Howes and Houghton 2003). \u0026alpha;-Asarone, identified in \u003cem\u003eA. calamus\u003c/em\u003e, exhibits hypnotic properties and can serve as therapy against insomnia (Radhakrishnan 2017).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eCentella asiatica\u003c/em\u003e, revered as a medicinal herb in ancient systems like Ayurveda and Sushruta Samhita, is renowned for revitalizing nerves and brain cells (Chopra et al. 1986; Diwan et al. 1991). Ramanathan et al. (2007) investigated its neuroprotective properties, while Umka et al. (2016) and Chaisawang et al. (2017) evaluated the preventive effects of ascorbic acid on spatial working memory and neurogenesis defects.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eIllness category heart diseases\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eA total of 7 plant species, documented with 156 use reports, were identified for addressing cardiac disorders (Table 3). Decoction emerged as the preferred mode of medicine preparation, with oral administration being the recommended method.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMultiple pharmacological experiments on\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;Terminalia arjuna\u003c/em\u003e, conducted by Maulik et al. (2012), Khaliq et al. (2013), Kokkiripati et al. (2013), Kapoor et al. (2014), and Varghese et al. (2015), aimed to ascertain its precise action and efficacy against cardiovascular diseases.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe alkaloids of \u003cem\u003eRauvolfia serpentina\u003c/em\u003e exhibit utility in cardiovascular diseases (Anitha and Kumari 2006). Fiscal (2017) in Laguna, Philippines, utilized \u003cem\u003eR. serpentina\u003c/em\u003e leaf decoction for treating cough, while Singh et al. (2015) mentioned its antihypertensive properties.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAsdaq et al. (2010) evaluated the cardioprotective effect of hydroalcoholic extract of \u003cem\u003eS. anacardium\u003c/em\u003e nuts against isoproterenol (ISO)-induced myocardial damage in rats, while Ali et al. (2015) assessed the antidiabetic activity of the ethanolic extract of \u003cem\u003eS. anacardium\u003c/em\u003e bark.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eUpasani et al. (2017) described the use of \u003cem\u003eS. nux-vomica\u003c/em\u003e root bark juice in cow\u0026rsquo;s milk for treating snakebite, while Poraj et al. (2017) investigated \u003cem\u003eS. nux-vomica\u003c/em\u003e poisoning with bradycardia.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe hydro-alcoholic lyophilized extract of the whole plant of \u003cem\u003eTribulus terrestris\u003c/em\u003e has been reported to possess cardio-protective properties (Reshma et al. 2016). Methanolic extracts of \u003cem\u003eT. terrestris\u003c/em\u003e fruits are considered useful in addressing cardiac disorders (Reshma et al. 2016). Its diverse uses span China, where it\u0026apos;s utilized for improving sexual function, cardiac protection, and providing anti-urolithic, antidiabetic, and antioxidant effects (Zhu et al. 2017). Furthermore, it has been used for diuretic and uricosuric effects in Pakistan (Akram et al. 2011) and as a demulcent in Sudan, aiding nephritis and the treatment of inflammatory disorders (Mohammed et al. 2014).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eInformant consensus factor\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eA classification of 47 ailments was organized into 14 distinct categories following the methodology outlined by Heinrich et al. (1998) (see Table 3). A thorough list of the reported ailments was compiled by analysing survey responses before the disease clustering process taken place. Based on symptoms, causes, or other pertinent criteria, we categorised these illnesses such as dermatological, respiratory disorders, skin ailments, gastrointestinal disorders, and others (Fig. 8). The ICF was computed for the documented plants, ranging from 0.89 to 0.96. A higher ICF value indicates a consensus among informants regarding the use of a particular species for treating a specific ailment, implying stronger evidence of its effectiveness in traditional medicine (Teklehaymanot and Giday 2007).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNotably, the category of heart diseases and diabetes achieved one of the highest ICF scores (0.96). Seven plant species were identified for treating heart diseases, while seventeen were recorded for diabetes. The fever and gastrointestinal categories displayed ICF values of 0.95, encompassing twenty and thirty-two plant species, respectively. Similarly, dermatological disorders, toxicity complaints, and mental disorders were associated with a ICF score of 0.94. In contrast, the female sexual disorder category exhibited the lowest ICF score of 0.89.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe consistently high ICF values underscore the extensive dissemination of knowledge among informants regarding ethnomedicinal plants and practices. Among gastrointestinal disorders, \u003cem\u003eTerminalia bellirica\u003c/em\u003e emerged prominently with 97 documented use reports. In the general health category, \u003cem\u003eTinospora cordifolia\u003c/em\u003e (81 use reports) and \u003cem\u003eHemidesmus indicus\u003c/em\u003e (74 use reports) were prominently featured, with the latter primarily utilized as a blood purifier in the study area.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eTerminalia bellirica\u003c/em\u003e is utilized by locals to address stomach disorders and as a blood purifier, consistent with its classification as an expectorant in Ayurveda. It is a key component of Triphala, an Ayurvedic laxative formulation used to treat common colds, pharyngitis, and constipation (Singh 2011). Modern investigations have validated its laxative properties (Singh 2011).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eTinospora cordifolia\u003c/em\u003e finds application in treating typhoid fever and stomach disorders, along with its role as a blood purifier. Jain and Baheti (2010) documented its use in combination with sugar for managing typhoid fever, while Rashid (2012) reported its efficacy in gastrointestinal disorder treatment.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eHemidesmus indicus\u003c/em\u003e, employed as a blood purifier and for managing skin diseases, also serves as an antidote to snakebites among the tribals of Purulia district, West Bengal, India (Chakraborty and Bhattacharjee 2006). Additionally, the Korku community in central India utilizes pounded roots (Kadel and Jain 2008). The leaves of \u003cem\u003eH. indicus\u003c/em\u003e exhibit notable wound healing activity, particularly in chronic wounds among diabetic and cancer patients (Moideen et al. 2011).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAssociations between Relative frequency of citation and use value\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;The relative frequency of citation (RFC) values for the documented plant species displayed a broad spectrum, ranging from 0.008 to 1.16 (Table 2). \u003cem\u003eTinospora cordifolia\u003c/em\u003e, claiming the highest RFC at 1.16, succeeded by \u003cem\u003eHelicteres isora\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eTerminalia bellirica\u003c/em\u003e (1.06 each), \u003cem\u003eAzadirachta indica\u003c/em\u003e (0.95), \u003cem\u003eVernonia cinerea\u003c/em\u003e (0.88), \u003cem\u003eHemidesmus indicus\u003c/em\u003e (0.86) and \u003cem\u003eCissus quadrangularis\u003c/em\u003e (0.82). A higher RFC value signifies the extensive and prevalent utilization of these plants among the locals.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe significance of the use value of a species lies in providing insights into the relative importance of a specific plant species within the ethnomedicinal practices of local communities. In the current study, the use value demonstrated a variation from 0.06 to 0.68 (Table 2). Notably, certain plants gained recognition for their diverse applications in the study area, as reported by informants. \u003cem\u003eAzadirachta indica\u003c/em\u003e stood out with the highest UV of 0.68, followed by \u003cem\u003eAndrographis paniculata\u003c/em\u003e at 0.61, \u003cem\u003eBoerhavia diffusa\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eAegle marmelos\u003c/em\u003e at 0.58, along with \u003cem\u003eAcorus calamus\u003c/em\u003e at 0.87, emerging as the most extensively used species. This points to the widespread and frequent utilization of these plants in the documented study area, fuelled by their easy availability and abundance.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe correlation analysis unveiled a robust and statistically significant positive association between RFC and UV, evident in the correlation coefficient of 0.423 at \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e \u0026lt; 0.004. The R\u003csup\u003e2\u0026nbsp;\u003c/sup\u003evalue, serving as an indicator of the extent of variability in the data, was computed at 0.046 in this analysis, signifying that 4.6% of the variability in RFC can be elucidated by UV (refer to Table 4 \u0026amp; Fig. 9). These results underscore the potential of this study to impart a meaningful contribution to the comprehension of medicinal plant uses. This, in turn, lays a solid base for laboratory-based investigations delving into the active components of these plants. It is noteworthy that the outcomes of this study align harmoniously with those reported by Vijaykumar et al. (2015) in Kerala and Sharma et al. (2021, 2024) in Vindhyan highlands and Northeastern Madhya Pradesh, India.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eNew ethnomedicinal claims\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTable 5 illustrates the diverse ethnobotanical uses associated with the following ten species. The hot infusion of \u003cem\u003eMilletia extensa\u003c/em\u003e seeds is employed to treat jaundice. In different regions of India, it finds application in managing dermatological disorders (Sharma et al. 2014), piles, dog bites (Panda and Padhy 2008), ethnoveterinary practices (Patil and Patil 2013), and wound healing (Kamble et al. 2010).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFruit instillation of \u003cem\u003eLudwigia octovalis\u003c/em\u003e is utilized for addressing eye diseases, diabetes (Kumar et al. 2012), fungal infections (Buragohain 2011), skin disorders (Prusti and Behera 2007), antidiabetic purposes (Khan and Yadava 2010), and fever (Kumar and Abbas 2012).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eA root decoction of \u003cem\u003eIndigofera cordifolia\u003c/em\u003e is administered orally for jaundice. Notably, this usage is reported here for the first time, contrasting with its lack of documented ethnomedicinal applications in other parts of India. Root infusion of \u003cem\u003eHaplanthodes tentaculatus\u003c/em\u003e is prescribed for alleviating menstrual disorders, while in other regions of India, it is known for managing asthma (Kanthale and Biradar 2012).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTopical application of \u003cem\u003eEranthemum roseum\u003c/em\u003e root paste on the forehead relieves headaches. Conversely, in other parts of India, it is utilized for treating stomachaches (Mali and Bhadane 2011; Jagtap et al. 2008a) and vertigo (Jagtap et al. 2008b).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOral infusion of \u003cem\u003eCommelina erecta\u003c/em\u003e leaves is administered for stomach disorders, whereas in other regions, it is employed for treating rheumatic swelling (Panda and Mishra 2011) and skin ailments (Padal et al. 2013).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe whole plant instillation of \u003cem\u003eCatharanthus pusillus\u003c/em\u003e serves as a blood purifier, contrasting with its use in other parts of India for lumbago, paralysis, epilepsy, ulcers (Pullaiah 2002). The juice of \u003cem\u003eBuddleja asiatica\u003c/em\u003e leaves is utilized to induce abortion. In contrast, in other parts of India, it is employed for diarrhea, fermentation of beverages (Namsa et al. 2011), cuts, and fever in Bangladesh (Biswas et al. 2010). \u0026nbsp; Decoction of \u003cem\u003eStriga anguistifolia\u003c/em\u003e seeds is administered for urinary disorders, while in other regions of India, it is known for managing poisonous bites (Savithramma et al. 2014) and contraceptive purposes (Bhogaonkar and Kadam 2006).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eComparison of present study with other study conducted in India\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eComparison was performed between the present study and research conducted in various geographical regions of India (Table 6), as documented by Tangjang et al. (2011), Bhatia et al. (2014), Chander et al. (2015), Kichu et al. (2015), and Rao et al. (2015), with data provided in Table 6. Tangjang et al. (2011) and Kichu et al. (2015) investigated the Eastern Himalayan region, characterized by mountainous terrain, while Chander et al. (2015) focused on the coastal region. Bhatia et al. (2014) and Rao et al. (2015) conducted studies in the Western Himalayan region, encompassing tropical, subtropical, and temperate forest zones. Across these studies, leaves and seeds emerged as the most preferred plant parts for medicinal use (Table 5). Notably, Chander et al. (2015) reported the highest percentage (100%) of wild species utilized for medicine preparation, followed by our study at 90%, indicating significant pressure on wild species. The families Fabaceae and Asteraceae were found to be dominant across ethnobotanical studies, with common ailments including fever, skin disorders, gastrointestinal issues, and respiratory disorders.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eComparing our informant consensus factor with other studies, we found the highest values for heart diseases and diabetes (0.96), fever and gastrointestinal disorders (0.95), and dermatological disorders, toxicity complaints, and mental disorders (0.94). Tangjang et al. (2011) reported the highest informant consensus values for fever (0.71), jaundice (0.62), and urological disorders (0.56). Rao et al. (2015) documented the highest values for diabetes (0.96), gastrointestinal disorders (0.92), and respiratory disorders (0.92). Kichu et al. (2015) reported the highest informant values for beer fermentation (0.91), dental disorders (0.90), hypertension, and diabetes (0.87). Chander et al. (2015) found the highest values for infection and infestations (0.79), respiratory disorders (0.77), and gastrointestinal disorders (0.75). Bhatia et al. (2014) documented the highest consensus values for diabetes (0.93), parasites (0.91), and gastrointestinal issues (0.87). The prevalence of diabetes and gastrointestinal disorders across these studies aligns with our findings, consistent with observations made by Bulut and Tuzlaci (2013) in Turgutlu.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFurthermore, our study corroborated the use of certain medicinal plants across different regions, such as \u003cem\u003eAegle marmelos\u003c/em\u003e for respiratory issues\u003cem\u003e, Asparagus racemosus\u003c/em\u003e for lactation, \u003cem\u003eAzadirachta indica\u003c/em\u003e for skin ailments, \u003cem\u003eTerminalia arjuna\u003c/em\u003e for cardiac disorders, and \u003cem\u003eTerminalia bellirica\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003efor stomach disorders in the Madhupur forest area of Bangladesh (Islam et al. 2014). Similarly, \u003cem\u003eCuscuta reflexa\u003c/em\u003e is used for jaundice in Nepal (Rokaya et al. 2010) and Pakistan (Shinwari and Khan 2000), while \u003cem\u003eOxalis corniculata\u003c/em\u003e treats skin diseases in the Humla district of western Nepal (Rokaya et al. 2010). \u003cem\u003eTrichodesma indicum\u003c/em\u003e is employed for snake bites, \u003cem\u003eCynodon dactylon\u003c/em\u003e for piles, and \u003cem\u003eSolanum surratens\u003c/em\u003e for toothaches in the Margalla Hills National Park, Islamabad, Pakistan (Shinwari and Khan 2000). \u003cem\u003eRicinus communis\u003c/em\u003e addresses joint diseases, and \u003cem\u003eCissus quadrangularis\u003c/em\u003e aids in bone setting in Bulamogi County, Uganda (Tabuti et al. 2003), suggesting potential pharmacological effectiveness.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHowever, many plants used in our study area for various ailments lack coherence with documented pharmacological activity, while some have not been evaluated for their pharmacological properties. Hence, further pharmacological research is warranted to explore their bio-prospective potential.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe current investigation underscores the enduring significance of traditional medicines in addressing the fundamental healthcare needs of the Western Madhya Pradesh populace across a series of ailments. The comprehensive analysis reveals a pronounced reliance on traditional remedies, particularly evident in the management of dermatological disorders, inflammation and pain, with each category encompassing a substantial diversity of plant species (25 species each). Similarly, the prevalence of general health diseases (18 species) underscores the widespread nature of these ailments within the study area.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe rich biodiversity of medicinal plants in the region, including \u003cem\u003eMilletia extensa\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eLudwigia octavalis,\u003c/em\u003e \u003cem\u003eHaplanthodes tentaculatus\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eEranthemum roseum\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eEuphorbia fusiformis\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eCatharanthus pusilus\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eEnicostema axillare\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eCostus seciosus\u003c/em\u003e, among others, presents a fertile ground for exploration into novel phytochemical compounds and their potential pharmacological applications. This avenue holds promise for the discovery of new herbal remedies and offers insights into the molecular mechanisms underlying their therapeutic properties.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHowever, the sustainability of medicinal plant resources faces significant challenges posed by anthropogenic activities such as deforestation, overgrazing, unregulated harvesting, drought, and forest fires. The relentless exploitation of these botanical resources for medicinal purposes risks the eventual depletion of certain species, highlighting the urgent need for proactive conservation measures.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTo safeguard both the medicinal plants and the indigenous knowledge associated with their use, concerted efforts are imperative. This entails comprehensive documentation, the identification of key medicinal plants, adoption of sustainable harvesting practices, promotion of cultivation initiatives for priority plant species, implementation of community-driven conservation strategies, and the facilitation of awareness programs within the study area.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe findings of this research highlight the importance of directing research initiatives towards the pharmacological evaluation and conservation of medicinal plants in the region. By prioritizing these endeavours, we can foster the sustainable utilization of medicinal plant resources while simultaneously preserving invaluable indigenous knowledge for future generations.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAcknowledgement\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe corresponding author is thankful to Director, CSIR- National Botanical Research Institute Lucknow, for encouragement and providing facilities to carry out the work. Thanks, are also due to Divisional Forest Officer, Jhabua and Alirajpur (M.P.) for extending facilities during the field work. We are thankful to the local communities to share their valuable knowledge.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFunding\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis project was funded by the Madhya Pradesh State Biodiversity Board, Bhopal (Project code; MPSBB/AMU(PRJ)/2020/2100).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConflict of Interest\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNo potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCSIR-NBRI communication number:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCSIR-NBRI_MS/2024/11/04. \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAuthor contributions\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eV.V.W. conceptualized and supervised the study, formal analysis and writing the draft of article and approved the final version of manuscript. A.S. performed the fieldwork, conceptualized methodology, and prepared the draft of the article as well as formal analysis and writing. All authors contributed to the article and approved the submitted version.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eAbbas Z, Khan SM, Abbasi AM, Pieroni A, Ullah Z (2016) Ethnobotany of the Balti community, Tormik valley, Karakoram range, Baltistan, Pakistan. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed 12:38.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eAbhyankar RK, Upadhyay R (2012) Ethnomedicinal Studies of Seeds and Fruits of Hoshangabad (M.P.). Life Sci Leaf 9:58-62.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eAdeneye AA, Amole, OO, Adeneye AK (2006b) The hypoglycaemic and hypocholestrolemic activities of the aqueous leaf and seed extract of \u003cem\u003ePhyllatnhus amarus\u003c/em\u003e in mice. 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Int J Pharma Sci Res 7(3):1093-1102.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eSikarwar RLS, Kumar V (2005) Ethnoveterinary knowledge and practices prevalent among the tribals of central India. J Nat Rem 5(2):147- 452.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eSikarwar RLS, Pathak B, Jaiswal A (2008) Some unique ethnomedicinal perceptions of tribal communities of Chitrakoot, Madhya Pradesh. Indian J Tradit Knowl 7(4):613-617.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eSingh AS (2011) Herbalism phytochemistry and Ethanopharmacology, Science Publishers. pp.357-361.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eSingh H, Krishna G, Baske PK (2010a). Plants used in the treatment of joint diseases (rheumatism, arthritis, gout and lumbago) in Mayurbhanj district of Odisha, India. Rep Opin 2(9):22-26.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eSingh NP, Khanna KK, Mudgal V, Dixit RD (2001)\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;Flora of Madhya Pradesh, Vol. III.\u003c/em\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003eBotanical Survey of India, Calcutta, India.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eSingh PK, Kumar V, Tiwari RK, Sharma A, Rao CV, Singh RH (2010). Medico-ethnobotany of Chatara block of district Sonebhadra, Uttar Pradesh, India. Adv Biol Res 10(4):65\u0026ndash;80.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eSingh RK, Singh A, Rath S, Ramamurthy A (2015) A review of Sarpgandha \u0026ndash; whole herb v/s Reserpine \u0026ndash;its Alkaloid in the management of the hypertension, Int. Ayur. Med. J. 3(2):565-569.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eSingh SK, Beg MJ (2015) Ethnomedicinal plants of Asteraceae from Chitrakoot area of Satna District (M.P.). Indian J Appl Pure Biol 30(1):55-60.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eSmida I, Sweidan A, Souissi Y, Rouaud I, Sauvager A, Torre F, Calvert V, Le Petit J Tomasi, S (2018) Anti-acne, antioxidant and cytotoxic properties of \u003cem\u003eLudwigia peploides\u003c/em\u003e leaf extract. Int J Pharmacog Phytochem Res 10(7):271-278.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eSoni V, Prakash A, Nema M (2012) Study on ethno-medico-botany of some plants of Dindori district of Madhya Pradesh, India. Int J Pharm Life Sci 3(8):1926-1929.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eSoundararajan P, Mahesh R, Ramesh T, Begum VH (2006) Effect of \u003cem\u003eAerva lanata\u003c/em\u003e on calcium oxalate urolithiasis in rats. Indian J Exper Biol 44:981\u0026ndash;6.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eSuryavanshi S, Rai G, Malviya SN (2012). Evaluation of anti-microbial and anthelmintic activity of \u003cem\u003eGloriosa superba\u003c/em\u003e tubers. Adv Res Pharmaceu Biol 2(1):45-52.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eSwarnkar S, Katewa SS (2008) Ethnobotanical observation on tuberous plants from tribal area of Rajasthan (India). Ethnobot Leaflets 12:647-66.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eTabuti JRS, Lye KA, Dhillion SS (2003) Traditional herbal drugs of Bulamogi, Uganda: plants, use and administration. J Ethnopharmacol 88:19\u0026ndash;44\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eTambekar DH, Dahikar SB (2010) Exploring antibacterial potential of some ayurvedic preparations to control bacterial enteric infections. J. Chem. Pharm. Res. 2(5), 494-501.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eTangjanga S, Nima Namsab D, Arana C, Litin A (2011) An ethnobotanical survey of medicinal plants in the Eastern Himalayan zone of Arunachal Pradesh, India. J Ethnopharmacol 134:18\u0026ndash;25.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eTeklehaymanot T, Giday M (2007) Ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants used by people in Zegie Peninsula, Northwestern Ethiopia. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed 3:12.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eThakur A, Naqvi SMA, Aske DK, Sainkhediya J (2014) Study of some Ethno Medicinal Plants used by Tribals of Alirajpur, Madhya Pradesh, India. Res J Agricul For Sci 2(4):9-12.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eThring TSA, Weitz FM (2006) Medicinal plant use in the Bredasdorp/Elim region of the Southern Overberg in the Western Cape province of South Africa. J Ethnopharmacol. 103(2):261-275.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eTocharus C, Jeenapongsa R, Teakthong T, Smitasiri Y (2005) Effects of long-term treatment of \u003cem\u003eButea superba\u003c/em\u003e on sperm motility and concentration. Naresuan Univ J\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e3:11\u0026ndash;17.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eTripathi R, Dwivedi SN, Dwivedi S (2010) Ethno-medicinal plants used to treat gynecological disorders by tribal people of Madhya Pradesh, India. Int J Pharm Life Sci 1(3):160-169.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eUdupa KN, Prasad G (1964b) Biochemical and calcium 45 studies on the effect of \u003cem\u003ecissus quadrangularis\u003c/em\u003e in fracture repair. Indian J Med Res 52(5):480-487.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eUdupa KN, Prasad GC (1964a) Further studies on the effect of \u003cem\u003eCissus quadrangularis\u003c/em\u003e in accelerating fracture healing. Indian J Med Res 52:26\u0026ndash;35.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eUmka WJ, Sirichoat A, Chaijaroonkhanarak W, Prachaney P, Pannangrong W, Pakdeechote P, Sripanidkulchai B, Wigmore P (2016) Asiatic acid prevents the deleterious effects of valproic acid on cognition and hippocampal cell proliferation and survival. Nutrients 8(5):303.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eUnnikrishnan E (2004) Materia medica of the local health traditions of Payyannur. Thiruvananthapuram: Kerala Research Programme on local level development, Center for Development Studies, Kerala, India.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eUpadhyay PB, Roy S, Kumar A (2007) Traditional uses of medicinal plants among the rural communities of Churu district in the Thar Desert, India. J Ethnopharmacol 113:387\u0026ndash;399.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eUpadhyay R (2013) Ethnomedicinal uses of tree barks by tribals of Hoshangabad, Madhya Pradesh, India. Int J Biotechnol Bioengin Res 4(7):671-676.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eUpasani SV, Beldar VG, Tatiyab AU, Upasani MS, Suranab SJ, Patil DS (2017) Ethnomedicinal plants used for snakebite in India: a brief overview. Integrat Med Res 6:114\u0026ndash;130.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eVarghese A, Savai J, Pandita N, Gaud R (2015) \u003cem\u003eIn vitro\u003c/em\u003e modulatory effects of \u003cem\u003eTerminalia arjuna\u003c/em\u003e, arjunic acid, arjunetin and arjungenin on CYP3A4, CYP2D6 and CYP2C9 enzyme activity in human liver microsomes. Toxicol Report 2:806\u0026ndash;816.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eVarghese E, Pappachen LK, Narayanan SS (2012) Isolation and evaluation of antimicrobial properties of isolated phytoconstituents of fruits of \u003cem\u003eHelicteres isora\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003eLinn. Res. J Pharmaceut Biol Chem Sci 3(3):959-964.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eVasudeva N, Sharma SK (2006) Post-coital antifertility activity of \u003cem\u003eAchyranthes aspera\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003eLinn. Root. J Ethnopharmacol 107(2):179-181.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eVeerapur VP, Prabhakar KR, Parihar VK, Kandadi MR, Ramakrishna S, Mishra B, Rao BSS, Srinivasan KK, Priyadarsini KI, Unnikrishnan MK (2009) \u003cem\u003eFicus racemosa\u003c/em\u003e stem bark extract: a potent antioxidant and a probable natural radioprotector, Evid Based Complemen Altern Med 6:317-324.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eVenkatachalam MR, Jebanesan A (2001) Repellent activity of \u003cem\u003eFerronia elephantum\u003c/em\u003e Corr. (Rutaceae) leaf extract against \u003cem\u003eAedes aegypti\u003c/em\u003e (L.). Bioresour Technol 76(3):287-288.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eVerma DM, Balakrishnan NP, Dixit RD (1993) Flora of Madhya Pradesh \u0026ndash; Vol. I. Botanical Survey of India, Calcutta, India.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eVijayakumar S, Yabesh JM, Prabhu S, Manikandan R, Muralidharan B (2015) Quantitative ethnomedicinal study of plants used in the Nelliyampathy hills of Kerala, India. J Ethnopharmacol 161:238\u0026ndash;254\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eVitalini S, Iriti M, Puricelli C, Ciuchi D, Segale A, Fico G (2013) Traditional knowledge on medicinal and food plants used in Val San Giacomo (Sondrio, Italy)\u0026mdash;An alpine ethnobotanical study. J Ethnopharmacol 145(2):517-529.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eWagh VV, Jain AK. (2010) Traditional herbal remedies among \u003cem\u003eBhil\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003eand \u003cem\u003eBhilala\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003etribes of Jhabua district Madhya Pradesh. Int J Biol Technol 1(2):20-24.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eWagh VV, Jain AK (2013) Status of threatened medicinal plants of Jhabua district, Madhya Pradesh, India. Annals Plant. Sci. 2(10), 395-400.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eWagh VV, Jain AK (2014a) Ethnomedicinal uses of underground plant parts in Jhabua district of Madhya Pradesh, India. Adv Biol Res 8(4):151-156,\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eWagh VV, Jain AK (2014b) Herbal Remedies Used By the tribal people of Jhabua District, Madhya Pradesh for the treatment of joint diseases. Int J Phytother 4(2):63-66.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eWagh VV, Jain AK (2015) Inventory of ethnobotanicals and other systematic procedures for regional conservation of medicinal and sacred plants. Environ Syst Decis 35(1):143\u0026ndash;156. doi: 10.1007/s10669-015-9538-5.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eWagh VV, Jain AK (2018) Status of ethnobotanical invasive plants in western Madhya Pradesh, India. South African J Bot 114:171\u0026ndash;180. doi: 10.1016/j.sajb.2017.11.008\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eWood DM, Webster E, Martinez D, Dargan PI, Jones AL (2002) Case report: survival after deliberate strychnine self-poisoning, with toxicokinetic data. Crit Care 6:456-459.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eYadav M, Khan KK, Beg MZ (2012) Ethnobotanical plants used for curing skin diseases by tribals of Rewa district (Madhya Pradesh). Indian J Life Sci 2(1):123-126.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eYakob HK, Sulaiman SF, Uyub AM (2012) Antioxidant and antibacterial activity of Ludwigia octovalvis on Escherichia coli O157: H7 and some pathogenic bacteria. World Appl Sci J 16(1):22-29.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eYerima MB, Jodi SM, Oyinbo K, Maishanu HM, Farouq AA, Junaidu AU (2012) Effect of neem extracts (\u003cem\u003eAzadirachta indica\u003c/em\u003e) on bacteria isolated from adult mouth. J Basic Appl Sci 20:64\u0026ndash;67.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eYineger H, Yewhalaw D, Teketay D (2008) Ethnomedicinal plant knowledge and practice of the Oromo ethnic group in southwestern Ethiopia. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed 4:11.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eZhu W,. Du Y., Meng H., Dong Y., Li L (2017) A review of traditional pharmacological uses, phytochemistry, and pharmacological activities of \u003cem\u003eTribulus terrestris.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003eChem Central J 11:60.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"},{"header":"Tables","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable 1\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eDemographic description of the informants\u0026nbsp;of Western Madhya Pradesh, India (N= 115)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv\u003e\n \u003ctable border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 44.1821%;\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003cp\u003eInformants\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 25.4637%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 30.3541%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 44.1821%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFemale\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 25.4637%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e36 (31.30%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 30.3541%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 44.1821%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMale\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 25.4637%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e79 (68.69%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 30.3541%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 44.1821%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAge group\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 25.4637%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFemale\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 30.3541%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMale\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 44.1821%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e16-25\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 25.4637%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0 (00%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 30.3541%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3 (2.60%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 44.1821%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e26-35\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 25.4637%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1 (0.86%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 30.3541%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10 (8.69%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 44.1821%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e36-45\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 25.4637%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4 (3.47%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 30.3541%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12 (10.43%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 44.1821%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e46-55\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 25.4637%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6 (5.21%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 30.3541%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e15 (13.04%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 44.1821%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e56-65\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 25.4637%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8 (6.95%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 30.3541%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e11 (9.56%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 44.1821%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e66-75\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 25.4637%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10 (8.69%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 30.3541%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e17 (14.78%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 44.1821%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e76-85\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 25.4637%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6 (5.21%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 30.3541%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10 (8.69%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 44.1821%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026gt;86\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 25.4637%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1 (0.86%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 30.3541%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1 (0.86%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 44.1821%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eEducational level\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 25.4637%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFemale\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 30.3541%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMale\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 44.1821%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNever attended school\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 25.4637%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e29 (25.21%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 30.3541%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e53 (46.08)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 44.1821%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAttended school for 1-5 classes\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 25.4637%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4 (3.47%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 30.3541%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e11 (9.56%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 44.1821%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAttended school 6-10 classes\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 25.4637%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1 (0.86%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 30.3541%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8 (6.95%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 44.1821%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIntermediate (12\u003csup\u003eth\u003c/sup\u003e pass)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 25.4637%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1 (0.86%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 30.3541%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2 (1.73%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 44.1821%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eGraduate\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 25.4637%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0 (00%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 30.3541%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1 (0.86%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 44.1821%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePost Graduate\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 25.4637%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0 (00%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 30.3541%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1 (0.86%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n \u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable 2 is available in the Supplementary Files section.\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable 3\u003c/strong\u003e Quantitative ethnobotanical analysis of the 14 groups of medical uses in Western Madhya Pradesh, India\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv\u003e\n \u003ctable border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" width=\"884\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 137px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eIllness category\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 182px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 54px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFic\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 67px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eUse Reports\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 58px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e% Ur\u003csub\u003etot\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 61px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTaxa\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 70px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e% Taxa\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 141px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e%Leaf/ Aerial part/ Bark/ Seed/Fruit/Flower\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e% Root/tuber/ Whole plant\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 137px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFever (FR)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 182px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFever (Malaria, fever, pneumonia, typhoid fever)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 54px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.95\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 67px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e448\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 58px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e9.22\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 61px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 70px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e11.42\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 141px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e60\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e45\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 137px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDermatological disorders (DER)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 182px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(Leucoderma, leprosy, psoriasis, skin diseases, wound healing, Eczema, wound healing, Scabies)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 54px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.94\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 67px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e518\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 58px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10.67\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 61px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e31\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 70px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e17.71\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 141px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e90.3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e9.6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 137px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eGeneral health (GEN)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 182px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(Blood purifiers, epilepsy, hair tonic, eye disorders, dental care, cough and cold, mouth ulcers, Appetizer, Blood pressure)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 54px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.93\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 67px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e501\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 58px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10.31\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 61px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e34\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 70px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e19.42\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 141px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e82.9\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e17.1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 137px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eRespiratory disorders (RP)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 182px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eRespiratory disorders, asthma, Bronchitis)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 54px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.93\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 67px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e244\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 58px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5.03\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 61px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e18\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 70px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10.28\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 141px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e88.9\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e11.1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 137px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eUrinary and rectal diseases URO)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 182px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSyphilis, Kidney disorder, Urinary disorders)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 54px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.90\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 67px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e142\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 58px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.92\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 61px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e15\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 70px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8.57\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 141px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e66.7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e33.3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 137px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eInflammation and Pain (IFP)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 182px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(Earache, headache, toothache, joint diseases, Arthritis, Rheumatism, Lumbago, Bone fracture)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 54px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.93\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 67px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e485\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 58px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e9.98\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 61px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e32\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 70px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e18.28\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 141px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e64.5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e38.7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 137px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eGastrointestinal disorders (GAS)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 182px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eStomach disorders, piles, diarrhoea, Dysentery, constipation, Intestinal disorders, anthelmintic)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 54px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.95\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 67px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e671\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 58px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e13.81\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 61px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e33\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 70px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e18.85\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 141px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e87.5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12.5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 137px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDiabetes (DB)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 182px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDB\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 54px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.96\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 67px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e407\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 58px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8.38\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 61px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e17\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 70px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e9.71\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 141px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e70.6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e29.4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 137px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLiver disorders (LD)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 182px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eJaundice)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 54px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.92\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 67px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e183\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 58px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.76\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 61px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e15\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 70px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8.57\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 141px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e66.7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e33.3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 137px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMale Sexual disorder/stimulant (MSD)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 182px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(Aphrodisiac, spermatorrhoea, sexual disorders)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 54px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.93\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 67px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e165\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 58px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 61px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e11\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 70px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6.28\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 141px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e54.5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e45.5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 137px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eToxicity complaints (PB)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 182px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(Snake bite, scorpion bite, dog bite)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 54px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.94\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 67px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e287\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 58px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5.9\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 61px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e18\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 70px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10.28\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 141px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e33.3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e66.7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 137px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFemale sexual disorders (GYN)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 182px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eGonorrhoea, leucorrhoea, menstrual disorders, abortifacient, lactation, conception\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 54px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.89\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 67px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e259\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 58px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5.34\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 61px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e28\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 70px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e16\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 141px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e71.4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e28.6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 137px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMental disorders (NL)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 182px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNervous disorder\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 54px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.94\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 67px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e119\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 58px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.45\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 61px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 70px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.57\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 141px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e50\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e50\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 137px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHeart diseases (CV)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 182px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCardiac disorders\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 54px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.96\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 67px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e156\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 58px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.22\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 61px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 70px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 141px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e100\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n \u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTotal number of use-reports is 4585; total number of taxa is 175; Fic, Factor Informant Consensus; %Urtot, percentage of use-reports contributed to the total amount of use-reports by the respective illness category; Taxa, total amount of plant species contributing to the use-reports of the respective illness category; %Taxa, percentage of the plant species reported for an illness category in respect to the total amount of reported plants species ; %leaf/aerial part/Bark/ Seed/ Fruit/Flower, percentage of use-reports for the respective illness category that indicate leaves or aerial parts; %root/tuber/whole plant, percentage of use-reports for the respective illness category which indicate roots or tubers.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable 4\u003c/strong\u003e Relationship between Relative frequency of citation (RFC) and Use value (UV) of medicinal plants in Western Madhya Pradesh, India\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 177px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCorrelation\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 126px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eRFC\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 164px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eUV\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eRFC\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 177px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePearson Correlation\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 126px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 164px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.423**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 177px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSignificant (2-tailed)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 126px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 164px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.004\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 177px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eN\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 126px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e174\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 164px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e174\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eUV\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 177px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePearson Correlation\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 126px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.423**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 164px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 177px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSignificant (2-tailed)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 126px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.004\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 164px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 177px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eN\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 126px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e174\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 164px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e174\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e**Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable 5\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eSome newly reported ethnomedicinal plant species along with comparison to other studies in India\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 119px;\"\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003cbr\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMedicinal plants\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"3\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 280px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ePresent study\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 279px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eOther reported ethnomedicinal uses in India\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 255px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eReported pharmacological properties\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 84px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eParts used\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 112px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAilments treated\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 84px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eUse reports\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 84px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eParts used\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 195px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMedicinal uses\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 255px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 119px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eBuddleja asiatica\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 84px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLeaves\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 112px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePurgative, abortifacient\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 84px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 84px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLeaf\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 195px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDiarrhoea and preparation of beverages (Namsa et al., 2011), Cuts and fever (Biswas et al., 2010)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 255px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAntibacterial and antispasmodic activity (Ali et al., 2011); antifungal (Ali et al., 2015); mosquito repellent (Venkatachalam and Jebanesan, 2001); antihepatotoxic (El-Domiaty et al. 2009)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 119px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eCatharanthus pusillus\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 84px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWhole plant\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 112px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBlood purifier\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 84px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 84px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWhole plant\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 195px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLumbago, paralysis, epilepsy and ulcer (Pullaiah, 2002)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 255px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAntioxidant activity (Nithya et al., 2016). anti-diabetic (Navitha et al., 2012)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 119px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eCommelina erecta\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 84px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLeaves\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 112px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eStomach disorders\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 84px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 84px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWhole plant\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 195px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eRheumatism (Panda and Mishra, 2011) and skin diseases (Padal et al. 2013)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 255px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 119px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eEranthemum roseum\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 84px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eRoots\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 112px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHalf headache\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 84px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 84px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eRoot\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 195px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eStomachache (Mali and Bhadane 2011, Jagtap et al., 2008a) and Vertigo (Jagtap et al., 2008b)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 255px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAntidiabetic (Patil et al., 2014); toxicological activity (Patil et al., 2010)\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 119px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eEuphorbia fusiformis\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 84px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eRoots\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 112px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSkin diseases, Scorpion bite\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 84px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e45\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 84px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTuber\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 195px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eRheumatism, gout, paralysis and arthritis (Prakash and Singh, 2001)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 255px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAnti-inflammatory (Singh et al., 1984), antibacterial (Ramachandran et al., 2005; Natrajan et al., 2007); diuretic (Ashok et al., 2011)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 119px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eHaplanthodes tentaculatus\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 84px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eRoot\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 112px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMenstrual disorder\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 84px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 84px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eRoot\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 195px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAsthma (Kanthale and Biradar, 2012)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 255px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 119px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eIndigofera cordifolia\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 84px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLeaves, root\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 112px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMouth ulcer, Jaundice\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 84px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 84px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWhole plant, leaves\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 195px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDiarrhoea, dysentery, vomiting (Qasim et al. 2014)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 255px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 119px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eLudwigia octovalis\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 84px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFruit\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 112px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eEye disease\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 84px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 84px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWhole plant\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 195px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDiabetes (Kumar et al. 2012) fungal infection (Buragohain, 2011), skin diseases (Prusti and Behera, 2007), antidiabetic (Khan and Yadava, 2010) and for fever (Kumar and Abbas, 2012).\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 255px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAntibacterial and antioxidant activity (Yakob et al., 2012); anti-acne (Smida et al., 2018); hyperglycaemic (Lin et al., 2017); antidiabetic and antiobesity (Morales et al., 2018)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 119px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eMilletia extensa\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 84px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSeeds\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 112px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eJaundice\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 84px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 84px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eRoots, stem bark\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 195px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSkin diseases (Sharma et al. 2014), piles and dogbite (Panda and Padhy, 2008), ethnoveterinary practices (Patil and Patil, 2013), wound healing (Kamble et al., 2010).\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 255px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAntibacterial and inhibitory activity (Raksat et al., 2019)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 119px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eStriga anguistifolia\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 84px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSeeds\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 112px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eUrinary disorders\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 84px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 84px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLeaf, seed\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 195px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePoisonous bite (Savithramma et al., 2014), Contraceptive (Bhogaonkar and Kadam, 2006)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 255px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable 6.\u003c/strong\u003e\u0026nbsp; Comparison of study with other studies of nearby areas in India\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv\u003e\n \u003ctable border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" width=\"942\" class=\"fr-table-selection-hover\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 157px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 132px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWagh and Jain\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 123px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTangjang et al., (2011)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 123px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBhatia et al., (2014)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 142px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eChander et al., 2015\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 132px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eKichu et al., (2015)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 132px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eRao et al., (2015)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 157px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eGeographical area of India\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 132px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCentral India\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 123px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eEastern Himalayan region\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 123px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWestern Himalayan region\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 142px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCoastal region of India\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 132px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eEastern Himalayan region\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 132px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWestern Himalayan region\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 157px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWild species\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 132px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e97.12%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 123px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e50%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 123px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e71.68%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 142px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e100%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 132px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e57.7%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 132px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e77.2%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 157px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCultivated species\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 132px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 123px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 123px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e15.06\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 142px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 132px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e34.8%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 132px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e22.8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 157px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWild /Cultivated\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 132px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.3%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 123px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e50%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 123px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e13.25\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 142px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 132px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7.4%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 132px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 157px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTotal Number Species\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 132px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e174\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 123px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e74\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 123px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e166\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 142px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e78\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 132px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e135\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 132px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e197\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 157px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCommon families\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 132px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFabaceae Asteraceae Acanthaceae Asclepiadaceae Euphorbiaceae Convolvulaceae Apocynaceae Lamiaceae\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 123px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAsteraceae Solanaceae Zingiberaceae Begoniaceae Poaceae Fabaceae Rutaceae Verbenaceae\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 123px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAsteraceae Solanaceae Lamiaceae Poaceae Fabaceae Amaranthaceae\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 142px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFabaceae Asteraceae Araceae Caesalpiniacae Zingiberaceae Solanaceae\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 132px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAsteraceae Euphorbiaceae Solanaceae\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 132px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFabaceae Asteraceae Lamiaceae Rosaceae Liliaceae Solanaceae\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 157px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eInformant consensus factor\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 132px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eheart diseases and diabetes: 0.96\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFever and Gastrointestinal disorders: 0.95Dermatological disorders, toxicity complaints and mental disorders: 0.94\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 123px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFever: 0.71, Jaundice: 0.62 Urological disorders: \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; 0.56.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 123px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDiabetes :0.93Parasites: 0.91Gastrointestinal disorders: 0.87\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 142px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eInfection and infestations: 0.79 Respiratory Disorders: 0.77 Gastrointestinal Disorders: 0.75.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 132px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBeer fermentation :0.91,\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDental disorders: 0.90, Hypertension and Diabetes: 0.87.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 132px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDiabetes: 0.96, Gastrointestinal Disorders: 0.92 Respiratory disorders: 0.92.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 157px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMost preferred plant parts\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 132px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLeaves\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSeed\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eRoot\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eStem bark\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFruit,\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWhole plant Flower\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 123px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLeaf\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFruit\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSeed\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eRhizome\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eRoot\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eStem bark Whole plant\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 123px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLeaves\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSeeds\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFruits\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eRoot\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eRhizome\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWhole plant Latex\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBark\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFlower \u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTwig\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eStem\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFruit rind\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTuber\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBulb Heartwood Thorn Silk\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 142px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLeaves\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eRoot\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eRhizome \u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFruit\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 132px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLeaves\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFruit\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003edrupes\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eStem\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eRoots\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eRhizome\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSeeds\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWhole plant Flowers Sap Latex Bulbs\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 132px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLeaves\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWhole plant Roots \u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSeeds\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFruits\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 157px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCommon ailments\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 132px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFever Dermatological disorders\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eGeneral health respiratory disorders\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eUrinary and rectal diseases inflammation and pain gastrointestinal disorders\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDiabetes\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eliver disorders Male sexual disorders/stimulant sexual complaints, female sexual disorders mental disorders heart diseases\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 123px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFever\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;Jaundice Gastrointestinal disorder General health Respiratory disorder Dermatological disorder Body pains Urological problem\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 123px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eGastrointestinal Physical pains Poisoning Respiratory Skeletomuscular Disorders Urological Andrological/Gynaecological/ birth problems Circulatory Dermatological Diabetes External Parasite Fever Gastrointestinal Inflammation Liver Complaints Ophthalmological\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 142px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eInfections and infestations Respiratory system Gastro intestinal system Injuries and trauma General aches and pains Skin disorders Ear, nose, throat problems Reproductive system Nervous system\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 132px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eGastrointestinal ailments Skin related treatments Musculoskeletal problems Flu/cold/fever Hypertension Urinary tract infections and kidney and bladder ailments Snake/insect/dog bites Eye, ear, nose problems Dental ailments Diabetes Malaria Cancer\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 132px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAndrological/gynaecological/birth problems Circulatory disorders Dermatological disorders Diabetes Fevers Gastrointestinal Disorders Liver Disorders Musculoskeletal Disorder Ophthalmological disorders other disorders Parasites Physical pains Poisoning Respiratory disorders rological disorders\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n \u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":true,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"genetic-resources-and-crop-evolution","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"gres","sideBox":"Learn more about [Genetic Resources and Crop Evolution](https://www.springer.com/journal/10722)","snPcode":"10722","submissionUrl":"https://submission.nature.com/new-submission/10722/3","title":"Genetic Resources and Crop Evolution","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"stoa","reportingPortfolio":"Springer Hybrid","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":false},"keywords":"Ailments, Healers, Herbal remedies, Indices, Validate","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6859613/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-6859613/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"The indigenous communities of Western Madhya Pradesh, India, rely heavily on ethnomedicinal plants to treat various ailments. This study aims to document the indigenous knowledge of tribal healers regarding herbal remedies, supporting conservation efforts and providing a foundation for pharmacological research. Data were collected from 115 traditional healers using semi-structured interviews. Quantitative indices such as relative frequency of citation (RFC), use value (UV) and informant consensus factor (ICF) were applied to analyze plant usage patterns. A total of 174 plant species from 66 families were identified, with herbs being the most commonly used (50%), followed by trees and climbers. Leaves were the most frequently utilized plant part (30.97%), while seeds, stems, and heartwood were less preferred. Common ailments treated included general health issues, with heart diseases and diabetes showing the highest ICF value (0.96). A strong positive correlation (0.046) was observed between RFC and UV. Additionally, 78 ethnomedicinal species were documented for the first time with new claims, and 10 species were newly recorded as ethnomedicinally important in Madhya Pradesh. The study highlights the cultural and medicinal importance of ethnomedicinal plants among indigenous communities, emphasizing the urgent need for conservation due to threats to local flora. Future research, including chemical screening, is necessary to validate the medicinal properties of these plants and promote their sustainable use.","manuscriptTitle":"An Ethnomedicinal Survey of Traditional Healing Practices of Indigenous Communities in Western Madhya Pradesh, India","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-06-16 09:29:38","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6859613/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"decision","content":"Revision requested","date":"2025-07-25T09:03:42+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2025-07-24T18:26:42+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2025-07-13T09:56:35+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"329168677267367026990677376422853250216","date":"2025-07-11T13:13:57+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"252750317407694740067677539513271328306","date":"2025-07-11T07:26:42+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2025-07-01T11:02:49+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"202091814520273069901052410530033443406","date":"2025-06-12T12:56:25+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"306993377258724166019178541141447343879","date":"2025-06-11T05:47:00+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2025-06-11T04:50:09+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2025-06-11T04:21:08+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"checksComplete","content":"","date":"2025-06-11T04:19:58+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"Genetic Resources and Crop Evolution","date":"2025-06-10T06:17:18+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"genetic-resources-and-crop-evolution","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"gres","sideBox":"Learn more about [Genetic Resources and Crop Evolution](https://www.springer.com/journal/10722)","snPcode":"10722","submissionUrl":"https://submission.nature.com/new-submission/10722/3","title":"Genetic Resources and Crop Evolution","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"stoa","reportingPortfolio":"Springer Hybrid","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":false}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"e986c56d-ec00-48e6-b07e-4d5b1a0d7b4c","owner":[],"postedDate":"June 16th, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"published-in-journal","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2025-09-29T15:59:15+00:00","versionOfRecord":{"articleIdentity":"rs-6859613","link":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s10722-025-02620-8","journal":{"identity":"genetic-resources-and-crop-evolution","isVorOnly":false,"title":"Genetic Resources and Crop Evolution"},"publishedOn":"2025-09-23 15:57:06","publishedOnDateReadable":"September 23rd, 2025"},"versionCreatedAt":"2025-06-16 09:29:38","video":"","vorDoi":"10.1007/s10722-025-02620-8","vorDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s10722-025-02620-8","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-6859613","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-6859613","identity":"rs-6859613","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}