Mapping Earth's Crustal Structure of the Eastern Vietnam Continental Margin from Gravity Anomalies: Implication for oil and gas distribution

Mapping Earth's Crustal Structure of the Eastern Vietnam Continental Margin from Gravity Anomalies: Implication for oil and gas distribution | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Mapping Earth's Crustal Structure of the Eastern Vietnam Continental Margin from Gravity Anomalies: Implication for oil and gas distribution Trung Nhu Nguyen, Giau Manh Lai, Phach Van Phung, Nam Van Bui This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-7175167/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Published Journal Publication published 16 Dec, 2025 Read the published version in Acta Geophysica → Version 1 posted 6 You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract To address the limitations in deep seismic research on the Vietnamese continental margin, this study utilized high-resolution marine satellite gravity data, alongside sediment thickness and bathymetry data. Applying Parker's (1972) 3D inverse method, we developed a crustal structure model of the eastern Vietnamese continental margin. Interpretation revealed Moho depths ranging from 8.5 km in the Southwest Sub-basin to 29–30 km in the coastal zone, demonstrating an average error of 9.6% compared to OBS data. Basement depths varied from 2.5 km near the Hoang Sa Archipelago to 12.5–13.5 km in the Red River Basin, with a 6.2% average error compared to OBS data. Consequently, the derived crustal thickness map showed significant variations, from 4–6 km in the Southwest Sub-basin to 25 km in coastal areas. Major NW-SE, NE-SW, and N-S fault systems were also identified using the maximum horizontal gradient method and its derivative. Based on modern rifted continental margin models, six distinct crustal domains were zoned, and importantly, their distribution showed a strong correlation with known oil and gas fields, affirming the pivotal role of Earth's crustal structure in controlling hydrocarbon potential. East Vietnam Sea sattlite gravity 3D gravity inversion crustal thickness Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 Figure 6 Figure 7 Figure 8 Figure 9 Figure 10 Figure 11 Introduction Despite extensive deep seismic studies conducted in the East Vietnam Sea (South China Sea) that have significantly advanced the understanding of its deep structure and tectonic dynamics (e.g., Qiu et al. 2011 ; Pichot et al. 2014 ; Yu et al. 2016; Yuhanli et al. 2021 ; Zhang et al. 2016 ; Huang et al. 2019 ; Xiaodongwei et al. 2020), similar research remains notably limited for the Vietnamese continental margin. This gap is particularly significant because existing models of the East Vietnam Sea's opening consistently highlight the crucial role of the Vietnamese continental margin in this complex geological process (Briais et al. 1993 ; Hall 2002; Tapponnier et al. 1986 ; Hall 1996 ; Taylor and Hayes 1983 ). To address these limitations, especially in areas with scarce deep seismic data like the Vietnamese continental margin (Fig. 1), marine satellite gravity data has proven to be an exceptionally effective tool for studying Earth's crustal structure. This data offers global coverage, high resolution (1'x1'), and continually improving accuracy (Sandwell et al. 2013 , 2014 ; Emmanuel et al. 2014 ). The analysis of gravity anomalies enables the detailed identification of various subsurface features, including boundaries, basin structures, fault systems, seamounts, and buried volcanoes, from shallow to deep depths (Sandwell et al. 2013 , 2014 , Nguyen et al. 2004 ). This capability is crucial, as the Earth's crustal structure, encompassing its thickness and faulting, plays a decisive role in controlling hydrocarbon generation and migration. This paper leverages these significant advantages of satellite gravity data to construct a comprehensive crustal structure model for the eastern Vietnamese continental margin. Specifically, the study newly calculated Earth's crustal thickness by applying Parker's (1972) 3D inverse method to the latest V.32.1 gravity anomaly dataset, GEBCO bathymetry data, and a new version of sediment thickness data from NOAA (Straume et al. 2019 ) complemented by published works. A key aspect of the methodology was the rigorous constraint of the inverted Moho and basement depths using Ocean Bottom Seismometer (OBS) data, which demonstrated high reliability of the results. Based on the calculated crustal thickness, crustal structure zoning was performed using modern rifted continental margin models proposed by Savva et al. ( 2013 )d ron-Pinvidic and Manatschal (2009). The study successfully identified six distinct crustal domains within the eastern Vietnamese continental margin: true continental crust, stretched continental crust, highly stretched continental crust, thinned stretched continental crust, continental-oceanic transition crust, and oceanic crust. Importantly, the distribution of these crustal structural domains showed a strong and special correlation with the locations of known oil and gas fields in the region. This correlation emphatically affirms the pivotal role of Earth's crustal structure in controlling hydrocarbon potential, including factors like crustal thickness and faulting, in the generation and migration of hydrocarbons. Overall, this paper aims to fill the research void in deep seismic studies on the Vietnamese continental margin by providing a comprehensive crustal structure model using high-resolution marine satellite gravity data. Geological Setting Southeast Asia is a geologically complex region positioned at the convergence of three major tectonic plates: the Eurasian, Indo-Australian, and Pacific plates. The current geological landscape of the region has been shaped by the intense interaction and significant movement of these plates, particularly smaller microplates, throughout the Cenozoic era. Most Cenozoic petroleum basins found in the East Vietnam Sea are closely linked to the tectonic activities that occurred during this period (Morley 2002 ; Nguyen Hiep et al. 2007; Hutchison CS 1989 , 2004 ). Specifically, the lateral movement and strike-slip faulting of microplates along suture zones and fault systems during the Tertiary period were instrumental in the formation of Cenozoic basins (Morley, 2002 ), while collision and subduction cycles between the major plates also spurred associated tectonic development and magmatic cycles. The opening and evolution history of the East Vietnam Sea is intrinsically tied to this complex tectonic history of Southeast Asia (Tapponier et al. 1986; Hall 1996 ; Morley 2002 ). The oceanic crust of the East Vietnam Sea may have formed through several simultaneous processes, including the collision between the Indian subcontinent and the Eurasian plate in the northwest, subduction beneath the Borneo plate along Palawan in the south, and seafloor spreading in the central part, which took place from the Oligocene to early Miocene (Taylor and Hayes 1983 ; Tapponnier et al. 1986 ; Briais et al. 1993 ; Li et al. 2014 ). Geophysical studies have provided a detailed picture of the East Vietnam Sea's opening process, which spanned approximately from 32 to 15.5 million years ago (Taylor and Hayes 1983 ; Briais et al. 1993 ; Li et al. 2014 ). This process commenced with nearly north-south spreading around 32–33 million years ago in the northwestern East Vietnam Sea, leading to the formation of the Northwestern Sub-basin (Taylor and Hayes 1983 ; Briais et al. 1993 ; Hall 2002; Li et al. 2014 ). Subsequently, around 23.6 million years ago, the spreading axis shifted southward by approximately 20 km, forming the Eastern Sub-basin, where spreading ceased around 15 million years ago (Li et al. 2014 ). From approximately 23.6 to 21.5 million years ago, the spreading axis changed its direction to northeast-southwest and propagated about 400 km southwest, creating the Southwest Sub-basin, with spreading concluding around 16 million years ago (Li et al. 2014 ). The East Vietnam Sea is characterized as a typical miniature marginal sea, encompassing all fundamental crustal structural components of the Earth: continental crust, transitional crust, and oceanic crust. The Earth's crust itself is composed of igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary rocks, with lower density layers overlying the dense, malleable mantle. The Moho discontinuity, which marks the boundary between the rigid crust and the underlying soft mantle, is defined by sudden changes in seismic wave velocity or rock density. During the movement of the crust and mantle, the rigid Earth's crust fractures into plates that move relative to each other through convergent, divergent, and transform movements. The characteristics of the Earth's crustal structure play a pivotal role in the formation and development of petroleum and marine mineral resources (Phillip and John 1990; Phillip and Frederick 1996; Longley 1997; Hutchison, 2004 ). Specifically, the type of Earth's crust beneath sedimentary basins is a crucial factor directly linked to hydrocarbon generation and accumulation. Variations in crustal thickness and composition directly influence the geothermal gradient, which is the rate at which temperature increases with depth (Phillip and Frederick 1996; Turcotte and Schubert 2002 ). Crustal thickness is an important base for defining the amount of extension and constraining the heat flow of the crust during basin formation, also aiding in understanding fluid circulation in the rift margin. A high geothermal gradient, often found in areas with thin crust or undergoing significant stretching, accelerates the "cooking" process of organic matter into oil and gas (hydrocarbons). Conversely, thicker crustal areas with lower geothermal gradients may require longer geological times for organic matter to reach the necessary maturity for petroleum generation, as the maturity of organic matter in sediments is greatly influenced by crustal temperature during basin formation. Furthermore, fault structures and boundaries between different crustal types, such as continental and transitional crust, often create essential pathways for hydrocarbon migration from source rocks to petroleum-bearing structures. Basins formed on stretched continental crust typically possess high hydrocarbon potential due to the combination of favorable geothermal gradients and complex tectonic structures that form traps. Data sources and interpretation methods 2.1 Data sources Satellite Gravity Data Source: Satellite gravity data is currently considered the data source with the highest resolution and accuracy, providing the most uniform coverage over the ocean at a 1’x 1’ grid (Sandwell et al. 2013 , 2014 ; Emmanuel et al. 2014 ). The initial versions of satellite gravity anomalies published by the Scripps Institution of Oceanography had an accuracy of 5–7 mGal. However, over time, due to the increasing number of overlapping measurement tracks and advancements in altimeter technology that enhanced accuracy, the precision of satellite gravity anomalies has significantly improved, making it the most reliable data source for the entire ocean today. Figure 2 a illustrates the free-air satellite gravity anomaly map compiled from the latest V.32.1 version of satellite gravity data with a uniform 1’ x 1’ grid ( https://topex.ucsd.edu/cgi-bin/get_data.cgi ). The V32.1 version of satellite gravity anomalies has an accuracy of approximately 1.7 mGal, with many areas reaching an accuracy of 1 mGal (Sandwell et al. 2014 ). According to an assessment of satellite gravity anomalies (Sandwell et al., 2014 ), the accuracy of the satellite gravity anomaly field is about twice as high as that of shipborne gravity anomaly data measured by research institutes or universities. Seabed depth data Source: In addition to the aforementioned data sources, the General Bathymetric Chart of the Oceans (GEBCO) data, which provides global ocean depth, is published and updated regularly ( https://www.gebco.net/data_and_products/gridded_bathymetry_data/ ). The latest 2022 update version has a resolution of 15 arc-seconds and includes all ship-measured data and satellite-derived bathymetry with a 1 arc-minute resolution for the entire global ocean. Clearly, among these data sources, the GEBCO bathymetry data and satellite-derived bathymetry offer the best coverage and detail for the entire study area. Figure 1 shows the bathymetry map synthesized from GEBCO data within the study area. Seabed depth ranges from 0-200 meters in the continental shelf area to over 4000 meters in the Southwest Sub-basin area. Sediment thickness data source: The basement depth of the sedimentary cover in the study area was collected from two main sources, including: The published total sediment thickness data available on the NOAA website ( https://www.ngdc.noaa.gov/mgg/sedthick/ ). This data source was first published by Divins in 2003 and subsequently updated by Whittaker et al. in 2013, with the latest version updated by Straume et al. in 2019 (Straume et al. 2019 ) from globally published data sources with a 5’x5’ grid; And sediment thickness data published by the research projects (Lai 2022; Phung 2015). To date, calculations of sediment thickness along Vietnam's eastern continental margin have largely pertained to pre-Cenozoic deposits (Nguyen Hiep 2007; Phung 2015; Lai 2022), leading to the classification of this feature as the pre-Cenozoic sedimentary basement. The basement depth map (Fig. 2 b) was created by averaging these data sources and then adding the bathymetry. In essence, the map scale is small and uneven across the entire study area: it is large in oil and gas basin areas but very small in other regions. However, this basement is useful enough as reference data to perform 3D gravity inversion to determine the Moho depth. 2.2 Interpretation methods − 3D Gravity Inversion Method for Determining Moho and Basement Depths: To perform 3D inversion of gravity anomaly data, we utilize Parker's (1972) inversion formula (Chamot-Rootke et al. 1997 ; Huchon et al. 1998 ; Braitenberg et al. 2006 ; Nguyen and Nguyen 2013 ): 1 where: F − 1 [] - two-dimensional inverse Fourier transform operator. F[] - two-dimensional forward Fourier transform operator; h(x,y) - topographic relief causing the gravity anomaly. Δg – Residual gravity anomaly caused by the topographic relief h(x,y). Δρ - Density contrast across the topographic boundary h(x,y). Z 0 – Average depth of the topographic relief h(x,y). G – Gravitational constant; k – Wavenumber. To apply formula (1) for determining the Moho depth and basement depth, we assume a four-layer Earth's crust model with constant density values in each layer, including the seawater layer, sedimentary layer, basement rock layer, mantle, and local heterogeneous bodies. At that point, the measured free-air gravity anomaly in Fig. 2 a comprises the following components: (a) the gravitational effect of the seabed topography, (b) the gravity effect of the basement surface topography (boundary between the sedimentary rock layer and the basement rock), (c) the gravitational effect of the Moho surface topography, and (d) local near-surface heterogeneous bodies (causing very short-wavelength anomalies). Thus, once can isolate a gravity effect of a boundary surface from the observed anomalies, we can use formula (1) to determine this boundary surface topography. From this, the steps for calculating the depth of a boundary surface are summarized as follows: + Step 1: Assume an Earth's crust density model consisting of boundary surfaces. Calculate the gravitational effect caused by the known density boundaries. In this calculation step, we use Parker's (1972) forward modeling to compute the 3D gravitational effect of the density boundaries. + Step 2: Calculate the residual anomaly due to the boundary surface to be determined: After obtaining the gravitational effect of the known boundaries in Step 1, the residual anomaly is calculated by subtracting the gravitational effect of these boundaries from the free-air anomaly and then applying a high-pass filter to remove near-surface heterogeneous elements on the seabed topography. + Step 3: After obtaining the residual gravity anomaly caused by the boundary to be determined, we proceed to determine the average depth of the boundary surface (Z 0 ) caused by the residual anomaly using the power density spectrum method (Spector 1970 ; Blakely 1995 ). Formula (1) is then used to calculate the depth topography of the boundary surface. In cases where there are known depth points in the study area, we can adjust the parameters Z 0 or Δρ so that the inversion results closely approximate these known depth points. In this calculation, the initial depth Z₀ is predicted by the Power Density Spectrum method of the residual gravity anomaly (Spectror 1970; Blakely 1995 ). The mean depth of the density boundary is determined directly from the slope of the straight line on the plot of the power density spectrum's logarithm versus wavenumber, where the slope is equal to -4πZ₀. The regression equation of this line segment is estimated through the linear least-squares method. While potential field inversion inherently faces issues of non-uniqueness, the robustness of our results is significantly enhanced by the integration of multiple data sources, including high-resolution satellite gravity data, GEBCO bathymetry, updated sediment thickness from NOAA and published works, and crucially, rigorous constraint and validation against extensive OBS data for both Moho and basement depths. This multi-data approach, combined with the assumption of a four-layer Earth's crust model with fixed density contrasts, helps to reduce ambiguities and provide a more reliable representation of the subsurface structure. - Fault System Determination: The maximum horizontal gradient method of gravity anomalies is used to identify the locations of faults based on the positions of maximum horizontal gradient points, because the ateral density boundaries often coincide with the location of maximum horizontal gradient points of gravity anomalies (Blakely 1995 ; Blakely and Simpson 1986 ). The maximum horizontal gradient is calculated from the gravity anomalies after applying upward continuation to various altitudes to investigate the extent of the fault. The effects of shallow objects will be blurred or eliminated, and deeper objects will be emphasized and clarified after applying upward continuation operations (Blakely 1995 ). To determine the dip direction of a fault, we examine the migration of maximum gradient points when upward continuing the field to different elevations. These maximum gradient points will migrate in the dip direction of the fault as the field is upward continued (Nguyen 2006 ; Nguyen and Nguyen 2010 ). To more precisely determine fault locations, we also employed the logistic function of the horizontal gradient of gravity anomaly ( Pham et al. 2020 ). The horizontal gradient logistic anomaly values range from 0 to 1. Due to the inherent characteristic of the logistic function, which effectively balances both strong and weak effects of the horizontal gradient, the resulting anomaly field image displays maximum horizontal gradient values at or near 1. This means that small horizontal gradient anomalies, when transformed by the logistic function, approach or become close to 1. Conversely, excessively large horizontal gradient anomalies are compressed to 1 after logistic transformation (Pham et al. 2020 ). This property simplifies the identification of boundary points in the horizontal gradient logistic field. Results of inversion calculation and interpretation 3.1 Moho Depth Determination To perform 3D inversion for determining the Moho depth, first, we need to determine the residual Moho anomaly from free air gravity anomaly. Currently, we have relatively clear information about the seabed topography surface and the pre-Cenozoic sedimentary basement surface. Thus, to obtain the residual Moho anomaly, we calculate the gravitational effect caused by the seabed topography (Fig. 3 a) and the sedimentary basement surface (Fig. 3 b) using Parker's forward modeling formula (Parker 1972 ). Then, we subtract the gravitational effect of the seabed topography and the sedimentary basement from the free-air anomaly. Once the anomaly was obtained, we removed the high-frequency components using a low-pass filter. The cutoff frequency was chosen based on the frequency identified from the power spectral density of the residual gravity anomaly, and by maximizing the correlation between the resulting residual anomaly and the Moho depth values derived from OBS data. The Moho residual anomaly, calculated with a cutoff wavelength of 43 km, is presented in Fig. 3 c with its correlation coefficient with the OBS Moho depth of R² = 0.88 (Fig. 4). The Moho residual gravity anomaly map (Fig. 3 c) reveals values ranging from − 20 mGal in the coastal region to + 180 mGal in the Southwest Sub-basin. Observing this residual anomaly map, it is evident that the Moho uplift is highest in the Southwest Sub-basin, followed by the central Phu Khanh Basin, the Song Hong Basin, the Malay-Tho Chu Basin, the Truong Sa Archipelago, the South Hainan basin, and the Hoang Sa Archipelago. As shown in Fig. 5, a linear fit of the Moho residual gravity anomaly's power density spectrum yields the equation Y = -333.62*X + 5.3073 (R² = 0.9537), corresponding to an average Moho depth of Z 0 ​ = 26.5 km.. The Moho residual gravity anomaly was inversed by the algorithm presented in the previous section with an initial average depth Z 0 ​ = 26.5 km and an initial density contrast Δρ of 0.44 g/cm³ (Nissen et l. 1995 Nguyen and Nguyen 2013 , 2010 ), using OBS Moho depth points as reference data to adjust the density contrast and average depth. The Moho depth values was calculated in Fig. 3 d with Z 0 = 26.5 km and Δρ = 0.42 g/cm. An average error betwteen the calculated Moho depths, and OBS Moho depths is 9.6% (Table 1 ). The deviation spans from 0.2–31%. Furthermore, 40% of the points (65) exhibit an error greater than 10%, whereas 33% (53 points) show an error of less than 5%. These higher deviations in specific localized areas may reflect more complex geological conditions, such as rapid lateral variations in crustal density or highly heterogeneous structures that deviate from the assumed constant density layers in our 3D inversion model. While the overall average error remains low, these localized variations highlight the inherent challenges of deep crustal modeling in tectonically active regions. The Moho depth map (Fig. 3 d) shows values ranging from 8.5 km in the Southwest Sub-basin to 29–30 km in coastal zones. Depths in specific basins are as follows: Red River Basin (23–28 km); Phu Khanh Basin (15–28 km); Hoang Sa Archipelago (15–25 km); Cuu Long Basin (25–28 km); Nam Con Son Basin (21–24); Tu Chinh - Vung May Basin (17–24 km); Truong Sa Archipelago (18–24 km); and Malay-Tho Chu Basin (22–26 km). Table 1 OBS Moho depths are digizited from published works (Qiu et. al. 2011 ; Pichot et al. 2014 ; Yu et al, 2017 ; Yuhanli et al. 2021 ; Zhang et. al. 2016 ; Huang et al. 2019 ; Xiaodongwei et. al. 2020) and Moho depths from 3D gravity inversed interpretation No Longitude Latitude Moho by OBS Moho by this study Error (%) No Longitude Latitude Moho by OBS Moho by this study Error (%) 1 113.3725 5.7161 18.3 15.0 17.8 81 112.3653 14.8780 19 18.9 0.4 2 113.1765 5.8453 18.1 16.6 8.2 82 112.3063 15.0495 20.4 19.8 3.1 3 113.0066 5.9917 17.9 18.1 0.9 83 112.2670 15.1448 20.5 20.6 0.5 4 112.8149 6.1252 18.6 19.0 1.9 84 112.2364 15.2338 20.3 20.8 2.6 5 112.4578 6.4050 19.3 18.9 2.1 85 112.1818 15.4117 19.8 21.7 9.5 6 112.2705 6.5514 19.7 18.5 6.0 86 112.1206 15.6001 20.6 22.2 7.8 7 112.0875 6.6806 19.4 17.7 8.8 87 112.0900 15.6870 21.5 22.3 3.9 8 111.9264 6.8184 19.1 18.4 3.6 88 112.0528 15.7738 22.4 22.7 1.3 9 111.7391 6.9605 17.7 18.4 3.7 89 111.9916 15.9517 23.4 23.5 0.5 10 111.5561 7.0897 15.9 18.6 17.1 90 111.9283 16.1317 23 24.5 6.5 11 111.3558 7.2275 15.6 18.8 20.4 91 113.1723 12.5430 10.8 9.0 16.6 12 111.0029 7.4945 14.9 17.9 20.3 92 113.2421 12.3544 10.8 9.2 14.5 13 110.8331 7.6237 15.8 18.1 14.4 93 113.3642 12.0285 10.7 10.0 6.7 14 110.6327 7.7787 17.6 20.9 18.5 94 113.4166 11.8399 10.8 9.1 16.1 15 110.2690 8.0585 18.8 24.4 29.6 95 113.4776 11.6683 10.8 8.6 20.2 16 110.0861 8.2092 18.6 24.2 29.9 96 113.5387 11.5140 11 8.4 23.4 17 109.9075 8.3298 18.7 23.1 23.7 97 113.6085 11.3168 11.1 8.7 21.4 18 109.7093 8.4676 19.6 21.7 10.8 98 113.6695 11.1367 11.4 9.4 17.5 19 109.5220 8.6097 20.5 20.7 1.0 99 113.7830 10.7937 13.5 12.7 6.0 20 109.3478 8.7432 21.2 20.8 1.8 100 113.8440 10.6136 16.4 15.0 8.8 21 109.7261 16.6012 22.4 21.8 2.6 101 113.9225 10.4249 21 18.1 13.6 22 109.8462 16.4736 20.9 22.3 6.5 102 113.9749 10.2363 24.1 19.4 19.7 23 109.9639 16.3515 20.2 22.7 12.6 103 114.0534 10.0476 23.7 20.4 14.0 24 110.0735 16.2294 18.9 23.6 25.1 104 114.1035 9.9040 22.2 19.5 12.3 25 110.1864 16.1135 19.4 24.5 26.3 105 114.0950 9.7067 20.7 18.4 11.0 26 110.3073 15.9867 19.2 25.2 31.1 106 114.1821 9.5524 18.1 18.3 1.0 27 110.4325 15.8686 20.5 25.5 24.4 107 114.3129 9.3551 17.1 16.9 0.9 28 110.5478 15.7514 21.4 25.6 19.5 108 114.3739 9.1836 16.7 18.4 10.0 29 110.6603 15.6341 21.9 25.3 15.4 109 113.0427 12.9150 11 10.1 8.0 30 110.7673 15.5115 22.1 24.5 10.7 110 113.1017 12.7392 10.6 9.4 11.2 31 110.8770 15.3969 22.3 24.1 7.9 111 113.1723 12.5430 10.6 9.0 15.1 32 111.0033 15.2877 22.4 23.7 5.7 112 113.2421 12.3544 10.7 9.2 13.7 33 111.1185 15.1677 22.7 23.3 2.7 113 113.3642 12.0285 10.9 10.0 8.4 34 111.2393 15.0452 22.6 22.5 0.2 114 113.4166 11.8399 10.7 9.1 15.3 35 111.3435 14.9279 22.2 22.0 0.8 115 113.4776 11.6683 10.8 8.6 20.2 36 111.4643 14.8026 21.2 21.7 2.6 116 113.5387 11.5140 10.7 8.4 21.2 37 111.5795 14.6854 19.9 21.2 6.4 117 113.6085 11.3168 10.7 8.7 18.4 38 111.6783 14.5681 18.9 20.3 7.6 118 113.6695 11.1367 10.8 9.4 12.9 39 111.7990 14.4509 19 19.8 4.1 119 114.2349 17.6582 11.5 12.8 11.7 40 111.9115 14.3309 18.8 19.1 1.5 120 114.2291 17.5718 12 12.4 3.6 41 112.0295 14.2137 17.3 18.7 8.2 121 114.2276 17.4808 11.8 12.2 3.3 42 112.2491 13.9685 16.7 19.0 13.7 122 114.2217 17.4007 11.8 12.3 4.5 43 112.3725 13.8592 17.7 18.3 3.5 123 114.2188 17.3143 13.6 12.8 5.6 44 112.4796 13.7313 18.4 18.5 0.8 124 114.2144 17.2264 16.2 13.6 16.1 45 112.5783 13.6194 18.2 18.4 1.0 125 114.2085 17.1400 17.1 14.3 16.2 46 112.7073 13.4915 18.3 17.0 7.3 126 114.2026 17.0568 16.8 14.9 11.3 47 112.8061 13.3822 17.3 16.3 5.9 127 114.1967 16.9642 16.7 15.5 7.2 48 112.9241 13.2623 16.3 14.7 9.5 128 114.1923 16.8794 15.9 16.0 0.4 49 113.0256 13.1450 14 12.0 14.3 129 114.1865 16.7930 16.1 16.3 1.2 50 113.2891 12.8812 10.4 9.5 8.5 130 114.1850 16.7129 16 16.4 2.4 51 113.6540 12.4814 10 10.4 4.0 131 114.1747 16.5402 15.6 16.7 6.8 52 114.2906 11.8125 9.7 10.6 9.5 132 114.1688 16.4539 17.6 17.5 0.6 53 114.3592 11.7406 9.6 12.5 30.0 133 114.1615 16.3691 20.4 18.7 8.6 54 114.4635 11.6739 11.2 14.4 29.0 134 114.1571 16.2874 22.9 19.9 13.0 55 114.5568 11.5940 14.5 16.4 13.4 135 114.1527 16.1995 24.3 21.4 11.9 56 114.6858 11.5060 18.6 18.1 2.5 136 114.1468 16.1069 24.7 22.8 7.7 57 114.8010 11.4048 19.4 18.0 7.1 137 114.1424 16.0252 25.2 23.5 6.7 58 114.9245 11.2848 19 17.8 6.2 138 114.1350 15.8572 27.2 24.3 10.8 59 115.0343 11.1649 19 18.2 4.3 139 114.1277 15.7724 27.8 24.2 12.8 60 115.1468 11.0610 19.3 17.7 8.1 140 114.1248 15.6813 27.7 24.0 13.3 61 115.2538 10.9117 18.2 16.5 9.1 141 114.1204 15.5965 26 23.3 10.3 62 115.3251 10.7652 17.2 16.2 5.8 142 114.1145 15.5212 23.4 22.2 5.1 63 115.4020 10.6239 17.4 16.6 4.6 143 114.1101 15.4301 19.6 20.2 2.9 64 115.4925 10.4960 17.1 17.3 1.0 144 114.1071 15.3438 15.6 17.2 10.2 65 115.6160 10.3787 15.8 18.0 14.2 145 114.0998 15.2543 13.1 14.4 9.7 66 115.7258 10.2695 15.2 18.8 24.0 146 114.0969 15.1695 11.6 12.6 8.2 67 115.8410 10.1496 16.2 18.4 13.8 147 114.0895 15.0878 11 11.6 5.7 68 115.9590 10.0190 16.5 18.5 12.2 148 114.0866 15.0046 10.9 11.3 3.3 69 113.1017 12.7392 11.3 9.4 16.7 149 114.0822 14.9182 10.9 11.0 1.3 70 113.0427 12.9150 12.3 10.1 17.7 150 114.0719 14.8272 10.7 10.9 1.7 71 112.9772 13.0950 15 11.9 20.8 151 114.0733 14.7424 10.8 10.7 0.7 72 112.9160 13.2707 17.4 14.9 14.3 152 114.0660 14.6623 11 10.5 4.1 73 112.8548 13.4528 18.9 16.3 13.6 153 114.0631 14.5775 11.2 10.2 8.7 74 112.7958 13.6265 19.4 17.1 12.1 154 114.8342 13.7610 9.2 9.6 4.7 75 112.6734 13.9823 19.2 17.6 8.3 155 114.9138 13.6442 9.1 9.7 6.9 76 112.6144 14.1644 18.3 17.8 2.5 156 114.9724 13.5649 10.2 10.6 3.8 77 112.5511 14.3444 17.2 17.9 3.9 157 115.0226 13.4878 11.1 11.4 2.7 78 112.4899 14.5244 16.3 16.9 3.9 158 115.0728 13.4189 11.3 11.8 4.0 79 112.4549 14.6070 16.5 17.0 3.0 159 115.1293 13.3376 11.1 11.3 1.4 80 112.4221 14.7044 17 17.8 4.9 160 115.1754 13.2646 10.9 10.2 6.6 Average relative errors : 9.6 3.2. Basement Depth To construct a detailed basement depth map from the inversion of gravity data, a residual gravity anomaly was first isolated by subtracting the gravitational effects of the seafloor and Moho surfaces from the free-air anomaly. This was then followed by the application of a band-pass filter to remove signals outside the 15-1200 km wavelength range. The resulting anomaly (Fig. 6a), which ranges from − 110 mGal to + 50 mGal, correlates strongly (R² = 0.82) with OBS-derived basement depths (Fig. 7). We then performed an inversion on this anomaly, using an initial average depth of Z₀ = 4.8 km estimated from power density spectrum analysis (Fig. 8). The inversion was optimized by iteratively adjusting the density contrast (Δρ) and mean depth (Z₀) against 60 OBS reference points. Table 2 OBS Basement depths are digizited from published works (Pichot, et al. 2014; Yu et al 2017; Huang et al. 2019; Xiaodongwei et. al. 2020) and Basement depths from 3D gravity inversed interpretation No Long Lat Basement by OBS Basement by this study Error (%) No Long Lat Basement by OBS Basement by this study Error (%) 1 114.0719 14.82716 5310 5373 1.2 31 115.7258 10.26948 4790 5111 6.7 2 110.8331 7.623652 5300 5333 0.6 32 112.1818 15.41166 3610 3454 4.3 3 113.1017 12.73919 5220 5293 1.4 33 113.6695 11.13667 5590 5962 6.7 4 112.2364 15.23378 3400 3469 2 34 114.2188 17.31432 5640 5355 5.1 5 113.5387 11.51399 5530 5548 0.3 35 113.0427 12.91496 5500 5165 6.1 6 114.1923 16.87938 4750 4831 1.7 36 111.9916 15.95166 3120 2951 5.4 7 113.4166 11.83985 5470 5467 0.1 37 111.3558 7.227506 4270 4641 8.7 8 114.0998 15.25425 4320 4327 0.2 38 113.783 10.79365 5960 5560 6.7 9 112.8548 13.45284 4100 4104 0.1 39 113.0427 12.91496 5540 5165 6.8 10 112.7958 13.62648 3580 3685 2.9 40 114.3739 9.183618 4500 4201 6.6 11 112.8548 13.45284 4120 4104 0.4 41 113.6695 11.13667 6470 5962 7.9 12 114.2276 17.48076 5450 5596 2.7 42 114.0895 15.08781 5470 5045 7.8 13 114.9724 13.56491 4970 5136 3.3 43 114.9138 13.64417 4500 4949 10 14 113.6085 11.31675 5860 5759 1.7 44 113.1723 12.54303 5760 5297 8 15 114.066 14.66229 5430 5315 2.1 45 114.8342 13.76096 4780 5281 10.5 16 114.1865 16.79302 4950 4849 2 46 112.4899 14.52436 4780 4344 9.1 17 114.3129 9.355126 4140 4063 1.9 47 112.916 13.27072 3920 4390 12 18 114.2291 17.57183 5550 5795 4.4 48 114.0733 14.74237 5950 5360 9.9 19 115.0226 13.48775 5020 5266 4.9 49 114.1035 9.903952 3190 3593 12.6 20 114.0866 15.00459 5520 5347 3.1 50 112.3653 14.87801 4150 3736 10 21 113.3642 12.02851 5640 5461 3.2 51 112.267 15.14484 4130 3717 10 22 114.2144 17.22639 5450 5272 3.3 52 113.2421 12.35438 5790 5184 10.5 23 114.2217 17.40068 5670 5480 3.4 53 111.0029 7.494475 4490 5055 12.6 24 112.3063 15.04954 3300 3496 5.9 54 113.5387 11.51399 6220 5548 10.8 25 113.6085 11.31675 5460 5759 5.5 55 113.4166 11.83985 6200 5467 11.8 26 113.2421 12.35438 5420 5184 4.4 56 114.2085 17.14003 4470 5107 14.3 27 113.1017 12.73919 4980 5293 6.3 57 112.9772 13.09496 3950 4555 15.3 28 113.1723 12.54303 5540 5297 4.4 58 113.3642 12.02851 6300 5461 13.3 29 114.0822 14.91823 5110 5432 6.3 59 114.1615 16.36907 3340 3871 15.9 30 114.1071 15.34375 3680 3929 6.8 60 115.3251 10.76517 5270 4532 14 Average relative errors : 6.2 The optimal solution was achieved with Δρ = 0.3 g/cm³ and Z₀ = 4.65 km, yielding a minimal average error of 6.2% (Table 2). Analysis of this model's error distribution shows that 43% of points have less than 5% error, 37% have errors between 5–10%, and 20% exceed 10% error, with a maximum deviation of 15.9%. The final basement depth map (Fig. 6b) exhibits significant variation across the study area, highlighting a clear distinction between deep sedimentary basins and shallower archipelago platforms (Table 3). The most substantial depths are found in the depocenters of the Red River Basin and the Malay–Tho Chu Basin, where the basement reaches up to 12.5–13.5 km. A secondary group of deep basins includes the South Hainan, Phu Khanh, and Nam Con Son, with basement depths in their depocenters ranging from 8 to 9 km. In contrast, other basins are shallower. The Cuu Long Basin's basement lies at 3.5-6 km, while the Southwest Sub-basin is characterized by a relatively flat basement surface at 5–6 km. The Hoang Sa and Truong Sa archipelagos display a distinct pattern, with a shallow central basement (2.5-3 km) that deepens towards the margins (5 km). Table 3 The basement depth acros the different geological provinces Region Basement Depth (km) Notes Gulf of Tonkin (Red River Basin) 12.5–13.5 In depocenter Malay - Tho Chu Basin 12.0–13.5 In depocenter South Hainan Basin 8.0–9.0 In depocenter Phu Khanh Basin 8.5–9.0 In depocenter Nam Con Son Basin 3.5–8.0 In depocenter Cuu Long Basin 3.5–6.0 In depocenter Southwest Sub-basin 5.0–6.0 Relatively flat Hoang Sa (Paracel) Archipelago 2.5–5.0 Shallow center, deepens at margins Truong Sa (Spratly) Archipelago 3.0–5.0 Shallow center, deepens at margins 3.3. Crystalline crustal Thickness The crystalline crustal thicknesses map (Fig. 9), derived by subtracting the basement depth from the Moho depth, reveal a dramatic thinning of the crust from the continental shelf towards the deep basins (Table 4). The most extreme thinning is observed in the Southwest Sub-basin, where the crust is merely 4–6 km thick. The Phu Khanh Basin also exhibits exceptionally thin crust, narrowing from 25 − 15 km at its margin to just 5–10 km in its depocenter. In contrast, the adjacent archipelagos show thicker, transitional crust, ranging from 13–18 km in the Truong Sa Archipelago to 14–23 km in the Hoang Sa Archipelago. Several major basins display a distinct pattern of crustal thinning from margin to depocenter: the Red River Basin thins from 25 km to 9–10 km, the South Hainan Basin from 25 km to 12–15 km, the Malay–Tho Chu Basin from 23 km to 10–15 km, and the Tu Chinh–Vung May area from 23 km to 10 km. Other continental shelf areas maintain a relatively thick and stable crust, including the Bac Bo Basin (24–25 km), the Cuu Long Basin (21–24 km), and the southern offshore area of Phu Quoc–Ca Mau (23–25 km). The Nam Con Son Basin shows a general westward-to-eastward thinning trend from 24 km down to 15 km. Table 4 The regional variations of the crustal thickness of the study area Category Region / Basin Crustal Thickness (km) Notes Thinnest Crust Southwest Sub-basin 4–6 Thinnest in the study area Phu Khanh Basin 5–25 Thins dramatically to 5–10 km in center Archipelagos Truong Sa (Spratly) 13–18 Hoang Sa (Paracel) 14–23 Basins with Major Thinning Red River Basin 9–25 Thins from margin to depocenter South Hainan Basin 12–25 Thins from margin to depocenter Malay–Tho Chu Basin 9–23 Thins from margin to depocenter Tu Chinh–Vung May 10–23 Thins from edge to center Thicker Continental Crust Bac Bo Basin 24–25 Relatively uniform thickness Cuu Long Basin 21–24 Nam Con Son Basin 15–24 Thins from west to east Phu Quoc–Ca Mau Area 23–25 3.4 Determination of faults According to the results of the total horizontal gradient calculation of the gravity anomaly at the upward continuation of 5, 10, 20, and 30 km and their logistic function, the major fault systems of the study region are determined as shown in Fig. 10. The faults include the NW-SE, NE-SW, and N-S fault systems. The most significant NE-SW trending faults are the Red River Fault system, cutting across the Red River Basin to the north, and the Three Pagoda Fault, traversing the Malay-Tho Chu Basin to the south. The most prominent NW-SE trending fault systems include those cutting through the Nam Hai Nam and Pearl River Mouth basins in the north, the fault south of the Hoang Sa Archipelago, and the fault systems in the Palawan Trough in the southern part of the study area. The most significant N-S trending fault system is the East Vietnam Sea West Fault System, extending from the Red River Basin and cutting across the Phu Khanh Basin and the Nam Con Son Basin. In addition to these major systems, more minor faults with NW-SE, NE-SW, and N-S orientations are widely distributed throughout the study area (Fig. 10b). 3.5 Deep crustal structure of the Vietnamese continental margin The structural zonation of the Earth's crust is based on the principle of classifying a modern rifted continental margin into three fundamental units: continental crust, continent-ocean transition (COT) crust, and oceanic crust (Péron-Pinvidic & Manatschal, 2009). The representative deep structural cross-section for the East Vietnam Sea region is constructed based on the rifted margin models proposed by Savva et al. (2013)d ron-Pinvidic & Manatschal (2009). From the continent towards the deep ocean basin, the structural domains are specifically divided as follows: + True Continental Crust Domain (> 25 km): This is a relatively stable crustal area with minimal extensional processes. + Stretched Continental Crust Domain (20-25 km): Characterized by symmetrical grabens and horsts formed by opposing, steep-dipping normal faults that terminate within the upper brittle crust. + Highly Stretched Continental Crust Domain (15-20 km): Similar to the stretched domain, with symmetrical grabens and horsts formed by steep-dipping normal faults, but with a thinner average crustal thickness. + Thinned stretched Continental Crust Domain (10-15 km): Features half-grabens and tilted blocks driven by listric faults that flatten with depth and extend to the upper surface of the lower crust. + Ultra-thinned Continental Crust Domain (or Continental-Oceanic Transition Domain) (6-10 km): Distinguished by dome-like structures resulting from abrupt upper mantle upwelling. Faults have low dip angles, originating directly on the Moho or as detachment faults within the lower crust. Mantle exhumation can occur in some areas. + Oceanic Crust Domain (< 6 km): Newly formed crust, primarily composed of basalt. Based on these principles, a structural map (Fig. 11) has been established, illustrating these six crustal domains using crustal thickness isochrons, Moho depth isobaths, fault systems, and the distribution of continental and oceanic basins, as well as oceanic spreading axes. The Tonkin Gulf area is composed of two primary structural units: the Red River Basin and the Bac Bo Basin. The Earth's crust in this region is categorized into four distinct crustal domains. The True Continental Crust, measuring 28 − 25 km thick, forms a narrow strip along the western outer margin of the Red River Basin and the margin of the Bac Bo Basin. Here, the Moho depth ranges from 28–29 km, and the basement depth is 0–4 km. Fault systems predominantly include first-order NW-SE trending faults (such as the Red River and Song Ca faults) and second-order NE-SW trending faults. Adjacent to this is the Stretched Continental Crust, 25 − 20 km thick, distributed around the Red River Basin (50–60 km wide) and extending across the entire Bac Bo Basin. Its Moho depth is 27–28 km, with the basement depth of 2–8 km, characterized by NW-SE and NE-SW trending normal faults. The Highly Stretched Continental Crust, 15–20 km thick, lies next to the stretched crust, near the central Red River Basin (30–40 km wide), and is distinguished by first-order deep fault systems trending NW-SE. The Moho depth here is 26 − 25 km, and the basement depth is 9–10 km. Finally, the thinned Continental Crust, 10–15 km thick, extends approximately 300 km along the depocenter of the Red River Basin. Its fault systems are part of the NW-SE trending Red River fault system, with the Moho surface significantly rising to 23–24 km and basement depths ranging from 9-13.5 km. The Central Offshore Area is an expansive region stretching from the Phu Khanh Basin to the Hoang Sa Archipelago, displaying all crustal domains from true continental to oceanic crust. A very small area on the Da Nang shelf, represents the True Continental Crust, with Moho depths of 28-28.5 km and basement depths of 0.5–3.5 km. Following this is the Stretched Continental Crust, 20–25 km thick, distributed along the Central Vietnam offshore (North-South) and from the Da Nang shelf to the Hoang Sa Archipelago (NE-SW). Its main fault systems are the N-S trending East Vietnam Sea West Fault system and the NW-SE trending Tuy Hoa strike-slip fault. Moho depth is 26–28 km, and basement depth is 3–6 km. The Highly Stretched Continental Crust, 15–20 km thick, is primarily located around the central Hoang Sa Archipelago and the Phu Khanh Basin. The dominant structural trend is NE-SW and NW-SE trending faults. Moho depth ranges from 24 − 19 km, and basement depth from 4–6 km. The Thinned Continental Crust, 10–15 km thick, is found in the southern margin of the Hoang Sa Archipelago and the Phu Khanh Basin, forming an elongated NE-SW zone. Its Moho depth is 19 − 16 km, and basement depth is 6–9 km, featuring second-order NE-SW normal faults and NW-SE faults. The Ultra-thinned Crust, 6–10 km thick, appears in two NE-SW trending regions: the depocenter of Phu Khanh Basin and the continental-oceanic transition zone. The Phu Khanh Basin area shows a highly uplifted Moho (up to 16 km) and identified subsurface volcanic magma bodies (Savva et al., 2013). Moho depth in the transition zone is 14–15 km, with basement depths of 6–10 km in the Phu Khanh Basin. Main fault systems are NW-SE and NE-SW trending second-order faults. Finally, the Oceanic Crust, 5–6 km thick, is distributed in the Southwest Sub-basin. Moho topography varies from 12 − 10 km at the margins to 9–10 km internally, featuring a NE-SW oriented oceanic spreading axis with a 40–50 km wide rift valley. Their fault system trends are NE-SW and NW-SE. The Southeastern Offshore Area encompasses the Cuu Long, Nam Con Son, and Tu Chinh - Vung May basins. A small area southeast of Ca Mau Cape represents the True Continental Crust, 25–26 km thick, with a Moho depth of approximately 27 km and a basement depth of 1–2 km; no major faults have been identified here. The Stretched Continental Crust, 20–25 km thick, covers most of the Southeast Vietnam continental shelf, including the Cuu Long Basin and the western Nam Con Son Basin. Moho depth is 26–28 km, and basement depth is 3–6 km, with main fault systems being NE-SW and N-S second-order faults. The Highly Stretched Continental Crust, 15–20 km thick, is concentrated in the eastern Nam Con Son Basin and the northern Tu Chinh - Vung May Basin (Tu Chinh - Phuc Tan uplift). The dominant structural trend is NE-SW. Moho depth ranges from 23-25.5 km, and basement depth from 3–8 km, with fault systems including the East Vietnam Sea West Fault System and second-order NE-SW faults. The Thinned Continental Crust, 10–15 km thick, is primarily found in the central Nam Con Son Basin (extending northeastward) and the remaining Tu Chinh - Vung May Basin. Moho depth is 21 − 15 km, and basement depth is 5–6 km, cut by the East Vietnam Sea West Fault System and NE-SW trending fault systems. A small area at the southwestern tip of the Southwest Sub-bansin features Ultra-thinned Crust, 6–10 km thick, where the Moho surface is uplifted to 11–15 km. The fault system is NE-SW oriented, and volcanic/magma bodies are present. The Southern Offshore Area of Vietnam displays five distinct crustal domains. The True Continental Crust, 25–26 km thick, is found along the coastal area from Tho Chu Islands to south of Ca Mau Cape. Dominant structural trends are N-S and NE-SW. Moho depth is approximately 29 km, and basement depth is 3–4 km. The subsurface volcanoes are present. South of the true continental crust, extending NE-SW, is the Stretched Continental Crust, 20–25 km thick. Moho depth is 27–28 km, and basement depth is 4–7 km, with the main fault system being N-S. The Highly Stretched Continental Crust, 15–20 km thick, is located south of the Stretched Continental Crust, in the the Malay - Tho Chu Basin (50–60 km wide). The main structural trend is NE-SW, with a Moho depth of 25–26 km. Further south of the Highly Stretched Continental Crust, near the depocenter of the Malay - Tho Chu Basin, lies the Thinned Continental Crust, 11–12 km thick. Moho depth is 23–24 km, and basement depth is 11–12 km, cut by NE-SW Three Pagoda fault systems. Finally, a small area in the depocenter of the Malay - Tho Chu Basin contains Ultra-thinned Continental Crust, 9–10 km thick, and the Moho Depth is of 24–25 km. This domain lies in the NE-SW Three Pogoda deep fault system. 3.5 Distribution of oil and gas fields in relation to Earth's crustal domains The distribution of oil and gas fields on the Vietnamese continental shelf shows a clear correlation with distinct crustal domains and structural characteristics, establishing a predictive framework for hydrocarbon exploration. Oil provinces are consistently found in domains of stretched continental crust (20–25 km thick), which are typically associated with negative gravity anomalies and are not intersected by major fault systems like the Red River or East Vietnam Sea West Fault System. These oil-bearing regions, such as the Cuu Long, Bac Bo, and the western Nam Con Son basins, feature structures generally trending NE-SW. Specific examples include the Rong, Bach Ho, Sutu Trang, Sutu Den, Rubi, and Rang Dong fields in the Cuu Long Basin, and the Dai Hung field in the Nam Con Son Basin (Nguyen Hiep 2007; Lau and Tsai 2024). Conversely, gas provinces are primarily aligned with highly stretched continental crustal domains (15–20 km thick), where structural development is governed by the Red River and East Vietnam Sea West Fault Systems, resulting in dominant sub-meridional and NW-SE trends. These areas correspond with positive gravity anomalies, often along the edge effect gravity anomaly zone (Watts and Stewart 1998; Watts and Fraihead 1999). Large gas discoveries exemplify this pattern, including the Dongfan, Yacheng, Ledong, Blue Whale, and Tien Hai fields in the Red River Basin, as well as the Moc Tinh, Sao Vang, Lan Tay, and Lan Do fields in the eastern Nam Con Son Basin (Nguyen Hiep 2007, Lau and Tsai 2024). Notably, significant gas indications have also been observed in the prominent edge effect gravity anomaly zone offshore Khanh Hoa and the continental slop of the Southern Offshore (Lee and Watkin 1998; Kulinic, 1989; Nguyen, 2012). Based on this established correlation, the hydrocarbon potential of Vietnam's outer continental shelf where there is currently no oil and gas field discoveries can be forecasted. Based on this established correlation, the hydrocarbon potential of Vietnam's outer continental shelf can be forecasted. In the Central Offshore Area, the eastern Da Nang shelf and the central Hoang Sa Archipelago mirror the characteristics of an oil-prone domain, while surrounding areas are prospective for gas. In the Southeastern Offshore Area, only the center of the Edge Lift Zone (in the Tu Chinh - Vung May basin) is considered oil-prone, with the remaining parts of the outer shelf being gas-prone due to their highly stretched crustal structure. Conclusion This study successfully mapped and analyzed the Earth's crustal structure of the eastern Vietnam continental margin, providing critical insights into its geological evolution and hydrocarbon potential. By applying Parker's (1972) 3D inverse method to the latest marine satellite gravity data, accurate Moho and basement depths were achieved with high reliability against OBS data. The resulting crustal thickness map revealed significant variations from 4–6 km in thin oceanic regions to up to 25 km in coastal zones, and prominent fault systems were effectively delineated. The eastern Vietnamese continental margin was systematically zoned into six distinct crustal domains based on thickness and geological characteristics. Most significantly, this research established a clear and special correlation between these identified crustal structural domains and the distribution of known oil and gas fields. Oil fields are predominantly concentrated in Stretched Continental Crust domains (20–25 km thick), associated with negative gravity anomalies and NE-SW trending structures, typically not intersected by major fault systems like the Red River or East Vietnam Sea West Fault System. Conversely, gas fields are primarily found in Highly Stretched Continental Crust domain (15–20 km thick), characterized by positive gravity anomalies and structural trends aligned with the Red River Fault System and the East Vietna Sea West Fault System. These findings unequivocally affirm the pivotal role of Earth's crustal structure in controlling hydrocarbon potential and offer crucial information for future exploration strategies in the region. This comprehensive crustal model provides an invaluable baseline for future detailed geophysical and geological investigations, particularly in currently unexplored or underexplored areas of Vietnam's outer continental shelf. The established correlations between crustal domains and hydrocarbon distribution will serve as a powerful predictive tool, guiding more efficient and targeted exploration efforts. Declarations Conflict of interest: Authors have declared that no competing interests exist, and the data were used for the advancement of knowledge. Acknowledgement: This research is funded by the Program to support scientific research activities for senior researchers in 2024-2025 of the Vietnam Academy of Science and Technology. Project code: NVCC24.01/24-25. The authors kindly thank the funding organization. Data availability statement: The authors declare that the data supporting the findings of this study are available within the paper, its supplementary information files and data publicly available in a repository Satellite gravity data available at https://topex.ucsd.edu/cgi-bin/get_data.cgi Bathymatry data available at https://www.gebco.net/data_and_products/gridded_bathymetry _data/; Sedimentary thickness data available at https://www.ngdc.noaa.gov/mgg/sedthick/. 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Phung Van Phach (Chief Editor) (2015). A study on the geological structure and evolution of the East Sea to establish Vietnam's sovereign territorial sea baseline and forecast energy and mineral resources. Final Report. State-level project, code KC09.02/11-15. 359 pages. Qiu XL, Zhao MH, Ao W, Lu CC, Hao TY, You QY, Ruan AG, Li JB (2011) OBS survey and crustal structure of the SW Sub-Basin and Nansha Block, South China Sea. Chin J Geophys 54:1009–1021. Sandwell DT, Müller RD, Smith WHF, Garcia E, Francis R (2014) New global marine gravity model from CryoSat-2 and Jason-1 reveals buried tectonic structure. Science 346(6205):65–67. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1258213. Sandwell DT, Garcia E, Soof K, Wessel P, Smith WHF (2013) Towards 1 mGal global marine gravity from CryoSat-2, Envisat, and Jason-1. Lead Edge. 32(8):892–899. Savva D, Meresse F, Pubellier M, Chamot-Rooke N, Lavier L, Wong Po K, Franke D, Steuer S, Sapin F, Auxietre JL, Lamy G (2013) Seismic evidence of hyper-stretched crust and mantle exhumation offshore Vietnam. Tectonophysics, 608, 72-83. Spector A and Granti F S 1970 Statistic model for interpreting aeromagnetic data Geophys. Prospect. 20 633–49. Straume EO, Gaina C, Medvedev S, Hochmuth K, Gohl K, Whittaker JM, Abdul RF, Doornenbal JC, Hopper JR (2019) GlobSed: updated total sediment thickness in the world’s oceans. Geochem Geophys Geosyst. 20(4):1756–1772. Tapponnier P, Peltzer G, and et al. (1986) On the mechanics of the collision between India and Asia, Geol. Soc. Spec. Pub., 19, pp.115-157. Taylor B and Hayes DE (1983) Origin and history of the South China Basin, Part 2. Geophysics Monograph, AGU, Washington, 27, pp. 23-56. Turcotte D and Schubert G (2002) Geodynamics Applications of Continuum Physics to Geological Problems. Cambridge University Press-Geodynamics, Second Edition, pp 1–450. Watts AB, and Stewart J (1988) Gravity anomalies and segmentation of the continental margin offshore West Africa.. Earth Planet. Sci. Letter, v. 156, pp. 239-252. Watts AB and Fraihead JD (1999) A process-oriented approach to modeling the gravity signature of continental margins. The Leading EDGE, v. 18, pp. 258-263. Whittaker J M, Goncharov A, Williams SE, Müller RD, & Leitchenkov G (2013). Global sediment thickness data set updated for the Australian‐Antarctic Southern Ocean. Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems , 14, 3297–3305. doi: 10.1002/ggge.20181 Xiaodong W, Aiguo R, Weiwei D, Zhaocai W, Chongzhi D, Yanghui Z, Xiongwei N, Jie Z, Chunyang W (2020) Crustal structure and variation in the southwest continental margin of the South China Sea: evidence from a wide-angle seismic profile. J Asian Earth Sci. 203:104557. Yu Z, Li J, Ding W, et al. (2017) Crustal structure of the Southwest Subbasin, South China Sea, from wide-angle seismic tomography and seismic reflection imaging. Mar Geophys Res 38, 85–104 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11001-016-9284-1. Yuhali Li, H Huang, I Grevemeyer, X Qiu, H Zhang, Q Wang (2021) Crustal structure beneath the Zhongsha Block and the adjacent abyssal basins, South China Sea: New insights into rifting and initiation of seafloor spreading. Gondwana Research 99, 53-76. Zhang, Jiabiao Li, Aiguo Ruan, Zhenli Wu, Zhiteng Yu, Xiongwei Niu, Weiwei Ding, (2016) The velocity structure of a fossil spreading centre in the Southwest Sub-basin, South China Sea. First published: 18 February 2016 https://doi.org/10.1002/gj.2778. Cite Share Download PDF Status: Published Journal Publication published 16 Dec, 2025 Read the published version in Acta Geophysica → Version 1 posted Editorial decision: Major revisions 19 Sep, 2025 Reviewers agreed at journal 24 Aug, 2025 Reviewers invited by journal 24 Aug, 2025 Editor invited by journal 20 Aug, 2025 Editor assigned by journal 28 Jul, 2025 First submitted to journal 26 Jul, 2025 You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. Our growing team is made up of researchers and industry professionals working together to solve the most critical problems facing scientific publishing. Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-7175167","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":504830390,"identity":"beb7846c-14c9-4832-9da1-50cd2f01d423","order_by":0,"name":"Trung Nhu Nguyen","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAAxklEQVRIiWNgGAWjYBADOTYSFDODSWOYFgmitSQ2EK3FXLr/2GfeHbXpfeztD5h5aurqGCRyD+DVYjnnMPNs3jPHc9t4zhgw8xw7LMEgkZeAV4vBjWRmZt62Y7ltEjkMjDPYDkgwAPUSpSWdTf75A8YZ/+qI1lKTwCbBYMDwsY1ZgoG9h6AWY8a5bQcM23hyDA587Dss2UZYS+JjhrdtdfLy7ccfPkj4VsfPz8yDXwsUHAaTB0AEscmgjkh1o2AUjIJRMCIBAA77PIM5hF6hAAAAAElFTkSuQmCC","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6942-8502","institution":"Institute of Earth Sciences, VAST","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Trung","middleName":"Nhu","lastName":"Nguyen","suffix":""},{"id":504830391,"identity":"c562f2be-6d01-4a54-9d31-2d978d0439c4","order_by":1,"name":"Giau Manh Lai","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Geophysical Division, Department of Geology and Mineral of Vietnam","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Giau","middleName":"Manh","lastName":"Lai","suffix":""},{"id":504830392,"identity":"55af72ec-5480-4b5e-b3b8-f675b41ed518","order_by":2,"name":"Phach Van Phung","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Vietnam Tectonic Association","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Phach","middleName":"Van","lastName":"Phung","suffix":""},{"id":504830393,"identity":"c50836fc-7b0e-4da6-92cb-b76a96e9b210","order_by":3,"name":"Nam Van Bui","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Institute of Earth Sciences, VAST","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Nam","middleName":"Van","lastName":"Bui","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2025-07-21 08:50:43","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7175167/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-7175167/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[{"content":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s11600-025-01756-6","type":"published","date":"2025-12-16T15:58:17+00:00"}],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":90335177,"identity":"deee8cde-1722-4b8d-bb53-73318b1c1f56","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-09-01 14:02:46","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":2931503,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eThe location of the study area, presenting the bathymetry and major basins: RRB: Red River Basin; BBB – Bac Bo Basin; PKB: Phu Khanh Basin; CLB: Cuu Long Basin; NCSB: Nam Con Son Basin; TC-VMB: Tu Chinh-Vung May Basin; ML-TCB: MaLai –Tho Chu Basin.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7175167/v1/514f7a51ec252081376022c2.png"},{"id":90333722,"identity":"4e06cbfe-a24d-4394-9767-3ac126fa6203","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-09-01 13:46:46","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":3491738,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003ea) Satellite free-air gravity anomaly (https://topex.ucsd.edu/cgi-bin/get_data.cgi); b) Sedimentary basement of the study area (NOAA and published works).\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7175167/v1/dd1612554ec841478505594c.png"},{"id":90334784,"identity":"c73b6d92-dc42-4ccb-b1f3-d20742698743","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-09-01 13:54:46","extension":"png","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":5425965,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003ea) Gravity effect of the seafloor topography; c) Gravity effect of the sedimentary basement topography; d) Moho residual gravity anomaly map; e) Moho depth map of the study area.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"3.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7175167/v1/1dfe279b304b28409c183384.png"},{"id":90333720,"identity":"3b55138e-de06-444b-9f58-e6e19779906c","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-09-01 13:46:46","extension":"png","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":105452,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eCorrelation curve between Moho residual gravity anomalies and OBS Moho depths\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"4.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7175167/v1/d65cb159240989624cadc618.png"},{"id":90334781,"identity":"0b7d5e12-3656-4311-89ad-866267bf1eb9","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-09-01 13:54:46","extension":"png","order_by":5,"title":"Figure 5","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":81636,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003ePower density spectrum of the Moho residual gravity anomaly.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"5.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7175167/v1/06f161c14947ae66854b4012.png"},{"id":90336107,"identity":"a8ff51a7-f540-4980-b5ab-34293801c711","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-09-01 14:10:46","extension":"png","order_by":6,"title":"Figure 6","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":2707698,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003ea) Basement residual gravity anomaly map of the eastern Vietnam continental margin. Contour interval is 10 mGal; b) Basement depth map of the eastern Vietnam continental margin. Contour interval is 500 m.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"6.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7175167/v1/4ee4e2d5c99aa644ca9a3fd8.png"},{"id":90333727,"identity":"bc9245f6-3436-4ac1-b3a6-092d33e730e6","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-09-01 13:46:46","extension":"png","order_by":7,"title":"Figure 7","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":93023,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eCorrelation curve between the residual basement gravity anomaly and the OBS basement depth.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"7.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7175167/v1/1370bcbac6b8a8b215a7aeb4.png"},{"id":90336108,"identity":"6c330e35-05f5-4dff-933c-6b598b8d27ab","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-09-01 14:10:46","extension":"png","order_by":8,"title":"Figure 8","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":80781,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003ePower density spectrum of the residual gravity anomaly of the sedimentary basement.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"8.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7175167/v1/558e5f1171d9f9c58ff04d3e.png"},{"id":90333733,"identity":"5a4dbee6-c238-4394-89a0-86ce08ad73d7","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-09-01 13:46:46","extension":"png","order_by":9,"title":"Figure 9","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":1804494,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eThe crystalline crustal thickness map of of the study area. Contour interval is 1000 m.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"9.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7175167/v1/6fb7f903921f3fbc8274f533.png"},{"id":90334795,"identity":"837017a0-bb3c-4c55-9462-84d7d4594e19","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-09-01 13:54:47","extension":"png","order_by":10,"title":"Figure 10","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":3676447,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003ea) The logistic function of the\u003cstrong\u003e horizontal gradient of Bouguer gravity anomaly after upward continuing \u003c/strong\u003eby 3 km; b) Map of fault systems determined by maximum horizontal gradient and their logistic function of gravity anomalies.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"10.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7175167/v1/1467864625f04490df5111d6.png"},{"id":90334788,"identity":"67460c20-35cf-4d59-a8d2-89c8f8100b2e","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-09-01 13:54:46","extension":"png","order_by":11,"title":"Figure 11","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":4521461,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eStructural zonation map of the Earth's crust of the continental margin of eastern Vietnam and the adjacent area\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"11.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7175167/v1/5548cce1aee51d508d2d363e.png"},{"id":98814256,"identity":"10b4aa30-292b-421e-a099-710b2c886cfe","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-22 16:12:09","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":34668701,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7175167/v1/90bf502d-d2f1-450b-ae31-195648f91ae9.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"","formattedTitle":"Mapping Earth's Crustal Structure of the Eastern Vietnam Continental Margin from Gravity Anomalies: Implication for oil and gas distribution","fulltext":[{"header":"Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eDespite extensive deep seismic studies conducted in the East Vietnam Sea (South China Sea) that have significantly advanced the understanding of its deep structure and tectonic dynamics (e.g., Qiu et al. \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e; Pichot et al. \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e; Yu et al. 2016; Yuhanli et al. \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Zhang et al. \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e; Huang et al. \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; Xiaodongwei et al. 2020), similar research remains notably limited for the Vietnamese continental margin. This gap is particularly significant because existing models of the East Vietnam Sea\u0026apos;s opening consistently highlight the crucial role of the Vietnamese continental margin in this complex geological process (Briais et al. \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1993\u003c/span\u003e; Hall 2002; Tapponnier et al. \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1986\u003c/span\u003e; Hall \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1996\u003c/span\u003e; Taylor and Hayes \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1983\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTo address these limitations, especially in areas with scarce deep seismic data like the Vietnamese continental margin (Fig. 1), marine satellite gravity data has proven to be an exceptionally effective tool for studying Earth\u0026apos;s crustal structure. This data offers global coverage, high resolution (1\u0026apos;x1\u0026apos;), and continually improving accuracy (Sandwell et al. \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e; Emmanuel et al. \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e). The analysis of gravity anomalies enables the detailed identification of various subsurface features, including boundaries, basin structures, fault systems, seamounts, and buried volcanoes, from shallow to deep depths (Sandwell et al. \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e, Nguyen et al. \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2004\u003c/span\u003e). This capability is crucial, as the Earth\u0026apos;s crustal structure, encompassing its thickness and faulting, plays a decisive role in controlling hydrocarbon generation and migration.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis paper leverages these significant advantages of satellite gravity data to construct a comprehensive crustal structure model for the eastern Vietnamese continental margin. Specifically, the study newly calculated Earth\u0026apos;s crustal thickness by applying Parker\u0026apos;s (1972) 3D inverse method to the latest V.32.1 gravity anomaly dataset, GEBCO bathymetry data, and a new version of sediment thickness data from NOAA (Straume et al. \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e) complemented by published works. A key aspect of the methodology was the rigorous constraint of the inverted Moho and basement depths using Ocean Bottom Seismometer (OBS) data, which demonstrated high reliability of the results. Based on the calculated crustal thickness, crustal structure zoning was performed using modern rifted continental margin models proposed by Savva et al. (\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e)d ron-Pinvidic and Manatschal (2009).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe study successfully identified six distinct crustal domains within the eastern Vietnamese continental margin: true continental crust, stretched continental crust, highly stretched continental crust, thinned stretched continental crust, continental-oceanic transition crust, and oceanic crust. Importantly, the distribution of these crustal structural domains showed a strong and special correlation with the locations of known oil and gas fields in the region. This correlation emphatically affirms the pivotal role of Earth\u0026apos;s crustal structure in controlling hydrocarbon potential, including factors like crustal thickness and faulting, in the generation and migration of hydrocarbons. Overall, this paper aims to fill the research void in deep seismic studies on the Vietnamese continental margin by providing a comprehensive crustal structure model using high-resolution marine satellite gravity data.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Geological Setting","content":"\u003cp\u003eSoutheast Asia is a geologically complex region positioned at the convergence of three major tectonic plates: the Eurasian, Indo-Australian, and Pacific plates. The current geological landscape of the region has been shaped by the intense interaction and significant movement of these plates, particularly smaller microplates, throughout the Cenozoic era. Most Cenozoic petroleum basins found in the East Vietnam Sea are closely linked to the tectonic activities that occurred during this period (Morley \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2002\u003c/span\u003e; Nguyen Hiep et al. 2007; Hutchison CS \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1989\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2004\u003c/span\u003e). Specifically, the lateral movement and strike-slip faulting of microplates along suture zones and fault systems during the Tertiary period were instrumental in the formation of Cenozoic basins (Morley, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2002\u003c/span\u003e), while collision and subduction cycles between the major plates also spurred associated tectonic development and magmatic cycles.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe opening and evolution history of the East Vietnam Sea is intrinsically tied to this complex tectonic history of Southeast Asia (Tapponier et al. 1986; Hall \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1996\u003c/span\u003e; Morley \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2002\u003c/span\u003e). The oceanic crust of the East Vietnam Sea may have formed through several simultaneous processes, including the collision between the Indian subcontinent and the Eurasian plate in the northwest, subduction beneath the Borneo plate along Palawan in the south, and seafloor spreading in the central part, which took place from the Oligocene to early Miocene (Taylor and Hayes \u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1983\u003c/span\u003e; Tapponnier et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1986\u003c/span\u003e; Briais et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1993\u003c/span\u003e; Li et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e). Geophysical studies have provided a detailed picture of the East Vietnam Sea's opening process, which spanned approximately from 32 to 15.5\u0026nbsp;million years ago (Taylor and Hayes \u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1983\u003c/span\u003e; Briais et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1993\u003c/span\u003e; Li et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e). This process commenced with nearly north-south spreading around 32\u0026ndash;33\u0026nbsp;million years ago in the northwestern East Vietnam Sea, leading to the formation of the Northwestern Sub-basin (Taylor and Hayes \u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1983\u003c/span\u003e; Briais et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1993\u003c/span\u003e; Hall 2002; Li et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e). Subsequently, around 23.6\u0026nbsp;million years ago, the spreading axis shifted southward by approximately 20 km, forming the Eastern Sub-basin, where spreading ceased around 15\u0026nbsp;million years ago (Li et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e). From approximately 23.6 to 21.5\u0026nbsp;million years ago, the spreading axis changed its direction to northeast-southwest and propagated about 400 km southwest, creating the Southwest Sub-basin, with spreading concluding around 16\u0026nbsp;million years ago (Li et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe East Vietnam Sea is characterized as a typical miniature marginal sea, encompassing all fundamental crustal structural components of the Earth: continental crust, transitional crust, and oceanic crust. The Earth's crust itself is composed of igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary rocks, with lower density layers overlying the dense, malleable mantle. The Moho discontinuity, which marks the boundary between the rigid crust and the underlying soft mantle, is defined by sudden changes in seismic wave velocity or rock density. During the movement of the crust and mantle, the rigid Earth's crust fractures into plates that move relative to each other through convergent, divergent, and transform movements.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe characteristics of the Earth's crustal structure play a pivotal role in the formation and development of petroleum and marine mineral resources (Phillip and John 1990; Phillip and Frederick 1996; Longley 1997; Hutchison, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2004\u003c/span\u003e). Specifically, the type of Earth's crust beneath sedimentary basins is a crucial factor directly linked to hydrocarbon generation and accumulation. Variations in crustal thickness and composition directly influence the geothermal gradient, which is the rate at which temperature increases with depth (Phillip and Frederick 1996; Turcotte and Schubert \u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2002\u003c/span\u003e). Crustal thickness is an important base for defining the amount of extension and constraining the heat flow of the crust during basin formation, also aiding in understanding fluid circulation in the rift margin. A high geothermal gradient, often found in areas with thin crust or undergoing significant stretching, accelerates the \"cooking\" process of organic matter into oil and gas (hydrocarbons). Conversely, thicker crustal areas with lower geothermal gradients may require longer geological times for organic matter to reach the necessary maturity for petroleum generation, as the maturity of organic matter in sediments is greatly influenced by crustal temperature during basin formation. Furthermore, fault structures and boundaries between different crustal types, such as continental and transitional crust, often create essential pathways for hydrocarbon migration from source rocks to petroleum-bearing structures. Basins formed on stretched continental crust typically possess high hydrocarbon potential due to the combination of favorable geothermal gradients and complex tectonic structures that form traps.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Data sources and interpretation methods","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec4\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e2.1 Data sources\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eSatellite Gravity Data Source: Satellite gravity data is currently considered the data source with the highest resolution and accuracy, providing the most uniform coverage over the ocean at a 1\u0026rsquo;x 1\u0026rsquo; grid (Sandwell et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e; Emmanuel et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e). The initial versions of satellite gravity anomalies published by the Scripps Institution of Oceanography had an accuracy of 5\u0026ndash;7 mGal. However, over time, due to the increasing number of overlapping measurement tracks and advancements in altimeter technology that enhanced accuracy, the precision of satellite gravity anomalies has significantly improved, making it the most reliable data source for the entire ocean today. Figure\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003ea illustrates the free-air satellite gravity anomaly map compiled from the latest V.32.1 version of satellite gravity data with a uniform 1\u0026rsquo; x 1\u0026rsquo; grid (\u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://topex.ucsd.edu/cgi-bin/get_data.cgi\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"https://topex.ucsd.edu/cgi-bin/get_data.cgi\" targettype=\"URL\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e). The V32.1 version of satellite gravity anomalies has an accuracy of approximately 1.7 mGal, with many areas reaching an accuracy of 1 mGal (Sandwell et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e). According to an assessment of satellite gravity anomalies (Sandwell et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e), the accuracy of the satellite gravity anomaly field is about twice as high as that of shipborne gravity anomaly data measured by research institutes or universities.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eSeabed depth data Source: In addition to the aforementioned data sources, the General Bathymetric Chart of the Oceans (GEBCO) data, which provides global ocean depth, is published and updated regularly (\u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://www.gebco.net/data_and_products/gridded_bathymetry_data/\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"https://www.gebco.net/data_and_products/gridded_bathymetry_data/\" targettype=\"URL\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e). The latest 2022 update version has a resolution of 15 arc-seconds and includes all ship-measured data and satellite-derived bathymetry with a 1 arc-minute resolution for the entire global ocean. Clearly, among these data sources, the GEBCO bathymetry data and satellite-derived bathymetry offer the best coverage and detail for the entire study area. Figure\u0026nbsp;1 shows the bathymetry map synthesized from GEBCO data within the study area. Seabed depth ranges from 0-200 meters in the continental shelf area to over 4000 meters in the Southwest Sub-basin area.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eSediment thickness data source: The basement depth of the sedimentary cover in the study area was collected from two main sources, including: The published total sediment thickness data available on the NOAA website (\u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://www.ngdc.noaa.gov/mgg/sedthick/\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"https://www.ngdc.noaa.gov/mgg/sedthick/\" targettype=\"URL\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e). This data source was first published by Divins in 2003 and subsequently updated by Whittaker et al. in 2013, with the latest version updated by Straume et al. in 2019 (Straume et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e) from globally published data sources with a 5\u0026rsquo;x5\u0026rsquo; grid; And sediment thickness data published by the research projects (Lai 2022; Phung 2015). To date, calculations of sediment thickness along Vietnam's eastern continental margin have largely pertained to pre-Cenozoic deposits (Nguyen Hiep 2007; Phung 2015; Lai 2022), leading to the classification of this feature as the pre-Cenozoic sedimentary basement. The basement depth map (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003eb) was created by averaging these data sources and then adding the bathymetry. In essence, the map scale is small and uneven across the entire study area: it is large in oil and gas basin areas but very small in other regions. However, this basement is useful enough as reference data to perform 3D gravity inversion to determine the Moho depth.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e2.2 Interpretation methods\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;3D Gravity Inversion Method for Determining Moho and Basement Depths: To perform 3D inversion of gravity anomaly data, we utilize Parker\u0026apos;s (1972) inversion formula (Chamot-Rootke et al. \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1997\u003c/span\u003e; Huchon et al. \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1998\u003c/span\u003e; Braitenberg et al. \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e; Nguyen and Nguyen \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e):\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Equ1\" class=\"Equation\"\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"EquationNumber\"\u003e\u003cimg src=\"data:image/png;base64,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\"\u003e1\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ewhere: F\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e[] - two-dimensional inverse Fourier transform operator. F[] - two-dimensional forward Fourier transform operator; h(x,y) - topographic relief causing the gravity anomaly. \u0026Delta;g \u0026ndash; Residual gravity anomaly caused by the topographic relief h(x,y). \u0026Delta;\u0026rho; - Density contrast across the topographic boundary h(x,y). Z\u003csub\u003e0\u003c/sub\u003e \u0026ndash; Average depth of the topographic relief h(x,y). G \u0026ndash; Gravitational constant; k \u0026ndash; Wavenumber.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTo apply formula (1) for determining the Moho depth and basement depth, we assume a four-layer Earth\u0026apos;s crust model with constant density values in each layer, including the seawater layer, sedimentary layer, basement rock layer, mantle, and local heterogeneous bodies. At that point, the measured free-air gravity anomaly in Fig. \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003ea comprises the following components: (a) the gravitational effect of the seabed topography, (b) the gravity effect of the basement surface topography (boundary between the sedimentary rock layer and the basement rock), (c) the gravitational effect of the Moho surface topography, and (d) local near-surface heterogeneous bodies (causing very short-wavelength anomalies). Thus, once can isolate a gravity effect of a boundary surface from the observed anomalies, we can use formula (1) to determine this boundary surface topography. From this, the steps for calculating the depth of a boundary surface are summarized as follows:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e+ Step 1: Assume an Earth\u0026apos;s crust density model consisting of boundary surfaces. Calculate the gravitational effect caused by the known density boundaries. In this calculation step, we use Parker\u0026apos;s (1972) forward modeling to compute the 3D gravitational effect of the density boundaries.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e+ Step 2: Calculate the residual anomaly due to the boundary surface to be determined: After obtaining the gravitational effect of the known boundaries in Step 1, the residual anomaly is calculated by subtracting the gravitational effect of these boundaries from the free-air anomaly and then applying a high-pass filter to remove near-surface heterogeneous elements on the seabed topography.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e+ Step 3: After obtaining the residual gravity anomaly caused by the boundary to be determined, we proceed to determine the average depth of the boundary surface (Z\u003csub\u003e0\u003c/sub\u003e) caused by the residual anomaly using the power density spectrum method (Spector \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1970\u003c/span\u003e; Blakely \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1995\u003c/span\u003e). Formula (1) is then used to calculate the depth topography of the boundary surface. In cases where there are known depth points in the study area, we can adjust the parameters Z\u003csub\u003e0\u003c/sub\u003e or \u0026Delta;\u0026rho; so that the inversion results closely approximate these known depth points. In this calculation, the initial depth Z₀ is predicted by the Power Density Spectrum method of the residual gravity anomaly (Spectror 1970; Blakely \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1995\u003c/span\u003e). The mean depth of the density boundary is determined directly from the slope of the straight line on the plot of the power density spectrum\u0026apos;s logarithm versus wavenumber, where the slope is equal to -4\u0026pi;Z₀. The regression equation of this line segment is estimated through the linear least-squares method.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWhile potential field inversion inherently faces issues of non-uniqueness, the robustness of our results is significantly enhanced by the integration of multiple data sources, including high-resolution satellite gravity data, GEBCO bathymetry, updated sediment thickness from NOAA and published works, and crucially, rigorous constraint and validation against extensive OBS data for both Moho and basement depths. This multi-data approach, combined with the assumption of a four-layer Earth\u0026apos;s crust model with fixed density contrasts, helps to reduce ambiguities and provide a more reliable representation of the subsurface structure.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e- Fault System Determination: The maximum horizontal gradient method of gravity anomalies is used to identify the locations of faults based on the positions of maximum horizontal gradient points, because the ateral density boundaries often coincide with the location of maximum horizontal gradient points of gravity anomalies (Blakely \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1995\u003c/span\u003e; Blakely and Simpson \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1986\u003c/span\u003e). The maximum horizontal gradient is calculated from the gravity anomalies after applying upward continuation to various altitudes to investigate the extent of the fault. The effects of shallow objects will be blurred or eliminated, and deeper objects will be emphasized and clarified after applying upward continuation operations (Blakely \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1995\u003c/span\u003e). To determine the dip direction of a fault, we examine the migration of maximum gradient points when upward continuing the field to different elevations. These maximum gradient points will migrate in the dip direction of the fault as the field is upward continued (Nguyen \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e; Nguyen and Nguyen \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e). To more precisely determine fault locations, we also employed the logistic function of the horizontal gradient of gravity anomaly \u003cstrong\u003e(\u003c/strong\u003ePham et al. \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). The horizontal gradient logistic anomaly values range from 0 to 1. Due to the inherent characteristic of the logistic function, which effectively balances both strong and weak effects of the horizontal gradient, the resulting anomaly field image displays maximum horizontal gradient values at or near 1. This means that small horizontal gradient anomalies, when transformed by the logistic function, approach or become close to 1. Conversely, excessively large horizontal gradient anomalies are compressed to 1 after logistic transformation (Pham et al. \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). This property simplifies the identification of boundary points in the horizontal gradient logistic field.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Results of inversion calculation and interpretation","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec6\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.1 Moho Depth Determination\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eTo perform 3D inversion for determining the Moho depth, first, we need to determine the residual Moho anomaly from free air gravity anomaly. Currently, we have relatively clear information about the seabed topography surface and the pre-Cenozoic sedimentary basement surface. Thus, to obtain the residual Moho anomaly, we calculate the gravitational effect caused by the seabed topography (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003ea) and the sedimentary basement surface (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003eb) using Parker's forward modeling formula (Parker \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1972\u003c/span\u003e). Then, we subtract the gravitational effect of the seabed topography and the sedimentary basement from the free-air anomaly. Once the anomaly was obtained, we removed the high-frequency components using a low-pass filter. The cutoff frequency was chosen based on the frequency identified from the power spectral density of the residual gravity anomaly, and by maximizing the correlation between the resulting residual anomaly and the Moho depth values derived from OBS data. The Moho residual anomaly, calculated with a cutoff wavelength of 43 km, is presented in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003ec with its correlation coefficient with the OBS Moho depth of R\u0026sup2; = 0.88 (Fig.\u0026nbsp;4). The Moho residual gravity anomaly map (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003ec) reveals values ranging from \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;20 mGal in the coastal region to +\u0026thinsp;180 mGal in the Southwest Sub-basin. Observing this residual anomaly map, it is evident that the Moho uplift is highest in the Southwest Sub-basin, followed by the central Phu Khanh Basin, the Song Hong Basin, the Malay-Tho Chu Basin, the Truong Sa Archipelago, the South Hainan basin, and the Hoang Sa Archipelago. As shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;5, a linear fit of the Moho residual gravity anomaly's power density spectrum yields the equation Y = -333.62*X\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;5.3073 (R\u0026sup2; = 0.9537), corresponding to an average Moho depth of Z\u003csub\u003e0\u003c/sub\u003e​ = 26.5 km..\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe Moho residual gravity anomaly was inversed by the algorithm presented in the previous section with an initial average depth Z\u003csub\u003e0\u003c/sub\u003e​ = 26.5 km and an initial density contrast Δρ of 0.44 g/cm\u0026sup3; (Nissen et l. 1995 Nguyen and Nguyen \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e), using OBS Moho depth points as reference data to adjust the density contrast and average depth. The Moho depth values was calculated in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003ed with Z\u003csub\u003e0\u003c/sub\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;26.5 km and Δρ\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.42 g/cm. An average error betwteen the calculated Moho depths, and OBS Moho depths is 9.6% (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e). The deviation spans from 0.2\u0026ndash;31%. Furthermore, 40% of the points (65) exhibit an error greater than 10%, whereas 33% (53 points) show an error of less than 5%. These higher deviations in specific localized areas may reflect more complex geological conditions, such as rapid lateral variations in crustal density or highly heterogeneous structures that deviate from the assumed constant density layers in our 3D inversion model. While the overall average error remains low, these localized variations highlight the inherent challenges of deep crustal modeling in tectonically active regions.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe Moho depth map (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003ed) shows values ranging from 8.5 km in the Southwest Sub-basin to 29\u0026ndash;30 km in coastal zones. Depths in specific basins are as follows: Red River Basin (23\u0026ndash;28 km); Phu Khanh Basin (15\u0026ndash;28 km); Hoang Sa Archipelago (15\u0026ndash;25 km); Cuu Long Basin (25\u0026ndash;28 km); Nam Con Son Basin (21\u0026ndash;24); Tu Chinh - Vung May Basin (17\u0026ndash;24 km); Truong Sa Archipelago (18\u0026ndash;24 km); and Malay-Tho Chu Basin (22\u0026ndash;26 km).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eOBS Moho depths are digizited from published works (Qiu et. al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e; Pichot et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e; Yu et al, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR47\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e; Yuhanli et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR48\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Zhang et. al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR49\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e; Huang et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; Xiaodongwei et. al. 2020) and Moho depths from 3D gravity inversed interpretation\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"12\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c9\" colnum=\"9\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c10\" colnum=\"10\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c11\" colnum=\"11\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c12\" colnum=\"12\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLongitude\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLatitude\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMoho by OBS\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMoho by this study\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eError\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLongitude\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLatitude\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMoho by OBS\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMoho\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eby this study\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eError\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd 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colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e112.9772\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e13.0950\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e15\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e11.9\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e20.8\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e151\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e114.0733\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e14.7424\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e10.8\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e10.7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" 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colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e11\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e10.5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e73\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e112.8548\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e13.4528\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e18.9\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e16.3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e13.6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e153\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e114.0631\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e14.5775\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e11.2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e10.2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e8.7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e74\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e112.7958\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e13.6265\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e19.4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e17.1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e12.1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e154\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e114.8342\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e13.7610\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e9.2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e9.6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e75\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e112.6734\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e13.9823\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e19.2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e17.6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e8.3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e155\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e114.9138\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e13.6442\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e9.1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e9.7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6.9\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e76\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e112.6144\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e14.1644\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e18.3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e17.8\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e156\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e114.9724\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e13.5649\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e10.2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e10.6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.8\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e77\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e112.5511\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e14.3444\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e17.2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e17.9\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.9\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e157\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e115.0226\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e13.4878\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e11.1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e11.4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e78\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e112.4899\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e14.5244\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e16.3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e16.9\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.9\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e158\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e115.0728\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e13.4189\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e11.3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e11.8\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e79\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e112.4549\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e14.6070\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e16.5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e17.0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e159\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e115.1293\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e13.3376\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e11.1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e11.3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e80\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e112.4221\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e14.7044\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e17\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e17.8\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.9\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e160\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e115.1754\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e13.2646\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e10.9\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e10.2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6.6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"10\" nameend=\"c11\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eAverage relative errors\u003c/b\u003e:\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e9.6\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec7\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e3.2. Basement Depth\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTo construct a detailed basement depth map from the inversion of gravity data, a residual gravity anomaly was first isolated by subtracting the gravitational effects of the seafloor and Moho surfaces from the free-air anomaly. This was then followed by the application of a band-pass filter to remove signals outside the 15-1200 km wavelength range. The resulting anomaly (Fig.\u0026nbsp;6a), which ranges from \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;110 mGal to +\u0026thinsp;50 mGal, correlates strongly (R\u0026sup2; = 0.82) with OBS-derived basement depths (Fig.\u0026nbsp;7). We then performed an inversion on this anomaly, using an initial average depth of Z₀ = 4.8 km estimated from power density spectrum analysis (Fig.\u0026nbsp;8). The inversion was optimized by iteratively adjusting the density contrast (\u0026Delta;\u0026rho;) and mean depth (Z₀) against 60 OBS reference points.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cdiv\u003e\n \u003ctable id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\n \u003cdiv\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cdiv\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eOBS Basement depths are digizited from published works (Pichot, et al. 2014; Yu et al 2017; Huang et al. 2019; Xiaodongwei et. al. 2020) and Basement depths from 3D gravity inversed interpretation\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003c/caption\u003e\n \u003cthead\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLong\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLat\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBasement\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eby OBS\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBasement\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eby this\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003estudy\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eError (%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLong\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLat\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBasement by OBS\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBasement\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eby this study\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eError\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/thead\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e114.0719\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e14.82716\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5310\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5373\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e31\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e115.7258\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10.26948\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4790\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5111\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6.7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e110.8331\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7.623652\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5300\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5333\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e32\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e112.1818\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e15.41166\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3610\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3454\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e113.1017\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12.73919\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5220\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5293\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e33\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e113.6695\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e11.13667\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5590\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5962\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6.7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e112.2364\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e15.23378\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3400\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3469\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e34\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e114.2188\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e17.31432\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5640\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5355\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5.1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e113.5387\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e11.51399\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5530\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5548\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e35\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e113.0427\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12.91496\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5500\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5165\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6.1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e114.1923\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e16.87938\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4750\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4831\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e36\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e111.9916\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e15.95166\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3120\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2951\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5.4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e113.4166\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e11.83985\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5470\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5467\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e37\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e111.3558\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7.227506\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4270\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4641\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8.7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e114.0998\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e15.25425\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4320\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4327\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e38\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e113.783\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10.79365\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5960\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5560\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6.7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e9\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e112.8548\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e13.45284\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4100\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4104\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e39\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e113.0427\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12.91496\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5540\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5165\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6.8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e112.7958\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e13.62648\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3580\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3685\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.9\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e40\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e114.3739\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e9.183618\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4500\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4201\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6.6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e11\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e112.8548\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e13.45284\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4120\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4104\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e41\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e113.6695\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e11.13667\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6470\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5962\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7.9\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e114.2276\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e17.48076\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5450\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5596\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e42\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e114.0895\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e15.08781\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5470\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5045\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7.8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e13\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e114.9724\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e13.56491\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4970\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5136\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e43\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e114.9138\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e13.64417\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4500\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4949\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e14\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e113.6085\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e11.31675\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5860\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5759\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e44\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e113.1723\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12.54303\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5760\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5297\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e15\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e114.066\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e14.66229\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5430\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5315\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e45\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e114.8342\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e13.76096\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4780\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5281\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10.5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e16\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e114.1865\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e16.79302\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4950\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4849\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e46\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e112.4899\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e14.52436\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4780\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4344\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e9.1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e17\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e114.3129\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e9.355126\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4140\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4063\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.9\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e47\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e112.916\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e13.27072\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3920\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4390\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e18\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e114.2291\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e17.57183\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5550\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5795\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e48\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e114.0733\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e14.74237\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5950\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5360\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e9.9\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e19\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e115.0226\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e13.48775\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5020\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5266\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.9\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e49\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e114.1035\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e9.903952\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3190\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3593\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12.6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e114.0866\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e15.00459\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5520\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5347\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e50\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e112.3653\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e14.87801\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4150\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3736\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e21\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e113.3642\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12.02851\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5640\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5461\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e51\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e112.267\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e15.14484\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4130\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3717\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e22\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e114.2144\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e17.22639\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5450\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5272\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e52\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e113.2421\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12.35438\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5790\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5184\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10.5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e23\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e114.2217\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e17.40068\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5670\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5480\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e53\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e111.0029\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7.494475\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4490\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5055\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12.6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e24\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e112.3063\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e15.04954\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3300\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3496\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5.9\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e54\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e113.5387\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e11.51399\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6220\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5548\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10.8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e25\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e113.6085\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e11.31675\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5460\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5759\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5.5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e55\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e113.4166\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e11.83985\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6200\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5467\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e11.8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e26\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e113.2421\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12.35438\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5420\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5184\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e56\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e114.2085\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e17.14003\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4470\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5107\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e14.3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e27\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e113.1017\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12.73919\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4980\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5293\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6.3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e57\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e112.9772\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e13.09496\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3950\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4555\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e15.3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e28\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e113.1723\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12.54303\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5540\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5297\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e58\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e113.3642\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12.02851\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6300\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5461\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e13.3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e29\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e114.0822\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e14.91823\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5110\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5432\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6.3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e59\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e114.1615\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e16.36907\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3340\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3871\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e15.9\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e30\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e114.1071\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e15.34375\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3680\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3929\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6.8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e60\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e115.3251\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10.76517\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5270\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4532\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e14\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"10\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAverage relative errors\u003c/strong\u003e:\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6.2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n \u003c/table\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe optimal solution was achieved with \u0026Delta;\u0026rho;\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.3 g/cm\u0026sup3; and Z₀ = 4.65 km, yielding a minimal average error of \u003cstrong\u003e6.2%\u003c/strong\u003e (Table 2). Analysis of this model\u0026apos;s error distribution shows that 43% of points have less than 5% error, 37% have errors between 5\u0026ndash;10%, and 20% exceed 10% error, with a maximum deviation of 15.9%. The final basement depth map (Fig. 6b) exhibits significant variation across the study area, highlighting a clear distinction between deep sedimentary basins and shallower archipelago platforms (Table 3). The most substantial depths are found in the depocenters of the Red River Basin and the Malay\u0026ndash;Tho Chu Basin, where the basement reaches up to 12.5\u0026ndash;13.5 km. A secondary group of deep basins includes the South Hainan, Phu Khanh, and Nam Con Son, with basement depths in their depocenters ranging from 8 to 9 km. In contrast, other basins are shallower. The Cuu Long Basin\u0026apos;s basement lies at 3.5-6 km, while the Southwest Sub-basin is characterized by a relatively flat basement surface at 5\u0026ndash;6 km. The Hoang Sa and Truong Sa archipelagos display a distinct pattern, with a shallow central basement (2.5-3 km) that deepens towards the margins (5 km).\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cdiv\u003e\n \u003ctable id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\n \u003cdiv\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cdiv\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe basement depth acros the different geological provinces\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003c/caption\u003e\n \u003cthead\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eRegion\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBasement Depth (km)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNotes\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/thead\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eGulf of Tonkin (Red River Basin)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12.5\u0026ndash;13.5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIn depocenter\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMalay - Tho Chu Basin\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12.0\u0026ndash;13.5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIn depocenter\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSouth Hainan Basin\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8.0\u0026ndash;9.0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIn depocenter\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePhu Khanh Basin\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8.5\u0026ndash;9.0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIn depocenter\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNam Con Son Basin\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.5\u0026ndash;8.0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIn depocenter\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCuu Long Basin\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.5\u0026ndash;6.0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIn depocenter\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSouthwest Sub-basin\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5.0\u0026ndash;6.0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eRelatively flat\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHoang Sa (Paracel) Archipelago\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.5\u0026ndash;5.0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eShallow center, deepens at margins\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTruong Sa (Spratly) Archipelago\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.0\u0026ndash;5.0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eShallow center, deepens at margins\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n \u003c/table\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cdiv\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e3.3. Crystalline crustal Thickness\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe crystalline crustal thicknesses map (Fig.\u0026nbsp;9), derived by subtracting the basement depth from the Moho depth, reveal a dramatic thinning of the crust from the continental shelf towards the deep basins (Table\u0026nbsp;4). The most extreme thinning is observed in the Southwest Sub-basin, where the crust is merely 4\u0026ndash;6 km thick. The Phu Khanh Basin also exhibits exceptionally thin crust, narrowing from 25\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;15 km at its margin to just 5\u0026ndash;10 km in its depocenter. In contrast, the adjacent archipelagos show thicker, transitional crust, ranging from 13\u0026ndash;18 km in the Truong Sa Archipelago to 14\u0026ndash;23 km in the Hoang Sa Archipelago. Several major basins display a distinct pattern of crustal thinning from margin to depocenter: the Red River Basin thins from 25 km to 9\u0026ndash;10 km, the South Hainan Basin from 25 km to 12\u0026ndash;15 km, the Malay\u0026ndash;Tho Chu Basin from 23 km to 10\u0026ndash;15 km, and the Tu Chinh\u0026ndash;Vung May area from 23 km to 10 km. Other continental shelf areas maintain a relatively thick and stable crust, including the Bac Bo Basin (24\u0026ndash;25 km), the Cuu Long Basin (21\u0026ndash;24 km), and the southern offshore area of Phu Quoc\u0026ndash;Ca Mau (23\u0026ndash;25 km). The Nam Con Son Basin shows a general westward-to-eastward thinning trend from 24 km down to 15 km.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cdiv\u003e\n \u003ctable id=\"Tab4\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\n \u003cdiv\u003eTable 4\u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cdiv\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe regional variations of the crustal thickness of the study area\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003c/caption\u003e\n \u003cthead\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCategory\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eRegion / Basin\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCrustal Thickness (km)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNotes\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/thead\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThinnest Crust\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSouthwest Sub-basin\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4\u0026ndash;6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThinnest in the study area\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePhu Khanh Basin\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5\u0026ndash;25\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThins dramatically to 5\u0026ndash;10 km in center\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eArchipelagos\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTruong Sa (Spratly)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e13\u0026ndash;18\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHoang Sa (Paracel)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e14\u0026ndash;23\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBasins with Major Thinning\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eRed River Basin\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e9\u0026ndash;25\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThins from margin to depocenter\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSouth Hainan Basin\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12\u0026ndash;25\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThins from margin to depocenter\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMalay\u0026ndash;Tho Chu Basin\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e9\u0026ndash;23\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThins from margin to depocenter\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTu Chinh\u0026ndash;Vung May\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10\u0026ndash;23\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThins from edge to center\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThicker Continental Crust\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBac Bo Basin\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e24\u0026ndash;25\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eRelatively uniform thickness\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCuu Long Basin\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e21\u0026ndash;24\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNam Con Son Basin\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e15\u0026ndash;24\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThins from west to east\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePhu Quoc\u0026ndash;Ca Mau Area\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e23\u0026ndash;25\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n \u003c/table\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec9\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e3.4 Determination of faults\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAccording to the results of the total horizontal gradient calculation of the gravity anomaly at the upward continuation of 5, 10, 20, and 30 km and their logistic function, the major fault systems of the study region are determined as shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;10. The faults include the NW-SE, NE-SW, and N-S fault systems. The most significant NE-SW trending faults are the Red River Fault system, cutting across the Red River Basin to the north, and the Three Pagoda Fault, traversing the Malay-Tho Chu Basin to the south. The most prominent NW-SE trending fault systems include those cutting through the Nam Hai Nam and Pearl River Mouth basins in the north, the fault south of the Hoang Sa Archipelago, and the fault systems in the Palawan Trough in the southern part of the study area. The most significant N-S trending fault system is the East Vietnam Sea West Fault System, extending from the Red River Basin and cutting across the Phu Khanh Basin and the Nam Con Son Basin. In addition to these major systems, more minor faults with NW-SE, NE-SW, and N-S orientations are widely distributed throughout the study area (Fig.\u0026nbsp;10b).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec10\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e3.5 Deep crustal structure of the Vietnamese continental margin\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe structural zonation of the Earth\u0026apos;s crust is based on the principle of classifying a modern rifted continental margin into three fundamental units: continental crust, continent-ocean transition (COT) crust, and oceanic crust (P\u0026eacute;ron-Pinvidic \u0026amp; Manatschal, 2009). The representative deep structural cross-section for the East Vietnam Sea region is constructed based on the rifted margin models proposed by Savva et al. (2013)d ron-Pinvidic \u0026amp; Manatschal (2009). From the continent towards the deep ocean basin, the structural domains are specifically divided as follows:\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e+ \u003cstrong\u003eTrue Continental Crust Domain (\u0026gt; 25 km):\u003c/strong\u003e This is a relatively stable crustal area with minimal extensional processes.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e+ \u003cstrong\u003eStretched Continental Crust Domain (20-25 km):\u003c/strong\u003e Characterized by symmetrical grabens and horsts formed by opposing, steep-dipping normal faults that terminate within the upper brittle crust.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e+ \u003cstrong\u003eHighly Stretched Continental Crust Domain (15-20 km):\u003c/strong\u003e Similar to the stretched domain, with symmetrical grabens and horsts formed by steep-dipping normal faults, but with a thinner average crustal thickness.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e+ \u003cstrong\u003eThinned stretched Continental Crust Domain (10-15 km):\u003c/strong\u003e Features half-grabens and tilted blocks driven by listric faults that flatten with depth and extend to the upper surface of the lower crust.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e+ \u003cstrong\u003eUltra-thinned Continental Crust Domain (or Continental-Oceanic Transition Domain) (6-10 km):\u003c/strong\u003e Distinguished by dome-like structures resulting from abrupt upper mantle upwelling. Faults have low dip angles, originating directly on the Moho or as detachment faults within the lower crust. Mantle exhumation can occur in some areas.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e+ \u003cstrong\u003eOceanic Crust Domain (\u0026lt; 6 km):\u003c/strong\u003e Newly formed crust, primarily composed of basalt.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBased on these principles, a structural map (Fig.\u0026nbsp;11) has been established, illustrating these six crustal domains using crustal thickness isochrons, Moho depth isobaths, fault systems, and the distribution of continental and oceanic basins, as well as oceanic spreading axes.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe Tonkin Gulf area is composed of two primary structural units: the Red River Basin and the Bac Bo Basin. The Earth\u0026apos;s crust in this region is categorized into four distinct crustal domains. The True Continental Crust, measuring 28\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;25 km thick, forms a narrow strip along the western outer margin of the Red River Basin and the margin of the Bac Bo Basin. Here, the Moho depth ranges from 28\u0026ndash;29 km, and the basement depth is 0\u0026ndash;4 km. Fault systems predominantly include first-order NW-SE trending faults (such as the Red River and Song Ca faults) and second-order NE-SW trending faults. Adjacent to this is the Stretched Continental Crust, 25\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;20 km thick, distributed around the Red River Basin (50\u0026ndash;60 km wide) and extending across the entire Bac Bo Basin. Its Moho depth is 27\u0026ndash;28 km, with the basement depth of 2\u0026ndash;8 km, characterized by NW-SE and NE-SW trending normal faults. The Highly Stretched Continental Crust, 15\u0026ndash;20 km thick, lies next to the stretched crust, near the central Red River Basin (30\u0026ndash;40 km wide), and is distinguished by first-order deep fault systems trending NW-SE. The Moho depth here is 26\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;25 km, and the basement depth is 9\u0026ndash;10 km. Finally, the thinned Continental Crust, 10\u0026ndash;15 km thick, extends approximately 300 km along the depocenter of the Red River Basin. Its fault systems are part of the NW-SE trending Red River fault system, with the Moho surface significantly rising to 23\u0026ndash;24 km and basement depths ranging from 9-13.5 km.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe Central Offshore Area is an expansive region stretching from the Phu Khanh Basin to the Hoang Sa Archipelago, displaying all crustal domains from true continental to oceanic crust. A very small area on the Da Nang shelf, represents the True Continental Crust, with Moho depths of 28-28.5 km and basement depths of 0.5\u0026ndash;3.5 km. Following this is the Stretched Continental Crust, 20\u0026ndash;25 km thick, distributed along the Central Vietnam offshore (North-South) and from the Da Nang shelf to the Hoang Sa Archipelago (NE-SW). Its main fault systems are the N-S trending East Vietnam Sea West Fault system and the NW-SE trending Tuy Hoa strike-slip fault. Moho depth is 26\u0026ndash;28 km, and basement depth is 3\u0026ndash;6 km. The Highly Stretched Continental Crust, 15\u0026ndash;20 km thick, is primarily located around the central Hoang Sa Archipelago and the Phu Khanh Basin. The dominant structural trend is NE-SW and NW-SE trending faults. Moho depth ranges from 24\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;19 km, and basement depth from 4\u0026ndash;6 km. The Thinned Continental Crust, 10\u0026ndash;15 km thick, is found in the southern margin of the Hoang Sa Archipelago and the Phu Khanh Basin, forming an elongated NE-SW zone. Its Moho depth is 19\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;16 km, and basement depth is 6\u0026ndash;9 km, featuring second-order NE-SW normal faults and NW-SE faults. The Ultra-thinned Crust, 6\u0026ndash;10 km thick, appears in two NE-SW trending regions: the depocenter of Phu Khanh Basin and the continental-oceanic transition zone. The Phu Khanh Basin area shows a highly uplifted Moho (up to 16 km) and identified subsurface volcanic magma bodies (Savva et al., 2013). Moho depth in the transition zone is 14\u0026ndash;15 km, with basement depths of 6\u0026ndash;10 km in the Phu Khanh Basin. Main fault systems are NW-SE and NE-SW trending second-order faults. Finally, the Oceanic Crust, 5\u0026ndash;6 km thick, is distributed in the Southwest Sub-basin. Moho topography varies from 12\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;10 km at the margins to 9\u0026ndash;10 km internally, featuring a NE-SW oriented oceanic spreading axis with a 40\u0026ndash;50 km wide rift valley. Their fault system trends are NE-SW and NW-SE.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe Southeastern Offshore Area encompasses the Cuu Long, Nam Con Son, and Tu Chinh - Vung May basins. A small area southeast of Ca Mau Cape represents the True Continental Crust, 25\u0026ndash;26 km thick, with a Moho depth of approximately 27 km and a basement depth of 1\u0026ndash;2 km; no major faults have been identified here. The Stretched Continental Crust, 20\u0026ndash;25 km thick, covers most of the Southeast Vietnam continental shelf, including the Cuu Long Basin and the western Nam Con Son Basin. Moho depth is 26\u0026ndash;28 km, and basement depth is 3\u0026ndash;6 km, with main fault systems being NE-SW and N-S second-order faults. The Highly Stretched Continental Crust, 15\u0026ndash;20 km thick, is concentrated in the eastern Nam Con Son Basin and the northern Tu Chinh - Vung May Basin (Tu Chinh - Phuc Tan uplift). The dominant structural trend is NE-SW. Moho depth ranges from 23-25.5 km, and basement depth from 3\u0026ndash;8 km, with fault systems including the East Vietnam Sea West Fault System and second-order NE-SW faults. The Thinned Continental Crust, 10\u0026ndash;15 km thick, is primarily found in the central Nam Con Son Basin (extending northeastward) and the remaining Tu Chinh - Vung May Basin. Moho depth is 21\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;15 km, and basement depth is 5\u0026ndash;6 km, cut by the East Vietnam Sea West Fault System and NE-SW trending fault systems. A small area at the southwestern tip of the Southwest Sub-bansin features Ultra-thinned Crust, 6\u0026ndash;10 km thick, where the Moho surface is uplifted to 11\u0026ndash;15 km. The fault system is NE-SW oriented, and volcanic/magma bodies are present.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe Southern Offshore Area of Vietnam displays five distinct crustal domains. The True Continental Crust, 25\u0026ndash;26 km thick, is found along the coastal area from Tho Chu Islands to south of Ca Mau Cape. Dominant structural trends are N-S and NE-SW. Moho depth is approximately 29 km, and basement depth is 3\u0026ndash;4 km. The subsurface volcanoes are present. South of the true continental crust, extending NE-SW, is the Stretched Continental Crust, 20\u0026ndash;25 km thick. Moho depth is 27\u0026ndash;28 km, and basement depth is 4\u0026ndash;7 km, with the main fault system being N-S. The Highly Stretched Continental Crust, 15\u0026ndash;20 km thick, is located south of the Stretched Continental Crust, in the the Malay - Tho Chu Basin (50\u0026ndash;60 km wide). The main structural trend is NE-SW, with a Moho depth of 25\u0026ndash;26 km. Further south of the Highly Stretched Continental Crust, near the depocenter of the Malay - Tho Chu Basin, lies the Thinned Continental Crust, 11\u0026ndash;12 km thick. Moho depth is 23\u0026ndash;24 km, and basement depth is 11\u0026ndash;12 km, cut by NE-SW Three Pagoda fault systems. Finally, a small area in the depocenter of the Malay - Tho Chu Basin contains Ultra-thinned Continental Crust, 9\u0026ndash;10 km thick, and the Moho Depth is of 24\u0026ndash;25 km. This domain lies in the NE-SW Three Pogoda deep fault system.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e3.5 Distribution of oil and gas fields in relation to Earth\u0026apos;s crustal domains\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe distribution of oil and gas fields on the Vietnamese continental shelf shows a clear correlation with distinct crustal domains and structural characteristics, establishing a predictive framework for hydrocarbon exploration.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eOil provinces are consistently found in domains of stretched continental crust (20\u0026ndash;25 km thick), which are typically associated with negative gravity anomalies and are not intersected by major fault systems like the Red River or East Vietnam Sea West Fault System. These oil-bearing regions, such as the Cuu Long, Bac Bo, and the western Nam Con Son basins, feature structures generally trending NE-SW. Specific examples include the Rong, Bach Ho, Sutu Trang, Sutu Den, Rubi, and Rang Dong fields in the Cuu Long Basin, and the Dai Hung field in the Nam Con Son Basin (Nguyen Hiep 2007; Lau and Tsai 2024).\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eConversely, gas provinces are primarily aligned with highly stretched continental crustal domains (15\u0026ndash;20 km thick), where structural development is governed by the Red River and East Vietnam Sea West Fault Systems, resulting in dominant sub-meridional and NW-SE trends. These areas correspond with positive gravity anomalies, often along the edge effect gravity anomaly zone (Watts and Stewart 1998; Watts and Fraihead 1999). Large gas discoveries exemplify this pattern, including the Dongfan, Yacheng, Ledong, Blue Whale, and Tien Hai fields in the Red River Basin, as well as the Moc Tinh, Sao Vang, Lan Tay, and Lan Do fields in the eastern Nam Con Son Basin (Nguyen Hiep 2007, Lau and Tsai 2024). Notably, significant gas indications have also been observed in the prominent edge effect gravity anomaly zone offshore Khanh Hoa and the continental slop of the Southern Offshore (Lee and Watkin 1998; Kulinic, 1989; Nguyen, 2012).\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBased on this established correlation, the hydrocarbon potential of Vietnam\u0026apos;s outer continental shelf where there is currently no oil and gas field discoveries can be forecasted. Based on this established correlation, the hydrocarbon potential of Vietnam\u0026apos;s outer continental shelf can be forecasted. In the Central Offshore Area, the eastern Da Nang shelf and the central Hoang Sa Archipelago mirror the characteristics of an oil-prone domain, while surrounding areas are prospective for gas. In the Southeastern Offshore Area, only the center of the Edge Lift Zone (in the Tu Chinh - Vung May basin) is considered oil-prone, with the remaining parts of the outer shelf being gas-prone due to their highly stretched crustal structure.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis study successfully mapped and analyzed the Earth's crustal structure of the eastern Vietnam continental margin, providing critical insights into its geological evolution and hydrocarbon potential. By applying Parker's (1972) 3D inverse method to the latest marine satellite gravity data, accurate Moho and basement depths were achieved with high reliability against OBS data. The resulting crustal thickness map revealed significant variations from 4\u0026ndash;6 km in thin oceanic regions to up to 25 km in coastal zones, and prominent fault systems were effectively delineated.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe eastern Vietnamese continental margin was systematically zoned into six distinct crustal domains based on thickness and geological characteristics. Most significantly, this research established a clear and special correlation between these identified crustal structural domains and the distribution of known oil and gas fields. Oil fields are predominantly concentrated in Stretched Continental Crust domains (20\u0026ndash;25 km thick), associated with negative gravity anomalies and NE-SW trending structures, typically not intersected by major fault systems like the Red River or East Vietnam Sea West Fault System. Conversely, gas fields are primarily found in Highly Stretched Continental Crust domain (15\u0026ndash;20 km thick), characterized by positive gravity anomalies and structural trends aligned with the Red River Fault System and the East Vietna Sea West Fault System.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThese findings unequivocally affirm the pivotal role of Earth's crustal structure in controlling hydrocarbon potential and offer crucial information for future exploration strategies in the region. This comprehensive crustal model provides an invaluable baseline for future detailed geophysical and geological investigations, particularly in currently unexplored or underexplored areas of Vietnam's outer continental shelf. The established correlations between crustal domains and hydrocarbon distribution will serve as a powerful predictive tool, guiding more efficient and targeted exploration efforts.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConflict of interest: \u003c/strong\u003eAuthors have declared that no competing interests exist, and the data were used for the advancement of knowledge.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAcknowledgement: This research is funded by the Program to support scientific research activities for senior researchers in 2024-2025 of the Vietnam Academy of Science and Technology. Project code: NVCC24.01/24-25. The authors kindly thank the funding organization.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eData availability statement: The authors declare that the data supporting the findings of this study are available within the paper, its supplementary information files and data publicly available in a repository\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSatellite gravity data available at https://topex.ucsd.edu/cgi-bin/get_data.cgi\u003cbr\u003e Bathymatry data available at https://www.gebco.net/data_and_products/gridded_bathymetry _data/;\u003cbr\u003e Sedimentary thickness data available at https://www.ngdc.noaa.gov/mgg/sedthick/.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAuthor contributions\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cem\u003e: \u003c/em\u003eConceptualization: Nguyen Nhu Trung, Lai Manh Giau; Methodology: Nguyen Nhu Trung; Phung Van Phach; Analysis and interpretation: Nguyen Nhu Trung, Phung Van Phach; Bui Van Nam; prepared figures: Bui Van Nam; Phung Van Phach, Nguyen Nhu Trung; Writing original draft manuscript:- Nguyen Nhu Trung, Lai Manh Giau; Writing - review and editing: All authors reviewed the manuscript\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eBlakely RJ (1995) Potential theory in gravity and Magnetic application. 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(2017) Crustal structure of the Southwest Subbasin, South China Sea, from wide-angle seismic tomography and seismic reflection imaging. Mar Geophys Res 38, 85\u0026ndash;104 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11001-016-9284-1.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eYuhali Li, H Huang, I Grevemeyer, X Qiu, H Zhang, Q Wang (2021) Crustal structure beneath the Zhongsha Block and the adjacent abyssal basins, South China Sea: New insights into rifting and initiation of seafloor spreading. Gondwana Research 99, 53-76.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eZhang, Jiabiao Li, Aiguo Ruan, Zhenli Wu, Zhiteng Yu, Xiongwei Niu, Weiwei Ding, (2016) The velocity structure of a fossil spreading centre in the Southwest Sub-basin, South China Sea. First published: 18 February 2016 https://doi.org/10.1002/gj.2778.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":true,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":true,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"acta-geophysica","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"agph","sideBox":"Learn more about [Acta Geophysica](http://link.springer.com/journal/11600)","snPcode":"11600","submissionUrl":"https://www.editorialmanager.com/agph/default2.aspx","title":"Acta Geophysica","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"Springer Hybrid","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":false},"keywords":"East Vietnam Sea, sattlite gravity, 3D gravity inversion, crustal thickness","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7175167/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-7175167/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eTo address the limitations in deep seismic research on the Vietnamese continental margin, this study utilized high-resolution marine satellite gravity data, alongside sediment thickness and bathymetry data. Applying Parker's (1972) 3D inverse method, we developed a crustal structure model of the eastern Vietnamese continental margin. Interpretation revealed Moho depths ranging from 8.5 km in the Southwest Sub-basin to 29\u0026ndash;30 km in the coastal zone, demonstrating an average error of 9.6% compared to OBS data. Basement depths varied from 2.5 km near the Hoang Sa Archipelago to 12.5\u0026ndash;13.5 km in the Red River Basin, with a 6.2% average error compared to OBS data. Consequently, the derived crustal thickness map showed significant variations, from 4\u0026ndash;6 km in the Southwest Sub-basin to 25 km in coastal areas. Major NW-SE, NE-SW, and N-S fault systems were also identified using the maximum horizontal gradient method and its derivative. Based on modern rifted continental margin models, six distinct crustal domains were zoned, and importantly, their distribution showed a strong correlation with known oil and gas fields, affirming the pivotal role of Earth's crustal structure in controlling hydrocarbon potential.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Mapping Earth's Crustal Structure of the Eastern Vietnam Continental Margin from Gravity Anomalies: Implication for oil and gas distribution","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-09-01 13:46:42","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7175167/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"decision","content":"Major revisions","date":"2025-09-19T06:11:39+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"","date":"2025-08-24T17:54:30+00:00","index":0,"fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2025-08-24T14:34:50+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvited","content":"Acta Geophysica","date":"2025-08-20T18:35:53+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2025-07-28T13:51:59+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"Acta Geophysica","date":"2025-07-26T13:57:18+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"acta-geophysica","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"agph","sideBox":"Learn more about [Acta Geophysica](http://link.springer.com/journal/11600)","snPcode":"11600","submissionUrl":"https://www.editorialmanager.com/agph/default2.aspx","title":"Acta Geophysica","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"Springer Hybrid","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":false}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"7e7266e8-de9f-4e94-8e06-a94cac34c6b7","owner":[],"postedDate":"September 1st, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"published-in-journal","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2025-12-22T16:06:00+00:00","versionOfRecord":{"articleIdentity":"rs-7175167","link":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s11600-025-01756-6","journal":{"identity":"acta-geophysica","isVorOnly":false,"title":"Acta Geophysica"},"publishedOn":"2025-12-16 15:58:17","publishedOnDateReadable":"December 16th, 2025"},"versionCreatedAt":"2025-09-01 13:46:42","video":"","vorDoi":"10.1007/s11600-025-01756-6","vorDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s11600-025-01756-6","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-7175167","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-7175167","identity":"rs-7175167","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}