Confucianism, IP awareness, and Intellectual Property Rights in China

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Confucianism has been often regarded as the main factor that leads to the nation’s negative attitudes towards IPR protection. Based on an interpretation of the Five Constant Virtues of Confucianism under their historical contexts, we hypothesize a positive relationship between Confucian ethics and attitude towards IPR protection. Our survey of 515 Chinese participants supports the hypothesized relationship. The results suggest that the strong influence of Confucian ethics can contribute to positive attitudes towards IPR protection. Furthermore, our findings strongly suggest that a low level of public IP awareness is one of the leading causes of the low acceptance of the concept of IPR and the high level of IP infringement in China. JEL: O31, O33, O34, O35, O36 Humanities/Cultural and media studies Social science/Cultural and media studies Social science/Politics and international relations Social science/Social policy Attitudes towards IPR protection Awareness of Intellectual Property Confucianism Figures Figure 1 Introduction “In the early nineteenth century -- as Charles Dickens learned to his dismay -- the American government was deaf to the pleas of foreign authors that American publishers were reprinting their works without permission. In the late twentieth century, by contrast, the United States has become the world’s most vigorous and effective champion of strengthened intellectual-property rights.” (Fisher 1999 ). The enforcement of Intellectual Property Rights (IPR) remains a significant challenge in U.S.-China trade negotiations, underscored by the ongoing trade war. China has long been identified as a hub for counterfeiting and piracy (Ang et al. 2001 ; Cao 2014 ; Crane 2008 ; Zimmerman and Chaudhry 2009 ), with IPR protection consistently ranked as a top concern for multinational companies operating there (Schotter and Teagarden 2014 ). Cultural factors, particularly in non-Western societies like China, are often cited as key drivers of high IP infringement rates (Alford 1995 ; Donaldson 1996 ; Lee 2001 ; Lehman 2006 ; Steidlmeier 1993 ). These scholars argue that the Western concept of IP, rooted in liberalism and individual rights, contrasts with Chinese cultural values shaped by collectivism and Confucian principles, which prioritize societal sharing over individual ownership (Donaldson 1996 ; Husted 2000 ; Mun 2008 ). Confucianism, a cornerstone of Chinese society since the Han dynasty, emphasizes humanism and collective responsibilities (Bosworth and Yang 2000 ; Thomas 2001 ). This collectivist ethos is often linked to negative attitudes toward IPR protection (Mun 2008 ). However, countries like Japan, Taiwan, South Korea, and Singapore—also influenced by Confucianism—exhibit low levels of IP infringement, challenging the notion that Confucianism inherently undermines IPR. Similarly, the United States, now a global advocate for IPR, historically engaged in widespread IP violations until its economic development prioritized protection (Fisher 1999 ; Mgbeoji 2003 ; Goldstein 2003 ). This suggests that economic maturity, rather than culture alone, shapes IPR attitudes. Overreliance on cultural explanations risks oversimplification (Koehn 2013 ), necessitating a deeper understanding of China’s historical and economic context (Emerson 2008). China’s economic and political landscape has experienced a remarkable transformation since the establishment of the new China in 1949. During the Mao Zedong era (1949–1976), China was characterized by widespread poverty and the dominant ideology of communism. Capitalism, materialism, and individualism were viewed negatively, and the notion of property ownership leaned towards collective ownership rather than individual possession. IPR, along with other property rights, were suppressed during this period, and anti-Confucian sentiment prevailed while Confucianism was severely repressed, particularly during the Cultural Revolution. However, since the Great Reform in 1978, which introduced market principles to the economic system, China has undergone significant changes. The subsequent years, especially since the turn of the century, witnessed the Chinese government and society demonstrating a growing willingness and making substantial efforts to regulate IPR protection (Cao 2014 ). Numerous studies have documented China’s progress in this realm (e.g., Nguyen 2012 ; Sepetys and Cox 2009 ). Nevertheless, the consensus remains that IPR infringement remains a substantial problem throughout China. This paper makes significant contributions to the existing literature on Intellectual Property Rights by examining several key perspectives. Firstly, we explore the influence of Confucian ethics in shaping the attitudes of the general public towards IPR protection, providing valuable insights into the potential role of Confucian ethics in the development of IP in China. By delving into this aspect, we enhance our understanding of the cultural and ethical factors that impact IPR attitudes. Secondly, we delve into the individual level of IP awareness in China and its direct correlation with the formation of attitudes towards IPR protection. By investigating the level of awareness, we shed light on the role it plays in shaping individuals’ perspectives on IPR. This analysis helps us grasp the underlying factors that contribute to the acceptance or infringement of IPR in China. Lastly, we examine regional differences in attitudes towards IPR protection within China, highlighting the significant disparities in IP practices across the country. By uncovering these regional variations, we draw attention to the diverse landscape of IPR attitudes and practices within China, enhancing our understanding of the challenges and opportunities related to IPR enforcement at a regional level. Literature review Confucianism and Intellectual property Intellectual property concepts, including patents and copyrights, emerged in imperial China during the Tang dynasty (681–906 AD), initially aligning with Anglo-American systems (Alford 1995 ). By the 17th century, Western legal frameworks, driven by capitalist incentives, introduced laws granting innovators exclusive rights, while China’s static IP regime reflected different economic and cultural priorities, shaped by Confucian governance (Alford 1995 ; Yang 2013). This divergence highlights how Confucianism, with its emphasis on social order over individual gain, influenced China’s IP trajectory. Confucianism’s role in shaping IPR attitudes is rooted in its ethical framework, balancing profit (Li) and righteousness (Yi). The Analects passage “Zi Han Yan Li” (Analects 9:1), often interpreted as Confucius’s disapproval of profit (Yu 2015 ), is contested by scholars who argue it endorses rightful profit (Huang 2015 ; Jia 2007 ). The ambiguity of classical Chinese texts necessitates contextual analysis (Huang 2015 ). Confucianism prioritizes profit through virtuous means, aligning with IP’s moral rights, such as creator recognition and societal benefit (Sun 2016 ; Chan 2008 ; Hughes 1988). This resonates with Western IP creators who balance commercial, creative, and reputational goals (Towse 2010 ; Silbey 2011 ; Cowen and Tabarrok 2000 ). Liu ( 2013 ) emphasizes that Confucianism values both profit and fame, prioritizing the latter in conflicts, suggesting a framework compatible with IPR’s economic and moral dimensions (Koehn 2013 ). Confucian collectivism, which views knowledge as a communal resource, can challenge exclusive IP rights (Mun 2008 ; Husted 2000 ). However, its emphasis on social harmony and ethical governance supports IPR enforcement when framed as a public good, aligning with China’s modern IP legislation (Lam ctions (Lam 2009 ; Dimitrov 2009). For instance, Confucian principles of reciprocity and respect for authority underpin China’s efforts to strengthen IP laws in response to global trade pressures (Yang 2013; Mertha 2005). Yet, low public awareness and entrenched cultural norms prioritizing communal sharing over individual ownership hinder enforcement (Cao 2014 ; Peng 2013). Wang (2018) argues that Confucianism’s focus on moral education could bridge this gap by fostering respect for creators’ rights, drawing parallels with Japan’s successful integration of Confucian ethics into IP compliance through education and economic incentives. Confucianism’s influence is further evident in its alignment with relational ethics, where trust and mutual obligations shape business practices (Cheung and King 2004). In Chinese firms, IP infringement may stem from a Confucian-inspired view that sharing innovations strengthens community ties, yet this same ethic supports compliance when firms recognize IP protection as enhancing trust in global markets (Yang and Sonmez 2013). This duality underscores Confucianism’s plausibility as a factor in both resisting and facilitating IPR adoption, contingent on economic and educational contexts. Regional disparity within China China’s geographic and historical diversity drives significant regional variations in IPR adoption, influenced by economic development, historical trade exposure, and Confucian cultural practices (Buckley et al. 2002; Ralston et al. 1996 ). The rice-growing South, characterized by interdependent, collectivist mindsets rooted in labor-intensive agriculture, contrasts with the wheat-growing North, where individualistic and analytical thinking aligns more with Western values (Talhelm et al. 2014 ). These differences, traceable to the Eastern Han dynasty (Li 2015 ), shape regional IPR attitudes. In the South, particularly in manufacturing hubs like Guangdong, stronger Confucian collectivism and informal business networks correlate with higher infringement rates, as communal sharing overrides strict IP enforcement (Cao 2014 ; Peng 2013). Historical trade ports in the South, despite early exposure to Western IP concepts, prioritized economic pragmatism over legal compliance (Li 2015 ). Conversely, the North, with urban centers like Beijing and advanced technological sectors, exhibits greater IPR compliance due to economic incentives, global trade integration, and weaker collectivist norms (Nguyen 2012 ). Northern regions, influenced by centralized governance and Confucian ethical administration, align more readily with formal IP regulations (Dimitrov 2009). Inland areas, with limited economic integration and weaker Confucian governance traditions, lag in IPR adoption due to lower awareness and infrastructure (Wang 2018 strategized (Wang 2018). These regional disparities, reflecting varying degrees of Confucian influence, economic development, and historical exposure, provide a natural experiment for studying Confucianism’s role in shaping IPR attitudes and the compatibility of Western IP concepts across China. Hypotheses Development This study proposes a conceptual framework to examine how cultural and social factors shape Chinese attitudes toward Intellectual Property Rights (IPR) protection, addressing the complex interplay of Confucian virtues and non-legal influences. Grounded in consumer ethics (Vitell and Muncy 1992 ) and reward theory (Robinson 2016 ), the framework posits that Confucian virtues, benevolence (Ren), righteousness (Yi), ritual propriety (Li), wisdom (Zhi), and trustworthiness (Xin), positively influence IPR attitudes by fostering respect for creators’ moral rights and aligning with ethical governance and social harmony (Sun 2016 ; Zhang 2020). These virtues are contrasted with non-legal factors: the perceived social cost of piracy, which promotes positive attitudes when costs are high (Kwong et al. 2003 ); anti-big business attitudes, which foster negative attitudes by associating IPR with monopolistic exploitation (Kwong et al. 2003 ); and IP awareness, which enhances positive attitudes through knowledge of IP principles (Cao 2014 ). This model provides a theoretical lens to explore how Confucian ethics, alongside social and psychological factors, shape IPR attitudes, moderated by regional and economic contexts. Social cost of piracy The perceived social cost of piracy, defined as the societal impact of infringement activities, significantly influences IPR attitudes (Kwong et al. 2003 ). Piracy can undermine economic growth, promote organized crime, and harm IP holders at macro and micro levels (Kwong et al. 2003 ; Lowe 2006 ). While some perceive benefits, such as affordable goods (Kwong et al. 2009 ), reward theory suggests that a well-functioning IP system’s social benefits must outweigh monopoly costs (Robinson 2016 ). Individuals who perceive higher social costs are likely to view piracy as self-harming, fostering positive attitudes toward IPR protection (Wang et al. 2005 ). Thus, we propose: H1 Individuals who perceive a higher social cost of infringement possess significantly more positive attitudes towards IPR protection. Anti-Big Business Attitudes Anti-big business attitudes, characterized by skepticism toward large corporations’ profit motives, negatively affect IPR attitudes (Kwong et al. 2003 ). Critics argue that large firms use IPR to maintain monopolistic advantages, marginalizing smaller competitors who cannot afford enforcement (Cromie and Ewing 2009 ). Consumers prioritizing public welfare may seek to “punish” firms perceived as exploiting IPR, leading to negative attitudes (Kwong et al. 2003 ). This contrasts with Confucian virtues, which emphasize ethical conduct over punitive actions. We, therefore, posit the following hypothesis: H2 Anti-big business attitudes contribute to negative attitudes towards IPR protection. Confucian Ethics Confucian ethics, rooted in the Five Constant Virtues (Wu Chang 五常) — Benevolence (Ren 仁), Righteousness (Yi 義), Ritual Propriety (Li禮), Wisdom (Zhi 智), and Trustworthiness (Xin 信) —provide a moral framework shaping consumer behavior toward IPR (Phuong-Mai et al. 2005 ; Adler 2011 ). Consumer ethics, defined as moral principles guiding interactions with goods and services (Vitell and Muncy 1992 ), influence piracy attitudes. Consumers viewing counterfeiting as less unethical favor piracy, while idealistic individuals bound by ethical principles oppose infringement (Ang et al. 2001 ; Basu et al. 2015 ). Drawing on the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) (Ajzen 1991), which posits that attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control predict intentions and behaviors, and moral identity theory (Aquino and Reed 2002), which emphasizes moral self-concept as a driver of ethical actions, this study examines how Confucian virtues shape IPR attitudes through psychological mechanisms. Confucianism, as a system of social and ethical philosophy, emphasizes moral education to cultivate virtuous behavior (Sim 2001 ; Zhang 2020). Its enduring influence, reinforced by recent state emphasis under President Xi Jinping, makes it a relevant lens for understanding contemporary Chinese attitudes, despite the presence of other philosophies like Buddhism and Daoism (Yu 2015 ). The Wu Chang, codified in the Three Character Classics (三字经), guide ethical conduct and social relationships, fostering respect for creators’ moral rights and aligning with IPR’s ethical dimensions (Woods and Lamond 2011 ; Li and Yu 2015 ). Below, each virtue is systematically analyzed for its impact on IPR attitudes, grounded in behavioral psychology: We speak of the Five Constant Virtues: benevolence, righteousness, propriety, wisdom, and trustworthiness. These five virtues must not be compromised. Benevolence (Ren): Representing care for others, Ren fosters empathy for creators’ efforts, encouraging respect for their intellectual contributions as a societal good (Lai 2014 ). Within TPB, Ren strengthens positive attitudes toward IPR by aligning with moral norms of fairness (Ajzen 1991). Moral identity theory suggests that individuals with a strong Ren-based self-concept prioritize ethical actions, reducing piracy intentions (Aquino and Reed 2002). For example, Ren may motivate consumers to avoid counterfeit goods to protect creators’ livelihoods, fostering compliance (Chan et al. 2010). Righteousness (Yi): As a principle of moral fitness, Yi guides ethical decision-making, prioritizing duty over personal gain (Cheng 1972 ). In behavioral terms, Yi enhances perceived behavioral control in TPB, as individuals feel morally obligated to uphold IP laws (Hwang 2001 ). Those with a Yi-driven moral identity are less likely to engage in infringement, viewing it as a violation of ethical standards (Basu et al. 2015 ; Zhang 2020). Yi supports positive IPR attitudes by framing compliance as a moral imperative, countering collectivist tendencies to share knowledge freely. Ritual Propriety (Li): As a code of conduct, Li humanizes social interactions and shapes ethical behavior through norms (Fingarette 1998 ). Within TPB, Li strengthens subjective norms, as individuals conform to societal expectations of respecting IP laws (Li 2007 ). Moral identity theory suggests that Li-guided individuals internalize compliance as part of their social role, reducing piracy (Schwartz 2012). Li aligns with IPR enforcement by promoting social harmony, encouraging adherence to regulations as a public good (Dimitrov 2009). Li refers to much more than the dynamic human relationship, which is summarized in a saying from On Self-Cultivation in The book of Mencius (荀子·修身): Thus, a man without ritual will not live, an undertaking lacking ritual will not be completed, and a nation without ritual will not be tranquil. Li ( 2007 , p. 311) further suggests that “society cultivates its members through Li towards the goal of Ren, and persons of Ren manifest their human excellence through the practices of Li”. Therefore, Ritual Propriety is regarded as a means through which to express Benevolence, and while Benevolence and Ritual Propriety are inseparable from each other, Benevolence is considered by Confucius to be more critical than Ritual Propriety, as reflected in the Master’s (i.e., Confucius’s) statement in The Analects (Lun Yu - Bayi 论语. 八佾篇): The Master said, “What can a man do with the rites who is not benevolent?” Wisdom (Zhi): Representing ethical understanding, Zhi enables individuals to recognize IP’s role in innovation and trade, aligning with Confucian goals of a good life (Yang 2008 ; Thompson 2007 ). In TPB, Zhi enhances attitudes by increasing knowledge of IP’s societal benefits, similar to IP awareness (Ajzen 1991). Individuals with high Zhi are more likely to reject piracy, viewing it as detrimental to progress, as seen in Japan’s Confucian-influenced IP education (Zhang 2020). Trustworthiness (Xin): Emphasizing loyalty to commitments, Xin reinforces compliance through trust-based relationships (Wee 2011 ; Li and Yu 2015 ). Within TPB, Xin strengthens behavioral intentions by fostering trust in IP systems, while moral identity theory suggests that Xin-driven individuals uphold promises to respect creators’ rights (Aquino and Reed 2002). Xin supports IPR by encouraging ethical business practices, countering infringement in trust-based networks (Chan et al. 2010). For Confucius, Trustworthiness is primarily concerned with an individual’s verbal commitments made in relationships, with respect to one’s deeds (Wee 2011 ). As the Master (Confucius) said in Analects (Lun Yu - The book of Governance论语. 为政篇): The Master said, “I do not see how a man can be acceptable who is untrustworthy in word.” Confucian virtues counter collectivist views of knowledge as communal by emphasizing moral education and social harmony, aligning with IPR’s societal benefits (Wang 2018; Dimitrov 2009). Unlike anti-big business attitudes, which focus on punitive perceptions, Confucian ethics promote ethical responsibility, fostering positive IPR attitudes (Lam 2009 ). Japan’s success in integrating Confucian ethics into IP compliance through education offers a model for China (Zhang 2020). Based on this analysis, supported by five statements representing the Wu Chang (Table A1 in Appendix), we hypothesize: H3 A strong Confucian ethical influence contributes to positive attitudes towards IPR protection. Awareness of IP Here, the phrase ‘awareness of IP’ is comprised of different aspects. In their study investigating the perceptions of attitudes of Chinese consumers towards brand imitation, Lai and Zaichkowsky ( 1999 ) found that low levels of awareness about which brands are originals and which are imitations is one of the main reasons behind the purchasing of counterfeit goods. IP awareness also refers to the level of knowledge regarding what constitutes IP, and how and why IP should be protected and enforced. Many regard China’s problems in IPR to have stemmed from its weak IPR law enforcement, rather than a lack of IP laws (e.g., Kshetri 2009 ; Massey 2006 ). Cao ( 2014 ) developed this argument a step further by proposing that IP infringement in China cannot merely be ascribed to weak IPR law enforcement, but rather to its whole IP environment, which displays a low level of public IP awareness. This lack of public understanding of IP in China has been attributed to imperial China's not considering ideas as property (Kshetri 2009 ); however, this phenomenon is not unique to China. The development of the Western concept of IP over the last 200 years reveals a history shifting “from the tangible to the intangible” (Lastowka et al. 2004, p. 40). In 1984, in the United States, the Supreme Court still cited Locke’s idea that intangible “products of an individual’s ‘labor and invention’” can be “property” subject to the protection of the Takings Clause to protect trade-secret rights (Gordon 1993 , p. 1540). IP awareness is proposed in this paper as a potential factor that could significantly influence people’s attitudes towards IPR protection. IP awareness is measured in terms of a person’s level of knowledge regarding what constitutes IP, and how and why it should be protected and enforced. Low awareness of IP may have contributed to the current status of China’s IP practice (Cao 2014 ; Yang and Clarke 2005 ). There is no adequate education concerning IPR for the general public in China, and IP infringement is seldom considered as a crime or as a civil offence. Proper IP education is essential in raising awareness of the importance of IP for the general public, such as in promoting innovation and in trade. A typical example in this regard is from South Korea. There have been significant changes witnessed in the social attitudes towards IPR protection since the copyright reforms of 1986, which is considered to have occurred as a result of the Korean government’s efforts to improve the public’s awareness of IP (Lee 2001 ). Therefore, we posit the following hypothesis: H4 People who have a higher level of IP awareness hold significantly more positive attitudes towards IPR protection than people who have a lower level of IP awareness. Cross-cultural scholars have catalogued a long list of differences between East Asian and Western cultures. In many cases, such differences are derived from viewing China as a whole, while ignoring the regional differences. For example, Hofstede’s cultural dimensions were elicited from data obtained within a single organization [IBM], and they are situationally non-specific (McSweeney 2002 ). Meanwhile, Siu ( 1993 ) defines “Chineseness”, as not “an immutable set of beliefs and practices”, but rather “a process which captures a wide range of emotions and states of being”. It is a long-held consensus that there are significantly noticeable differences between different regions within China, of which a typical regional difference often examined is that found between southern China and northern China. Our theoretical model is presented in Fig. 1 . Insert Fig. 1 here The Empirical Study Sampling and data collection Five hundred fifteen survey responses were received from participants who had been randomly selected and were living in different cities in China. Two hundred eight responses were collected from participants based in the South (mainly Guangzhou, Ningbo, and Shanghai); 307 responses were received from the North (mainly Tianjin, Taiyuan, and Xi’an). Some of the participants were recruited via social network platforms, such as WeChat, while some were recruited by visiting companies in Ningbo, and the majority of the participants were recruited from www.sojump.com , which is an online survey system. The demographic information of the participants is summarized in Table 1 . Table 1 Demographic profile Demographic Number Percentage Gender Male 230 44.66 Female 285 55.34 Age 25 and below 155 30.10 26–35 249 48.35 36–45 86 16.70 46–55 21 4.08 56–65 4 0.78 Region South 208 40.39 North 307 59.61 Variable measurement Several statements were developed to measure each variable in the model based on the literature review. Participants were asked to indicate their level of agreement regarding each of the statements. Day and Evers ( 1999 ) suggested that, when developing a questionnaire to examine cultural issues, it is necessary to prevent meaningless neutral responses from people who might be discouraged from taking a distinct position on an issue. For this reason, a six-point Likert scale, ranging from 1 (highest level of agreement) to 6 (highest level of disagreement) was applied to all question statements, thereby offering no option for a ‘neutral’ response. The statements used to measure each factor in our theoretical model are reported in Table A1 (Appendix). Insert Table 1 here Reliability and Validity Test A principal component analysis was applied to test the validity of each observable variable in measuring the latent variables (i.e., variables which cannot be directly measured). The factor loading for each observable variable is presented in Table 3 . For a sample size larger than 350, Hair et al. (2006) suggest that a factor loading \(\:\ge\:\) 0.30 is considered as significant. We follow Wang and Sun ( 2016 ) by using an eigenvalue of 1.0 and a factor loading of 0.50 as the cut-off points. All factors have factor loadings above 0.50, while each factor has an eigenvalue greater than 1. The reliability of the survey questionnaire was examined using Cronbach’s alpha, which measures how well a set of variables measures a single latent variable. A value of Cronbach’s alpha between 0.80 and 0.90 rates the internal consistency as good, and a value above 0.90 rates the internal consistency as excellent (Kline 1999). The Cronbach’s alpha values are presented in Table 2 , with all values above 0.80, confirming the reliability and internal consistency of the measurements used in the survey questionnaire. Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was applied to assess the measurement model. The CFI (comparative fit index) and the RMSEA (Root Mean Square Error of Approximation) are strongly recommended to determine the model fit (Kline 2005; Hu and Bentler 1999). Values less than 0.07 (Steiger 2007) are considered as the acceptable threshold for RMSEA. Some advocate values greater than 0.95 (Hu and Bentler 1999) are considered as the acceptable threshold for CFI, while others suggest a cut-off criterion of CFI \(\:\:\ge\:\:\) 0.90 (Garver and Mentzer 1999). The reported CFI and RMSEA for our SEM model are 0.924 and 0.037, respectively, both indicative of a good fit of our SEM model. Table 2 Factor Analysis No. of factors Factor loading Eigenvalues Cronbach’s alpha Awareness of IP 7 0.725–0.842 5.170 0.934 Confucian Ethics 5 0.646–0.767 4.567 0.922 Anti-big business attitude 5 0.589–0.763 1.897 0.830 Social cost of infringement 3 0.663–0.737 2.088 0.904 Table 3 Structural equation modelling results – overall (N = 515) Path \(\:\varvec{\beta\:}\) S.E. C.R. P H1 Social cost of infringement → Attitudes Towards IPR protection (ATI) 0.046 0.047 0.966 0.334 Reject H2 Anti-big business attitudes → ATI – 0.027 0.030 – 0.91 0.363 Reject H3 Confucian Ethics → ATI 0.146 0.054 2.688 *** Support H4 Awareness of IP → ATI 0.426 0.046 9.177 *** Support Notes : SE is the standard error; \(\:\varvec{\beta\:}\) is the regression weight; CR is the test statistic used to compute the p-value. *** indicates where the associated p-value is lower than 0.001. A six-point Likert scale, ranging from 1 (highest level of disagreement) to 6 (highest level of agreement) was applied to all question statements, thereby offering no option for a ‘neutral’ response. While interpreting the results in the table, readers should note that: lower scores on Attitudes towards IPR protection indicate a negative attitude towards IPR protection. Lower scores on Confucian Ethics are associated with those who are least influenced by Confucian Ethics. Lower scores on Awareness of IP indicate a low awareness of IP. Those with higher scores on the social cost of infringement are considered to believe that high levels of IP infringement can lead to a high social cost. Those with higher scores on Anti-big business attitudes are considered to be firmly against big business. Insert Table 2 here Results and discussion This study employed structural equation modeling (SEM) to test the proposed hypotheses using a dataset of 515 participants. The results, presented in Table 3 , provide insights into the factors shaping Chinese attitudes toward Intellectual Property Rights (IPR) protection, with a focus on Confucian ethics, IP awareness, social cost of piracy, anti-big business attitudes, and regional variations. Below, we analyze each finding, comparing results with existing literature, exploring implications, and addressing alternative explanations to contextualize the study’s contributions. Insert Table 3 here Confucian ethics significantly and positively influence attitudes toward IPR protection (β = 0.146, p = 0.007), supporting H3. This finding aligns with recent studies emphasizing Confucian virtues—benevolence (Ren), righteousness (Yi), ritual propriety (Li), wisdom (Zhi), and trustworthiness (Xin)—as drivers of ethical behavior in modern China (Zhang and Li 2022; Wu and Zhao 2023). Specifically, virtues like Yi and Xin foster compliance by prioritizing moral duty and trust-based relationships, consistent with the Theory of Planned Behavior’s moral norms (Ajzen 1991; Chan et al. 2010). This challenges earlier claims that Confucianism’s collectivist ethos hinders IPR reforms (Alford 1995 ; Donaldson 1996 ; Lee 2001 ; Lehman 2006 ; Steidlmeier 1993 ). Recent research by Liu and Wang (2021) supports this, suggesting that Confucian moral education promotes respect for creators’ rights, akin to ethical frameworks in developed economies (Becker and Woessmann 2009; Cantoni 2010). The modest effect size (β = 0.146) indicates that Confucian ethics, while significant, interact with other factors like education and enforcement. Huang et al. (2024) argue that Confucianism’s emphasis on social harmony can counteract collectivist tendencies to share knowledge freely, fostering voluntary IPR compliance when framed as a public good. This finding refutes speculative arguments about Confucianism’s incompatibility with IPR, demonstrating its potential to support modern IP regimes through cultural interventions (Wang and Sun 2019 ; Li 2006 ). For instance, Ren may encourage empathy for creators, reducing piracy intentions, as seen in ethical consumer studies (Chen et al. 2020). IP awareness exerts a strong positive effect on IPR attitudes (β = 0.426, p < 0.001), robustly supporting H4. This result, directly tested through participants’ knowledge of IP concepts, confirms that higher awareness enhances appreciation for IPR’s role in innovation and trade (Cao 2014 ; Zhang and Li 2022). Recent studies highlight China’s ongoing public awareness gaps, with Wu and Zhao (2023) noting that insufficient IP education perpetuates infringement. The significant β coefficient counters speculative interpretations, aligning with evidence from South Korea’s 1986 copyright reforms, where education improved attitudes (Lee 2001 ), and U.S. surveys showing similar awareness challenges in tech sectors (Villasenor, 2012). The strong effect size underscores the need for educational interventions, such as scholastic IP curricula and professional workshops, which resonate with Confucian wisdom (Zhi) and drive innovation (Liu and Wang 2021). However, alternative explanations, such as economic barriers (e.g., high cost of legal IP) or weak enforcement, may exacerbate low awareness, requiring integrated policy approaches (Huang et al. 2024; Dimitrov 2009). This finding extends prior work by quantifying awareness’ impact and highlighting its universal relevance across contexts. The perceived social cost of piracy has no significant impact on IPR attitudes (β not significant), failing to support H1. This diverges from earlier studies suggesting that high perceived costs—economic harm, organized crime—promote positive attitudes (Kwong et al. 2003 ; Lowe 2006 ; Wang et al. 2005 ). Recent research by Chen et al. (2020) indicates that consumers may prioritize short-term benefits of piracy (e.g., affordability) over societal costs, particularly in collectivist cultures. Reward theory posits that IP systems’ benefits must outweigh monopoly costs (Robinson 2016 ), but our results suggest limited awareness of piracy’s broader impacts, possibly due to cultural norms or weak enforcement (Wu and Zhao 2023). Economic factors, such as access to affordable goods, or lax enforcement reducing piracy’s perceived consequences, may explain this non-significant effect (Peng 2013). Educational campaigns leveraging Confucian benevolence to frame IP protection as a societal benefit could address this gap (Lam 2009 ; Huang et al. 2024). Anti-big business attitudes show no significant overall impact on IPR attitudes (β not significant), failing to support H2. This contrasts with studies linking skepticism toward corporate monopolies to negative IPR attitudes (Kwong et al. 2003 ; Cromie and Ewing 2009 ). Recent research by Liu and Wang (2021) suggests that mixed perceptions—viewing IPR as protecting innovation rather than exploitation—may dilute this effect. Confucian trustworthiness (Xin) may also foster trust in IP systems, countering anti-business sentiments (Li and Yu 2015 ). Economic factors, such as the high cost of legal goods, or cultural acceptance of counterfeiting, could further weaken this relationship (Chen et al. 2020). This finding highlights the need to reframe IPR as benefiting all stakeholders, not just large firms, through public campaigns emphasizing innovation and fairness (Zhang and Li 2022). Regional differences in attitudes toward IPR: South vs. North Significant regional variations underscore the study’s contribution to understanding cultural heterogeneity. These results are reported in Tables 4 and 5 . Confucian ethics positively influence IPR attitudes in the South (β = 0.228, p = 0.012, Table 4 ) but not in the North (β not significant, Table 5 ). This aligns with the South’s stronger Confucian traditions, rooted in collectivist, rice-growing cultures, which amplify virtues like Ren and Li in fostering creator respect (Talhelm et al. 2014 ; Zhang and Li 2022). The North’s individualistic, wheat-growing culture and global trade exposure prioritize economic incentives (Nguyen 2012 ; Wu and Zhao 2023). Recent studies confirm cultural heterogeneity’s impact on policy outcomes (Arbatli et al. 2020 ; Huang et al. 2024), supporting region-specific IP strategies. Table 4 Structural equation modeling results – South (N = 208) Path β S.E. C.R. P H1 Social cost of infringement → ATI – 0.049 0.084 – 0.583 0.56 Reject H2 Anti-big business attitudes → ATI – 0.193 0.045 – 4.26 *** Support H3 Confucian Ethics → ATI 0.228 0.091 2.503 0.012 Support H4 Awareness of IP → ATI 0.541 0.065 8.334 *** Support Notes : SE is the standard error; \(\:\varvec{\beta\:}\) is the regression weight; CR is the test statistic used to compute the p-value. *** p < 0.01. A six-point Likert scale, ranging from 1 (highest level of disagreement) to 6 (highest level of agreement) was applied to all question statements, thereby offering no option for a ‘neutral’ response. While interpreting the results in the table, readers should note that: lower scores on Attitudes towards IPR indicate a negative attitude towards IPR protection; lower scores on Confucian Ethics are associated with those who are least influenced by Confucian Ethics; lower scores on Awareness of IP indicate a low awareness of IP; those with higher scores on the social cost of infringement are considered to believe that high IP infringement can lead to a high social cost; those with higher scores on Anti-big business attitudes are considered to be strongly against big business. Table 5 Structural equation modeling results – North (N = 307) Path \(\:\varvec{\beta\:}\) S.E. C.R. P H1 Social cost of infringement → ATI 0.106 0.062 1.709 0.12 Reject H2 Anti-big business attitudes → ATI 0.072 0.041 1.76 0.11 Reject H3 Confucianism → ATI 0.099 0.066 1.517 0.13 Reject H4 Awareness of IP → ATI 0.349 0.061 5.702 *** Support Notes : SE is the standard error; \(\:\varvec{\beta\:}\) is the regression weight; CR is the test statistic used to compute the p-value. *** p < 0.01. A six-point Likert scale, ranging from 1 (highest level of disagreement) to 6 (highest level of agreement) was applied to all question statements, thereby offering no option for a ‘neutral’ response. While interpreting the results in the table, readers should note that: lower scores on Attitudes towards IPR indicate a negative attitude towards IPR; lower scores on Confucian Ethics are associated with those who are least influenced by Confucian Ethics; lower scores on Awareness of IP indicate a low awareness of IP, while higher scores indicate a high awareness of IP; those with higher scores on the social cost of infringement are considered to believe that high IP infringement can lead to a high social cost; those with higher scores on Anti-big business attitudes are considered to be strongly against big business, while those with lower scores hold the opposite view. Insert Table 4 here Anti-big business attitudes significantly negatively affect IPR attitudes in the South (β = − 0.193, p < 0.001, Table 4 ) but not in the North. Southern manufacturing hubs (e.g., Guangdong) amplify perceptions of IPR as monopolistic, encouraging piracy as “punishment” for large firms (Kwong et al. 2003 ; Liu and Wang 2021). The North’s tech-driven economy mitigates such attitudes (Cao 2014 ). Economic factors (e.g., lower income in the South) and weaker enforcement exacerbate these effects (Peng 2013). IP awareness significantly influences positive IPR attitudes in both regions, with stronger effects in the South (β = 0.541, p < 0.001, Table 4 ) than the North (β = 0.349, p < 0.001, Table 5 ). The South’s lower baseline awareness amplifies its impact, consistent with recent findings on regional education gaps (Wu and Zhao 2023; Li 2015 ). Historical trade exposure in Southern ports may facilitate awareness, but sustained education is critical (Huang et al. 2024). Insert Table 5 here Alternative Explanations Beyond cultural factors, economic and legal explanations influence IPR attitudes. High costs of legal IP products and limited access drive piracy, particularly in less affluent regions (Peng 2013; Chen et al. 2020). Weak law enforcement, despite improved legislation, reduces infringement’s perceived risks, undermining awareness efforts (Dimitrov 2009; Wu and Zhao 2023). Globalization and Western IP norms may shape Northern attitudes more than cultural ethics, explaining regional differences (Nguyen 2012 ; Liu and Wang 2021). These factors highlight the need for integrated economic, legal, and educational interventions to complement cultural approaches. This study advances recent literature by empirically demonstrating Confucian ethics’ positive influence on IPR attitudes (β = 0.146, p = 0.007, Table 3 ), challenging outdated assumptions of incompatibility (Alford 1995 ; Donaldson 1996 ). The strong effect of IP awareness (β = 0.426, p < 0.001, Table 3 ) underscores education’s role, while regional variations highlight cultural heterogeneity’s policy implications (Zhang and Li 2022; Huang et al. 2024). By integrating cultural, social, and economic factors, the findings offer actionable insights for policymakers, emphasizing education and region-specific strategies. Future research should explore enforcement and economic incentives to build on these cultural insights. Conclusions and Implications This study provides empirical evidence that Confucian ethics, specifically the Five Constant Virtues (Ren, Yi, Li, Zhi, Xin), positively influence Chinese attitudes toward Intellectual Property Rights (IPR) protection, challenging prior assumptions of cultural incompatibility (Alford 1995 ; Donaldson 1996 ). The significant role of IP awareness and regional variations further enriches our understanding of IPR attitudes in China. Below, we discuss implications for theory development, followed by practical and policy implications, drawing on recent literature to advance the field. Implications for Theory Development This exploratory study utilized the Five Constant Virtues to measure Confucian ethics, confirming their positive impact on IPR attitudes. This finding opens several avenues for theoretical advancement, addressing the need for a more nuanced understanding of cultural influences on IPR. Recent studies emphasize Confucianism’s evolving role in modern ethical behavior (Li et al. 2020; Zhang and Wang 2021), suggesting that future research should extend the conceptualization of Confucian ethics beyond the Wu Chang to include constructs like moral identity (Aquino and Reed 2002; Chen and Liu 2022) and institutional trust (Wu et al. 2023). For instance, integrating the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) (Ajzen 1991) could elucidate how virtues shape attitudes, norms, and behavioral intentions toward IPR compliance, as Ren fosters empathy and Yi reinforces moral duty (Chan et al. 2010). Theoretical models should also incorporate institutional theory to examine how Confucian ethics interact with structural factors, such as economic development, legal enforcement, and global supply chain dynamics (Huang and Zhang 2024; Peng 2013). Li et al. (2020) argue that Confucianism’s emphasis on social harmony aligns with institutional trust, potentially amplifying IPR compliance in regions with strong governance. This contrasts with earlier claims that collectivism hinders IPR (Alford 1995 ), as recent evidence suggests Confucianism supports voluntary compliance when framed as a public good (Wu et al. 2023). Future studies could test moderated mediation models, exploring how economic incentives or enforcement mediate Confucian ethics’ effects, addressing Kirby and Fan’s ( 1995 ) caution against over-relying on cultural explanations. The confirmed regional differences highlight cultural heterogeneity’s role in IPR attitudes, aligning with recent research on regional cultural impacts (Zhang and Wang 2021; Huang and Zhang 2024). However, the study’s participant recruitment limitations restricted broader geographic coverage. Future research should investigate disparities between coastal and landlocked regions, as economic and trade exposure differences shape IPR attitudes (Fleisher et al. 2010 ; Xie and Zhou 2014 ; Chen and Liu 2022). For example, coastal areas’ global integration may weaken Confucian influence compared to inland regions’ stronger cultural adherence, warranting comparative studies using multilevel modeling to capture regional effects (Wu et al. 2023). Alternative explanations, such as political institutions, economic disparities, and China’s role in global supply chains, should be integrated into theoretical frameworks. Huang and Zhang (2024) note that weak enforcement and economic reliance on manufacturing drive infringement, complementing cultural factors. Institutional theory could bridge these, examining how Confucian ethics interact with regulatory frameworks to shape compliance (Li et al. 2020). This study’s empirical refutation of Confucianism’s incompatibility with IPR provides a foundation for developing cross-cultural models that compare Confucian-influenced societies (e.g., Japan, South Korea) with Western contexts, advancing global IPR research (Chen and Liu 2022). Practical and Policy Implications The positive influence of Confucian ethics suggests that promoting the Wu Chang through moral education can enhance IPR attitudes, particularly in Southern China, where cultural adherence is stronger (Zhang and Wang 2021). Educational campaigns could leverage benevolence (Ren) to foster empathy for creators and righteousness (Yi) to emphasize moral duty, countering collectivist tendencies to share knowledge freely (Wu et al. 2023). Japan’s success in integrating Confucian ethics into IP education via public campaigns and school curricula offers a model (Arai 2005 ; Chen and Liu 2022). The strong effect of IP awareness underscores the need for targeted interventions. In China, low awareness remains a barrier, as confirmed by recent studies (Wu et al. 2023; Huang and Zhang 2024). Strategies like Japan’s orientation sessions or Finland’s concise IP guides for entrepreneurs (Hynynen 2013 ) could be adapted to China’s context, using scholastic programs for students and workshops for professionals. These should highlight IPR’s social benefits, aligning with Confucian wisdom (Zhi) and innovation goals (Li et al. 2020). Regional differences necessitate tailored policies. Southern China’s susceptibility to anti-big business attitudes (β = − 0.193, p < 0.001, see Table 3 ) suggests campaigns to reframe IPR as benefiting all stakeholders, not just large firms (Liu and Wang 2021). Northern China’s economic-driven attitudes require enforcement-focused strategies (Nguyen 2012 ). Coastal vs. landlocked disparities, driven by trade exposure and economic development, should inform future policy design (Chen and Liu 2022). Conclusions This study demonstrates that Confucian ethics, rooted in the Five Constant Virtues, positively shape IPR attitudes, challenging historical misinterpretations of incompatibility (Alford 1995 ). The significant role of IP awareness and regional variations highlights the interplay of cultural, social, and economic factors. While Confucianism remains influential, as evidenced by its enduring presence in interpersonal relationships (Woods and Lamond 2011 ; Zhang and Wang 2021), structural factors like enforcement and economic incentives are critical (Huang and Zhang 2024). By integrating cultural and institutional perspectives, this study advances theoretical and practical understanding of IPR in China, offering a foundation for future cross-cultural and regional research. This study has several limitations. The findings are based on self-reported attitudes rather than observed behaviors, creating a potential attitude-behavior gap, and the cross-sectional design precludes definitive causal claims. Furthermore, the sample may not fully represent China’s regional and demographic diversity, limiting generalizability, while the measurement of complex constructs like Confucian ethics risks oversimplification. Finally, responses may be influenced by social desirability bias, potentially inflating the positive relationship reported. Declarations Ethical approval : Approval was obtained from the ethics committee of University of Nottingham Ningbo China (No. 20171113) on 13th November 2017. The survey process and procedures used in this study adhere to the tenets of the Declaration of Helsinki. Informed consent : Informed consent was obtained from all individual participants included in the study between 30th November 2017 and 1st June 2018. Conflict of interest : authors have no conflict of interest to declare Funding This research is supported by the Arts and Humanities Research Council (RGS 116357). Author Contribution P.T and Q.W wrote the main manuscript text, X.S and E. L secured the funding and reviewed the manuscript. S.C. and S.W collected the data and reviewed the manuscript. Data Availability Data can be provided upone reasonable request. 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Diversity in Intellectual Property Identities, Interests, and Intersections, Irene Calboli and Srividhya Ragavan. eds., Cambridge University Press Zimmerman A, Chaudhry PE (2009) Protecting Intellectual Property Rights: The Special Case of China. J Asia-Pac Bus 10(4):308–325 Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Supplementary Files Appendix.docx Cite Share Download PDF Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-7257082","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":544648918,"identity":"64a0f01f-859b-4016-8924-ca0857063d25","order_by":0,"name":"Pinyan Tang","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Ningbo University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Pinyan","middleName":"","lastName":"Tang","suffix":""},{"id":544648920,"identity":"4e175168-eaf8-4abd-80ef-184620a4acb1","order_by":1,"name":"Qingfeng 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06:28:31","extension":"html","order_by":13,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":154314,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"earlyproof.html","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7257082/v1/1b646b7d7374060c4fa4b37a.html"},{"id":96048759,"identity":"d675931d-64ac-4b5a-a06a-60c20fe388d4","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-17 06:28:31","extension":"jpg","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":54566,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eSee image above for figure legend.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"1.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7257082/v1/789ddac3eb2348647dba7fb2.jpg"},{"id":99213714,"identity":"bd7ddebf-715c-4ae8-85e4-d01ddd486f73","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-30 08:40:12","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":993865,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7257082/v1/2e92f277-85e5-4773-9439-49dffa9198ce.pdf"},{"id":96048761,"identity":"6d122b7b-7f71-44ac-9eb2-d034f3a9a9ab","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-17 06:28:31","extension":"docx","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":20101,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Appendix.docx","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7257082/v1/8085250af56bce1f8aa94704.docx"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Confucianism, IP awareness, and Intellectual Property Rights in China","fulltext":[{"header":"Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e \u0026ldquo;In the early nineteenth century -- as Charles Dickens learned to his dismay -- the American government was deaf to the pleas of foreign authors that American publishers were reprinting their works without permission. In the late twentieth century, by contrast, the United States has become the world\u0026rsquo;s most vigorous and effective champion of strengthened intellectual-property rights.\u0026rdquo; (Fisher \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1999\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe enforcement of Intellectual Property Rights (IPR) remains a significant challenge in U.S.-China trade negotiations, underscored by the ongoing trade war. China has long been identified as a hub for counterfeiting and piracy (Ang et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2001\u003c/span\u003e; Cao \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e; Crane \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e; Zimmerman and Chaudhry \u003cspan citationid=\"CR73\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e), with IPR protection consistently ranked as a top concern for multinational companies operating there (Schotter and Teagarden \u003cspan citationid=\"CR53\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e). Cultural factors, particularly in non-Western societies like China, are often cited as key drivers of high IP infringement rates (Alford \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1995\u003c/span\u003e; Donaldson \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1996\u003c/span\u003e; Lee \u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2001\u003c/span\u003e; Lehman \u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e; Steidlmeier \u003cspan citationid=\"CR58\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1993\u003c/span\u003e). These scholars argue that the Western concept of IP, rooted in liberalism and individual rights, contrasts with Chinese cultural values shaped by collectivism and Confucian principles, which prioritize societal sharing over individual ownership (Donaldson \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1996\u003c/span\u003e; Husted \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2000\u003c/span\u003e; Mun \u003cspan citationid=\"CR48\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eConfucianism, a cornerstone of Chinese society since the Han dynasty, emphasizes humanism and collective responsibilities (Bosworth and Yang \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2000\u003c/span\u003e; Thomas \u003cspan citationid=\"CR61\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2001\u003c/span\u003e). This collectivist ethos is often linked to negative attitudes toward IPR protection (Mun \u003cspan citationid=\"CR48\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e). However, countries like Japan, Taiwan, South Korea, and Singapore\u0026mdash;also influenced by Confucianism\u0026mdash;exhibit low levels of IP infringement, challenging the notion that Confucianism inherently undermines IPR. Similarly, the United States, now a global advocate for IPR, historically engaged in widespread IP violations until its economic development prioritized protection (Fisher \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1999\u003c/span\u003e; Mgbeoji \u003cspan citationid=\"CR47\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2003\u003c/span\u003e; Goldstein \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2003\u003c/span\u003e). This suggests that economic maturity, rather than culture alone, shapes IPR attitudes. Overreliance on cultural explanations risks oversimplification (Koehn \u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e), necessitating a deeper understanding of China\u0026rsquo;s historical and economic context (Emerson 2008).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eChina\u0026rsquo;s economic and political landscape has experienced a remarkable transformation since the establishment of the new China in 1949. During the Mao Zedong era (1949\u0026ndash;1976), China was characterized by widespread poverty and the dominant ideology of communism. Capitalism, materialism, and individualism were viewed negatively, and the notion of property ownership leaned towards collective ownership rather than individual possession. IPR, along with other property rights, were suppressed during this period, and anti-Confucian sentiment prevailed while Confucianism was severely repressed, particularly during the Cultural Revolution. However, since the Great Reform in 1978, which introduced market principles to the economic system, China has undergone significant changes. The subsequent years, especially since the turn of the century, witnessed the Chinese government and society demonstrating a growing willingness and making substantial efforts to regulate IPR protection (Cao \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e). Numerous studies have documented China\u0026rsquo;s progress in this realm (e.g., Nguyen \u003cspan citationid=\"CR49\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e; Sepetys and Cox \u003cspan citationid=\"CR54\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e). Nevertheless, the consensus remains that IPR infringement remains a substantial problem throughout China.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis paper makes significant contributions to the existing literature on Intellectual Property Rights by examining several key perspectives. Firstly, we explore the influence of Confucian ethics in shaping the attitudes of the general public towards IPR protection, providing valuable insights into the potential role of Confucian ethics in the development of IP in China. By delving into this aspect, we enhance our understanding of the cultural and ethical factors that impact IPR attitudes.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eSecondly, we delve into the individual level of IP awareness in China and its direct correlation with the formation of attitudes towards IPR protection. By investigating the level of awareness, we shed light on the role it plays in shaping individuals\u0026rsquo; perspectives on IPR. This analysis helps us grasp the underlying factors that contribute to the acceptance or infringement of IPR in China.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eLastly, we examine regional differences in attitudes towards IPR protection within China, highlighting the significant disparities in IP practices across the country. By uncovering these regional variations, we draw attention to the diverse landscape of IPR attitudes and practices within China, enhancing our understanding of the challenges and opportunities related to IPR enforcement at a regional level.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Literature review","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eConfucianism and Intellectual property\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eIntellectual property concepts, including patents and copyrights, emerged in imperial China during the Tang dynasty (681\u0026ndash;906 AD), initially aligning with Anglo-American systems (Alford \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1995\u003c/span\u003e). By the 17th century, Western legal frameworks, driven by capitalist incentives, introduced laws granting innovators exclusive rights, while China\u0026rsquo;s static IP regime reflected different economic and cultural priorities, shaped by Confucian governance (Alford \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1995\u003c/span\u003e; Yang 2013). This divergence highlights how Confucianism, with its emphasis on social order over individual gain, influenced China\u0026rsquo;s IP trajectory.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eConfucianism\u0026rsquo;s role in shaping IPR attitudes is rooted in its ethical framework, balancing profit (Li) and righteousness (Yi). The Analects passage \u0026ldquo;Zi Han Yan Li\u0026rdquo; (Analects 9:1), often interpreted as Confucius\u0026rsquo;s disapproval of profit (Yu \u003cspan citationid=\"CR72\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e), is contested by scholars who argue it endorses rightful profit (Huang \u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e; Jia \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2007\u003c/span\u003e). The ambiguity of classical Chinese texts necessitates contextual analysis (Huang \u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e). Confucianism prioritizes profit through virtuous means, aligning with IP\u0026rsquo;s moral rights, such as creator recognition and societal benefit (Sun \u003cspan citationid=\"CR59\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e; Chan \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e; Hughes 1988). This resonates with Western IP creators who balance commercial, creative, and reputational goals (Towse \u003cspan citationid=\"CR63\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e; Silbey \u003cspan citationid=\"CR55\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e; Cowen and Tabarrok \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2000\u003c/span\u003e). Liu (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e) emphasizes that Confucianism values both profit and fame, prioritizing the latter in conflicts, suggesting a framework compatible with IPR\u0026rsquo;s economic and moral dimensions (Koehn \u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eConfucian collectivism, which views knowledge as a communal resource, can challenge exclusive IP rights (Mun \u003cspan citationid=\"CR48\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e; Husted \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2000\u003c/span\u003e). However, its emphasis on social harmony and ethical governance supports IPR enforcement when framed as a public good, aligning with China\u0026rsquo;s modern IP legislation (Lam ctions (Lam \u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e; Dimitrov 2009). For instance, Confucian principles of reciprocity and respect for authority underpin China\u0026rsquo;s efforts to strengthen IP laws in response to global trade pressures (Yang 2013; Mertha 2005). Yet, low public awareness and entrenched cultural norms prioritizing communal sharing over individual ownership hinder enforcement (Cao \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e; Peng 2013). Wang (2018) argues that Confucianism\u0026rsquo;s focus on moral education could bridge this gap by fostering respect for creators\u0026rsquo; rights, drawing parallels with Japan\u0026rsquo;s successful integration of Confucian ethics into IP compliance through education and economic incentives.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eConfucianism\u0026rsquo;s influence is further evident in its alignment with relational ethics, where trust and mutual obligations shape business practices (Cheung and King 2004). In Chinese firms, IP infringement may stem from a Confucian-inspired view that sharing innovations strengthens community ties, yet this same ethic supports compliance when firms recognize IP protection as enhancing trust in global markets (Yang and Sonmez 2013). This duality underscores Confucianism\u0026rsquo;s plausibility as a factor in both resisting and facilitating IPR adoption, contingent on economic and educational contexts.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eRegional disparity within China\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eChina\u0026rsquo;s geographic and historical diversity drives significant regional variations in IPR adoption, influenced by economic development, historical trade exposure, and Confucian cultural practices (Buckley et al. 2002; Ralston et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR51\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1996\u003c/span\u003e). The rice-growing South, characterized by interdependent, collectivist mindsets rooted in labor-intensive agriculture, contrasts with the wheat-growing North, where individualistic and analytical thinking aligns more with Western values (Talhelm et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR60\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e). These differences, traceable to the Eastern Han dynasty (Li \u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e), shape regional IPR attitudes.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn the South, particularly in manufacturing hubs like Guangdong, stronger Confucian collectivism and informal business networks correlate with higher infringement rates, as communal sharing overrides strict IP enforcement (Cao \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e; Peng 2013). Historical trade ports in the South, despite early exposure to Western IP concepts, prioritized economic pragmatism over legal compliance (Li \u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e). Conversely, the North, with urban centers like Beijing and advanced technological sectors, exhibits greater IPR compliance due to economic incentives, global trade integration, and weaker collectivist norms (Nguyen \u003cspan citationid=\"CR49\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e). Northern regions, influenced by centralized governance and Confucian ethical administration, align more readily with formal IP regulations (Dimitrov 2009). Inland areas, with limited economic integration and weaker Confucian governance traditions, lag in IPR adoption due to lower awareness and infrastructure (Wang 2018 strategized (Wang 2018). These regional disparities, reflecting varying degrees of Confucian influence, economic development, and historical exposure, provide a natural experiment for studying Confucianism\u0026rsquo;s role in shaping IPR attitudes and the compatibility of Western IP concepts across China.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eHypotheses Development\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis study proposes a conceptual framework to examine how cultural and social factors shape Chinese attitudes toward Intellectual Property Rights (IPR) protection, addressing the complex interplay of Confucian virtues and non-legal influences. Grounded in consumer ethics (Vitell and Muncy \u003cspan citationid=\"CR64\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1992\u003c/span\u003e) and reward theory (Robinson \u003cspan citationid=\"CR52\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e), the framework posits that Confucian virtues, benevolence (Ren), righteousness (Yi), ritual propriety (Li), wisdom (Zhi), and trustworthiness (Xin), positively influence IPR attitudes by fostering respect for creators\u0026rsquo; moral rights and aligning with ethical governance and social harmony (Sun \u003cspan citationid=\"CR59\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e; Zhang 2020). These virtues are contrasted with non-legal factors: the perceived social cost of piracy, which promotes positive attitudes when costs are high (Kwong et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2003\u003c/span\u003e); anti-big business attitudes, which foster negative attitudes by associating IPR with monopolistic exploitation (Kwong et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2003\u003c/span\u003e); and IP awareness, which enhances positive attitudes through knowledge of IP principles (Cao \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e). This model provides a theoretical lens to explore how Confucian ethics, alongside social and psychological factors, shape IPR attitudes, moderated by regional and economic contexts.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eSocial cost of piracy\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe perceived social cost of piracy, defined as the societal impact of infringement activities, significantly influences IPR attitudes (Kwong et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2003\u003c/span\u003e). Piracy can undermine economic growth, promote organized crime, and harm IP holders at macro and micro levels (Kwong et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2003\u003c/span\u003e; Lowe \u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e). While some perceive benefits, such as affordable goods (Kwong et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e), reward theory suggests that a well-functioning IP system\u0026rsquo;s social benefits must outweigh monopoly costs (Robinson \u003cspan citationid=\"CR52\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). Individuals who perceive higher social costs are likely to view piracy as self-harming, fostering positive attitudes toward IPR protection (Wang et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR66\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e). Thus, we propose:\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eH1\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cp\u003eIndividuals who perceive a higher social cost of infringement possess significantly more positive attitudes towards IPR protection.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eAnti-Big Business Attitudes\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAnti-big business attitudes, characterized by skepticism toward large corporations\u0026rsquo; profit motives, negatively affect IPR attitudes (Kwong et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2003\u003c/span\u003e). Critics argue that large firms use IPR to maintain monopolistic advantages, marginalizing smaller competitors who cannot afford enforcement (Cromie and Ewing \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e). Consumers prioritizing public welfare may seek to \u0026ldquo;punish\u0026rdquo; firms perceived as exploiting IPR, leading to negative attitudes (Kwong et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2003\u003c/span\u003e). This contrasts with Confucian virtues, which emphasize ethical conduct over punitive actions. We, therefore, posit the following hypothesis:\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eH2\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cp\u003eAnti-big business attitudes contribute to negative attitudes towards IPR protection.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eConfucian Ethics\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003e Confucian ethics, rooted in the Five Constant Virtues (Wu Chang 五常) \u0026mdash; Benevolence (Ren 仁), Righteousness (Yi 義), Ritual Propriety (Li禮), Wisdom (Zhi 智), and Trustworthiness (Xin 信) \u0026mdash;provide a moral framework shaping consumer behavior toward IPR (Phuong-Mai et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e; Adler \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e). Consumer ethics, defined as moral principles guiding interactions with goods and services (Vitell and Muncy \u003cspan citationid=\"CR64\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1992\u003c/span\u003e), influence piracy attitudes. Consumers viewing counterfeiting as less unethical favor piracy, while idealistic individuals bound by ethical principles oppose infringement (Ang et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2001\u003c/span\u003e; Basu et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e). Drawing on the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) (Ajzen 1991), which posits that attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control predict intentions and behaviors, and moral identity theory (Aquino and Reed 2002), which emphasizes moral self-concept as a driver of ethical actions, this study examines how Confucian virtues shape IPR attitudes through psychological mechanisms.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eConfucianism, as a system of social and ethical philosophy, emphasizes moral education to cultivate virtuous behavior (Sim \u003cspan citationid=\"CR56\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2001\u003c/span\u003e; Zhang 2020). Its enduring influence, reinforced by recent state emphasis under President Xi Jinping, makes it a relevant lens for understanding contemporary Chinese attitudes, despite the presence of other philosophies like Buddhism and Daoism (Yu \u003cspan citationid=\"CR72\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e). The Wu Chang, codified in the Three Character Classics (三字经), guide ethical conduct and social relationships, fostering respect for creators\u0026rsquo; moral rights and aligning with IPR\u0026rsquo;s ethical dimensions (Woods and Lamond \u003cspan citationid=\"CR68\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e; Li and Yu \u003cspan citationid=\"CR72\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e). Below, each virtue is systematically analyzed for its impact on IPR attitudes, grounded in behavioral psychology:\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eWe speak of the Five Constant Virtues: benevolence, righteousness, propriety, wisdom, and trustworthiness. These five virtues must not be compromised.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eBenevolence (Ren): Representing care for others, Ren fosters empathy for creators\u0026rsquo; efforts, encouraging respect for their intellectual contributions as a societal good (Lai \u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e). Within TPB, Ren strengthens positive attitudes toward IPR by aligning with moral norms of fairness (Ajzen 1991). Moral identity theory suggests that individuals with a strong Ren-based self-concept prioritize ethical actions, reducing piracy intentions (Aquino and Reed 2002). For example, Ren may motivate consumers to avoid counterfeit goods to protect creators\u0026rsquo; livelihoods, fostering compliance (Chan et al. 2010).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eRighteousness (Yi): As a principle of moral fitness, Yi guides ethical decision-making, prioritizing duty over personal gain (Cheng \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1972\u003c/span\u003e). In behavioral terms, Yi enhances perceived behavioral control in TPB, as individuals feel morally obligated to uphold IP laws (Hwang \u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2001\u003c/span\u003e). Those with a Yi-driven moral identity are less likely to engage in infringement, viewing it as a violation of ethical standards (Basu et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e; Zhang 2020). Yi supports positive IPR attitudes by framing compliance as a moral imperative, countering collectivist tendencies to share knowledge freely.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eRitual Propriety (Li): As a code of conduct, Li humanizes social interactions and shapes ethical behavior through norms (Fingarette \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1998\u003c/span\u003e). Within TPB, Li strengthens subjective norms, as individuals conform to societal expectations of respecting IP laws (Li \u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2007\u003c/span\u003e). Moral identity theory suggests that Li-guided individuals internalize compliance as part of their social role, reducing piracy (Schwartz 2012). Li aligns with IPR enforcement by promoting social harmony, encouraging adherence to regulations as a public good (Dimitrov 2009). Li refers to much more than the dynamic human relationship, which is summarized in a saying from \u003cem\u003eOn Self-Cultivation in The book of Mencius\u003c/em\u003e (荀子\u0026middot;修身):\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eThus, a man without ritual will not live, an undertaking lacking ritual will not be completed, and a nation without ritual will not be tranquil.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eLi (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2007\u003c/span\u003e, p. 311) further suggests that \u0026ldquo;society cultivates its members through Li towards the goal of Ren, and persons of Ren manifest their human excellence through the practices of Li\u0026rdquo;. Therefore, Ritual Propriety is regarded as a means through which to express Benevolence, and while Benevolence and Ritual Propriety are inseparable from each other, Benevolence is considered by Confucius to be more critical than Ritual Propriety, as reflected in the Master\u0026rsquo;s (i.e., Confucius\u0026rsquo;s) statement in \u003cem\u003eThe Analects\u003c/em\u003e (Lun Yu - Bayi 论语. 八佾篇):\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe Master said, \u0026ldquo;What can a man do with the rites who is not benevolent?\u0026rdquo;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eWisdom (Zhi): Representing ethical understanding, Zhi enables individuals to recognize IP\u0026rsquo;s role in innovation and trade, aligning with Confucian goals of a good life (Yang \u003cspan citationid=\"CR71\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e; Thompson \u003cspan citationid=\"CR62\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2007\u003c/span\u003e). In TPB, Zhi enhances attitudes by increasing knowledge of IP\u0026rsquo;s societal benefits, similar to IP awareness (Ajzen 1991). Individuals with high Zhi are more likely to reject piracy, viewing it as detrimental to progress, as seen in Japan\u0026rsquo;s Confucian-influenced IP education (Zhang 2020). Trustworthiness (Xin): Emphasizing loyalty to commitments, Xin reinforces compliance through trust-based relationships (Wee \u003cspan citationid=\"CR67\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e; Li and Yu \u003cspan citationid=\"CR72\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e). Within TPB, Xin strengthens behavioral intentions by fostering trust in IP systems, while moral identity theory suggests that Xin-driven individuals uphold promises to respect creators\u0026rsquo; rights (Aquino and Reed 2002). Xin supports IPR by encouraging ethical business practices, countering infringement in trust-based networks (Chan et al. 2010). For Confucius, Trustworthiness is primarily concerned with an individual\u0026rsquo;s verbal commitments made in relationships, with respect to one\u0026rsquo;s deeds (Wee \u003cspan citationid=\"CR67\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e). As the Master (Confucius) said in Analects (Lun Yu - The book of Governance论语. 为政篇):\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe Master said, \u0026ldquo;I do not see how a man can be acceptable who is untrustworthy in word.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eConfucian virtues counter collectivist views of knowledge as communal by emphasizing moral education and social harmony, aligning with IPR\u0026rsquo;s societal benefits (Wang 2018; Dimitrov 2009). Unlike anti-big business attitudes, which focus on punitive perceptions, Confucian ethics promote ethical responsibility, fostering positive IPR attitudes (Lam \u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e). Japan\u0026rsquo;s success in integrating Confucian ethics into IP compliance through education offers a model for China (Zhang 2020). Based on this analysis, supported by five statements representing the Wu Chang (Table A1 in Appendix), we hypothesize:\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eH3\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cp\u003eA strong Confucian ethical influence contributes to positive attitudes towards IPR protection.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eAwareness of IP\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHere, the phrase \u0026lsquo;awareness of IP\u0026rsquo; is comprised of different aspects. In their study investigating the perceptions of attitudes of Chinese consumers towards brand imitation, Lai and Zaichkowsky (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1999\u003c/span\u003e) found that low levels of awareness about which brands are originals and which are imitations is one of the main reasons behind the purchasing of counterfeit goods. IP awareness also refers to the level of knowledge regarding what constitutes IP, and how and why IP should be protected and enforced. Many regard China\u0026rsquo;s problems in IPR to have stemmed from its weak IPR law enforcement, rather than a lack of IP laws (e.g., Kshetri \u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e; Massey \u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e). Cao (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e) developed this argument a step further by proposing that IP infringement in China cannot merely be ascribed to weak IPR law enforcement, but rather to its whole IP environment, which displays a low level of public IP awareness. This lack of public understanding of IP in China has been attributed to imperial China's not considering ideas as property (Kshetri \u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e); however, this phenomenon is not unique to China. The development of the Western concept of IP over the last 200 years reveals a history shifting \u0026ldquo;from the tangible to the intangible\u0026rdquo; (Lastowka et al. 2004, p. 40). In 1984, in the United States, the Supreme Court still cited Locke\u0026rsquo;s idea that intangible \u0026ldquo;products of an individual\u0026rsquo;s \u0026lsquo;labor and invention\u0026rsquo;\u0026rdquo; can be \u0026ldquo;property\u0026rdquo; subject to the protection of the Takings Clause to protect trade-secret rights (Gordon \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1993\u003c/span\u003e, p. 1540).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIP awareness is proposed in this paper as a potential factor that could significantly influence people\u0026rsquo;s attitudes towards IPR protection. IP awareness is measured in terms of a person\u0026rsquo;s level of knowledge regarding what constitutes IP, and how and why it should be protected and enforced. Low awareness of IP may have contributed to the current status of China\u0026rsquo;s IP practice (Cao \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e; Yang and Clarke \u003cspan citationid=\"CR70\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e). There is no adequate education concerning IPR for the general public in China, and IP infringement is seldom considered as a crime or as a civil offence. Proper IP education is essential in raising awareness of the importance of IP for the general public, such as in promoting innovation and in trade. A typical example in this regard is from South Korea. There have been significant changes witnessed in the social attitudes towards IPR protection since the copyright reforms of 1986, which is considered to have occurred as a result of the Korean government\u0026rsquo;s efforts to improve the public\u0026rsquo;s awareness of IP (Lee \u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2001\u003c/span\u003e). Therefore, we posit the following hypothesis:\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eH4\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cp\u003ePeople who have a higher level of IP awareness hold significantly more positive attitudes towards IPR protection than people who have a lower level of IP awareness.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eCross-cultural scholars have catalogued a long list of differences between East Asian and Western cultures. In many cases, such differences are derived from viewing China as a whole, while ignoring the regional differences. For example, Hofstede\u0026rsquo;s cultural dimensions were elicited from data obtained within a single organization [IBM], and they are situationally non-specific (McSweeney \u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2002\u003c/span\u003e). Meanwhile, Siu (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR57\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1993\u003c/span\u003e) defines \u0026ldquo;Chineseness\u0026rdquo;, as not \u0026ldquo;an immutable set of beliefs and practices\u0026rdquo;, but rather \u0026ldquo;a process which captures a wide range of emotions and states of being\u0026rdquo;. It is a long-held consensus that there are significantly noticeable differences between different regions within China, of which a typical regional difference often examined is that found between southern China and northern China. Our theoretical model is presented in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eInsert\u003c/b\u003e Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e \u003cb\u003ehere\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eThe Empirical Study\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eSampling and data collection\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eFive hundred fifteen survey responses were received from participants who had been randomly selected and were living in different cities in China. Two hundred eight responses were collected from participants based in the South (mainly Guangzhou, Ningbo, and Shanghai); 307 responses were received from the North (mainly Tianjin, Taiyuan, and Xi\u0026rsquo;an). Some of the participants were recruited via social network platforms, such as WeChat, while some were recruited by visiting companies in Ningbo, and the majority of the participants were recruited from \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003e\u003ca href=\"http://www.sojump.com\" target=\"_blank\"\u003ewww.sojump.com\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"http://www.sojump.com\" targettype=\"URL\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e, which is an online survey system. The demographic information of the participants is summarized in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDemographic profile\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"3\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDemographic\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNumber\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePercentage\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eGender\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMale\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e230\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e44.66\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFemale\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e285\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e55.34\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eAge\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e25 and below\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e155\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e30.10\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e26\u0026ndash;35\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e249\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e48.35\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e36\u0026ndash;45\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e86\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e16.70\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e46\u0026ndash;55\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e21\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.08\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e56\u0026ndash;65\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.78\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eRegion\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSouth\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e208\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e40.39\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNorth\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e307\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e59.61\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eVariable measurement\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eSeveral statements were developed to measure each variable in the model based on the literature review. Participants were asked to indicate their level of agreement regarding each of the statements. Day and Evers (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1999\u003c/span\u003e) suggested that, when developing a questionnaire to examine cultural issues, it is necessary to prevent meaningless neutral responses from people who might be discouraged from taking a distinct position on an issue. For this reason, a six-point Likert scale, ranging from 1 (highest level of agreement) to 6 (highest level of disagreement) was applied to all question statements, thereby offering no option for a \u0026lsquo;neutral\u0026rsquo; response. The statements used to measure each factor in our theoretical model are reported in Table A1 (Appendix).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eInsert\u003c/b\u003e Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e \u003cb\u003ehere\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec13\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eReliability and Validity Test\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eA principal component analysis was applied to test the validity of each observable variable in measuring the latent variables (i.e., variables which cannot be directly measured). The factor loading for each observable variable is presented in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e. For a sample size larger than 350, Hair et al. (2006) suggest that a factor loading \u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\(\\:\\ge\\:\\)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e 0.30 is considered as significant. We follow Wang and Sun (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR59\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e) by using an eigenvalue of 1.0 and a factor loading of 0.50 as the cut-off points. All factors have factor loadings above 0.50, while each factor has an eigenvalue greater than 1. The reliability of the survey questionnaire was examined using Cronbach\u0026rsquo;s alpha, which measures how well a set of variables measures a single latent variable. A value of Cronbach\u0026rsquo;s alpha between 0.80 and 0.90 rates the internal consistency as good, and a value above 0.90 rates the internal consistency as excellent (Kline 1999). The Cronbach\u0026rsquo;s alpha values are presented in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e, with all values above 0.80, confirming the reliability and internal consistency of the measurements used in the survey questionnaire. Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was applied to assess the measurement model. The CFI (comparative fit index) and the RMSEA (Root Mean Square Error of Approximation) are strongly recommended to determine the model fit (Kline 2005; Hu and Bentler 1999). Values less than 0.07 (Steiger 2007) are considered as the acceptable threshold for RMSEA. Some advocate values greater than 0.95 (Hu and Bentler 1999) are considered as the acceptable threshold for CFI, while others suggest a cut-off criterion of CFI\u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\(\\:\\:\\ge\\:\\:\\)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e0.90 (Garver and Mentzer 1999). The reported CFI and RMSEA for our SEM model are 0.924 and 0.037, respectively, both indicative of a good fit of our SEM model.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFactor Analysis\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"5\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNo. of factors\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFactor loading\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEigenvalues\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCronbach\u0026rsquo;s alpha\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAwareness of IP\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.725\u0026ndash;0.842\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5.170\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.934\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eConfucian Ethics\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.646\u0026ndash;0.767\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.567\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.922\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAnti-big business attitude\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.589\u0026ndash;0.763\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.897\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.830\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSocial cost of infringement\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.663\u0026ndash;0.737\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.088\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.904\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eStructural equation modelling results \u0026ndash; overall (N\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;515)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"7\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePath\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\(\\:\\varvec{\\beta\\:}\\)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eS.E.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eC.R.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eP\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eH1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSocial cost of infringement \u0026rarr; Attitudes Towards IPR protection (ATI)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.046\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.047\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.966\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.334\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eReject\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eH2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAnti-big business attitudes \u0026rarr; ATI\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026ndash; 0.027\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.030\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026ndash; 0.91\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.363\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eReject\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eH3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eConfucian Ethics \u0026rarr; ATI\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.146\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.054\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.688\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e***\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eSupport\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eH4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAwareness of IP \u0026rarr; ATI\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.426\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.046\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e9.177\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e***\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eSupport\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003ctfoot\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"7\"\u003e\u003cem\u003eNotes\u003c/em\u003e: SE is the standard error; \u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\(\\:\\varvec{\\beta\\:}\\)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e is the regression weight; CR is the test statistic used to compute the p-value. *** indicates where the associated p-value is lower than 0.001. A six-point Likert scale, ranging from 1 (highest level of disagreement) to 6 (highest level of agreement) was applied to all question statements, thereby offering no option for a \u0026lsquo;neutral\u0026rsquo; response. While interpreting the results in the table, readers should note that: lower scores on Attitudes towards IPR protection indicate a negative attitude towards IPR protection. Lower scores on Confucian Ethics are associated with those who are least influenced by Confucian Ethics. Lower scores on Awareness of IP indicate a low awareness of IP. Those with higher scores on the social cost of infringement are considered to believe that high levels of IP infringement can lead to a high social cost. Those with higher scores on Anti-big business attitudes are considered to be firmly against big business.\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tfoot\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eInsert\u003c/b\u003e Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e \u003cb\u003ehere\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Results and discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis study employed structural equation modeling (SEM) to test the proposed hypotheses using a dataset of 515 participants. The results, presented in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e, provide insights into the factors shaping Chinese attitudes toward Intellectual Property Rights (IPR) protection, with a focus on Confucian ethics, IP awareness, social cost of piracy, anti-big business attitudes, and regional variations. Below, we analyze each finding, comparing results with existing literature, exploring implications, and addressing alternative explanations to contextualize the study\u0026rsquo;s contributions.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eInsert\u003c/b\u003e Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e \u003cb\u003ehere\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eConfucian ethics significantly and positively influence attitudes toward IPR protection (β\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.146, p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.007), supporting H3. This finding aligns with recent studies emphasizing Confucian virtues\u0026mdash;benevolence (Ren), righteousness (Yi), ritual propriety (Li), wisdom (Zhi), and trustworthiness (Xin)\u0026mdash;as drivers of ethical behavior in modern China (Zhang and Li 2022; Wu and Zhao 2023). Specifically, virtues like Yi and Xin foster compliance by prioritizing moral duty and trust-based relationships, consistent with the Theory of Planned Behavior\u0026rsquo;s moral norms (Ajzen 1991; Chan et al. 2010). This challenges earlier claims that Confucianism\u0026rsquo;s collectivist ethos hinders IPR reforms (Alford \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1995\u003c/span\u003e; Donaldson \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1996\u003c/span\u003e; Lee \u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2001\u003c/span\u003e; Lehman \u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e; Steidlmeier \u003cspan citationid=\"CR58\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1993\u003c/span\u003e). Recent research by Liu and Wang (2021) supports this, suggesting that Confucian moral education promotes respect for creators\u0026rsquo; rights, akin to ethical frameworks in developed economies (Becker and Woessmann 2009; Cantoni 2010).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe modest effect size (β\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.146) indicates that Confucian ethics, while significant, interact with other factors like education and enforcement. Huang et al. (2024) argue that Confucianism\u0026rsquo;s emphasis on social harmony can counteract collectivist tendencies to share knowledge freely, fostering voluntary IPR compliance when framed as a public good. This finding refutes speculative arguments about Confucianism\u0026rsquo;s incompatibility with IPR, demonstrating its potential to support modern IP regimes through cultural interventions (Wang and Sun \u003cspan citationid=\"CR65\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; Li \u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e). For instance, Ren may encourage empathy for creators, reducing piracy intentions, as seen in ethical consumer studies (Chen et al. 2020).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIP awareness exerts a strong positive effect on IPR attitudes (β\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.426, p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001), robustly supporting H4. This result, directly tested through participants\u0026rsquo; knowledge of IP concepts, confirms that higher awareness enhances appreciation for IPR\u0026rsquo;s role in innovation and trade (Cao \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e; Zhang and Li 2022). Recent studies highlight China\u0026rsquo;s ongoing public awareness gaps, with Wu and Zhao (2023) noting that insufficient IP education perpetuates infringement. The significant β coefficient counters speculative interpretations, aligning with evidence from South Korea\u0026rsquo;s 1986 copyright reforms, where education improved attitudes (Lee \u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2001\u003c/span\u003e), and U.S. surveys showing similar awareness challenges in tech sectors (Villasenor, 2012).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe strong effect size underscores the need for educational interventions, such as scholastic IP curricula and professional workshops, which resonate with Confucian wisdom (Zhi) and drive innovation (Liu and Wang 2021). However, alternative explanations, such as economic barriers (e.g., high cost of legal IP) or weak enforcement, may exacerbate low awareness, requiring integrated policy approaches (Huang et al. 2024; Dimitrov 2009). This finding extends prior work by quantifying awareness\u0026rsquo; impact and highlighting its universal relevance across contexts.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe perceived social cost of piracy has no significant impact on IPR attitudes (β not significant), failing to support H1. This diverges from earlier studies suggesting that high perceived costs\u0026mdash;economic harm, organized crime\u0026mdash;promote positive attitudes (Kwong et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2003\u003c/span\u003e; Lowe \u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e; Wang et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR66\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e). Recent research by Chen et al. (2020) indicates that consumers may prioritize short-term benefits of piracy (e.g., affordability) over societal costs, particularly in collectivist cultures. Reward theory posits that IP systems\u0026rsquo; benefits must outweigh monopoly costs (Robinson \u003cspan citationid=\"CR52\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e), but our results suggest limited awareness of piracy\u0026rsquo;s broader impacts, possibly due to cultural norms or weak enforcement (Wu and Zhao 2023).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eEconomic factors, such as access to affordable goods, or lax enforcement reducing piracy\u0026rsquo;s perceived consequences, may explain this non-significant effect (Peng 2013). Educational campaigns leveraging Confucian benevolence to frame IP protection as a societal benefit could address this gap (Lam \u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e; Huang et al. 2024).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAnti-big business attitudes show no significant overall impact on IPR attitudes (β not significant), failing to support H2. This contrasts with studies linking skepticism toward corporate monopolies to negative IPR attitudes (Kwong et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2003\u003c/span\u003e; Cromie and Ewing \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e). Recent research by Liu and Wang (2021) suggests that mixed perceptions\u0026mdash;viewing IPR as protecting innovation rather than exploitation\u0026mdash;may dilute this effect. Confucian trustworthiness (Xin) may also foster trust in IP systems, countering anti-business sentiments (Li and Yu \u003cspan citationid=\"CR72\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e). Economic factors, such as the high cost of legal goods, or cultural acceptance of counterfeiting, could further weaken this relationship (Chen et al. 2020).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis finding highlights the need to reframe IPR as benefiting all stakeholders, not just large firms, through public campaigns emphasizing innovation and fairness (Zhang and Li 2022).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec15\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eRegional differences in attitudes toward IPR: South vs. North\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eSignificant regional variations underscore the study\u0026rsquo;s contribution to understanding cultural heterogeneity. These results are reported in Tables\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e and \u003cspan refid=\"Tab5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e. Confucian ethics positively influence IPR attitudes in the South (β\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.228, p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.012, Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e) but not in the North (β not significant, Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e). This aligns with the South\u0026rsquo;s stronger Confucian traditions, rooted in collectivist, rice-growing cultures, which amplify virtues like Ren and Li in fostering creator respect (Talhelm et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR60\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e; Zhang and Li 2022). The North\u0026rsquo;s individualistic, wheat-growing culture and global trade exposure prioritize economic incentives (Nguyen \u003cspan citationid=\"CR49\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e; Wu and Zhao 2023). Recent studies confirm cultural heterogeneity\u0026rsquo;s impact on policy outcomes (Arbatli et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Huang et al. 2024), supporting region-specific IP strategies.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab4\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 4\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eStructural equation modeling results \u0026ndash; South (N\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;208)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"7\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePath\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eβ\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eS.E.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eC.R.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eP\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eH1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSocial cost of infringement \u0026rarr; ATI\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026ndash; 0.049\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.084\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026ndash; 0.583\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.56\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eReject\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eH2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAnti-big business attitudes \u0026rarr; ATI\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026ndash; 0.193\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.045\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026ndash; 4.26\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e***\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eSupport\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eH3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eConfucian Ethics \u0026rarr; ATI\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.228\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.091\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.503\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.012\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eSupport\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eH4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAwareness of IP \u0026rarr; ATI\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.541\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.065\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e8.334\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e***\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eSupport\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003ctfoot\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"7\"\u003e\u003cem\u003eNotes\u003c/em\u003e: SE is the standard error; \u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\(\\:\\varvec{\\beta\\:}\\)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e is the regression weight; CR is the test statistic used to compute the p-value. *** p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.01. A six-point Likert scale, ranging from 1 (highest level of disagreement) to 6 (highest level of agreement) was applied to all question statements, thereby offering no option for a \u0026lsquo;neutral\u0026rsquo; response. While interpreting the results in the table, readers should note that: lower scores on Attitudes towards IPR indicate a negative attitude towards IPR protection; lower scores on Confucian Ethics are associated with those who are least influenced by Confucian Ethics; lower scores on Awareness of IP indicate a low awareness of IP; those with higher scores on the social cost of infringement are considered to believe that high IP infringement can lead to a high social cost; those with higher scores on Anti-big business attitudes are considered to be strongly against big business.\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tfoot\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab5\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 5\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eStructural equation modeling results \u0026ndash; North (N\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;307)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"7\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePath\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\(\\:\\varvec{\\beta\\:}\\)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eS.E.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eC.R.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eP\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eH1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSocial cost of infringement \u0026rarr; ATI\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.106\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.062\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.709\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.12\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eReject\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eH2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAnti-big business attitudes \u0026rarr; ATI\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.072\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.041\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.76\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.11\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eReject\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eH3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eConfucianism \u0026rarr; ATI\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.099\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.066\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.517\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.13\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eReject\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eH4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAwareness of IP \u0026rarr; ATI\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.349\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.061\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5.702\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e***\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eSupport\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003ctfoot\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"7\"\u003e\u003cem\u003eNotes\u003c/em\u003e: SE is the standard error; \u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\(\\:\\varvec{\\beta\\:}\\)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e is the regression weight; CR is the test statistic used to compute the p-value. *** p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.01. A six-point Likert scale, ranging from 1 (highest level of disagreement) to 6 (highest level of agreement) was applied to all question statements, thereby offering no option for a \u0026lsquo;neutral\u0026rsquo; response. While interpreting the results in the table, readers should note that: lower scores on Attitudes towards IPR indicate a negative attitude towards IPR; lower scores on Confucian Ethics are associated with those who are least influenced by Confucian Ethics; lower scores on Awareness of IP indicate a low awareness of IP, while higher scores indicate a high awareness of IP; those with higher scores on the social cost of infringement are considered to believe that high IP infringement can lead to a high social cost; those with higher scores on Anti-big business attitudes are considered to be strongly against big business, while those with lower scores hold the opposite view.\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tfoot\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eInsert\u003c/b\u003e Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e \u003cb\u003ehere\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAnti-big business attitudes significantly negatively affect IPR attitudes in the South (β = \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;0.193, p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001, Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e) but not in the North. Southern manufacturing hubs (e.g., Guangdong) amplify perceptions of IPR as monopolistic, encouraging piracy as \u0026ldquo;punishment\u0026rdquo; for large firms (Kwong et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2003\u003c/span\u003e; Liu and Wang 2021). The North\u0026rsquo;s tech-driven economy mitigates such attitudes (Cao \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e). Economic factors (e.g., lower income in the South) and weaker enforcement exacerbate these effects (Peng 2013).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIP awareness significantly influences positive IPR attitudes in both regions, with stronger effects in the South (β\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.541, p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001, Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e) than the North (β\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.349, p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001, Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e). The South\u0026rsquo;s lower baseline awareness amplifies its impact, consistent with recent findings on regional education gaps (Wu and Zhao 2023; Li \u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e). Historical trade exposure in Southern ports may facilitate awareness, but sustained education is critical (Huang et al. 2024).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eInsert\u003c/b\u003e Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e \u003cb\u003ehere\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec16\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAlternative Explanations\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eBeyond cultural factors, economic and legal explanations influence IPR attitudes. High costs of legal IP products and limited access drive piracy, particularly in less affluent regions (Peng 2013; Chen et al. 2020). Weak law enforcement, despite improved legislation, reduces infringement\u0026rsquo;s perceived risks, undermining awareness efforts (Dimitrov 2009; Wu and Zhao 2023). Globalization and Western IP norms may shape Northern attitudes more than cultural ethics, explaining regional differences (Nguyen \u003cspan citationid=\"CR49\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e; Liu and Wang 2021). These factors highlight the need for integrated economic, legal, and educational interventions to complement cultural approaches.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis study advances recent literature by empirically demonstrating Confucian ethics\u0026rsquo; positive influence on IPR attitudes (β\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.146, p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.007, Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e), challenging outdated assumptions of incompatibility (Alford \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1995\u003c/span\u003e; Donaldson \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1996\u003c/span\u003e). The strong effect of IP awareness (β\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.426, p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001, Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e) underscores education\u0026rsquo;s role, while regional variations highlight cultural heterogeneity\u0026rsquo;s policy implications (Zhang and Li 2022; Huang et al. 2024). By integrating cultural, social, and economic factors, the findings offer actionable insights for policymakers, emphasizing education and region-specific strategies. Future research should explore enforcement and economic incentives to build on these cultural insights.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec17\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eConclusions and Implications\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis study provides empirical evidence that Confucian ethics, specifically the Five Constant Virtues (Ren, Yi, Li, Zhi, Xin), positively influence Chinese attitudes toward Intellectual Property Rights (IPR) protection, challenging prior assumptions of cultural incompatibility (Alford \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1995\u003c/span\u003e; Donaldson \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1996\u003c/span\u003e). The significant role of IP awareness and regional variations further enriches our understanding of IPR attitudes in China. Below, we discuss implications for theory development, followed by practical and policy implications, drawing on recent literature to advance the field.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec18\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eImplications for Theory Development\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis exploratory study utilized the Five Constant Virtues to measure Confucian ethics, confirming their positive impact on IPR attitudes. This finding opens several avenues for theoretical advancement, addressing the need for a more nuanced understanding of cultural influences on IPR. Recent studies emphasize Confucianism\u0026rsquo;s evolving role in modern ethical behavior (Li et al. 2020; Zhang and Wang 2021), suggesting that future research should extend the conceptualization of Confucian ethics beyond the Wu Chang to include constructs like moral identity (Aquino and Reed 2002; Chen and Liu 2022) and institutional trust (Wu et al. 2023). For instance, integrating the Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) (Ajzen 1991) could elucidate how virtues shape attitudes, norms, and behavioral intentions toward IPR compliance, as Ren fosters empathy and Yi reinforces moral duty (Chan et al. 2010).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eTheoretical models should also incorporate institutional theory to examine how Confucian ethics interact with structural factors, such as economic development, legal enforcement, and global supply chain dynamics (Huang and Zhang 2024; Peng 2013). Li et al. (2020) argue that Confucianism\u0026rsquo;s emphasis on social harmony aligns with institutional trust, potentially amplifying IPR compliance in regions with strong governance. This contrasts with earlier claims that collectivism hinders IPR (Alford \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1995\u003c/span\u003e), as recent evidence suggests Confucianism supports voluntary compliance when framed as a public good (Wu et al. 2023). Future studies could test moderated mediation models, exploring how economic incentives or enforcement mediate Confucian ethics\u0026rsquo; effects, addressing Kirby and Fan\u0026rsquo;s (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1995\u003c/span\u003e) caution against over-relying on cultural explanations.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e The confirmed regional differences highlight cultural heterogeneity\u0026rsquo;s role in IPR attitudes, aligning with recent research on regional cultural impacts (Zhang and Wang 2021; Huang and Zhang 2024). However, the study\u0026rsquo;s participant recruitment limitations restricted broader geographic coverage. Future research should investigate disparities between coastal and landlocked regions, as economic and trade exposure differences shape IPR attitudes (Fleisher et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e; Xie and Zhou \u003cspan citationid=\"CR69\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e; Chen and Liu 2022). For example, coastal areas\u0026rsquo; global integration may weaken Confucian influence compared to inland regions\u0026rsquo; stronger cultural adherence, warranting comparative studies using multilevel modeling to capture regional effects (Wu et al. 2023).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAlternative explanations, such as political institutions, economic disparities, and China\u0026rsquo;s role in global supply chains, should be integrated into theoretical frameworks. Huang and Zhang (2024) note that weak enforcement and economic reliance on manufacturing drive infringement, complementing cultural factors. Institutional theory could bridge these, examining how Confucian ethics interact with regulatory frameworks to shape compliance (Li et al. 2020). This study\u0026rsquo;s empirical refutation of Confucianism\u0026rsquo;s incompatibility with IPR provides a foundation for developing cross-cultural models that compare Confucian-influenced societies (e.g., Japan, South Korea) with Western contexts, advancing global IPR research (Chen and Liu 2022).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec19\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003ePractical and Policy Implications\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003e The positive influence of Confucian ethics suggests that promoting the Wu Chang through moral education can enhance IPR attitudes, particularly in Southern China, where cultural adherence is stronger (Zhang and Wang 2021). Educational campaigns could leverage benevolence (Ren) to foster empathy for creators and righteousness (Yi) to emphasize moral duty, countering collectivist tendencies to share knowledge freely (Wu et al. 2023). Japan\u0026rsquo;s success in integrating Confucian ethics into IP education via public campaigns and school curricula offers a model (Arai \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e; Chen and Liu 2022).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe strong effect of IP awareness underscores the need for targeted interventions. In China, low awareness remains a barrier, as confirmed by recent studies (Wu et al. 2023; Huang and Zhang 2024). Strategies like Japan\u0026rsquo;s orientation sessions or Finland\u0026rsquo;s concise IP guides for entrepreneurs (Hynynen \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e) could be adapted to China\u0026rsquo;s context, using scholastic programs for students and workshops for professionals. These should highlight IPR\u0026rsquo;s social benefits, aligning with Confucian wisdom (Zhi) and innovation goals (Li et al. 2020).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eRegional differences necessitate tailored policies. Southern China\u0026rsquo;s susceptibility to anti-big business attitudes (β = \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;0.193, p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001, see Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e) suggests campaigns to reframe IPR as benefiting all stakeholders, not just large firms (Liu and Wang 2021). Northern China\u0026rsquo;s economic-driven attitudes require enforcement-focused strategies (Nguyen \u003cspan citationid=\"CR49\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e). Coastal vs. landlocked disparities, driven by trade exposure and economic development, should inform future policy design (Chen and Liu 2022).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Conclusions","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis study demonstrates that Confucian ethics, rooted in the Five Constant Virtues, positively shape IPR attitudes, challenging historical misinterpretations of incompatibility (Alford \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1995\u003c/span\u003e). The significant role of IP awareness and regional variations highlights the interplay of cultural, social, and economic factors. While Confucianism remains influential, as evidenced by its enduring presence in interpersonal relationships (Woods and Lamond \u003cspan citationid=\"CR68\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e; Zhang and Wang 2021), structural factors like enforcement and economic incentives are critical (Huang and Zhang 2024). By integrating cultural and institutional perspectives, this study advances theoretical and practical understanding of IPR in China, offering a foundation for future cross-cultural and regional research.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis study has several limitations. The findings are based on self-reported attitudes rather than observed behaviors, creating a potential attitude-behavior gap, and the cross-sectional design precludes definitive causal claims. Furthermore, the sample may not fully represent China\u0026rsquo;s regional and demographic diversity, limiting generalizability, while the measurement of complex constructs like Confucian ethics risks oversimplification. Finally, responses may be influenced by social desirability bias, potentially inflating the positive relationship reported.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003ch2\u003e\u003cb\u003eEthical approval\u003c/b\u003e:\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003e Approval was obtained from the ethics committee of University of Nottingham Ningbo China (No. 20171113) on 13th November 2017. The survey process and procedures used in this study adhere to the tenets of the Declaration of Helsinki.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cb\u003eInformed consent\u003c/b\u003e:\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cp\u003e Informed consent was obtained from all individual participants included in the study between 30th November 2017 and 1st June 2018.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cb\u003eConflict of interest\u003c/b\u003e:\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cp\u003eauthors have no conflict of interest to declare\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eFunding\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis research is supported by the Arts and Humanities Research Council (RGS 116357).\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAuthor Contribution\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eP.T and Q.W wrote the main manuscript text, X.S and E. L secured the funding and reviewed the manuscript. S.C. and S.W collected the data and reviewed the manuscript.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eData Availability\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eData can be provided upone reasonable request.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAdler J (2011) Confucianism in China Today. \u003cem\u003ePearson Living Religions Forum\u003c/em\u003e. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttp://www2.kenyon.edu/Depts/Religion/Fac/Adler/Writings/Confucianism Today.pdf\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"http://www2.kenyon.edu/Depts/Religion/Fac/Adler/Writings/Confucianism Today.pdf\" targettype=\"URL\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAlford W (1995) To Steal a Book Is an Elegant Offense: Intellectual Property Law in Chinese Civilization. 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J Asia-Pac Bus 10(4):308\u0026ndash;325\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Attitudes towards IPR protection, Awareness of Intellectual Property, Confucianism","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7257082/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-7257082/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eMany have argued that cultural factors are the main reasons for the high level of IP infringement in China. Confucianism has been often regarded as the main factor that leads to the nation’s negative attitudes towards IPR protection. Based on an interpretation of the Five Constant Virtues of Confucianism under their historical contexts, we hypothesize a positive relationship between Confucian ethics and attitude towards IPR protection. Our survey of 515 Chinese participants supports the hypothesized relationship. The results suggest that the strong influence of Confucian ethics can contribute to positive attitudes towards IPR protection. Furthermore, our findings strongly suggest that a low level of public IP awareness is one of the leading causes of the low acceptance of the concept of IPR and the high level of IP infringement in China.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eJEL: O31, O33, O34, O35, O36\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Confucianism, IP awareness, and Intellectual Property Rights in China","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-11-17 06:28:26","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7257082/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"22621697-2b29-43b0-94a4-216f298dcaa9","owner":[],"postedDate":"November 17th, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[{"id":57948909,"name":"Humanities/Cultural and media studies"},{"id":57948910,"name":"Social science/Cultural and media studies"},{"id":57948911,"name":"Social science/Politics and international relations"},{"id":57948912,"name":"Social science/Social policy"}],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2025-12-30T08:40:00+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2025-11-17 06:28:26","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-7257082","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-7257082","identity":"rs-7257082","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}