Effects of different vacuum frying temperature and times on the quality and volatile flavor substances of shredded pork

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Textural analysis indicated significant alterations in hardness, chewiness, and elasticity due to different frying durations. Comparative analysis of total amino values (TAV) across sample groups showed that freshness indices reached 150.51, 187.76, and 196.56, while sweet amino acids increased to 72.57, 92.97, and 97.45, and bitter amino acids rose to 109.11, 161.79, and 172.62, respectively. Gas chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry (GC×GC-MS) demonstrated an increase in the number of volatile flavor compounds during vacuum frying at the specified temperatures. From an initial 24 volatile compounds detected in raw meat, the count rose to 41, 39, and 65 volatile compounds after 16 minutes of frying at 75°C, 85°C, and 95°C, respectively. Alcohols were the most prevalent among the volatile flavor components, ranging from 4.28–10.28%, while other volatile flavor substances were detected in smaller amounts. The results indicate that vacuum frying shredded pork at 75°C for 13 minutes optimizes product quality, supporting its application for continuous industrial production. This condition effectively enhances the texture and flavor profile of shredded pork. Physical sciences/Engineering/Chemical engineering Physical sciences/Chemistry/Process chemistry Vacuum frying Industrialization Shredded meat Free amino acid Flavor substances Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Introduction Pork meat is renowned not only for its high protein content and nutritional value but also for its distinct taste. Flavored shredded pork, a traditional Chinese dish favored by both locals and international enthusiasts, is commonly prepared both in homes and restaurants. The dish involves an initial seasoning followed by vacuum frying [ 1 ] . However, the traditional method of preparing shredded pork is both time-consuming and labor-intensive, making it less suited to the fast-paced modern lifestyle. In response to the demands of contemporary life, convenience or ready-to-eat foods, which are produced on a large industrial scale, offer a practical alternative. These products can be consumed directly or require minimal preparation before consumption, thus simplifying the traditional, more laborious processes [ 2 , 3 ] . Among these, seasoned meat products stand out. These are semi-finished or pre-processed items made from meat or its edible by-products, which only need simple cooking techniques after being processed through tumbling and seasoning. These products form an essential part of Sichuan cuisine and include popular dishes such as yushiang shredded pork and sautéed shredded pork with green peppers. While current industrial production of shredded meat products predominantly employs ordinary frying and vacuum frying techniques, these methods are quite similar and do not fully satisfy the evolving consumer demand for diverse, nutritious, and healthy modern foods. Frying is one of the oldest and most popular cooking methods worldwide, involving the immersion of food in oil or fat heated above the boiling point of water, typically between 150°C and 200°C [ 4 , 5 ] . The oil uptake during frying involves several mechanisms, including water release, capillary pressure, oil adherence and drainage, vacuum effects, and vapor condensation [ 6 , 7 ] . Factors such as the type and age of frying oil, pre-and post-frying treatments, frying duration, and methods significantly influence oil absorption and the ultimate quality of the fried products [ 8 , 9 ] . However, conventional frying can lead to health concerns. The process accelerates the non-enzymatic browning reaction in reducing sugars, resulting in the formation of acrylamide, which, when consumed excessively, is linked to serious health issues. Additionally, the consumption of fried foods is associated with significant health risks, including coronary heart disease, cancer, diabetes, and hypertension [ 10 ] . These concerns are at odds with the growing consumer demand for healthier, low-fat food options, highlighting the critical need for the development of healthier frying techniques that align with both consumer preferences and industry standards. Vacuum frying is a cooking technique performed at pressures significantly lower than atmospheric pressure, utilizing lower temperatures and reduced oxygen exposure [ 11 ] . This method is gaining popularity due to its multiple benefits, such as preserving the nutritional value of the food, reducing oil content in fried products, maintaining natural color and flavors, and decreasing fat degradation [12–14] . Vacuum frying operates under reduced pressures (below 60 Torr-8 kPa), which lowers the boiling points of both the oil and the food's moisture content [ 15 , 16 ] . This process, conducted in a sealed container, typically results in shorter cooking times and lower temperatures compared to traditional frying methods [ 17 ] . Andrés-Bello et al. investigated the effects of oil temperature and pressure conditions on the drying process and oil absorption of sea bream fillets and found that, compared with results from traditional frying, the oil content of the vacuum-fried fish fillets was lower and the oil quality was preserved [ 18 ] . The lower processing temperatures also help retain flavors and nutrients while minimizing the formation of harmful compounds [ 19 , 20 ] . Flavor, encompassing both taste and aroma, ranks as one of the most crucial qualities of meat products and significantly influences consumer purchasing decisions. The formation of flavor is a complex process primarily involving odor and taste components. Odor consists of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) such as aldehydes, ketones, alcohols, esters, hydrocarbons, and acids. In contrast, taste includes non-volatile compounds like free amino acids (FAAs), nucleotides, and organic acids [21] . Research has consistently shown that the sensory attributes of food, including aroma, flavor, and texture, are key factors in consumer preferences. However, the perception of flavor involves intricate interactions among hundreds of molecules, both at physicochemical and sensory levels, making the analysis and quantification of flavor compounds a technical and labor-intensive challenge. Techniques such as electronic noses, gas chromatography, and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) are extensively utilized for the characterization [ 22 , 23 ] , quantitative analysis [24,25] and identification in the study of food flavors, with significant effects. Bojanowski and Hummel [ 26 ] differentiate between 'odor' perceived orthogonally, and 'aroma' detected retronasal. Flavoring substances in food are microscopic, water-soluble molecules that include a variety of free amino acids, salts, and nucleotides, many of which are abundant in meat products. The objectives of this study are twofold. First, it aims to assess the effects of various vacuum frying temperatures and durations on shredded pork by evaluating sensory attributes, textural characteristics, and free amino acid profiles. Second, the study seeks to examine the impact of frying duration on the flavor of shredded pork through the use of comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry (GC×GC-MS). Additionally, the research employs low-temperature vacuum frying technology to develop a method for producing shredded meat products that are both nutritious and healthier on an industrial scale. This technology is designed to produce deep-fried seasoned foods that not only offer enhanced flavor and taste but also improved safety and nutritional value. Methods Materials Pork tenderloins and seasoning were purchased from a local supermarket in Chengdu, Sichuan Province. N-alkanes (purity > 99%) and analytically pure lead dichlorobenzene were purchased from Sigma-Aldrich (Shanghai, China); and analytically pure sodium chloride (NaCl) was purchased from Chengdu Develop Technology Co., Ltd. (Chengdu, China) Minimal processing Pork tenderloin slices were first trimmed of excess fat and connective tissue, rinsed immediately under cold water, and then uniformly shredded to a size of approximately 3 mm in thickness and 50 mm in length. A marinade was prepared, consisting of 5% salt, 2% sugar, and 0.5% mixed spices dissolved in water. This marinade was divided into equal proportions tailored for the different meat samples. The shredded pork was then submerged in the marinade for 30 minutes at room temperature (26°C), ensuring that the shreds were thoroughly and evenly coated. Next, approximately 30 liters of fresh soybean oil were poured into the low-temperature vacuum fryer, filling it to approximately two-thirds of its capacity. This specific volume ensured an optimal pork to oil ratio of 1:6, crucial for consistent frying quality without overcrowding the fryer. It's important to note that the soybean oil used was fresh and not reused from previous sessions to maintain the flavor integrity and avoid the breakdown products from repeated heating. The shredded pork tenderloin samples were then laid flat on the rack inside the vacuum fryer, prepared for the frying process. The vacuum frying parameters were meticulously set to optimize the cooking process: a vacuum level of 0.086 MPa was maintained; the pork had a resting time outside the frying kettle of 3 seconds, and inside the frying kettle for 10 seconds; degreasing time was fixed at 1 minute. The frying temperatures were set at 75, 85 and 95°C, and the frying times were 4, 7, 10, 13 and 16 minutes, respectively. After each specified frying duration, the cooked shredded pork was carefully removed from the vacuum fryer and set aside on a cooling rack. This allowed any excess oil to drain away effectively and ensured the meat was ready for subsequent data measurement to assess quality parameters like texture, moisture content, and flavor profile. Determination of mass structure A modified version of the test previously described by Yu et al. [27] was used to determine the structure of the differently treated shredded pork samples. In this experiment, the textural properties of the meat such as hardness, flexibility, and chewiness were examined to evaluate the effect of four different vacuum frying times at three temperatures on shredded pork. To ensure the accuracy of the texture analysis, it was crucial to use uniformly sized samples. The shredded pork was meticulously prepared by cutting it into consistent dimensions of approximately 3 mm in thickness and 50 mm in length. This uniformity was crucial for reliable texture analysis, as it reduces variability in the test results. For the textural analysis, a TA-XTPLUS texture analyzer (Stable Micro Systems, UK) was employed. However, considering the irregular shape and varying texture of shredded pork, a customized approach was adopted instead of the standard uniaxial compression test. The texture was assessed using a specialized grip fixture designed to hold shredded pieces securely during testing, mimicking the way these shreds would typically interact with teeth during chewing. The testing parameters were set as follows: pre-test speed at 5 mm/sec, mid-test speed at 5 mm/sec, and post-test speed at 5 mm/sec, with an initial test height of 30 mm and a trigger force of 5 g. The compression thickness ratio was adjusted to 50%, tailored to the unique form and consistency of shredded pork to obtain more representative data regarding its textural properties. Determination of free amino acid content The contents of free amino acids (FAAs) in the samples were measured as previously described by Nie et al. [ 28 ] , the main operations of which are summarized as follows: First, 0.3 g sample powder (0.3 g) was added to 10 mL of 3.5% sulfosalicylic acid, and this mixture was then centrifuged at 12,000 rpm for 15 min. The supernatant was further filtered through a 0.22 µm membrane filter. FAA contents in the filtrate were determined using an amino acid analyzer (AAA L-8900, Hitachi High-Technologies Co., Tokyo, Ja-pan). Determination of flavor Headspace solid-phase microextraction (HS-SPME) GC×GC-MS analysis of the volatile compounds in the vacuum-fried shredded meat samples was performed as described by Laurienzo et al. [ 29 ] . The powdered meat was placed in a 100 ml glass vial, followed by 4 uL 2-chlorobenzaldehyde as the internal standard (IS). The same amount of sample (0.2 g dry weight) was used to assay each differently treated group, to maintain a consistent sample-to-headspace ratio (8 ± 0.5%). A 75 um carboxen/polydimethylsiloxane (CAR/PDMS) fiber, preconditioned at 250°C for 20 min prior to analysis, was used to extract the volatile compounds from the powdered samples. The fiber was inserted into the sample vial through the septum and exposed to the HS for 35 min at 60°C to collect the analytes, with the distance between fiber tip and sample bed maintained at approximately 1 cm. The fiber was subsequently removed from the vial and inserted into the injection port of the GC-MS apparatus for analysis of the volatile compounds. Relative contents were calculated on the basis of peak area percentage, as presented here. Uniformity was maintained in the peaks of the 2-chlorobenzaldehyde in the GC-MS total ion chromatograms of all samples to ensure the stability of both the instruments and the protocol. GC conditions: Analyte removal from the fiber was carried out by maintaining an injector temperature of 250°C. Volatiles were separated using a 5% phenylmethyl silicone (HP-5) bounded phase fused silica capillary column, operating at 80 kPa column heads pressure, and resulting in a flow of 0.8 mL/min. The oven temperature was set at 45°C for 2 min, then raised to 130°C at a rate of 5°C/min, ramped up to 200°C at a rate of 8°C/min and, finally, increased to 230°C at a rate of 5°C/min and maintained isothermally for 4 min [ 29 ] . MS conditions: The electron ionization source temperature was maintained at 200°C and mass spectra were obtained via electronic impact at 70 eV. The temperature of the interface and quadrupole were 280°C and 150°C, respectively. Data was collected at a rate of 1/scan over the range of 41–330 [ 30 ] . Sensory analysis The sensory characteristics of the differently treated shredded pork samples were evaluated by a trained panel of 20 students from the College of Food and Bioengineering at Xihua University, following the methodology described by Li et al. [ 31 ] . The samples were rigorously scored based on sensory evaluation criteria outlined in Table 1 , focusing on four sensory attributes: texture, taste, aroma, and color. Each attribute was assessed on a four-level scale using a 25-point hedonic scale, where a lower score indicated poorer sample quality. All samples were presented to each panelist for evaluation. Panelists were provided with spring water to rinse their mouths between tasting sessions [ 2 ] . The study protocol was reviewed and approved by the Xihua University Institutional Review Board (IRB), and informed consent was obtained from each participant prior to the study. Table 1 The sensory evaluation standard. Description Excellent(20 ~ 25) Normal(9 ~ 19) Poor(1 ~ 8) Texture Chewy, soft and firm, tender and elastic meat. Average chewiness, slightly lacking in softness, tender meat and good elasticity. No chewy, too soft or too hard, flesh wood, old, poor elasticity. Taste It is moderately salty with a fresh flavor and moderate taste. The saltiness is moderate, the freshness is light and the taste is average. Salty and unpleasant, with bitterness and poor taste. Smell Strong aroma, with the characteristic aroma of cooked meat, no other odor. The fragrance is too thin. Almost no aroma and odor. Color Good color, glossy, uniform and consistent. Better color, not enough gloss, basically uniform and consistent. The color is very poor, dull and lusterless. Statistical Analysis The tests in this investigation were carried out in triplicate. Statistical significance analysis was performed by Tukey’s test (p < 0.05), using Statistical Product and Service Solutions software (version 25.0; SPSS, Chicago, IL, USA). Principal component analysis (PCA) was performed using Origin software (OriginLab Corporation, Northampton, MA, USA). Results and Discussion Changes in qualitative structure Textural characteristics such as hardness, elasticity and chewiness are the main basis upon which consumers evaluate the quality of meat products. This study examined the impact of varying frying temperatures and durations on the textural properties of shredded meat, specifically hardness, elasticity, and chewiness. The results, presented in Fig. 1 , indicate that changes in frying conditions significantly influenced these textural properties. With increasing frying temperature and time, there was a general increase in hardness and chewiness, whereas elasticity decreased. The data show marked increases in hardness and chewiness for samples in groups A, B, and C. Notably, the hardness and chewiness values for groups B and C were higher than those for group A (p < 0.05). For instance, after vacuum frying at 75°C for 4 minutes, the hardness of the product escalated from 4084 g to 18076 g, and chewiness from 1648 g to 13826 g. Following 13 minutes of vacuum frying at 85°C and 95°C, the hardness values recorded were 11883 g and 13153 g, respectively, while chewiness was noted at 7153 g and 10719 g. These figures for hardness and chewiness were lower at 75°C for 13 minutes, measuring 8393 g and 5134 g respectively, significantly lower than those observed at 85°C and 95°C (p < 0.05).In terms of elasticity, at 75°C, the measurements demonstrated a trend of initial increase followed by a decrease, recording values of 0.677 g, 0.834 g, 0.861 g, 0.872 g, and 0.811 g. At temperatures of 85°C and 95°C, elasticity decreased progressively with extended frying times, decreasing from 0.862 g and 0.877 g to 0.777 g and 0.726 g, respectively. It is evident that vacuum frying time has a significant influence on the hardness of shredded pork. Textural changes in fried products are primarily driven by the combined effects of heat and mass transfer, along with chemical reactions occurring during the frying process [ 32 ] . These changes are mainly attributed to protein denaturation, moisture loss, and tissue browning [ 33 ] , all of which play a critical role in shaping consumer perceptions and acceptance of the final product [ 34 ] . The increased hardness observed in shredded pork may be attributed to extensive water loss and the contraction of muscle proteins upon denaturation, which reduces the inter-fiber space and promotes the formation of a dry surface layer under thermal conditions. Similar observations were reported by Garayo and Moreira [ 14 ] . Furthermore, studies by Song et al. and Su et al. revealed that during vacuum frying, potato chips initially exhibited a leathery yet flexible texture, but rapidly became brittle as frying progressed [35,36] . This brittleness is likely the result of accelerated moisture evaporation, which contributes to the development of a crispier structure. In the present study, the observed changes in elasticity may be associated with the uneven thermal denaturation of myofibrillar proteins such as myosin and actin. Overall, frying temperature and time were found to exert significant effects on the hardness, chewiness, and elasticity of shredded pork. Prolonged frying at elevated temperatures further exacerbated these effects, ultimately compromising the meat’s texture and palatability. Effect of different vacuum frying temperature and times on FAAs Variations in taste thresholds and amino acid concentrations contribute to the complex and diverse flavor profiles of food products. To evaluate the relative contributions of individual amino acids to taste perception, the Taste Activity Value (TAV) is commonly employed. In this study, a comparative analysis of TAVs among differently treated groups indicated that vacuum frying generally enhanced the freshness of shredded pork. As shown in Table 2 , Glu and Asp were the most abundant free amino acids in all vacuum-fried samples. The cumulative TAVs of umami-related amino acids increased from 128.31 to 150.15, 127.44 to 187.76, and 144.43 to 196.56 under the three tested temperature conditions, respectively. Similarly, the TAVs of sweet amino acids increased from 67.05 to 72.57, 60.90 to 92.97, and 97.45 to 68.27, while the TAVs of bitter amino acids rose from 108.84 to 109.11, 85.05 to 161.79, and 106.59 to 172.62, respectively. These findings suggest that vacuum frying can enhance the umami and sweet flavor characteristics of shredded pork. However, with prolonged frying time, the content of free amino acids increased across all temperature groups, resulting in a general upward trend in the TAVs of umami and sweet amino acids. At the same time, the TAVs of bitter amino acids also increased significantly. Notably, in the 85°C and 95°C groups, when the vacuum frying time reached 13 and 16 minutes, the TAVs for bitter amino acids exceeded 170. Combined with sensory evaluations, this level of bitterness was considered undesirable, indicating that prolonged vacuum frying at higher temperatures leads to a perceptibly bitter taste, which negatively impacts product acceptability. Comprehensive analysis of the TAVs across different treatments suggests that vacuum frying at 75°C for 13 minutes yields the most favorable sensory profile. Under this condition, the TAVs of umami and sweet amino acids were relatively high, while the TAV of bitter amino acids remained low. Additionally, comparative analysis of the free amino acid content under varying frying temperatures further supports the conclusion that moderate temperature and time conditions are optimal for enhancing the taste quality of vacuum-fried shredded pork. Table 2 Contents of free amino acids and TAV (dry base) in shredded meat under different vacuum frying time. Amino acid types temperature Content (g/100g) Taste Properties Threshold TAV value Raw meat 4min 7min 10min 13min 16min Raw meat 4min 7min 10min 13min 16min Asp 75℃ 2.01 ± 0.01c 1.97 ± 0.10c 2.23 ± 0.04b 2.27 ± 0.06b 2.28 ± 0.06b 2.43 ± 0.05a Fresh Flavor(+) 0.1 20.13 19.70 22.28 22.67 22.83 24.38 85℃ 2.01 ± 0.01c 2.13 ± 0.03c 2.44 ± 0.05a 2.43 ± 0.04b 3.27 ± 0.02c 21.31 24.42 24.32 32.66 30.78 95℃ 2.39 ± 0.05c 2.58 ± 0.01c 3.32 ± 0.01a 3.34 ± 0.01b 3.23 ± 0.02c 23.86 25.84 33.15 33.44 32.35 Thr 75℃ 1.03 ± 0.01ab 0.82 ± 0.01c 0.96 ± 0.02b 0.97 ± 0.04b 1.00 ± 0.04ab 1.09 ± 0.02a Sweetness(+) 0.26 3.98 3.16 3.70 3.73 3.83 4.18 85℃ 0.93 ± 0.02c 1.09 ± 0.03c 1.08 ± 0.02a 1.51 ± 0.01b 1.41 ± 0.03c 3.58 4.20 4.16 5.81 5.42 95℃ 1.06 ± 0.02c 1.16 ± 0.02c 1.53 ± 0.02a 1.56 ± 0.01b 1.49 ± 0.01c 4.08 4.45 5.88 5.98 5.72 Ser 75℃ 0.87 ± 0.02ab 0.69 ± 0.01c 0.80 ± 0.02b 0.83 ± 0.03b 0.83 ± 0.02b 0.91 ± 0.03a Sweetness(+) 0.15 5.77 4.60 5.32 5.53 5.52 6.12 85℃ 0.85 ± 0.02c 0.77 ± 0.01c 0.91 ± 0.02b 0.90 ± 0.01b 1.28 ± 0.01c 5.16 6.06 5.99 8.56 7.96 95℃ 0.89 ± 0.02c 0.98 ± 0.01c 1.29 ± 0.04b 1.32 ± 0.01b 1.24 ± 0.02c 5.94 6.51 8.59 8.83 8.27 Glu 75℃ 3.25 ± 0.01b 2.89 ± 0.01c 3.34 ± 0.08b 3.43 ± 0.10b 3.47 ± 0.02b 3.77 ± 0.04a Fresh Flavor(+) 0.03 108.18 96.23 111.45 114.20 115.55 125.77 85℃ 3.18 ± 0.04c 3.65 ± 0.12c 3.60 ± 0.07a 5.00 ± 0.03b 4.71 ± 0.07c 106.13 121.77 119.92 165.10 156.98 95℃ 3.62 ± 0.07c 3.96 ± 0.03c 4.96 ± 0.02a 5.09 ± 0.01b 4.93 ± 0.01c 120.57 131.90 165.30 169.77 164.22 Gly 75℃ 0.89 ± 0.01ab 0.78 ± 0.03b 0.85 ± 0.01ab 0.91 ± 0.06a 0.89 ± 0.04ab 0.96 ± 0.02a Sweetness(+) 0.13 6.88 6.03 6.56 6.99 6.83 7.40 85℃ 0.89 ± 0.01b 0.82 ± 0.01b 0.99 ± 0.01a 0.99 ± 0.01a 1.36 ± 0.03b 6.29 7.58 7.59 10.47 9.63 95℃ 0.94 ± 0.02b 1.01 ± 0.01b 1.32 ± 0.01a 1.37 ± 0.04a 1.30 ± 0.01b 7.21 7.76 10.14 10.57 10.08 Ala 75℃ 1.23 ± 0.01ab 1.04 ± 0.01c 1.16 ± 0.02abc 1.13 ± 0.11bc 1.20 ± 0.03abc 1.33 ± 0.02a Sweetness(+) 0.06 20.42 17.31 19.34 18.78 20.08 22.09 85℃ 1.23 ± 0.01c 1.13 ± 0.02c 1.34 ± 0.03a 1.32 ± 0.01b 1.85 ± 0.01c 18.89 22.28 21.96 30.85 28.46 95℃ 1.29 ± 0.04c 1.41 ± 0.01c 1.83 ± 0.04a 1.87 ± 0.02b 1.79 ± 0.02c 21.46 23.43 30.44 31.12 29.89 Cys 75℃ 0.07 ± 0.01a 0.09 ± 0.01a 0.11 ± 0.01a 0.11 ± 0.01a 0.09 ± 0.02a 0.10 ± 0.02a Bitterness、Sweetness(-) - - - - - - - 85℃ 0.10 ± 0.01a 0.10 ± 0.01b 0.08 ± 0.01a 0.11 ± 0.01a 0.11 ± 0.03a - - - - - - 95℃ 0.10 ± 0.01a 0.10 ± 0.02b 0.12 ± 0.01a 0.12 ± 0.01a 0.10 ± 0.01a - - - - - - Val 75℃ 1.04 ± 0.01bc 0.50 ± 0.01c 0.61 ± 0.02b 0.62 ± 0.01bc 0.66 ± 0.02b 0.74 ± 0.02a Sweetness、Bitterness(-) 0.04 15.88 12.58 15.15 15.54 16.58 18.45 85℃ 0.56 ± 0.02c 0.72 ± 0.04cd 0.71 ± 0.02a 1.16 ± 0.01b 1.04 ± 0.03d 14.09 18.04 17.73 29.01 26.08 95℃ 0.67 ± 0.03c 0.76 ± 0.01cd 1.12 ± 0.01a 1.19 ± 0.01b 1.14 ± 0.02d 16.79 18.99 28.08 29.69 28.43 Met 75℃ 0.62 ± 0.01ab 0.29 ± 0.01d 0.37 ± 0.01bc 0.33 ± 0.04cd 0.36 ± 0.02bc 0.44 ± 0.01a Bitterness、Sweetness(-) 0.03 13.83 9.55 12.27 10.95 11.98 14.57 85℃ 0.34 ± 0.03c 0.43 ± 0.03c 0.40 ± 0.01a 0.65 ± 0.02ab 0.59 ± 0.02bc 11.30 14.17 13.22 21.60 19.80 95℃ 0.41 ± 0.03c 0.45 ± 0.01c 0.61 ± 0.04a 0.65 ± 0.05ab 0.64 ± 0.01bc 13.62 15.12 20.33 21.67 21.38 Ile 75℃ 0.98 ± 0.01ab 0.82 ± 0.01c 0.92 ± 0.02b 0.92 ± 0.03b 0.96 ± 0.03b 1.05 ± 0.03a Bitterness(-) 0.09 10.86 9.12 10.26 10.22 10.69 11.65 85℃ 0.88 ± 0.02c 1.04 ± 0.02c 1.05 ± 0.03a 1.44 ± 0.01b 1.33 ± 0.03c 9.80 11.56 11.72 15.98 14.77 95℃ 0.99 ± 0.03c 1.07 ± 0.01c 1.42 ± 0.01a 1.47 ± 0.01b 1.46 ± 0.03c 10.96 11.93 15.82 16.35 16.25 Leu 75℃ 1.75 ± 0.01b 1.44 ± 0.01a 1.61 ± 0.02c 1.69 ± 0.02bc 1.68 ± 0.04bc 1.86 ± 0.03a Bitterness(-) 0.19 9.20 7.57 8.49 8.91 8.84 9.80 85℃ 1.58 ± 0.04c 1.86 ± 0.04c 1.86 ± 0.04a 2.60 ± 0.01b 2.41 ± 0.05c 8.30 9.80 9.80 13.71 12.71 95℃ 1.84 ± 0.05c 2.00 ± 0.02c 2.64 ± 0.01a 2.69 ± 0.01b 2.61 ± 0.03c 9.68 10.52 13.89 14.14 13.72 Tyr 75℃ 0.74 ± 0.01b 0.64 ± 0.01a 0.69 ± 0.01c 0.74 ± 0.02b 0.72 ± 0.02bc 0.80 ± 0.01a Bitterness(-) - - - - - - - 85℃ 0.70 ± 0.02cd 0.84 ± 0.02b 0.86 ± 0.02a 1.13 ± 0.01a 1.06 ± 0.03bc - - - - - - 95℃ 0.82 ± 0.01cd 0.91 ± 0.01b 1.17 ± 0.01a 1.20 ± 0.03a 1.18 ± 0.01bc - - - - - - Phe 75℃ 0.85 ± 0.01cd 0.80 ± 0.01d 0.88 ± 0.02bc 0.92 ± 0.02b 0.85 ± 0.03cd 0.98 ± 0.01a Bitterness(-) 0.09 9.42 8.87 9.74 10.23 9.42 10.90 85℃ 0.82 ± 0.04c 0.96 ± 0.01c 0.98 ± 0.01a 1.36 ± 0.04b 1.20 ± 0.03cd 9.07 10.69 10.86 15.06 13.36 95℃ 0.92 ± 0.02c 1.00 ± 0.02c 1.32 ± 0.01a 1.35 ± 0.01b 1.31 ± 0.01cd 10.22 11.07 14.62 14.99 14.53 Lys 75℃ 1.95 ± 0.01b 0.61 ± 0.02c 0.83 ± 0.04b 0.94 ± 0.02b 0.91 ± 0.06b 1.06 ± 0.04a Sweetness、Bitterness(-) 0.05 18.90 12.25 16.63 18.72 18.10 21.27 85℃ 0.76 ± 0.04c 1.56 ± 0.03c 1.06 ± 0.04a 1.87 ± 0.01b 1.63 ± 0.05c 15.14 31.14 21.20 37.30 32.68 95℃ 0.99 ± 0.03c 1.17 ± 0.01c 1.89 ± 0.02a 1.92 ± 0.01b 1.83 ± 0.02c 19.73 23.43 37.79 38.45 36.63 His 75℃ 1.19 ± 0.02a 0.23 ± 0.01c 0.29 ± 0.02c 0.32 ± 0.02bc 0.34 ± 0.03bc 0.45 ± 0.01b Bitterness(-) 0.02 30.75 11.28 14.33 16.15 17.00 22.48 85℃ 0.35 ± 0.04c 0.52 ± 0.02c 0.54 ± 0.04a 0.94 ± 0.01b 0.85 ± 0.04c 17.35 26.18 27.23 47.10 42.40 95℃ 0.51 ± 0.02c 0.58 ± 0.02c 0.81 ± 0.01a 0.85 ± 0.01b 0.83 ± 0.02c 25.60 28.75 40.48 42.68 41.68 Arg 75℃ 1.35 ± 0.01b 1.20 ± 0.01c 1.32 ± 0.04b 1.36 ± 0.04b 1.41 ± 0.03ab 1.48 ± 0.02a Bitterness、Sweetness(+) 0.05 26.90 23.99 26.33 27.24 28.11 29.55 85℃ 1.42 ± 0.10cd 1.22 ± 0.04c 1.45 ± 0.01a 1.46 ± 0.02b 2.05 ± 0.01de 24.37 29.02 29.28 40.89 37.31 95℃ 1.51 ± 0.01cd 1.32 ± 0.03c 1.52 ± 0.01a 2.02 ± 0.03b 2.02 ± 0.03de 26.48 30.41 40.37 40.40 39.19 Pro 75℃ 0.94 ± 0.07a 0.86 ± 0.03a 0.87 ± 0.03a 0.94 ± 0.02a 0.89 ± 0.01a 0.97 ± 0.05a Sweetness、Bitterness(+) 0.30 23.10 2.88 2.89 3.14 2.98 3.22 85℃ 0.78 ± 0.02c 0.97 ± 0.01c 1.01 ± 0.03a 1.37 ± 0.02a 1.26 ± 0.01b 2.62 3.23 3.38 4.55 4.18 95℃ 0.93 ± 0.03c 0.96 ± 0.05c 1.33 ± 0.01a 1.38 ± 0.04a 1.29 ± 0.02b 3.10 3.20 4.42 4.60 4.30 Total amino acids 75℃ 20.72 ± 0.21b 15.67 ± 0.04c 17.82 ± 0.27b 18.43 ± 0.54b 18.53 ± 0.64b 20.43 ± 0.28a 85℃ 17.06 ± 0.43c 20.87 ± 0.09b 20.34 ± 0.40c 28.88 ± 0.03b 26.71 ± 0.58b 95℃ 19.68 ± 0.56a 21.61 ± 0.03c 28.68 ± 0.01a 29.40 ± 0.01a 28.34 ± 0.19b Data are presented as mean ± SD (n = 5, for FAA) or mean (TAV). Means with different letters within a row are significantly different (p < 0.05). TAV, taste activity value; (+), pleasant; (− ), unpleasant. FAAs are critical contributors to the flavor profile of shredded pork [ 37 ] . They not only constitute a major portion of non-volatile flavor compounds in meat products, but also serve as precursors for both characteristic and volatile flavor substances. Two potential explanations may account for the observed results. First, the activity of endogenous muscle proteolytic enzymes, such as protein hydrolases and aminopeptidases, may be inhibited under vacuum conditions, thereby reducing the production of FAAs. Second, some FAAs may leach into the seasoning or marinade solution during processing, leading to lower FAA levels in vacuum-fried samples compared to fresh meat [38] . As vacuum frying time increases, the content of FAAs gradually rises due to the thermal degradation of proteins [ 39 ] . This increase may also be influenced by enzymes such as cellulase and protease, produced by microorganisms, which contribute to cell wall disintegration, protein breakdown, and the subsequent release of FAAs [ 40 , 41 ] . The perceived freshness of the vacuum-fried shredded pork can be attributed to the content and composition of flavor-contributing amino acids in the muscle. Among the various FAAs detected in differently treated samples, glutamic acid and aspartic acid were consistently found in the highest concentrations [ 42 ] . Of all taste-contributing amino acids, glutamic acid exhibited both the highest concentration and the highest TAV, indicating its predominant role in enhancing the umami flavor of the vacuum-fried meat. Additionally, as reported by Moerdijk-Poortvliet et al., glutamate and aspartic acid demonstrate strong synergistic interactions with umami nucleotides, further amplifying umami perception [ 43 ] . In the vacuum-fried shredded meat, the main source of fresh flavor from FAAs was glutamate. In the vacuum-fried shredded pork, glutamate was identified as the principal FAA responsible for the fresh flavor. Among the sweet-tasting amino acids, alanine and arginine showed significantly higher TAVs than other components, indicating their major contribution to the sweetness of the vacuum-fried product [44] . This finding concurs with the findings of Zhang et al. [ 45 ] , in which threonine and alanine were the primary FAAs in ultrasound-treated spiced beef. Although the content of bitter amino acids in the vacuum-fried shredded pork meat was lower than that of fresh amino acids, the TAVs of valine, methionine, lysine and histidine were all higher than the other amino acids and, consequently, had some influence on the meat’s overall taste. Effect of different vacuum frying temperature and times on flavor characteristics GC×GC-MS analysis of vacuum-fried shredded meat samples revealed a variety of flavor substances as detailed in Figs. 2 -A, 2 -B, and 2 -C. Figure 2 -A shows that 24, 24, 29, 31, 36, and 42 flavor substances were detected in fresh meat and at 4, 7, 10, 13, and 16 minutes of frying, respectively. According to Fig. 2 -B, 41, 44, 39, 45, and 39 flavor substances were identified at 4, 7, 10, 13, and 16 minutes, respectively. Figure 2 -C indicates that fresh meat and the same respective frying intervals yielded 60, 67, 53, 54, and 65 flavor substances. Additionally, the alcohol content in minced meat increased following vacuum frying. Under three different temperature conditions, alcohol represented the highest percentage of volatile flavor components, ranging from 4.28–9.14%, 4.27–9.54%, and 4.28–10.28%, respectively. The aldehydes in the minced meat after vacuum vacuum frying mainly consisted of n-octanoic acid, fexofenal, n-hexanal and benzaldehyde, of which n-hexanal accounted for 1.77%~11.17%, 7.66%~16.04% and 7.66%~9.20%, respectively. As shown in Fig. 3 , the highest concentrations of hexanal compounds were 718.59 ng/g, 215.26 ng/g, and 117.58 ng/g, respectively, after vacuum frying time of 13 min. Esters were mainly biosynthesized by fatty acid decomposition, peroxidation, esterification, and alcoholysis. They accounted for 0.49%~1.78%, 0.12%~1.35% and 0.10%~1.08% of the total volatile flavor content, respectively. Other volatile flavor substances, which accounted for a lower percentage of total volatile flavor substances, were also present in shredded meat. In summary, the greatest diversity and highest concentrations of aldehydes and esters were observed in shredded pork samples vacuum-fried for 13 minutes, suggesting that this condition may be optimal for enhancing the development of characteristic flavor compounds. Previous studies have shown that alcohol-based flavor compounds in meat primarily originate from the degradation of conjugated linoleic acid, catalyzed by lipoxygenases and hydroperoxidases, as well as through the reduction of carbonyl compounds [ 42 ] . These compounds typically impart a mild, plant-like aroma to meat products. In vacuum-fried shredded pork, it was observed that the intensity of flavor compounds increased with prolonged frying time, potentially due to the generation of ethanol. Although ethanol has a high sensory threshold and exerts minimal direct impact on meat flavor, it may enhance the overall flavor through synergistic interactions. Aldehydes were found to be the most abundant volatile compounds formed during vacuum frying, largely as a result of lipid degradation, microbial metabolism, and non-enzymatic browning reactions. Aldehydes are widely recognized as key contributors to meat flavor [ 46 ] . Among them, hexanal is primarily generated through the oxidative degradation of linoleic acid [ 47 ] , and its concentration serves as an important indicator of lipid oxidation and flavor development in cooked meat products [ 48 ] . In this study, the highest concentration of hexanal (718.59 ng/g) was detected in samples fried for 13 minutes under vacuum conditions. Esters, which are mainly derived from the oxidative degradation of fats and subsequent esterification reactions [ 49 ] , contributed a smaller proportion to the overall volatile profile. These compounds typically produce fruity aromas and enhance flavor complexity. Among hydrocarbons, aromatic hydrocarbons are considered important flavor-active components in meat [ 50 ] . Most ketones are generated via lipid oxidation, Maillard reactions, or the oxidation of alcohols. Due to their higher odor thresholds compared to their aldehyde isomers, ketones generally contribute minimally to the overall flavor. In the present study, the relative abundance of ketones in shredded pork remained consistently low and showed little variation with increased frying time. Similarly, Ding et al. reported negligible changes in ketone levels during both vacuum and air frying of scallop fillets over time [ 51 ] . In addition, saturated alkanes—despite their high odor thresholds and limited direct contribution to flavor—may still play a subtle role in shaping the overall sensory profile of meat products [ 52 ] . Sensory analysis Sensory evaluation plays a vital role in assessing consumer acceptance and preference for fried meat products. As shown in Fig. 4 , the sensory scores for shredded pork vacuum-fried at different durations and temperatures varied significantly. At a lower frying temperature of 75°C, the scores for color, aroma, taste, texture, and overall acceptability gradually increased with longer frying times. This trend suggests that extended frying at 75°C enhances the development of cooked meat aroma and flavor, leading to improved product palatability. The highest total sensory score was recorded for the sample fried at 75°C for 13 minutes, reaching 22.08 ± 0.21. The second-highest score, 21.60 ± 0.24, was observed for the sample fried at 85°C for 7 minutes. Notably, the sample fried at 75°C for 13 minutes received a slightly higher aroma score than the others, indicating superior aromatic quality. Overall, when compared to vacuum frying at 85°C and 95°C, frying at 75°C resulted in superior sensory characteristics and greater consumer appeal. These findings suggest that moderate-temperature vacuum frying, particularly at 75°C for an optimal time of 13 minutes, yields the most favorable sensory qualities in shredded pork. The frying process generally involves four distinct stages characterized by simultaneous heat and mass transfer, during which a counterflow of water vapor escaping from the food and oil penetrating into the food matrix occurs [53] . High-temperature frying promotes Maillard reactions and caramelization, which can enhance flavor development but may also generate undesirable bitter or burnt notes if not properly controlled. In this study, the texture scores of vacuum-fried shredded pork increased progressively with longer frying durations, suggesting a consumer preference for a product with a firmer and crispier texture [ 54 ] . Zhou et al. reported decreases in texture scores with increasing frying temperature under the same frying method [ 33 ] . Elevated temperatures accelerate moisture loss, which in turn increases meat hardness and reduces elasticity. Prolonged vacuum frying further exacerbates water depletion in shredded pork, significantly altering its texture and flavor. These changes not only compromise the product's structural integrity but also reduce its potential for rehydration or texture recovery. Based on the findings of this study and previous literature, vacuum frying at 75°C for 13 minutes is identified as the optimal condition for producing shredded pork with favorable sensory and textural properties. Frying beyond this duration leads to excessive dehydration, resulting in overly dry and less palatable products. Overall, changes in texture and flavor induced by frying conditions have a direct impact on sensory quality, thereby affecting consumer enjoyment and overall product acceptability. Conclusions This study investigated the effects of varying vacuum frying temperatures and durations on the quality and flavor characteristics of fish-flavored shredded pork, a representative dish of Sichuan cuisine. The results demonstrated that vacuum frying increased the hardness and chewiness of the shredded pork, while its elasticity initially increased and then declined with extended frying time. Prolonged cooking also intensified the bitterness associated with certain amino acids, thereby negatively impacting the overall flavor profile. GC×GC-MS analysis revealed that the highest concentrations of aldehydes and alcohols, along with the greatest diversity of volatile flavor compounds, were observed in samples fried at 75°C for 13 minutes. Sensory evaluation further confirmed that shredded pork processed under these conditions achieved the highest overall sensory scores, indicating its superior quality and consumer acceptability. Therefore, vacuum frying at 75°C for 13 minutes is recommended as the optimal condition for producing high-quality fish-flavored shredded pork. These findings provide both practical guidance and theoretical support for the industrial-scale production of this traditional Sichuan dish. Declarations Competing interests The authors declare no competing interests. Funding This work was supported by Regional innovation cooperation project of Sichuan province [2024YFHZ0207], key project of technological innovation and application development special item in Chongqing [cstc2021jscx-cy1hX0014]. Author Contribution Fuxin Nie: Conceptualization, Methodology, Software, Writing-original draft, Writing-review & editing. Shuang Yang: Conceptualization, Formal analysis, Funding acquisition, Methodology, Resources. Yage Xing: Conceptualization, Data curation, Formal analysis, Validation. Hong Liu: Conceptualization, Formal analysis, Supervision, Validation. Yuyang Li: Conceptualization, Methodology, Software. Qiaoli Zhou: Conceptualization, Formal analysis, Software. Qinglian Xu: Investigation, Methodology, Validation. Data Availability The datasets generated and/or analysed during the current study are not publicly available due to further analyses within the institution but are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request. References Munafò, M., et al. A manifesto for reproducible science. Nat Hum Behav 1 , 0021 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41562-016-0021. Chambers, C. The Seven Deadly Sins of Psychology: A Manifesto for Reforming the Culture of Scientific Practice (Princeton Univ. Press, 2019). Schijen, M., Lakens, D. & Scheel, A. Positive Results in Standard vs Registered Reports in Psychology. OSF https://osf.io/dbhgr/ (2020). Hardwicke, T. & Ioannidis, J. Mapping the Universe of Registered Reports. Preprint at metaRxiv https://doi.org/10.31222/osf.io/fzpcy (2018). 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International Journal of Gastronomy and Food Science 2021, 23, doi:10.1016/j.ijgfs.2020.100301. Deng, Y.; Luo, Y.L.; Wang, Y.G.; Zhao, Y.Y. Effect of different drying methods on the myosin structure, amino acid composition, protein digestibility and volatile profile of squid fillets. Food Chemistry 2015, 171, 168-176, doi:10.1016/j.foodchem.2014.09.002. Suraiya, S.; Lee, J.M.; Cho, H.J.; Jang, W.J.; Kim, D.G.; Kim, Y.O.; Kong, I.S. Monascus spp. fermented brown seaweeds extracts enhance bio-functional activities. Food Bioscience 2018, 21, 90-99, doi:10.1016/j.fbio.2017.12.005. Corral, S.; Salvador, A.; Flores, M. Salt reduction in slow fermented sausages affects the generation of aroma active compounds. Meat Sci-ence 2013, 93, 776-785, doi:10.1016/j.meatsci.2012.11.040. Ma, Q.L.; Hamid, N.; Bekhit, A.E.D.; Robertson, J.; Law, T.F. Evaluation of pre-rigor injection of beef with proteases on cooked meat volatile profile after 1day and 21days post-mortem storage. Meat Science 2012, 92, 430-439, doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.meatsci.2012.05.006. Gómez-Limia, L.; Cutillas, R.; Carballo, J.; Franco, I.; Martínez, S. Free Amino Acids and Biogenic Amines in Canned European Eels: Influ-ence of Processing Step, Filling Medium and Storage Time. Foods 2020, 9, doi:10.3390/foods9101377. Moerdijk-Poortvliet, T.C.W.; de Jong, D.L.C.; Fremouw, R.; de Reu, S.; de Winter, J.M.; Timmermans, K.; Mol, G.; Reuter, N.; Derksen, G.C.H. Extraction and analysis of free amino acids and 5′-nucleotides, the key contributors to the umami taste of seaweed. Food Chemistry 2022, 370, doi:10.1016/j.foodchem.2021.131352. Duan, W.; Huang, Y.; Xiao, J.F.; Zhang, Y.Y.; Tang, Y.Z. Determination of free amino acids, organic acids, and nucleotides in 29 elegant spices. Food Science & Nutrition 2020, 8, 3777-3792, doi:10.1002/fsn3.1667. Zhang, J.; Zhang, Y.Q.; Wang, Y.; Xing, L.J.; Zhang, W.G. Influences of ultrasonic-assisted frying on the flavor characteristics of fried meat-balls. Innovative Food Science & Emerging Technologies 2020, 62, doi:10.1016/j.ifset.2020.102365. Purriños, L.; Franco, D.; Carballo, J.; Lorenzo, J.M. Influence of the salting time on volatile compounds during the manufacture of dry-cured pork shoulder "lacon". Meat Science 2012, 92, 627-634, doi:10.1016/j.meatsci.2012.06.010. Yang, H.S.; Lee, E.J.; Moon, S.H.; Paik, H.D.; Ahn, D.U. Addition of garlic or onion before irradiation on lipid oxidation, volatiles and sen-sory characteristics of cooked ground beef. Meat Science 2011, 88, 286-291, doi:10.1016/j.meatsci.2011.01.002. Mottram, D.S. The effect of cooking conditions on the formation of volatile heterocyclic compounds in pork. Journal of the Science of Food Agriculture 1985, 36, 377-382. Sánchez-Peña, C.M.; Luna, G.; García-González, D.L.; Aparicio, R. Characterization of French and Spanish dry-cured hams: influence of the volatiles from the muscles and the subcutaneous fat quantified by SPME-GC. Meat Science 2005, 69, 635-645, doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.meatsci.2004.10.015. Shahidi, F.; Rubin, L.J.; D'Souza, L.A. Meat flavor volatiles: a review of the composition, techniques of analysis, and sensory evaluation. Critical reviews in food science and nutrition 1986, 24, 141-243, doi:10.1080/10408398609527435. Ding, Y.X.; Zhou, T.; Liao, Y.Q.; Lin, H.M.; Deng, S.G.; Zhang, B. Comparative Studies on the Physicochemical and Volatile Flavour Prop-erties of Traditional Deep Fried and Circulating-Air Fried Hairtail (Trichiurus lepturus). Foods 2022, 11, doi:10.3390/foods11172710. Dueik, V.; Bouchon, P. Development of Healthy Low-Fat Snacks: Understanding the Mechanisms of Quality Changes During Atmospheric and Vacuum Frying. Food Reviews International 2011, 27, 408-432, doi:10.1080/87559129.2011.563638. Patra, A.; Prasath, V.A.; Sutar, P.P.; Pandian, N.K.S.; Pandiselvam, R. Evaluation of effect of vacuum frying on textural properties of food products. Food Research International 2022, 162, doi:10.1016/j.foodres.2022.112074. Zaghi, A.N.; Barbalho, S.M.; Guiguer, E.L.; Otoboni, A.M. Frying Process: From Conventional to Air Frying Technology. Food Reviews International 2019, 35, 763-777, doi:10.1080/87559129.2019.1600541. Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-6950673","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":485498459,"identity":"171b0037-42c3-4b2e-8122-8af9c88360e1","order_by":0,"name":"Fuxin Nie","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Xihua University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Fuxin","middleName":"","lastName":"Nie","suffix":""},{"id":485498460,"identity":"772f3deb-e34a-463d-9557-1f2c447fb82b","order_by":1,"name":"Shuang Yang","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Xihua University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Shuang","middleName":"","lastName":"Yang","suffix":""},{"id":485498461,"identity":"50e4ce31-5f80-4dba-a79b-f0a55a540a52","order_by":2,"name":"Yage Xing","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Xihua University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Yage","middleName":"","lastName":"Xing","suffix":""},{"id":485498462,"identity":"f45326fd-a191-41ff-91d4-c4cae3fada44","order_by":3,"name":"Hong Liu","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAAzElEQVRIiWNgGAWjYFAC5oYDjA1Amr2x8cEH4rQwQrXwHG42nEGsFgawFon0NmkOYjTIRyQ2HubdYZMnH/mwQZqBwU5Ot4GAFsMbiQ2Hec+kFRveTmwwLmBINjY7QEjLDJCWtsOJG2cnNiTPYDiQuI14LTMPNhzmIUaLvARUy3wJxsZmorQY8DxsODi3LS1xA09iM+MMAyL8It+efPjD2zabxPntx5//+FBhJ0dQi8GFBCgDrNKAgHKwLf1QQ+UbiFA9CkbBKBgFIxMAACFaTa2eGut6AAAAAElFTkSuQmCC","orcid":"","institution":"Xihua University","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Hong","middleName":"","lastName":"Liu","suffix":""},{"id":485498463,"identity":"e5402014-40d5-4b2a-8e48-f67715c790f8","order_by":4,"name":"Yuyang Li","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Xihua University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Yuyang","middleName":"","lastName":"Li","suffix":""},{"id":485498464,"identity":"82ef72dc-f3b6-4db0-bd3f-e03f91c1f0ad","order_by":5,"name":"Qiaoli Zhou","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Xihua University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Qiaoli","middleName":"","lastName":"Zhou","suffix":""},{"id":485498465,"identity":"07409c38-da08-4821-8177-425d953f8598","order_by":6,"name":"Qinglian Xu","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Xihua University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Qinglian","middleName":"","lastName":"Xu","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2025-06-22 16:38:20","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6950673/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-6950673/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[{"content":"https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-025-29605-y","type":"published","date":"2025-11-28T15:58:35+00:00"}],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":86935708,"identity":"c023576d-edf3-481a-aa63-bd541039cfd6","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-07-17 10:40:42","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":186499,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eEffect of different vacuum frying temperature and times on the texture of shredded meat (dry base). Group A represents 75 °C, Group B represents 85 °C and Group C represents 95 °C. The same as below. Lower case letters are different, representing the same temperature, significantly different at different times. Upper case letters are different, representing significant differences at the same time, at different temperature. (p\u0026lt;0.05).\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6950673/v1/aaa5d4bd52901f6b1a537b49.png"},{"id":86935890,"identity":"01f7d1e4-cd63-44e3-b8a0-ec5f59e346c2","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-07-17 10:48:42","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":240303,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eTypes of volatile compounds in shredded pork at different vacuum frying temperature and times.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6950673/v1/ca48735c7b27c29f8816a614.png"},{"id":86935707,"identity":"4a344ea4-e180-422d-8ffb-4494d3dc74f4","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-07-17 10:40:42","extension":"png","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":116743,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eCompound content in shredded pork at different vacuum frying temperature and times.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"3.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6950673/v1/0ebc672f8bf2a03000783f40.png"},{"id":86935709,"identity":"60d201dc-0958-4b63-9332-0e14fe5c2279","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-07-17 10:40:42","extension":"png","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":90246,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eSensory evaluation of shredded meat in different vacuum frying temperature and times.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"4.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6950673/v1/c5ece2fdcbaa399aab71c16d.png"},{"id":97179761,"identity":"49b9ff56-d805-43d5-b917-56be433154af","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-01 16:16:52","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":1593122,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6950673/v1/7f229bbf-9a4d-40e1-82e8-d4e61e63294d.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Effects of different vacuum frying temperature and times on the quality and volatile flavor substances of shredded pork","fulltext":[{"header":"Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003ePork meat is renowned not only for its high protein content and nutritional value but also for its distinct taste. Flavored shredded pork, a traditional Chinese dish favored by both locals and international enthusiasts, is commonly prepared both in homes and restaurants. The dish involves an initial seasoning followed by vacuum frying \u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003e. However, the traditional method of preparing shredded pork is both time-consuming and labor-intensive, making it less suited to the fast-paced modern lifestyle. In response to the demands of contemporary life, convenience or ready-to-eat foods, which are produced on a large industrial scale, offer a practical alternative. These products can be consumed directly or require minimal preparation before consumption, thus simplifying the traditional, more laborious processes \u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003e. Among these, seasoned meat products stand out. These are semi-finished or pre-processed items made from meat or its edible by-products, which only need simple cooking techniques after being processed through tumbling and seasoning. These products form an essential part of Sichuan cuisine and include popular dishes such as yushiang shredded pork and saut\u0026eacute;ed shredded pork with green peppers. While current industrial production of shredded meat products predominantly employs ordinary frying and vacuum frying techniques, these methods are quite similar and do not fully satisfy the evolving consumer demand for diverse, nutritious, and healthy modern foods.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFrying is one of the oldest and most popular cooking methods worldwide, involving the immersion of food in oil or fat heated above the boiling point of water, typically between 150\u0026deg;C and 200\u0026deg;C \u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003e. The oil uptake during frying involves several mechanisms, including water release, capillary pressure, oil adherence and drainage, vacuum effects, and vapor condensation \u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003e. Factors such as the type and age of frying oil, pre-and post-frying treatments, frying duration, and methods significantly influence oil absorption and the ultimate quality of the fried products \u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003e. However, conventional frying can lead to health concerns. The process accelerates the non-enzymatic browning reaction in reducing sugars, resulting in the formation of acrylamide, which, when consumed excessively, is linked to serious health issues. Additionally, the consumption of fried foods is associated with significant health risks, including coronary heart disease, cancer, diabetes, and hypertension \u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003e. These concerns are at odds with the growing consumer demand for healthier, low-fat food options, highlighting the critical need for the development of healthier frying techniques that align with both consumer preferences and industry standards.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eVacuum frying is a cooking technique performed at pressures significantly lower than atmospheric pressure, utilizing lower temperatures and reduced oxygen exposure \u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003e. This method is gaining popularity due to its multiple benefits, such as preserving the nutritional value of the food, reducing oil content in fried products, maintaining natural color and flavors, and decreasing fat degradation \u003csup\u003e[12\u0026ndash;14]\u003c/sup\u003e. Vacuum frying operates under reduced pressures (below 60 Torr-8 kPa), which lowers the boiling points of both the oil and the food's moisture content \u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e15\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003e. This process, conducted in a sealed container, typically results in shorter cooking times and lower temperatures compared to traditional frying methods \u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003e. Andr\u0026eacute;s-Bello et al. investigated the effects of oil temperature and pressure conditions on the drying process and oil absorption of sea bream fillets and found that, compared with results from traditional frying, the oil content of the vacuum-fried fish fillets was lower and the oil quality was preserved \u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003e. The lower processing temperatures also help retain flavors and nutrients while minimizing the formation of harmful compounds \u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFlavor, encompassing both taste and aroma, ranks as one of the most crucial qualities of meat products and significantly influences consumer purchasing decisions. The formation of flavor is a complex process primarily involving odor and taste components. Odor consists of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) such as aldehydes, ketones, alcohols, esters, hydrocarbons, and acids. In contrast, taste includes non-volatile compounds like free amino acids (FAAs), nucleotides, and organic acids \u003csup\u003e[21]\u003c/sup\u003e. Research has consistently shown that the sensory attributes of food, including aroma, flavor, and texture, are key factors in consumer preferences. However, the perception of flavor involves intricate interactions among hundreds of molecules, both at physicochemical and sensory levels, making the analysis and quantification of flavor compounds a technical and labor-intensive challenge. Techniques such as electronic noses, gas chromatography, and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) are extensively utilized for the characterization \u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e22\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e23\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003e, quantitative analysis \u003csup\u003e[24,25]\u003c/sup\u003e and identification in the study of food flavors, with significant effects. Bojanowski and Hummel \u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e26\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003e differentiate between 'odor' perceived orthogonally, and 'aroma' detected retronasal. Flavoring substances in food are microscopic, water-soluble molecules that include a variety of free amino acids, salts, and nucleotides, many of which are abundant in meat products.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe objectives of this study are twofold. First, it aims to assess the effects of various vacuum frying temperatures and durations on shredded pork by evaluating sensory attributes, textural characteristics, and free amino acid profiles. Second, the study seeks to examine the impact of frying duration on the flavor of shredded pork through the use of comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry (GC\u0026times;GC-MS). Additionally, the research employs low-temperature vacuum frying technology to develop a method for producing shredded meat products that are both nutritious and healthier on an industrial scale. This technology is designed to produce deep-fried seasoned foods that not only offer enhanced flavor and taste but also improved safety and nutritional value.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Methods","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eMaterials\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003ePork tenderloins and seasoning were purchased from a local supermarket in Chengdu, Sichuan Province. N-alkanes (purity\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;99%) and analytically pure lead dichlorobenzene were purchased from Sigma-Aldrich (Shanghai, China); and analytically pure sodium chloride (NaCl) was purchased from Chengdu Develop Technology Co., Ltd. (Chengdu, China)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eMinimal processing\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ePork tenderloin slices were first trimmed of excess fat and connective tissue, rinsed immediately under cold water, and then uniformly shredded to a size of approximately 3 mm in thickness and 50 mm in length. A marinade was prepared, consisting of 5% salt, 2% sugar, and 0.5% mixed spices dissolved in water. This marinade was divided into equal proportions tailored for the different meat samples. The shredded pork was then submerged in the marinade for 30 minutes at room temperature (26\u0026deg;C), ensuring that the shreds were thoroughly and evenly coated. Next, approximately 30 liters of fresh soybean oil were poured into the low-temperature vacuum fryer, filling it to approximately two-thirds of its capacity. This specific volume ensured an optimal pork to oil ratio of 1:6, crucial for consistent frying quality without overcrowding the fryer. It's important to note that the soybean oil used was fresh and not reused from previous sessions to maintain the flavor integrity and avoid the breakdown products from repeated heating. The shredded pork tenderloin samples were then laid flat on the rack inside the vacuum fryer, prepared for the frying process. The vacuum frying parameters were meticulously set to optimize the cooking process: a vacuum level of 0.086 MPa was maintained; the pork had a resting time outside the frying kettle of 3 seconds, and inside the frying kettle for 10 seconds; degreasing time was fixed at 1 minute. The frying temperatures were set at 75, 85 and 95\u0026deg;C, and the frying times were 4, 7, 10, 13 and 16 minutes, respectively. After each specified frying duration, the cooked shredded pork was carefully removed from the vacuum fryer and set aside on a cooling rack. This allowed any excess oil to drain away effectively and ensured the meat was ready for subsequent data measurement to assess quality parameters like texture, moisture content, and flavor profile.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eDetermination of mass structure\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eA modified version of the test previously described by Yu et al. \u003csup\u003e[27]\u003c/sup\u003e was used to determine the structure of the differently treated shredded pork samples. In this experiment, the textural properties of the meat such as hardness, flexibility, and chewiness were examined to evaluate the effect of four different vacuum frying times at three temperatures on shredded pork. To ensure the accuracy of the texture analysis, it was crucial to use uniformly sized samples. The shredded pork was meticulously prepared by cutting it into consistent dimensions of approximately 3 mm in thickness and 50 mm in length. This uniformity was crucial for reliable texture analysis, as it reduces variability in the test results. For the textural analysis, a TA-XTPLUS texture analyzer (Stable Micro Systems, UK) was employed. However, considering the irregular shape and varying texture of shredded pork, a customized approach was adopted instead of the standard uniaxial compression test. The texture was assessed using a specialized grip fixture designed to hold shredded pieces securely during testing, mimicking the way these shreds would typically interact with teeth during chewing. The testing parameters were set as follows: pre-test speed at 5 mm/sec, mid-test speed at 5 mm/sec, and post-test speed at 5 mm/sec, with an initial test height of 30 mm and a trigger force of 5 g. The compression thickness ratio was adjusted to 50%, tailored to the unique form and consistency of shredded pork to obtain more representative data regarding its textural properties.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eDetermination of free amino acid content\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe contents of free amino acids (FAAs) in the samples were measured as previously described by Nie et al. \u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e28\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003e, the main operations of which are summarized as follows: First, 0.3 g sample powder (0.3 g) was added to 10 mL of 3.5% sulfosalicylic acid, and this mixture was then centrifuged at 12,000 rpm for 15 min. The supernatant was further filtered through a 0.22 \u0026micro;m membrane filter. FAA contents in the filtrate were determined using an amino acid analyzer (AAA L-8900, Hitachi High-Technologies Co., Tokyo, Ja-pan).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eDetermination of flavor\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eHeadspace solid-phase microextraction (HS-SPME)\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eGC\u0026times;GC-MS analysis of the volatile compounds in the vacuum-fried shredded meat samples was performed as described by Laurienzo et al. \u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e29\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003e. The powdered meat was placed in a 100 ml glass vial, followed by 4 uL 2-chlorobenzaldehyde as the internal standard (IS). The same amount of sample (0.2 g dry weight) was used to assay each differently treated group, to maintain a consistent sample-to-headspace ratio (8\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.5%). A 75 um carboxen/polydimethylsiloxane (CAR/PDMS) fiber, preconditioned at 250\u0026deg;C for 20 min prior to analysis, was used to extract the volatile compounds from the powdered samples. The fiber was inserted into the sample vial through the septum and exposed to the HS for 35 min at 60\u0026deg;C to collect the analytes, with the distance between fiber tip and sample bed maintained at approximately 1 cm. The fiber was subsequently removed from the vial and inserted into the injection port of the GC-MS apparatus for analysis of the volatile compounds. Relative contents were calculated on the basis of peak area percentage, as presented here. Uniformity was maintained in the peaks of the 2-chlorobenzaldehyde in the GC-MS total ion chromatograms of all samples to ensure the stability of both the instruments and the protocol.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eGC conditions: Analyte removal from the fiber was carried out by maintaining an injector temperature of 250\u0026deg;C. Volatiles were separated using a 5% phenylmethyl silicone (HP-5) bounded phase fused silica capillary column, operating at 80 kPa column heads pressure, and resulting in a flow of 0.8 mL/min. The oven temperature was set at 45\u0026deg;C for 2 min, then raised to 130\u0026deg;C at a rate of 5\u0026deg;C/min, ramped up to 200\u0026deg;C at a rate of 8\u0026deg;C/min and, finally, increased to 230\u0026deg;C at a rate of 5\u0026deg;C/min and maintained isothermally for 4 min \u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e29\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eMS conditions: The electron ionization source temperature was maintained at 200\u0026deg;C and mass spectra were obtained via electronic impact at 70 eV. The temperature of the interface and quadrupole were 280\u0026deg;C and 150\u0026deg;C, respectively. Data was collected at a rate of 1/scan over the range of 41\u0026ndash;330 \u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e30\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eSensory analysis\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe sensory characteristics of the differently treated shredded pork samples were evaluated by a trained panel of 20 students from the College of Food and Bioengineering at Xihua University, following the methodology described by Li et al. \u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e31\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003e. The samples were rigorously scored based on sensory evaluation criteria outlined in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e, focusing on four sensory attributes: texture, taste, aroma, and color. Each attribute was assessed on a four-level scale using a 25-point hedonic scale, where a lower score indicated poorer sample quality. All samples were presented to each panelist for evaluation. Panelists were provided with spring water to rinse their mouths between tasting sessions \u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003e. The study protocol was reviewed and approved by the Xihua University Institutional Review Board (IRB), and informed consent was obtained from each participant prior to the study.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe sensory evaluation standard.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"4\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDescription\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eExcellent(20\u0026thinsp;~\u0026thinsp;25)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNormal(9\u0026thinsp;~\u0026thinsp;19)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePoor(1\u0026thinsp;~\u0026thinsp;8)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTexture\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eChewy, soft and firm, tender and elastic meat.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAverage chewiness, slightly lacking in softness, tender meat and good elasticity.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNo chewy, too soft or too hard, flesh wood, old, poor elasticity.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTaste\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eIt is moderately salty with a fresh flavor and moderate taste.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe saltiness is moderate, the freshness is light and the taste is average.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSalty and unpleasant, with bitterness and poor taste.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSmell\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eStrong aroma, with the characteristic aroma of cooked meat, no other odor.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe fragrance is too thin.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAlmost no aroma and odor.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eColor\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eGood color, glossy, uniform and consistent.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBetter color, not enough gloss, basically uniform and consistent.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe color is very poor, dull and lusterless.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec10\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eStatistical Analysis\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe tests in this investigation were carried out in triplicate. Statistical significance analysis was performed by Tukey\u0026rsquo;s test (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05), using Statistical Product and Service Solutions software (version 25.0; SPSS, Chicago, IL, USA). Principal component analysis (PCA) was performed using Origin software (OriginLab Corporation, Northampton, MA, USA).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Results and Discussion","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eChanges in qualitative structure\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eTextural characteristics such as hardness, elasticity and chewiness are the main basis upon which consumers evaluate the quality of meat products. This study examined the impact of varying frying temperatures and durations on the textural properties of shredded meat, specifically hardness, elasticity, and chewiness. The results, presented in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e, indicate that changes in frying conditions significantly influenced these textural properties. With increasing frying temperature and time, there was a general increase in hardness and chewiness, whereas elasticity decreased. The data show marked increases in hardness and chewiness for samples in groups A, B, and C. Notably, the hardness and chewiness values for groups B and C were higher than those for group A (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05). For instance, after vacuum frying at 75\u0026deg;C for 4 minutes, the hardness of the product escalated from 4084 g to 18076 g, and chewiness from 1648 g to 13826 g. Following 13 minutes of vacuum frying at 85\u0026deg;C and 95\u0026deg;C, the hardness values recorded were 11883 g and 13153 g, respectively, while chewiness was noted at 7153 g and 10719 g. These figures for hardness and chewiness were lower at 75\u0026deg;C for 13 minutes, measuring 8393 g and 5134 g respectively, significantly lower than those observed at 85\u0026deg;C and 95\u0026deg;C (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05).In terms of elasticity, at 75\u0026deg;C, the measurements demonstrated a trend of initial increase followed by a decrease, recording values of 0.677 g, 0.834 g, 0.861 g, 0.872 g, and 0.811 g. At temperatures of 85\u0026deg;C and 95\u0026deg;C, elasticity decreased progressively with extended frying times, decreasing from 0.862 g and 0.877 g to 0.777 g and 0.726 g, respectively.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIt is evident that vacuum frying time has a significant influence on the hardness of shredded pork. Textural changes in fried products are primarily driven by the combined effects of heat and mass transfer, along with chemical reactions occurring during the frying process \u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e32\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003e. These changes are mainly attributed to protein denaturation, moisture loss, and tissue browning \u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e33\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003e, all of which play a critical role in shaping consumer perceptions and acceptance of the final product \u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e34\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003e. The increased hardness observed in shredded pork may be attributed to extensive water loss and the contraction of muscle proteins upon denaturation, which reduces the inter-fiber space and promotes the formation of a dry surface layer under thermal conditions. Similar observations were reported by Garayo and Moreira \u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003e. Furthermore, studies by Song et al. and Su et al. revealed that during vacuum frying, potato chips initially exhibited a leathery yet flexible texture, but rapidly became brittle as frying progressed \u003csup\u003e[35,36]\u003c/sup\u003e. This brittleness is likely the result of accelerated moisture evaporation, which contributes to the development of a crispier structure. In the present study, the observed changes in elasticity may be associated with the uneven thermal denaturation of myofibrillar proteins such as myosin and actin. Overall, frying temperature and time were found to exert significant effects on the hardness, chewiness, and elasticity of shredded pork. Prolonged frying at elevated temperatures further exacerbated these effects, ultimately compromising the meat\u0026rsquo;s texture and palatability.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec13\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eEffect of different vacuum frying temperature and times on FAAs\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eVariations in taste thresholds and amino acid concentrations contribute to the complex and diverse flavor profiles of food products. To evaluate the relative contributions of individual amino acids to taste perception, the Taste Activity Value (TAV) is commonly employed. In this study, a comparative analysis of TAVs among differently treated groups indicated that vacuum frying generally enhanced the freshness of shredded pork. As shown in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e, Glu and Asp were the most abundant free amino acids in all vacuum-fried samples. The cumulative TAVs of umami-related amino acids increased from 128.31 to 150.15, 127.44 to 187.76, and 144.43 to 196.56 under the three tested temperature conditions, respectively. Similarly, the TAVs of sweet amino acids increased from 67.05 to 72.57, 60.90 to 92.97, and 97.45 to 68.27, while the TAVs of bitter amino acids rose from 108.84 to 109.11, 85.05 to 161.79, and 106.59 to 172.62, respectively. These findings suggest that vacuum frying can enhance the umami and sweet flavor characteristics of shredded pork. However, with prolonged frying time, the content of free amino acids increased across all temperature groups, resulting in a general upward trend in the TAVs of umami and sweet amino acids. At the same time, the TAVs of bitter amino acids also increased significantly. Notably, in the 85\u0026deg;C and 95\u0026deg;C groups, when the vacuum frying time reached 13 and 16 minutes, the TAVs for bitter amino acids exceeded 170. Combined with sensory evaluations, this level of bitterness was considered undesirable, indicating that prolonged vacuum frying at higher temperatures leads to a perceptibly bitter taste, which negatively impacts product acceptability. Comprehensive analysis of the TAVs across different treatments suggests that vacuum frying at 75\u0026deg;C for 13 minutes yields the most favorable sensory profile. Under this condition, the TAVs of umami and sweet amino acids were relatively high, while the TAV of bitter amino acids remained low. Additionally, comparative analysis of the free amino acid content under varying frying temperatures further supports the conclusion that moderate temperature and time conditions are optimal for enhancing the taste quality of vacuum-fried shredded pork.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eContents of free amino acids and TAV (dry base) in shredded meat under different vacuum frying time.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"16\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c9\" colnum=\"9\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c10\" colnum=\"10\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c11\" colnum=\"11\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c12\" colnum=\"12\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c13\" colnum=\"13\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c14\" colnum=\"14\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c15\" colnum=\"15\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c16\" colnum=\"16\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAmino acid types\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003etemperature\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"6\" nameend=\"c8\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eContent (g/100g)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTaste Properties\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eThreshold\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"6\" nameend=\"c16\" namest=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTAV value\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eRaw meat\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4min\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7min\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e10min\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e13min\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e16min\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eRaw meat\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4min\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7min\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e10min\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e13min\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c16\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e16min\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAsp\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e75℃\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.01\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01c\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.97\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.10c\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.23\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.04b\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.27\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.06b\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.28\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.06b\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.43\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.05a\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFresh Flavor(+)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e20.13\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e19.70\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e22.28\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e22.67\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e22.83\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c16\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e24.38\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e85℃\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.01\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01c\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.13\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.03c\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.44\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.05a\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.43\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.04b\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.27\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.02c\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e21.31\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e24.42\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e24.32\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e32.66\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c16\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e30.78\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e95℃\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.39\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.05c\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.58\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01c\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.32\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01a\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.34\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01b\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.23\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.02c\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e23.86\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e25.84\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e33.15\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e33.44\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c16\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e32.35\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eThr\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e75℃\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.03\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01ab\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.82\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01c\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.96\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.02b\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.97\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.04b\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.00\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.04ab\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.09\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.02a\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSweetness(+)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.26\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.98\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.16\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.70\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.73\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.83\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c16\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.18\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e85℃\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.93\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.02c\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.09\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.03c\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.08\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.02a\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.51\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01b\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.41\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.03c\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.58\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.20\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.16\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5.81\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c16\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5.42\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e95℃\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.06\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.02c\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.16\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.02c\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.53\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.02a\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.56\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01b\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.49\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01c\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.08\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.45\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5.88\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5.98\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c16\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5.72\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSer\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e75℃\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.87\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.02ab\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.69\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01c\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.80\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.02b\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.83\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.03b\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.83\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.02b\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.91\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.03a\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSweetness(+)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.15\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5.77\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.60\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5.32\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5.53\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5.52\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c16\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6.12\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e85℃\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.85\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.02c\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.77\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01c\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.91\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.02b\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.90\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01b\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.28\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01c\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5.16\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6.06\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5.99\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e8.56\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" 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colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6.51\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e8.59\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e8.83\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c16\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e8.27\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eGlu\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e75℃\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.25\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01b\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.89\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01c\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.34\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.08b\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.43\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.10b\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.47\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.02b\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.77\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.04a\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFresh Flavor(+)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.03\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e108.18\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e96.23\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" 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colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.96\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.03c\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.96\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.02a\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5.09\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01b\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.93\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01c\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e120.57\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e131.90\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e165.30\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e169.77\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c16\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e164.22\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eGly\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e75℃\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.89\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01ab\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.78\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.03b\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.85\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01ab\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.91\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.06a\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.89\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.04ab\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.96\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.02a\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSweetness(+)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.13\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6.88\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6.03\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6.56\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6.99\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6.83\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c16\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7.40\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e85℃\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.89\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01b\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.82\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01b\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.99\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01a\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.99\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01a\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.36\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.03b\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6.29\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7.58\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7.59\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e10.47\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c16\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e9.63\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e95℃\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.94\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.02b\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.01\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01b\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.32\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01a\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.37\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.04a\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.30\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01b\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7.21\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7.76\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e10.14\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e10.57\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c16\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e10.08\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAla\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e75℃\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.23\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01ab\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.04\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01c\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.16\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.02abc\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.13\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.11bc\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.20\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.03abc\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.33\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.02a\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSweetness(+)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.06\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e20.42\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e17.31\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e19.34\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e18.78\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e20.08\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c16\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e22.09\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e85℃\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.23\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01c\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" 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colname=\"c16\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e28.46\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e95℃\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.29\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.04c\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.41\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01c\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.83\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.04a\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.87\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.02b\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.79\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.02c\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e21.46\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e23.43\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e30.44\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e31.12\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c16\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e29.89\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCys\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e75℃\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.07\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01a\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.09\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01a\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.11\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01a\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.11\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01a\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.09\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.02a\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.10\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.02a\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBitterness、Sweetness(-)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c16\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e85℃\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.10\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01a\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.10\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01b\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.08\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01a\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.11\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01a\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.11\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.03a\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c16\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e95℃\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.10\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01a\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.10\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.02b\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.12\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01a\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.12\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01a\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.10\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01a\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c16\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eVal\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e75℃\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.04\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01bc\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.50\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01c\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.61\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.02b\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.62\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01bc\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.66\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.02b\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.74\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.02a\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSweetness、Bitterness(-)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.04\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e15.88\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e12.58\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e15.15\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e15.54\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e16.58\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c16\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e18.45\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e85℃\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.56\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.02c\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.72\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.04cd\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.71\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.02a\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.16\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01b\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.04\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.03d\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e14.09\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e18.04\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e17.73\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e29.01\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c16\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e26.08\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e95℃\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.67\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.03c\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.76\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01cd\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.12\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01a\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.19\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01b\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.14\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.02d\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e16.79\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e18.99\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e28.08\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e29.69\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c16\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e28.43\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMet\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e75℃\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.62\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01ab\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.29\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01d\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.37\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01bc\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.33\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.04cd\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.36\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.02bc\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.44\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01a\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBitterness、Sweetness(-)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.03\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e13.83\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e9.55\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e12.27\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e10.95\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e11.98\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c16\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e14.57\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e85℃\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.34\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.03c\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.43\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.03c\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.40\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01a\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.65\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.02ab\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.59\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.02bc\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e11.30\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e14.17\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e13.22\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e21.60\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c16\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e19.80\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e95℃\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.41\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.03c\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.45\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01c\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.61\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.04a\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.65\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.05ab\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.64\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01bc\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e13.62\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e15.12\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e20.33\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e21.67\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c16\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e21.38\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eIle\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e75℃\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.98\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01ab\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.82\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01c\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" 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colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e95℃\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.82\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01cd\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.91\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01b\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.17\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01a\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.20\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.03a\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.18\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01bc\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c16\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePhe\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e75℃\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.85\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01cd\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.80\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01d\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.88\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.02bc\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.92\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.02b\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.85\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.03cd\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.98\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01a\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBitterness(-)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.09\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e9.42\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e8.87\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e9.74\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e10.23\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e9.42\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c16\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e10.90\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e85℃\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.82\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.04c\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.96\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01c\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.98\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01a\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.36\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.04b\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.20\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.03cd\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e9.07\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e10.69\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e10.86\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e15.06\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c16\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e13.36\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e95℃\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.92\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.02c\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.00\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.02c\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.32\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01a\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.35\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01b\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.31\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01cd\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e10.22\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e11.07\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e14.62\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e14.99\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c16\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e14.53\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLys\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e75℃\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.95\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01b\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.61\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.02c\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.83\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.04b\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.94\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.02b\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.91\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.06b\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.06\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.04a\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSweetness、Bitterness(-)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.05\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e18.90\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e12.25\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e16.63\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e18.72\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e18.10\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c16\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e21.27\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e85℃\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.76\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.04c\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.56\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.03c\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.06\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.04a\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.87\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01b\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.63\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.05c\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e15.14\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e31.14\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e21.20\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e37.30\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c16\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e32.68\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e95℃\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.99\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.03c\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.17\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01c\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.89\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.02a\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.92\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01b\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.83\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.02c\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e19.73\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e23.43\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e37.79\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e38.45\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c16\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e36.63\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eHis\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e75℃\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.19\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.02a\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.23\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01c\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.29\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.02c\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.32\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.02bc\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.34\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.03bc\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.45\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01b\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBitterness(-)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.02\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e30.75\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e11.28\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e14.33\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e16.15\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e17.00\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c16\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e22.48\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e85℃\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.35\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.04c\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.52\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.02c\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.54\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.04a\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.94\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01b\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.85\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.04c\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e17.35\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e26.18\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e27.23\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e47.10\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c16\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e42.40\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e95℃\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.51\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.02c\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.58\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.02c\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.81\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01a\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.85\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01b\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.83\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.02c\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e25.60\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e28.75\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e40.48\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e42.68\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c16\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e41.68\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eArg\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e75℃\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.35\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01b\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.20\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01c\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.32\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.04b\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.36\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.04b\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.41\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.03ab\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.48\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.02a\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBitterness、Sweetness(+)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.05\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e26.90\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e23.99\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e26.33\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e27.24\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e28.11\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c16\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e29.55\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e85℃\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.42\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.10cd\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.22\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.04c\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.45\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01a\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.46\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.02b\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.05\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01de\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e24.37\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e29.02\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e29.28\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e40.89\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c16\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e37.31\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e95℃\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.51\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01cd\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.32\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.03c\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.52\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01a\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.02\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.03b\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.02\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.03de\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e26.48\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e30.41\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e40.37\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e40.40\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c16\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e39.19\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePro\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e75℃\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.94\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.07a\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.86\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.03a\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.87\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.03a\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.94\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.02a\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.89\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01a\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.97\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.05a\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSweetness、Bitterness(+)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.30\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e23.10\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.88\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.89\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.14\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.98\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c16\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.22\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e85℃\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.78\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.02c\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.97\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01c\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.01\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.03a\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.37\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.02a\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.26\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01b\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.62\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.23\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.38\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.55\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c16\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.18\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e95℃\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.93\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.03c\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.96\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.05c\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.33\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01a\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.38\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.04a\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.29\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.02b\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.10\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.20\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.42\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.60\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c16\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.30\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTotal amino acids\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e75℃\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e20.72\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.21b\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e15.67\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.04c\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e17.82\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.27b\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e18.43\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.54b\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e18.53\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.64b\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e20.43\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.28a\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c16\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e85℃\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e17.06\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.43c\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e20.87\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.09b\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e20.34\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.40c\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e28.88\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.03b\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e26.71\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.58b\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c16\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e95℃\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e19.68\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.56a\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e21.61\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.03c\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e28.68\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01a\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e29.40\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01a\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e28.34\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.19b\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c16\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eData are presented as mean\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;SD (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;5, for FAA) or mean (TAV). Means with different letters within a row are significantly different (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05). TAV, taste activity value; (+), pleasant; (\u0026minus; ), unpleasant.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFAAs are critical contributors to the flavor profile of shredded pork \u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e37\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003e. They not only constitute a major portion of non-volatile flavor compounds in meat products, but also serve as precursors for both characteristic and volatile flavor substances. Two potential explanations may account for the observed results. First, the activity of endogenous muscle proteolytic enzymes, such as protein hydrolases and aminopeptidases, may be inhibited under vacuum conditions, thereby reducing the production of FAAs. Second, some FAAs may leach into the seasoning or marinade solution during processing, leading to lower FAA levels in vacuum-fried samples compared to fresh meat \u003csup\u003e[38]\u003c/sup\u003e. As vacuum frying time increases, the content of FAAs gradually rises due to the thermal degradation of proteins \u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e39\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003e. This increase may also be influenced by enzymes such as cellulase and protease, produced by microorganisms, which contribute to cell wall disintegration, protein breakdown, and the subsequent release of FAAs \u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e40\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e41\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003e. The perceived freshness of the vacuum-fried shredded pork can be attributed to the content and composition of flavor-contributing amino acids in the muscle. Among the various FAAs detected in differently treated samples, glutamic acid and aspartic acid were consistently found in the highest concentrations \u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e42\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003e. Of all taste-contributing amino acids, glutamic acid exhibited both the highest concentration and the highest TAV, indicating its predominant role in enhancing the umami flavor of the vacuum-fried meat. Additionally, as reported by Moerdijk-Poortvliet et al., glutamate and aspartic acid demonstrate strong synergistic interactions with umami nucleotides, further amplifying umami perception \u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR48\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e43\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003e. In the vacuum-fried shredded meat, the main source of fresh flavor from FAAs was glutamate. In the vacuum-fried shredded pork, glutamate was identified as the principal FAA responsible for the fresh flavor. Among the sweet-tasting amino acids, alanine and arginine showed significantly higher TAVs than other components, indicating their major contribution to the sweetness of the vacuum-fried product \u003csup\u003e[44]\u003c/sup\u003e. This finding concurs with the findings of Zhang et al. \u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e45\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003e, in which threonine and alanine were the primary FAAs in ultrasound-treated spiced beef. Although the content of bitter amino acids in the vacuum-fried shredded pork meat was lower than that of fresh amino acids, the TAVs of valine, methionine, lysine and histidine were all higher than the other amino acids and, consequently, had some influence on the meat\u0026rsquo;s overall taste.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec14\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eEffect of different vacuum frying temperature and times on flavor characteristics\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eGC\u0026times;GC-MS analysis of vacuum-fried shredded meat samples revealed a variety of flavor substances as detailed in Figs.\u0026nbsp;\u0026lt;link rid=\"fig2\"\u0026gt;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u0026lt;/link\u0026gt;\u003c/span\u003e-A, \u0026lt;link rid=\"fig2\"\u0026gt;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u0026lt;/link\u0026gt;\u003c/span\u003e-B, and \u0026lt;link rid=\"fig2\"\u0026gt;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u0026lt;/link\u0026gt;\u003c/span\u003e-C. Figure\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e-A shows that 24, 24, 29, 31, 36, and 42 flavor substances were detected in fresh meat and at 4, 7, 10, 13, and 16 minutes of frying, respectively. According to Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e-B, 41, 44, 39, 45, and 39 flavor substances were identified at 4, 7, 10, 13, and 16 minutes, respectively. Figure\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e-C indicates that fresh meat and the same respective frying intervals yielded 60, 67, 53, 54, and 65 flavor substances. Additionally, the alcohol content in minced meat increased following vacuum frying. Under three different temperature conditions, alcohol represented the highest percentage of volatile flavor components, ranging from 4.28\u0026ndash;9.14%, 4.27\u0026ndash;9.54%, and 4.28\u0026ndash;10.28%, respectively. The aldehydes in the minced meat after vacuum vacuum frying mainly consisted of n-octanoic acid, fexofenal, n-hexanal and benzaldehyde, of which n-hexanal accounted for 1.77%~11.17%, 7.66%~16.04% and 7.66%~9.20%, respectively. As shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e, the highest concentrations of hexanal compounds were 718.59 ng/g, 215.26 ng/g, and 117.58 ng/g, respectively, after vacuum frying time of 13 min. Esters were mainly biosynthesized by fatty acid decomposition, peroxidation, esterification, and alcoholysis. They accounted for 0.49%~1.78%, 0.12%~1.35% and 0.10%~1.08% of the total volatile flavor content, respectively. Other volatile flavor substances, which accounted for a lower percentage of total volatile flavor substances, were also present in shredded meat. In summary, the greatest diversity and highest concentrations of aldehydes and esters were observed in shredded pork samples vacuum-fried for 13 minutes, suggesting that this condition may be optimal for enhancing the development of characteristic flavor compounds.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003ePrevious studies have shown that alcohol-based flavor compounds in meat primarily originate from the degradation of conjugated linoleic acid, catalyzed by lipoxygenases and hydroperoxidases, as well as through the reduction of carbonyl compounds \u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e42\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003e. These compounds typically impart a mild, plant-like aroma to meat products. In vacuum-fried shredded pork, it was observed that the intensity of flavor compounds increased with prolonged frying time, potentially due to the generation of ethanol. Although ethanol has a high sensory threshold and exerts minimal direct impact on meat flavor, it may enhance the overall flavor through synergistic interactions. Aldehydes were found to be the most abundant volatile compounds formed during vacuum frying, largely as a result of lipid degradation, microbial metabolism, and non-enzymatic browning reactions. Aldehydes are widely recognized as key contributors to meat flavor\u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e46\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003e. Among them, hexanal is primarily generated through the oxidative degradation of linoleic acid \u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR47\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e47\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003e, and its concentration serves as an important indicator of lipid oxidation and flavor development in cooked meat products \u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR53\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e48\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003e. In this study, the highest concentration of hexanal (718.59 ng/g) was detected in samples fried for 13 minutes under vacuum conditions. Esters, which are mainly derived from the oxidative degradation of fats and subsequent esterification reactions \u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR49\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e49\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003e, contributed a smaller proportion to the overall volatile profile. These compounds typically produce fruity aromas and enhance flavor complexity. Among hydrocarbons, aromatic hydrocarbons are considered important flavor-active components in meat \u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e50\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003e. Most ketones are generated via lipid oxidation, Maillard reactions, or the oxidation of alcohols. Due to their higher odor thresholds compared to their aldehyde isomers, ketones generally contribute minimally to the overall flavor. In the present study, the relative abundance of ketones in shredded pork remained consistently low and showed little variation with increased frying time. Similarly, Ding et al. reported negligible changes in ketone levels during both vacuum and air frying of scallop fillets over time \u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR51\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e51\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003e. In addition, saturated alkanes\u0026mdash;despite their high odor thresholds and limited direct contribution to flavor\u0026mdash;may still play a subtle role in shaping the overall sensory profile of meat products \u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR52\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e52\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec15\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eSensory analysis\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eSensory evaluation plays a vital role in assessing consumer acceptance and preference for fried meat products. As shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e, the sensory scores for shredded pork vacuum-fried at different durations and temperatures varied significantly. At a lower frying temperature of 75\u0026deg;C, the scores for color, aroma, taste, texture, and overall acceptability gradually increased with longer frying times. This trend suggests that extended frying at 75\u0026deg;C enhances the development of cooked meat aroma and flavor, leading to improved product palatability. The highest total sensory score was recorded for the sample fried at 75\u0026deg;C for 13 minutes, reaching 22.08\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.21. The second-highest score, 21.60\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.24, was observed for the sample fried at 85\u0026deg;C for 7 minutes. Notably, the sample fried at 75\u0026deg;C for 13 minutes received a slightly higher aroma score than the others, indicating superior aromatic quality. Overall, when compared to vacuum frying at 85\u0026deg;C and 95\u0026deg;C, frying at 75\u0026deg;C resulted in superior sensory characteristics and greater consumer appeal. These findings suggest that moderate-temperature vacuum frying, particularly at 75\u0026deg;C for an optimal time of 13 minutes, yields the most favorable sensory qualities in shredded pork.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe frying process generally involves four distinct stages characterized by simultaneous heat and mass transfer, during which a counterflow of water vapor escaping from the food and oil penetrating into the food matrix occurs \u003csup\u003e[53]\u003c/sup\u003e. High-temperature frying promotes Maillard reactions and caramelization, which can enhance flavor development but may also generate undesirable bitter or burnt notes if not properly controlled. In this study, the texture scores of vacuum-fried shredded pork increased progressively with longer frying durations, suggesting a consumer preference for a product with a firmer and crispier texture \u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR54\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e54\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003e. Zhou et al. reported decreases in texture scores with increasing frying temperature under the same frying method \u003csup\u003e[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e33\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/sup\u003e. Elevated temperatures accelerate moisture loss, which in turn increases meat hardness and reduces elasticity. Prolonged vacuum frying further exacerbates water depletion in shredded pork, significantly altering its texture and flavor. These changes not only compromise the product's structural integrity but also reduce its potential for rehydration or texture recovery. Based on the findings of this study and previous literature, vacuum frying at 75\u0026deg;C for 13 minutes is identified as the optimal condition for producing shredded pork with favorable sensory and textural properties. Frying beyond this duration leads to excessive dehydration, resulting in overly dry and less palatable products. Overall, changes in texture and flavor induced by frying conditions have a direct impact on sensory quality, thereby affecting consumer enjoyment and overall product acceptability.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Conclusions","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis study investigated the effects of varying vacuum frying temperatures and durations on the quality and flavor characteristics of fish-flavored shredded pork, a representative dish of Sichuan cuisine. The results demonstrated that vacuum frying increased the hardness and chewiness of the shredded pork, while its elasticity initially increased and then declined with extended frying time. Prolonged cooking also intensified the bitterness associated with certain amino acids, thereby negatively impacting the overall flavor profile. GC\u0026times;GC-MS analysis revealed that the highest concentrations of aldehydes and alcohols, along with the greatest diversity of volatile flavor compounds, were observed in samples fried at 75\u0026deg;C for 13 minutes. Sensory evaluation further confirmed that shredded pork processed under these conditions achieved the highest overall sensory scores, indicating its superior quality and consumer acceptability. Therefore, vacuum frying at 75\u0026deg;C for 13 minutes is recommended as the optimal condition for producing high-quality fish-flavored shredded pork. These findings provide both practical guidance and theoretical support for the industrial-scale production of this traditional Sichuan dish.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003ch2\u003eCompeting interests\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe authors declare no competing interests.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eFunding\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003e This work was supported by Regional innovation cooperation project of Sichuan province [2024YFHZ0207], key project of technological innovation and application development special item in Chongqing [cstc2021jscx-cy1hX0014].\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAuthor Contribution\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eFuxin Nie: Conceptualization, Methodology, Software, Writing-original draft, Writing-review \u0026amp; editing. Shuang Yang: Conceptualization, Formal analysis, Funding acquisition, Methodology, Resources. Yage Xing: Conceptualization, Data curation, Formal analysis, Validation. Hong Liu: Conceptualization, Formal analysis, Supervision, Validation. Yuyang Li: Conceptualization, Methodology, Software. Qiaoli Zhou: Conceptualization, Formal analysis, Software. Qinglian Xu: Investigation, Methodology, Validation.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eData Availability\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe datasets generated and/or analysed during the current study are not publicly available due to further analyses within the institution but are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eMunaf\u0026ograve;, M., et al. A manifesto for reproducible science. \u003cem\u003eNat Hum Behav\u003c/em\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e1\u003c/strong\u003e, 0021 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41562-016-0021. \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eChambers, C. \u003cem\u003eThe Seven Deadly Sins of Psychology: A Manifesto for Reforming the Culture of Scientific Practice \u003c/em\u003e(Princeton Univ. 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Frying Process: From Conventional to Air Frying Technology. Food Reviews International 2019, 35, 763-777, doi:10.1080/87559129.2019.1600541.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":true,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"scientific-reports","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"scirep","sideBox":"Learn more about [Scientific Reports](http://www.nature.com/srep/)","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"","title":"Scientific Reports","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"stoa","reportingPortfolio":"Scientific Reports","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Vacuum frying, Industrialization, Shredded meat, Free amino acid, Flavor substances","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6950673/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-6950673/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eThis study investigated the impact of varying vacuum frying durations on shredded pork quality and volatile flavor profiles at temperatures of 75\u0026deg;C, 85\u0026deg;C, and 95\u0026deg;C. Textural analysis indicated significant alterations in hardness, chewiness, and elasticity due to different frying durations. Comparative analysis of total amino values (TAV) across sample groups showed that freshness indices reached 150.51, 187.76, and 196.56, while sweet amino acids increased to 72.57, 92.97, and 97.45, and bitter amino acids rose to 109.11, 161.79, and 172.62, respectively. Gas chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry (GC\u0026times;GC-MS) demonstrated an increase in the number of volatile flavor compounds during vacuum frying at the specified temperatures. From an initial 24 volatile compounds detected in raw meat, the count rose to 41, 39, and 65 volatile compounds after 16 minutes of frying at 75\u0026deg;C, 85\u0026deg;C, and 95\u0026deg;C, respectively. Alcohols were the most prevalent among the volatile flavor components, ranging from 4.28\u0026ndash;10.28%, while other volatile flavor substances were detected in smaller amounts. The results indicate that vacuum frying shredded pork at 75\u0026deg;C for 13 minutes optimizes product quality, supporting its application for continuous industrial production. This condition effectively enhances the texture and flavor profile of shredded pork.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Effects of different vacuum frying temperature and times on the quality and volatile flavor substances of shredded pork","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-07-17 10:40:37","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6950673/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"decision","content":"Revision requested","date":"2025-10-24T11:28:44+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2025-08-19T05:17:45+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"308498375112780475273322987894404758723","date":"2025-07-30T08:15:44+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2025-07-15T04:47:16+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2025-07-15T04:38:20+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvited","content":"","date":"2025-07-14T18:29:16+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"checksComplete","content":"","date":"2025-06-24T13:34:26+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"Scientific Reports","date":"2025-06-24T13:30:14+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"scientific-reports","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"scirep","sideBox":"Learn more about [Scientific Reports](http://www.nature.com/srep/)","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"","title":"Scientific Reports","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"stoa","reportingPortfolio":"Scientific Reports","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"93299303-4444-4895-905d-a9b218aa481f","owner":[],"postedDate":"July 17th, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"published-in-journal","subjectAreas":[{"id":51537565,"name":"Physical sciences/Engineering/Chemical engineering"},{"id":51537566,"name":"Physical sciences/Chemistry/Process chemistry"}],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2025-12-01T16:14:30+00:00","versionOfRecord":{"articleIdentity":"rs-6950673","link":"https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-025-29605-y","journal":{"identity":"scientific-reports","isVorOnly":false,"title":"Scientific Reports"},"publishedOn":"2025-11-28 15:58:35","publishedOnDateReadable":"November 28th, 2025"},"versionCreatedAt":"2025-07-17 10:40:37","video":"","vorDoi":"10.1038/s41598-025-29605-y","vorDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-025-29605-y","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-6950673","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-6950673","identity":"rs-6950673","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}