Urban stone marten (Martes foina)-human conflicts: A longitudinal survey-based approach to a persistent challenge

Urban stone marten (Martes foina)-human conflicts: A longitudinal survey-based approach to a persistent challenge | Authorea try { document.documentElement.classList.add('js'); } catch (e) { } var _gaq = _gaq || []; _gaq.push(['_setAccount', 'G-8VDV14Y67G']); _gaq.push(['_trackPageview']); (function() { var ga = document.createElement('script'); ga.type = 'text/javascript'; ga.async = true; ga.src = ('https:' == document.location.protocol ? 'https://ssl' : 'http://www') + '.google-analytics.com/ga.js'; var s = document.getElementsByTagName('script')[0]; s.parentNode.insertBefore(ga, s); })(); Skip to main content Preprints Collections Wiley Open Research IET Open Research Ecological Society of Japan All Collections About About Authorea FAQs Contact Us Quick Search anywhere Search for preprint articles, keywords, etc. Search Search ADVANCED SEARCH SCROLL This is a preprint and has not been peer reviewed. Data may be preliminary. 11 March 2026 V1 Latest version Share on Urban stone marten (Martes foina)-human conflicts: A longitudinal survey-based approach to a persistent challenge Authors : Michał Strączyński , Sayantani Basak 0000-0002-4780-8854 [email protected] , Paweł Kwapisz , Joanna Tusznio , Jesse Lewis 0000-0002-3071-5272 , and Izabela A. Wierzbowska Authors Info & Affiliations https://doi.org/10.22541/au.177320565.56355999/v1 263 views 118 downloads Contents Abstract Information & Authors Metrics & Citations View Options References Figures Tables Media Share Abstract Although stone martens (Martes foina) are widely recognised for causing urban property damage, including damage done when entering and tearing up car engine compartments, the human dimensions of these conflicts remain largely understudied. Based on interviews with local car mechanics in Kraków conducted in 2010 and 2023, we explored the long-term human-stone marten interaction through the lens of the car damage conflict. Contrary to expectations of increased conflicts with rising car registrations, the research found that while the total number of reported incidents slightly increased from 1135 in 2010 to 1219 in 2023 but did not differ significantly (p=0.8) between the years. The conflict rate, when adjusted for the number of registered cars, significantly decreased. Specifically, the adjusted conflict count dropped from 321 in 2010 to 270 in 2023 (p<0.01), despite continued urban expansion and vehicle ownership growth. A notable shift in 2023 was the official inclusion of marten repellents by car manufacturers, indicating the perceived importance of this issue. Car owners, even more than interviewed mechanics, appeared to view stone martens as a growing threat, leading to increased use of countermeasures and an increase in their availability at licensed providers, although their effectiveness lacked consensus among respondents. The study concludes by advocating for future research to prioritise stone martens, recognising their overlooked importance in urban human-wildlife conflict studies. Urban stone marten ( Martes foina )-human conflicts: A longitudinal survey-based approach to a persistent challenge Michał Strączyński 1,2 , Sayantani Basak 1,3 , Paweł Kwapisz 4 Joanna Tusznio 1 , Jesse Lewis 5 , Izabela Wierzbowska 1 Corresponding author: 1. Sayantani M. Basak 1,3 Email: [email protected] 2. Izabela A. Wierzbowska 1 Email: [email protected] 1 Institute of Environmental Sciences, Faculty of Biology, Jagiellonian University, Gronostajowa 7, 30-387 Krakow, Poland 2 Jagiellonian University, Doctoral School of Exact and Natural Sciences, Poland 3 School of Biological, Earth and Environmental Sciences, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland 4 Krakow Municipal Greenery Authority, Forest and Nature Team, ul. Za Torem 22, 30-542, Poland 5 College of Integrative Sciences and Arts, Arizona State University, Mesa, Arizona, USA Abstract: Although stone martens ( Martes foin a) are widely recognised for causing urban property damage, including damage done when entering and tearing up car engine compartments, the human dimensions of these conflicts remain largely understudied. Based on interviews with local car mechanics in Kraków conducted in 2010 and 2023, we explored the long-term human-stone marten interaction through the lens of the car damage conflict. Contrary to expectations of increased conflicts with rising car registrations, the research found that while the total number of reported incidents slightly increased from 1135 in 2010 to 1219 in 2023 but did not differ significantly (p=0.8) between the years. The conflict rate, when adjusted for the number of registered cars, significantly decreased. Specifically, the adjusted conflict count dropped from 321 in 2010 to 270 in 2023 (p<0.01), despite continued urban expansion and vehicle ownership growth. A notable shift in 2023 was the official inclusion of marten repellents by car manufacturers, indicating the perceived importance of this issue. Car owners, even more than interviewed mechanics, appeared to view stone martens as a growing threat, leading to increased use of countermeasures and an increase in their availability at licensed providers, although their effectiveness lacked consensus among respondents. The study concludes by advocating for future research to prioritise stone martens, recognising their overlooked importance in urban human-wildlife conflict studies. Keywords: car mechanics, human dimension, interview, public perception, urban ecology Introduction In the current day, following a rapid expansion of cities, nearly 55% of the human population lives in urbanised areas as of 2019, with a potential to increase up to 68% by the year 2050 (United Nations et al. 2019). The rapid growth of urbanisation leads not only to habitat fragmentation and biodiversity loss (Theodorou 2022), but also creates distinct, urban ecosystems characterised by a variable degree of human modification and high intensity of human-wildlife interactions (Soulsbury and White 2015). Human interactions with wildlife are increasing globally due to the habitats and daily activity of people and wildlife overlapping in space and time, especially as animals recolonise urbanised areas (Magle et al. 2019). These interactions are varied (Bhatia et al. 2020) and can often be positive when they involve human appreciation of wildlife or when people value the existence of the wildlife in their local area so much that they are willing to accept the potential and actual costs of living with wildlife (Kansky et al. 2016). However, negative interactions between people – individuals or groups – and wildlife are also on the rise globally. They are classified as human-wildlife conflicts (hereafter: HWC) (König et al. 2021). A HWC occurs when material and non-material costs related to wildlife exceed the human tolerance threshold (Dickman 2010, Dickman et al. 2011, Soulsbury and White 2015). Common HWC include competition for resources, direct assault on humans, but also entrapment, vehicle collisions and property damage, especially in urbanised areas (Nyhus 2016), which are an emergent location for these conflicts (Soulsbury and White 2015, Conover 2019). Species most commonly associated with HWC in Europe are ungulates such as red deer ( Cervus elaphus ), roe deer ( Capreolus capreolus ), elk ( Alces alces ) and wild boar ( Sus scrofa ) (Saint-Andrieux et al. 2018, Laliberté and St-Laurent 2020), carnivorans such as red fox ( Vulpes vulpes ), stone marten ( Martes foina ) (Basak et al. 2020, Wierzbowska and Lesiak 2020), pine marten ( Martes martes ) (Birks and Brown 2006). Here comes the role of human-wildlife coexistence, which is defined as a dynamic yet sustainable condition wherein humans and wildlife mutually adapt to residing within shared environments (König et al. 2021). Human-wildlife coexistence requires consideration of positive and negative interactions between people and other species, including both their cultural aspects such as values, perceptions and traditions, as well as active management measures to mitigate potential damages, costs and conflicts (Nyhus 2016). In the era of Anthropocene, both humans and wildlife need to continuously co-adapt to living together in shared environments (König et al. 2020). Globally, there are numerous examples of human co-existence even with potentially dangerous species, such as with Asian elephants ( Elephas maximus ), and common leopard ( Panthera pardus ) in India, where positive relations are built on local culture and values (Roy et al. 2022), or with brown bear ( Ursus arctos ) in Romania (Dorresteijn et al. 2014), where traditional practices and tolerance of occasional damage are shaping acceptance of the species. Mustelid species inhabiting urban environments are an important study subject in terms of the possible HWC following their colonisation of cities, especially health risks associated with the transmission of parasites (Łopucki et al. 2019). They remain, however, understudied in the context of their long-term dynamics, impact on human well-being and effectiveness of mitigation measures (Magle et al. 2019). Despite being the most widespread urban mustelid in Europe (Maran et al. 2015), the stone marten remains poorly examined in the context of HWC. Although it is frequently cited as a common conflict species (Basak et al., 2020) and its presence in urban environments often leads to various forms of damage (Wierzbowska et al. 2017), these are still insufficiently documented. Stone martens were found to live in much more anthropogenic habitats when compared to other species, such as the red fox, and are well adapted to urban living due to their effective use of urban resources, especially anthropogenic shelters (Krauze-Gryz et al. 2024). An individual stone marten utilising anthropogenic refuges often shelters in multiple dens, many of which could be placed in inhabited buildings, especially during winter (Herr et al. 2010). Due to their frequent use of urbanised areas, stone martens enter car engine compartments, where they seek cover, reside for short periods of time, and may chew through the wiring and other engine parts of vehicles. In Germany, this generated material losses of close to 60 million euros in 2013 and 128 million euros in 2023 (German Insurance Association 2023). This type of damage from stone martens was reported a few decades ago (Herr 2010) and has led to the introduction of diverse repellents aimed at reducing the risks to vehicle engines. In Poland, hunting stone martens near human habitation or otherwise killing them is illegal without permission (Regulation of the Minister for the Environment of 16 December 2016 on the protection of animal species Dz.U. 2016 poz. 2183 2016). Urban citizens are therefore limited in their response to the conflicts with stone martens and can only use non-lethal repellents as a countermeasure. In Europe, the commonly used repellents can be divided into two main categories: electric instruments involving flashing lights, noise generators which operate by emitting high-pitched sounds that irritate the animal, making it less likely to enter the engine compartment as well as chemical-based repellents which usually involve smelly sprays that are unpleasant to the marten or come from predators, such as the domestic dog ( Canis lupus familiaris ) and scare it away by informing about potential danger (Birks 2017). Another method was to include the installation of steel meshes and cardboard panels that prevent physical access to the car engine compartment (Broekhuizen et al. 2010, Birks 2017). Thus, there is a general lack of research into urban mustelids (Streicher et al. 2023), especially regarding the conflicts between humans and stone martens. The damage caused by stone martens to car engines is widespread, frequently highlighted in the media (Dziatkiewicz 2009, Szypulski 2024) and everyday conversations. Despite the scientific community’s awareness of this problem since the 1970s (Herr et al. 2009a), and the species’ broad distribution throughout Europe, contemporary research that specifically investigates the relationship between stone martens and cars is remarkably scarce (Herr et al. 2009a, Tóth et al. 2009). Surprisingly, some studies addressing conflicts with stone martens fail to mention this issue altogether, as highlighted by Peeva and Raichev (2016). Recent surveys emphasise the critical role of this interaction as a primary conflict with the species, underscoring their status as a significant nuisance species. This highlights a gap in our understanding, particularly concerning the human dimensions of this conflict and potential mitigation strategies (Moesch et al. 2024). The human dimensions approach to HWCs focuses on gathering accurate and comprehensive data that explains human thoughts and behaviours concerning wildlife, utilising the principles and methodologies used in social sciences. Further, it involves determining how to effectively utilise this information in the decision-making process regarding wildlife in the future (Manfredo and Vaske 1995). Researching the human dimensions of specific HWCs requires understanding perceptions, expectations and experiences of stakeholders directly affected by them (Nyhus 2016). Stakeholders are defined as individuals and institutions impacted by wildlife, involved in its protection, management or those simply interested in wildlife. Even stakeholders nominally belonging to the same interest group (such as “farmers” or “conservationists”) can hold a wide range of unique and opposing views on any given matter connected to wildlife, and thus exploration of human-wildlife coexistence should seek out and highlight such nuances (Kiffner et al. 2025). In the HWC with stone martens, the main stakeholders are car owners, as well as those working with the damaged property, such as car mechanics, or those offering solutions, such as car manufacturing companies and repellent producers. To our best knowledge, none of the previously stated stakeholders’ perceptions on this issue has been studied before. For the first ever exploratory study on this topic, car mechanics appear as the most important group due to possessing unique perspectives and experiences which can help identify multiple aspects of this conflict, such as types of damage, its costs, changes through time, the factors underpinning it and ways of mitigation. For that reason, they can be identified as local knowledge holders (Ulicsni et al. 2019, Wheeler and Root‐Bernstein 2020), whose work requires combining experiences from many individual cases of damage and linking other interested parties, such as car owners, car producers and producers of repellents. Therefore, the main aim of this study was to assess how stone marten–related car damage conflicts have changed over time in Poland’s second-largest city (Kraków), using comparative in-depth interviews with car mechanics conducted in 2010 and again in 2023. This aim was achieved by the following four specific objectives: 1. Firstly, to identify the car mechanic’s perception of the scale of the conflict with stone martens. 2. Secondly, to understand their views on factors potentially causing or influencing the occurrence of car damage 3. Thirdly, to recognise the types of car damage and their cost estimates. 4. Finally, to ascertain the reported availability, use and perceived effectiveness of the mitigation methods used. This study will thus help address existing knowledge gaps regarding the human dimensions of stone marten conflict, offering insights essential for developing effective mitigation strategies and fostering future tolerance of the species. Methods 2.1 Study area The study was conducted in Kraków (50°02′59′′ N and 19°56′40′′ E)- the second-largest city in Poland, encompassing an area of 327 km 2 in southern Poland (Fig. 1). It had a human population of 756,200 in 2010 (Chełstowska and Kulczycki 2011) and nearly 804,000 by 2023 (Juda and Rudnik 2023). Land cover is varied, comprising urbanised terrain, green areas, and agricultural lands. In the year 2010, 33.6% of the city area was urbanised, 45.7% was agricultural, with the remaining territory (20.7%) being distributed between other types of ground cover such as forests and water bodies (Chełstowska 2011). Over the years, there was a notable increase in urbanisation- in 2023, 48.2% of the city is built-up urbanised land, while 42.4% of the city grounds are considered agricultural. The remaining 10% of Kraków is made up of green areas such as forests, parks, nature reserves and Natura 2000 areas as well as water bodies. (Kozień and Sochacka 2023). The city is set on the banks of the Vistula River, which functions as a potential migration corridor for multiple species (Romanowski 2007). The population numbers of the target species, i.e., the stone marten, in Kraków did not change over the years and were estimated at 679 in the year 2016 and decreased to 611 in the year 2023 (Office of Forest Management and Forest Geodesy 2016). Furthermore, between the years 2010 and 2023, the number of cars registered in the city increased from 353,540 in 2010 to 588,856 in 2023 (Kasperkiewicz 2023). 2.2 Data collection 2.2.1 Interview design We selected key informant interviewing as our qualitative data collection technique because it enables researchers to more accurately document the experiences and perceptions of decision-makers, community members and those knowledgeable on a given topic (Lucas et al. 2022). The data was collected through interviews with workers at car mechanic service centres (hereafter car mechanics), involving both closed and open-ended questions (Appendix A). Close-ended and open-ended questions are used in surveys as they are quick to answer and provide fast answers to simple problems, comparable between respondents and years of study. They opened the possibility of asking follow-up questions (Hyman and Sierra 2016). We conducted the interviews around the four research objectives: the analysis of views on the scale of the conflict with stone martens, factors potentially causing or influencing the conflict, the cost of the damages done by martens and the availability and use of mitigation methods 2.2.2 Selection of the participants We selected 30 participants from diverse car mechanic service centres in the city. In 2010, the participants were selected from among authorised car mechanic services for major manufacturer brands across the city (Fig. 1). One worker was chosen from each car mechanic service centre, and the authors made sure the interview was conducted with the knowledge and consent of the car mechanic service owner or a currently available manager. In 2023, we attempted to interview from the same 30 car mechanic centres; however, we were only partially successful (n=13 repetitions out of 30), as many were either closed down permanently or otherwise unavailable using the contact information provided on their websites. Therefore, we chose 17 new car mechanic service centres which were located closest to the unavailable ones. 2.2.3 Interview process The interviews were first conducted face-to-face in February 2010 and repeated in March and April 2023. However, if a participant did not wish or was unable to meet in person, a telephonic interview was conducted. During each interview, specific, standardised questions were asked (Appendix A). A strong emphasis was placed on the free-flowing conversation with the interviewee to gather as much additional detail and insight as possible. Individual interviews varied in length and lasted between 10 and 20 minutes. The interviews were conducted and transcribed in Polish, and later translated into English by the first author, who is a native Polish speaker. After transcription, the texts were summarised in English for further analysis. The names of car mechanic service centres have been redacted for data protection, while the general regions of the city in which they were located can be found in the Appendix B, keeping the interviewees anonymous. 2.3 Data analysis To identify the statistical differences in reported numbers of the stone marten conflicts between 2010 and 2023 (objective 1), a Chi-squared test was performed. To do so, we first normalised the data with the number of registered cars with the following equation (1) \begin{equation} x=\frac{\text{number\ of\ reported\ conflicts\ in\ i}^{\text{th}}\text{\ year}}{\text{number\ of\ registered\ cars\ in\ i}^{\text{th}}\text{\ year}}*100000\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ (1)\nonumber \\ \end{equation} where x is the number of reported conflicts per 100,000 registered cars and i is the year 2010 or 2023. Furthermore, the effect size was used to evaluate the magnitude of the difference between the years. Calculating the effect size allows for presenting the strength of the reported effects in a standardised metric that can be understood regardless of the sample sizes used, allowing not only to report statistical significance but also practical significance (Kearney 2017) and are used successfully in social survey studies (Basak et al. 2022). One of the most commonly used measures of effect size for Chi-square tests is Cramér’s V (McHugh 2013). Cramér’s V values range from 0 to 1, where higher values indicate a greater effect size based on the degrees of freedom (Cramér 1946, Kim 2017). To compare the number of reported conflicts between the seasons (objective 2) and the number of reported damaged car parts (objective 3) in both years, a Chi-squared test was performed, and the effect size was calculated. In Poland, seasons are categorised as spring (March–May), summer (June–August), autumn (September-November) and winter (December–February). Because some answers regarding seasonality of the conflict with stone martens were given as the exact month when the conflict was particularly prominent, whereas others consisted of the general season or two months out of the seasons, all answers were coded as giving a season or seasons corresponding to the respective months. To identify the reported availability and use of mitigation methods (objective 4), we used MAXQDA Analytics Pro, a qualitative data analysis software. We used open coding for developing categories of damages and other aspects relevant to our respondents. Other studies researching the management of wildlife conflicts have used similar methodologies to code interviews (Luat-Hūʻeu et al. 2023). Code co-occurrence maps created in the same program were used to help conceptualise the narratives expressed in the interviews and form the basis of qualitative analysis. All calculations were performed in the R environment (ver.4.03) (R Core Team 2024). Results A total of 30 respondents were interviewed both in 2010 and 2023. All of the respondents were male. According to the respondents, their clients overwhelmingly came from their local area- usually the surrounding neighbourhood. 3.1 Perception of the scale of the conflict with stone martens In 2010, out of 30 respondents, 26 reported encountering marten damage in the engine compartments of serviced cars. In 2010, there were a total of 1135 reported cases of vehicle damage by martens with an annual average of 37.83 (SD ±40.96) per car mechanic service (Table 1). After normalisation of data, the number of reported conflicts was 321 per 100,000 registered cars. In 2023, 25 respondents reported encountering marten damage. The total number of conflicts reported was 1219, with an annual average of 43.53 (SD ±65.99) per respondent (Table 1). After the normalisation of data, the number of reported conflicts was 270 per 100,000 registered cars. Even though there was an observed rise in the number of reported conflicts (from 1135 in 2010 to 1219 in 2023), there were no significant differences between the years (p=0.8). However, when adjusted with the number of registered cars, conflicts have significantly reduced (from 321 in 2010 to 270 in 2023) (χ 2 =24.61, df=1, p<0.01). The effect size was high (V=0.64, df=1), indicating a substantial difference. When asked to describe their observations on the number of cars damaged by the martens, the respondents’ personal views on the frequency of the conflict varied. In 2023, some (n=6) claimed the problem is severe and might be getting worse: “The issue is big, and it keeps getting bigger, I feel like there is constantly more and more damage done, we see it in many, many vehicles”-one said. Another commented: “The issue is very persistent, and we see an increase in damage done. It doesn’t go away.” Another view, however, expressed by a similar number (n=7) of respondents, is that the problem of damage in car engine compartments is small and not very impactful. “It happens, yes. But the situation really is not bad. We find traces of animal presence in the vehicles. Damage? Only very rarely. And even if it happens, the damage is not very substantial. Usually, it is only visual: some tear or bite marks on the sound-proofing elements or scratches here and there,” explained another respondent. Several (n=6) vehicle mechanics claimed it is hard to say how large the problem is, as they do not have any statistics on how many vehicles are damaged by martens. Interestingly, one respondent mentioned that while he does not frequently encounter marten damage in cars, his clients talk about them when discussing their vehicles: “I cannot say I have seen much. Sometimes we have a cable chewed on or some paw prints, but it’s rare. However, when I talk to my clients, I hear about their past experiences with marten damage even if I don’t see it myself. And this seems to be an epidemic”- he said. Most mechanics did not provide information on the total number of vehicles they service annually, either because they do not track these figures or because they consider them trade secrets, making it difficult to compare the proportion of cars affected by marten damage across different workshops. Still, according to some of the respondents both in 2010 and 2023, anywhere between 50% to 70% of all vehicles had some traces of marten presence such as paw prints, food remains and scats. The following words were used in describing the scale: “habitual”, “occasionally”, “large”, and “often” but also “not bad”, “sporadic”, “little.” 3.2 Views on factors potentially causing or influencing the occurrence of car damage We asked various questions about the cars being brought for repair due to marten damage, such as, “Which car models were brought in because of martens the most/least often?”, “Do you know where the damaged cars were parked?” and “Do you have any additional observations regarding the damage?” In 2010, neither the model nor the age of the car was said to influence the conflict. In 2023, A few respondents (n=4) mentioned the age of the car as a factor. Only one of the interviewees mentioned the car’s model as a factor which might make it more likely to be damaged by martens but provided no further details. In 2010, parking was generally pointed to as the most important factor dictating the conflict. In 2023, parking outside, in the streets, was often (n=13) cited as greatly impacting the risk of a car being damaged. Some (n=2) respondents claimed that even parking a car in a garage was insufficient, as martens can still find ways of accessing their engine compartment. The interview participants in 2010 did not describe additional car-related factors. In 2023, (n=5) respondents pointed to the potential role of materials used in vehicle production as a reason for the engines being damaged. The respondents mentioned the following materials as more likely to be bitten by martens: silicon (n=2) and “various organic additives” (n=2). As these descriptions were largely anecdotal and not statistically relevant, the exact answers they gave can be found in the Appendix C. In reply to questions about seasons when the interviewees serviced the most cars due to marten damage, particular seasons were mentioned repeatedly, with spring and autumn being generally mentioned the most often, irrespective of year (Table 2). Respondents in 2010 most mentioned spring as the most intense season of conflict (n=13) with stone martens. In 2023, there was a significant shift in the most conflictual season, when they most commonly mentioned autumn (n=11) (Table 2) (χ 2 =9.78 df=3, p=0.02). The effect size was high (V=0.46, df=3), indicating a substantial difference. No explanations or additional comments were provided for the high occurrence of conflicts in spring during the 2010 interviews. In 2023, the reasons stated by the car mechanics behind this observation were centred around the thermal needs of the animals. “The conflicts increase during the colder periods: November, December, January, they [author’s note: martens] are drawn to the still warm vehicle engines after the vehicle is parked. They use the vehicles as shelter,” one car mechanic expressed. 3.3 Types of car damage and their cost estimates When asked about the parts of the cars which were damaged most often, the respondents consistently mentioned similar car parts both in 2010 and 2023 (Table 3). However, there was a significant difference in the number of cases of damage to car parts (χ 2 = 9.58 df=5, p=0.002) between the years (Table 3). The effect size was high (V=0.34, df=5), indicating a substantial difference. In 2023, when asked to comment on the extent and costs of marten damage they encountered, the respondents gave a wide range of estimates. Most damage encountered by the respondents was minor and inexpensive to repair (such as slight wire damage), which does not immobilise the car and can be replaced for 15-20 Zloty (Polish legal tender, hereafter: PLN). The damage caused by martens was seen as more impactful in 2023 than in 2010. In 2023, respondents assessed the average cost of damages to be between approximately 400-1000 PLN, which corresponds to 13% of the average gross salary (7380 PLN) in Poland in 2023 (Rozkrut 2023). However, more serious damages were also mentioned. Marten chewing on a single, specific wire might short-circuit or disconnect the car’s internal computer from the car’s vital components and result in it no longer being able to start. One respondent said that in newer vehicles, made with more sophisticated technology, any damage to wiring that does happen has a high potential of causing very costly and serious consequences for the vehicle. “And because everything is so interconnected and fused these days, we had to pull out the entire engine, get to the computer, replace most of what was around it, really generating a lot of costs. It was many thousands PLN”- he recalled. These types of damages were cited as always being more costly- usually in the range of 2000-5000 PLN, which corresponds to as much as 68% of the average gross salary in 2023. Another respondent described a situation where a marten chewed through a cable supplying electricity to the automated gearbox of a car, causing the need to replace the entire gearbox and the connected parts of the engine. The cost of this repair came to 20,000 PLN. 3.4 The reported availability, use and perceived effectiveness of mitigation methods In 2010, when asked if mechanics noticed any protective measures installed in the cars to counteract martens, the respondents mentioned encountering ultrasound emitters, liquid, as well as aerosol chemical repellents. Clients also used natural repellents such as animal and human hair collected from dog groomers and hairdressers, in the hope that their smell would repel the martens. None of the deterrents was pointed to as particularly popular or effective. While marten deterrents were present in the vehicles, they were mostly bought from third-party retailers or were homemade. No deterrents were offered by the vehicle mechanics, and none were mentioned as officially sold by the vehicle manufacturers as additional features for anyone purchasing a car. In 2023, (n=23) respondents reported seeing repellents used in vehicles. Out of these, a few (n=6) claimed that deterrents were used very commonly and that they noticed an increase in their frequency over the years. The deterrents mentioned most often were ultrasound emitters (n=17), liquid and aerosol (olfactory, chemical) repellents (n=10). These were considered more standardised and reliable than home-made solutions such as dog hair (n=9) and toilet blocks (n=6). Two respondents also mentioned seeing homemade electric shock devices (n=2). The ultrasound emitters were significantly more popular than the other countermeasures (χ 2 =13.96 df=4, p=0.00744). The effect size was high (V=0.28, df=4), indicating a substantial difference. When further commenting on the countermeasures, a few (n=3) respondents expressed an opinion that the currently available countermeasures are effective in protecting cars from being damaged by martens, while some (n=5) respondents expressed doubts about the effectiveness of these methods. Code cooccurrence analysis performed in MAXQDA showed that olfactory repellents and homemade repellents had lower reliability compared to all other types of repellents (Fig. 2). One interviewee commented: “There are many different repellents, which might help, but it’s disputable if they are effective. The best among them are the sound emitters. Olfactory repellents – among them toilet blocks installed by the drivers themselves - are not very effective, because the animals get used to the smells and ignore them.” Another downside of some olfactory repellents is the way of their application. “The aerosol ones are sticky and make accessing and repairing the engine harder. It’s disgusting. This [the aerosols] can even be dangerous to the car. It might make the engine heat up too much or possibly grind up the engine parts”- one respondent commented. Notably, another respondent remarked that, in their view, none of the countermeasures currently in use are effective at protecting cars from martens. According to the interviewees, vehicle owners react to the damage done by martens in several ways, depending on the severity of the damage and its financial consequences. Since the damage done most often is not very severe or expensive to fix. Additionally, some vehicle owners choose not to report the damage. Two main reasons given were: the vehicle’s old age, which makes the driver less likely to repair it, as they are often close to replacing them anyway and the fact that each time an owner reports damage to a car, their insurance payments increase. This indicates that only the most debilitating damage is reported and fixed, which might influence the image and views of the conflict with stone martens. In 2010, the respondents (n=18) who commented on the repellents, when asked “Does your company and/or the car’s manufacturer offer any preventative measures to protect the cars from martens?” uniformly stated that there were no official repellents offered by vehicle manufacturers, whereas the rest (n=12) did not offer any comments on their availability from manufacturers. All repellents used in the cars were homemade or came from third-party companies and could be installed by the car repair services at the customer’s request. The respondents in 2023 observed a general rise in client awareness of interest in marten repellents, and that clients actively search for repellents, after an experience of marten car damage (n=14), however a minority (n=4) claimed that the clients most often start looking to buy repellents before their car is damaged, “likely based on what they’ve heard from others.” Alongside the perceived increase in awareness of the issue and growing interest in repellents, a small number of respondents (n=2) also noted that vehicle manufacturers have begun offering brand-authorised products as optional accessories through licensed car dealerships. These include the most popular types of repellents previously reported as bought almost exclusively from third-party retailers, such as ultrasound emitters (Appendix D). Discussion In this study, we aimed to identify the car damage conflict with stone martens as reported by car mechanics in Kraków, the second-largest city in Poland, in 2010 and again in 2023. We discovered that the incidence of stone marten conflicts reported by Kraków’s car mechanics in 2010 has declined in 2023, despite the city’s ongoing urban expansion and increase in vehicle ownership. The personal perspectives of respondents regarding the frequency of these conflicts were divided, with both favourable and unfavourable viewpoints being expressed. Furthermore, the results indicate a shift in the seasonal pattern of the conflict. While the respondents generally noticed an increase in use, availability and sophistication of marten repellents, there was a lack of consensus about their effectiveness. 4.1 Perception of the scale of the conflict with stone martens Interestingly, the number of reported conflicts significantly decreased over the decade, when we expected it to keep up with the increase in the number of cars registered in the city. An explanation for this decrease can be attributed to the fact that stone martens are territorial and their social structures are inflexible and do not change significantly over time (Herr et al. 2009b). Moreover, the estimated stone marten population size in Kraków did not noticeably change between 2010 and 2023 (Office of Forest Management and Forest Geodesy 2016, 2023). Other studies conducted in Kraków within a similar timeframe (Basak et al. 2022) indicated an increase in the number of all conflicts with martens reported by the city residents, including car damage. This is in contrast with the relative decrease in conflicts reported by car mechanics in this study. It might be explained by the specific target group used by our study, focusing only on car damage, where, in fact, martens are known to cause other conflicts in urban settings, such as property intrusion and arousing fear or anxiety in the public (Basak et al. 2022). Furthermore, regarding specific stakeholders involved in studies of HWC, it was proposed by Liordos et al. (2016) that attitudes among professionally involved stakeholders are often different to those displayed by the general population. This is potentially due to the difference in the degree of exposure to the conflict and its management (Liordos et al. 2016). Despite the reported decline in conflict frequency, some respondents indicated that the issue remained widespread and was increasingly affecting car owners. These subjective opinions can be explained by the fact that negative experiences shape human memory and thus long-term views in a stronger way than positive ones (Barlow et al. 2012, Conner et al. 2012). In the case of car mechanics who deal with the results of this conflict often, it is possible that repeated exposure to negative experiences with stone martens caused them to subjectively feel that the conflict is more prevalent and important than it would appear, based on the numbers reported in the study. However, Perry et al. (2022) found that the influence of negative exposure might not be as strong and uniform as expected. Additionally, the respondents in this study who did not consider the conflict to be a big issue used dismissive language which minimises the severity of the conflict, such as claiming that the damage done to car engines is incidental or mostly aesthetic. This might suggest that the stone martens are a recurring nuisance but not strictly a conflict species in central-eastern Europe, which is supported by other research done on human-wildlife conflicts in urban ecosystems (Moesch et al. 2024). 4.2 Views on factors potentially causing or influencing the occurrence of car damage The results of this research indicate that there was a change in the perceived seasonality of the conflict during the decade separating the two rounds of interviews. In 2010, stone martens caused the most conflict in spring, while in 2023, they caused the most conflict in autumn. These results were also consistent with Herr et al. (2009), who found that autumn, spring, and summer were the times when stone martens caused the most conflict during a year-long study. Assuming the intensity of the conflict is influenced by the animals’ activity patterns, both periods of increased frequency of conflicts can be explained by the ecology of the species and could reasonably co-occur within the same year. Spring is the time when stone martens, especially females, are increasingly territorial and likely more mobile and active (Herr and Roper 2022). In autumn, young stone martens enter adulthood and disperse, occupying new territories, which often partially overlap with the territories of other martens of the same sex or overlap completely with the territories of martens of the opposite sex (Okarma and Tomek 2008). The seasonal variation in reported conflict intensity may also suggest that the issue is highly dynamic and continuously changing, with the potential for stone marten conflict appearing to be independent of the time of year. Territoriality and territory-marking behaviours are potential factors causing the conflict with stone martens (Herr et al. 2009a). According to some of the respondents, anywhere between 50 and 70% of cars serviced in Kraków have traces of marten activity in them, which possibly indicates that they are indeed used by martens for marking their territories, either purposefully or incidentally when searching for sheltered feeding spaces. The daily use of marked cars by humans for travel between work and home might bring them into contact with other stone martens, who could potentially react with aggression, stress and trigger territorial behaviour (Herr et al. 2009a). 4.3 Types of car damages and their cost estimates Results show a change in the frequencies of car elements reported as being damaged most often, with a large increase in the number of mentions of soundproofing, or muffling, elements. The results indicate a shift in the frequency of car components reported as being most frequently damaged, with a notable increase in mentions of soundproofing or muffling elements. The increase in the number of damages to engine muffling elements, such as thick fabric screens and rubber mats, can be explained by the fact that car manufacturers installed more of them in recent models as compared to older car models produced before 2010. In 2023, the interviewees also started pointing to the chemical makeup and possibly the smell of the car parts for the first time as a possible factor in the targeting of particular car models or car manufacturer brands. We found no studies which could offer any proof or explanation for this supposed phenomenon or other examples of such statements; therefore, these claims should be further verified with additional surveys or experimental tests. Nevertheless, should the claims prove to be rooted in reality, they open yet another avenue of potential research into the causes of and mitigation strategies in the conflict with stone martens. In 2023, the costs mentioned by the car mechanics are a relatively high percentage of the average salary in the country, providing further reasons for why the conflict’s image is that of a persistent one. 4.4 The reported availability, use and perceived effectiveness of mitigation methods. Interviewees highlighted the ongoing use and search for marten repellents by their customers. The respondents believe that these measures are only partially effective in conflict mitigation, and they also expressed concerns about their actual usefulness and potentially detrimental effect on the car engines themselves. These concerns seem to be connected primarily with negative experiences with home-made and olfactory (chemical) repellents and are the foundation of most negative opinions about all repellents, regardless of type, which is again consistent with the idea of negative experiences i.e., with sticky aerosol-applied repellents, having a stronger influence on opinions and memory than neutral or positive ones, i.e. with other, potentially better countermeasures (Barlow et al. 2012, Conner et al. 2012). A new development in 2023 was the inclusion of officially licensed marten repellents by the car manufacturers, showing that they view the issue as significant. Car owners are more aware of the risk of damage and often seek countermeasures after experiencing it, indicating that they consider it a growing threat, possibly more so than the car mechanics. Recommendation for future research The wide range of responses and uncertainty expressed among car mechanics regarding both the frequency of the conflict with stone martens and existing mitigation measures illustrates an important knowledge gap in our understanding of this issue. Future research must include more groups of stakeholders to better capture the experience of professionals, but also car owners whose experience of the conflict might be very different from that of the car mechanics. Using questionnaires in addition to interviews can be a good way of illustrating the views and needs of stakeholders on a large scale while also providing researchers with a wide range of citizens’ and organisations’ views and ideas regarding HWC (Marshall et al. 2007). The emerging questions regarding the role of the chemical make-up of materials used in car engine manufacturing, as well as the effectiveness and safety of using currently available marten repellents, open another avenue of potential future research. Comprehensive studies involving car manufacturers, mechanics and owners can make our understanding of HWCs in a more complete way (Pătru-Stupariu et al. 2020), combining efforts to address this HWC by finding effective mitigation measures. Local stakeholder experience can be a useful source of knowledge used to change conservation policy, making it more participatory and socially involved (Thaman et al. 2013). In the specific case of the relations between humans and stone martens, the use of knowledge of car mechanics and other stakeholders could be a starting point in any future research which aims to provide ways of reducing the nuisance status of the species and facilitating better human-wildlife coexistence. Conclusion This paper is, to our knowledge, the first one to set out to identify the stone marten conflict in an urban setting by examining a decade of changes in the conflict through the experiences and views of car mechanics. In the eyes of some car mechanics, the conflict is persistent, and their views are polarised both concerning the frequency and effectiveness of the existing mitigation methodologies. Understanding the perspectives of professional stakeholders can aid in improving the existing countermeasures and strategies for stone marten conflict management and direct future studies. Although the conducted interviews cannot represent all aspects of the conflict or the experiences of all the car mechanics in Kraków, they provide a rich source of local knowledge which can be used in the management of the conflict and HWC, as well as give a baseline for comparison in future studies. CRediT authorship contribution statement M. Strączyński: Data collection, Methodology, Investigation, Formal analysis, Data curation, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing, Conceptualisation. S. M. Basak: Methodology, Writing – review & editing, Supervision. P. Kwapisz : Data collection, Investigation, Writing – Methodology. J. Tusznio: Validation, Software Writing – review & editing. J. Lewis: Writing- review & editing. I.A. Wierzbowska : Conceptualisation, Supervision, Writing- review & editing. Declaration of competing interest The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper. Data availability All the required data are uploaded as supplementary material. References Barlow, F., S. Paolini, A. Pedersen, M. Hornsey, H. Radke, J. Harwood, M. Rubin, and C. Sibley. 2012. The Contact Caveat: Negative Contact Predicts Increased Prejudice More Than Positive Contact Predicts Reduced Prejudice. 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ID Reported conflicts ID Reported conflicts A1 20 B1 50 A2 10 B2 24 A3 20 B3 4 A4 10 B4 12 A5 50 B5 220 A6 12 B6 270 A7 90 B7 0 A8 120 B8 0 A9 60 B9 40 A10 50 B10 30 A11 2 B11 50 A12 0 B12 156 A13 20 B13 15 A14 20 B14 120 A15 0 B15 20 A16 30 B16 48 A17 5 B17 20 A18 120 B18 0 A19 20 B19 18 A20 100 B20 20 A21 0 B21 0 A22 4 B22 0 A23 0 B23 42 A24 80 B24 24 A25 50 B25 4 A26 150 B26 12 A27 12 B27 12 A28 15 B28 0 A29 15 B29 0 A30 50 B30 8 Total 1135 Total 1219 Average 37.83 Average 43.53 Table 2. Frequency of respondents (n=30 in each year) reporting the highest seasonal occurrence of conflicts with stone martens in Kraków in the years 2010 and 2023 Spring Summer Autumn Winter 2010 13 0 4 6 23 2023 3 2 11 5 21 Total 16 2 15 11 - Table 3. Car parts reported as damaged by stone martens in the years 2010 and 2023 in Kraków. 2010 2023 soundproofing elements 2 15 electrical wires 5 14 ignition wires 5 3 radiator tubes 2 4 other rubber elements 7 15 sensors 7 6 Total 28 57 9. Appendices Appendix A. Standard questions asked the interviewees and their English translations. 1. Ile samochodów serwisowaliście państwo w 2022 roku? Czy macie dane zbiorcze z wcześniejszych lat, np. ostatniej dekady? 1a. Jaki procent samochodów został uszkodzony przez kuny? 1. How many cases were brough into this mechanic workshop this year, how many do you useually per year? 1a. Out of these, how many were damaged by martens? 2. Kiedy najczęściej dochodzi do uszkodzenia samochodu przez kunę? W jakich miesiącach serwisowano najwięcej samochodów? 2. When did most of the marten damage occur? In which months was the majority of cars serviced? 3. Które modele samochodów kuny uszkadzały najczęściej? Czy zaobserwowaliście państwo zależność od wieku? 3. What car models were brought in because of martens the most/least often? Did you notice if there was any influence of the car’s age? 5. Które części samochodu/silnika były uszkadzane najczęściej? 5a. Jakie były koszty zniszczeń i naprawy? 5. What parts of the car were damaged the most often? 5a. What are the costs of the damages? 6. Czy ma Pan/Pani dodatkowe obserwacje dotyczące uszkodzeń dokonanych przez kuny? 6. Do you have any additional observations regarding the damage? 7. Gdzie parkowane były uszkodzone samochody (Okolice terenów zielonych, centrum, otwarte parkingi czy garaże)? 7. Where were the damaged cars parked most often? 8. Czy w samochodach zainstalowane były środki odstraszające kuny, takie jak emitery dźwięków, produkty Kunagone itp? 8. Were there any protective measures installed in the cars? Such as sound emitters, Kunagone etc.? 9. Czy państwa serwis i/lub producent samochodu oferuje jakiekolwiek środki odstraszające kuny? Jeśli tak to jakie? 9a. Jeśli oferujecie państwo takie środki, jak wygląda popyt na nie wśród klientów przed i po uszkodzeniu auta przez kuny? 9. Does your business and/or the car’s manufacturer offer any repellents to protect the cars from martens? 9a. If you do sell the repellents, did you notice if the demand for them increases after a person’s car was damaged or do they search for them pre-emptively? Appendix B Localisations of car mechanic services surveyed in 2010 and 2023 and the frequencies of conflicts they reported A1 Aleja Pokoju B1 Aleja Pokoju A2 Armii Krajowej B2 Armii Krajowej A3 Opolska B3 Opolska A4 Ofiar Dąbia B4 Ofiar Dąbia A5 Profesora Adama Rożańskiego B5 Profesora Adama Rożańskiego A6 Profesora Adama Rożańskiego B6 Profesora Adama Rożańskiego A7 Josepha Conrada B7 Josepha Conrada A8 Łokietka B8 Łokietka A9 Góra Libertowska B9 Góra Libertowska A10 Góra Libertowska B10 Góra Libertowska A11 Zakopiańska B11 Zakopiańska A12 Aleja Pokoju B12 Aleja Pokoju A13 Zakopiańska B13 Zakopiańska A14 Góra Libertowska B14 Skotnicka A15 Zakopiańska B15 Tyniecka A16 Al.29 Listopada B16 Zakopiańska A17 Al. 29 Listopada B17 Stanisława Klimeckiego A18 Jasnogórska B18 Świetlista A19 Zakopiańska B19 Rostworowskiego A20 Josepha Conrada B20 Bolesława Leśmiana A21 Jasnogórska B21 Księcia Józefa A22 Jasnogórska B22 Pylna A23 Jasnogórska B23 Rostworowskiego A24 Jasnogórska B24 Królowej Jadwigi A25 Powstańców Śląskich B25 Centralna A26 Wielicka B26 Rydlówka A27 Balicka B27 Twardowskiego A28 Ofiar Dąbia B28 Siwka A29 Zawiła B29 Na Załęczu A30 Radzikowskiego B30 Radzikowskiego Appendix C Answers given to questions related to the interviewees' views on factors potentially causing or influencing the car damage 2010 2023 “Which car models were brought in because of martens the most/least often?” “Do you see a pattern of older or newer cars being attacked more often?” Neither model or the age of the car influenced the conflict “The older vehicles have much fewer soundproofing elements in the engine compartments than the newer cars, thus the martens overwhelmingly target the various electrical wires.” Additionally, “New vehicles, regardless of model were targeted more often in general because of the intense smell of new plastic and rubber parts, which attracts the animals”. Most interviewees (n= 15) however claimed that the age of the vehicle does not influence the conflict in any way and suggested other factors. “Modern cars might be harder to get to and damaged. These days, everything (the engine) is just so enclosed and separated from the outside that it must make it harder for the marten to get in. Electric cars, oh- they are very safe, I think. There are barely any openings in the ones we have seen over here for instance. And, obviously, if the marten cannot get to the engine, it is unlikely it will damage it.” Do you know where were the damaged cars were parked? “It is one of the most important factors influencing the conflict” “The place a vehicle is parked is not significant to the risk, especially since the cars leave the garages during the day when the owners drive to work and other places and are often left in the open.” Do you have any additional observations regarding the damage? The interview participants in 2010 did not describe additional car-related factors. -On the topic of the general role of materials used in car manufacturing: “Certain vehicle manufacturers might use specific admixtures in their engine elements which attract the martens” -On the topic of the use of silicon: “[…] the cables covered in it seem to be targeted more often, simply because the martens like to bite into it. It’s the taste […]”. -On the topic of “Various organic additives”: “It is said that some car manufacturers use plant-sourced substances in their composite materials, possibly as a way of recycling the organic matter or making the parts cheaper and less damaging for the environment, usually in the form some sort of soy product. Because the parts are made from plant-sourced materials, they might give off the smell of food that the martens pick up on and start chewing.” Appendix D Repellents officially authorised and sold by two car manufacturers, advertised in two separate car mechanic services (D1) and (D2) D2 Information & Authors Information Version history V1 Version 1 11 March 2026 Copyright This work is licensed under a Non Exclusive No Reuse License. Keywords comparative none of the above terrestrial vertebrate Authors Affiliations Michał Strączyński Jagiellonian University in Kraków Faculty of Biology View all articles by this author Sayantani Basak 0000-0002-4780-8854 [email protected] University College Cork National University of Ireland University College Cork Boole Library View all articles by this author Paweł Kwapisz Krakow Municipal Greenery Authority, Forest and Nature Team View all articles by this author Joanna Tusznio Jagiellonian University in Kraków Faculty of Biology View all articles by this author Jesse Lewis 0000-0002-3071-5272 Arizona State University View all articles by this author Izabela A. Wierzbowska Jagiellonian University in Kraków Faculty of Biology View all articles by this author Metrics & Citations Metrics Article Usage 263 views 118 downloads .FvxKWukQNSOunydq8rnd { width: 100px; } Citations Download citation Michał Strączyński, Sayantani Basak, Paweł Kwapisz, et al. Urban stone marten (Martes foina)-human conflicts: A longitudinal survey-based approach to a persistent challenge. Authorea . 11 March 2026. DOI: https://doi.org/10.22541/au.177320565.56355999/v1 If you have the appropriate software installed, you can download article citation data to the citation manager of your choice. Simply select your manager software from the list below and click Download. For more information or tips please see 'Downloading to a citation manager' in the Help menu . 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