Characterization of Oils from Fresh and Dried Fig (Ficus carica L.) Seeds: Fatty Acids, Tocopherols, and Antioxidant Properties

Characterization of Oils from Fresh and Dried Fig (Ficus carica L.) Seeds: Fatty Acids, Tocopherols, and Antioxidant Properties | Authorea try { document.documentElement.classList.add('js'); } catch (e) { } var _gaq = _gaq || []; _gaq.push(['_setAccount', 'G-8VDV14Y67G']); _gaq.push(['_trackPageview']); (function() { var ga = document.createElement('script'); ga.type = 'text/javascript'; ga.async = true; ga.src = ('https:' == document.location.protocol ? 'https://ssl' : 'http://www') + '.google-analytics.com/ga.js'; var s = document.getElementsByTagName('script')[0]; s.parentNode.insertBefore(ga, s); })(); Skip to main content Preprints Collections Wiley Open Research IET Open Research Ecological Society of Japan All Collections About About Authorea FAQs Contact Us Quick Search anywhere Search for preprint articles, keywords, etc. Search Search ADVANCED SEARCH SCROLL This is a preprint and has not been peer reviewed. Data may be preliminary. 14 October 2025 V1 Latest version Share on Characterization of Oils from Fresh and Dried Fig (Ficus carica L.) Seeds: Fatty Acids, Tocopherols, and Antioxidant Properties Authors : Hafizenur SENGUL-BINAT 0000-0002-8719-2935 [email protected] , Demet YILDIZ-TURGUT , Didar SEVİM , Emine NAKİLCİOĞLU , Ziya BINAT , Ramazan KONAK , Erdem ÇİÇEK , and Nilgün TAN Authors Info & Affiliations https://doi.org/10.22541/au.176046319.97455698/v1 286 views 163 downloads Contents Abstract Supplementary Material Information & Authors Metrics & Citations View Options References Figures Tables Media Share Abstract This study aimed to produce fig seed oil from different fig (Ficus carica L.) varieties and to evaluate its physicochemical properties, fatty acid and tocopherol compositions, and antioxidant properties. The oils were obtained from the fresh and dried seeds of Sarilop, Bursa Siyahi, and other common (Divrekkara) fig varieties. The oil yield was 0.01 g oil/g fresh fig, with generally higher yields obtained from dried seeds. Physicochemical parameters, including peroxide value, free fatty acid content, and color values, were within acceptable quality limits and did not differ significantly between varieties (p>0.05). Gas chromatography analyses revealed that linoleic acid (C18:2) and linolenic acid (C18:3) were the predominant fatty acids, followed by oleic and palmitic acids. Among the tocopherol isomers, γ-tocopherol was the major form, while α-tocopherol was present in lower amounts. β-δ-tocopherol was not detected. The antioxidant activities of the oils, evaluated by DPPH and ABTS radical scavenging assays, varied depending on the variety, with Bursa Siyahi having the highest total phenolic content and antioxidant capacity. Overall, fig seed oils obtained from both fresh and dried kernels exhibited high nutritional quality and oxidative stability, demonstrating their potential as value-added products for food, nutraceutical, and pharmaceutical applications. INTRODUCTION For centuries, humans have used vegetable oils in their daily diets. These plant-derived oils, known as triglycerides, are primarily extracted from seeds. Figs (Ficus carica L.) , cultivated since ancient times and widely consumed in the Mediterranean region, are rich sources of vitamins, dietary fiber, and oil (Duman et al., 2018). The seeds of these fruits can vary in size, with each fruit containing 30 to 1600 seeds. One fig contains numerous edible seeds, which are hollow unless pollinated. Pollinated seeds are responsible for the fig’s characteristic hazelnut taste (Ergun & Bozkurt, 2020). Dried fig seeds contain approximately 30% oil (Güven et al., 2019). Recently, fig seed oil has attracted attention as a functional food ingredient among plant-based oils. Fig seed oil is a healthy oil due to its rich fatty acid composition and is particularly valuable for its polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA). Fig seed oil contains 32–50% α-linolenic acid (C18:3, ω-3) and 20–35% linoleic acid (C18:2, ω-6), while it also contains lower amounts of palmitic acid (C16:0), oleic acid (C18:1, ω-9), and stearic acid (C18:0) (Baygeldi et al., 2021). Additionally, fig seed oil is rich in vitamin E particularly γ-tocopherol, which exhibits strong antioxidant activity and contributes to cellular protection against oxidative stress (Güven et al., 2019). Tocopherols—α, β, γ, and δ isoforms—are lipid-soluble antioxidants essential for the oxidative stability of edible oils, with α-tocopherol being the most biologically active due to its higher vitamin E activity and preferential retention in human tissues (Delgado et al., 2020). Fig seed oil also contains bioactive compounds such as β-sitosterol and other phytosterols, which contribute to its anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties (Koc et. al., 2021; Rajendran, 2023). This feature prevents some degenerative diseases and plays a significant role in sustaining cell health. Fig seed oil offers various health benefits with its valuable compounds and high nutritional value (Rajendran, 2023). These benefits include protecting cell membrane structure, regulating inflammatory responses, and playing a protective role in preventing cardiovascular diseases by lowering LDL and total cholesterol levels. In literature, there are studies on the elucidation of the physical and chemical properties of fig seed oil obtained from the seeds of fresh figs (Duman et al., 2018; Hssaini et. al., 2020; Ergun & Bozkurt, 2020; Ustun-Argon et. al., 2021). Similarly, there are also studies on the investigation of the physical and chemical properties of fig seed oil obtained from the seeds of dried figs (Güven et. al., 2019; Kassimi et. al., 2025). However, to the best of our knowledge, the physical and chemical characterization of fig seed oils obtained from the seeds of both fresh and dried figs of the same variety has not yet been performed. The present study was conducted with the main objective of investigating the physical and chemical properties of fig seed oils extracted from the seeds of different fig varieties, both fresh and dried, belonging to the same variety. MATERIALS AND METHODS Materials and reagents At Fig Research Institute (Aydın, Türkiye), the fig cultivars ”Sarilop (yellow fig)”, ”Bursa Siyahi (purple fig)”, and ”Divrekkara (dark fig)” were cultivated, and “Sarilop” and “Divrekkara” cultivars were sun-dried (Figure 1). Fresh fruits of all cultivars were harvested in the first week of August 2022, and dried ones were collected in the first week of September 2022. Random samples of 40 kg were taken from each of the fresh and dried varieties. Dried figs were checked for aflatoxin in a UV cabinet before sampling. Fresh and dried fruits were washed with drinking water, and then they were cut into small pieces with a knife. The chopped fruits were macerated in water for 24 hours to separate the seeds from the flesh. After the seeds settled to the bottom of the solution, the remaining seeds were separated by hand. All seeds were filtered, and before cold-press extraction, they were dried in an atmospheric environment until their moisture content dropped below 10%. All chemicals and reagents utilized in this study were of HPLC or analytical grade. They were supplied from Sigma-Aldrich (Steinheim, Germany) and Merck (Darmstadt, Germany). Cold-press extraction of fig seed oil The fig seed oil was extracted from the dried seeds using a cold-press extractor (Koçmaksan KMK, model 10 TK, Türkiye) operated at 70 °C and a screw rotation speed of 20 rpm. The seed oil was then stored at -18 °C until analysis. The pressing procedure was applied in triplicate. The amount of fig seed oil (%) was calculated as follows: The amount of fig seed oil (%) =\(\frac{The\ final\ amount\ of\ seed\ oil\ (g)}{The\ initial\ amount\ of\ sample\ (g)}\ x\ 100\ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \)(Eq. 1) Characterization of fig seed oil Physical analyses The pH values of fig seed oils were measured using a pH meter (WTW-pH7110), which was calibrated with the standard solutions buffered at pH 7.00 and pH 4.00. Color measurements of fig seed oils were carried out using a colorimeter (CR-300; Konica Minolta, Inc., Tokyo, Japan). The color values such as L*, a*, and b* were recorded. Specific extinction coefficients of fig seed oils were determined according to the AOAC official method Ch 5-91. The absorbance values of a 0.2 g oil sample dissolved in 10 ml of hexane at 232 nm, 266 nm, 270 nm, and 274 nm were measured using a UV-vis spectrophotometer (UV-mini 1240, Shimadzu, Japan). The ΔK was calculated according to equation 2. ΔK = K270 − (K266 + K274)/2 (Eq. 2) Chemical analyses The analyses of free fatty acid content (%FFA) and peroxide value (PV) in fig seed oils were performed according to the methods of AOCS Ca-40 and AOCS Cd-8-53, respectively. In the FFA analysis, 2 g of oil was dissolved in 20 ml of a diethyl ether/ethanol mixture (1:1, v/v). It was then titrated with 0.1 N potassium hydroxide in the presence of phenolphthalein as an indicator. The FFA of fig seed oil was expressed as %oleic acid. In the PV analysis, 1.5 g of oil and 26 ml of solvent mixture consisting of chloroform, acetic acid, and saturated potassium iodide solution (10:15:1, v/v/v) were mixed. After shaking for 1 min and incubating for 5 min in the dark, 75 ml of distilled water was added. The mixture was titrated with 0.01 N sodium thiosulfate using 1ml of 1% (w/v) starch as an indicator. The PV of fig seed oil was given as milliequivalent O 2 per kg oil. Fatty acid methyl esters (FAMEs) were prepared from oil samples based on the method of Hssaini et al., (2020). The fatty acid composition of fig seed oils was obtained by gas chromatography using an Agilent Technologies 7820A, G4350 GC System with a flame ionization detector (FID) and mass spectrometer detector (MS) (Agilent Technologies Inc., Wilmington, DE, USA). The injection volume was 10 μl with a 40:1 split ratio. Helium was used as the carrier gas at a flow rate of 0.8 mı/min. A capillary column (HP Innowax Capillary; 60.0 m x 0.25 mm x 0.25 μm) was used for the separation of fatty acid components. The column temperature program was from 150°C to 230°C, increasing at 2°C/min and holding at 230°C for 10 min. Fatty acid components of the oil samples were qualified and semi-quantified using fatty acid standards in a FID detector and WILEY7N, NIST05, and OIL ADAMS library data in an MS detector. The peak area of each fatty acid ester was given as a percentage of all peak areas. The quantitative and qualitative identification of tocopherols in fig seed oil samples was carried out using an HPLC system (HPLC-Agilent 1100, Germany)comprising a column LiChrosorb Si 60 μ-porasil (250 mm × 4.6 mm × 5 μm) (Waters, Ireland) (5 μm, 250 mm × 4.6 mm) operated at 40°C and a fluorescence detector (Waters 474 Asc. Milford, Japan). The flow rate was 0.8 ml/min, and the injection volume of oil/ n -hexane mixture (1:20, v/v) was 20 µl. The mobile phase was n-hexane:2-propanol (99.5:0.5, v/v). In fluorescence detection, the excitation wavelength was used as λ = 290 nm, while the emission wavelength was λ = 330 nm. The individual tocopherols were determined qualitatively and quantitatively by comparison with the retention times of tocopherol standards and using calibration curves (Köseoglu et al., 2016). The polyphenols of fig seed oils were extracted by the method of Sengul-Binat & Toklucu-Kırca (2023). 2.5 ml of hexane and 5 ml of oil were mixed in an ultrasonic bath for 30 min. After vortexing, the supernatant liquid was removed. 2.5 ml of methanol:water:HCI (75:25:0.1, v/v/v) was added, and the mixture was stirred in a shaking water bath (Memmert WB10, Schwabach, Germany) at 4 °C for 30 min. Then, it was centrifuged at 10,000 rpm, 4 °C, for 20 min and filtered through a 0.45 μm PTFE membrane filter (Sartorius, Germany). The process was repeated twice. The extracts obtained were used for the analyses of total polyphenols, total flavonoids, antioxidant activity, and individual polyphenols by HPLC. Total polyphenol contents of fig seed oils were measured using the Folin-Ciocalteu method (Gaafar & Salama, 2013). 30 µl of extract was mixed with 150 µl of 10% (v/v) Folin–Ciocalteu reagent, and after 3 min, 120 µl of 7.5% (w/v) sodium carbonate was added. It was incubated for 2 h, and the absorbance was determined at 760 nm (y=0,007x+0,0067). The results were expressed as mg gallic acid equivalents (GAE) per liter of seed oil. Total flavonoid contents of fig seed oils were determined using the aluminum chloride colorimetric method (Gaafar & Salama, 2013). Briefly, 25 µL of extract was mixed with 100 µL of distilled water and 10 µL of 50 g/L NaNO₂ solution and incubated for 5 min. Then, 15 µL of 100 g/L AlCl₃ solution was added and incubated for 6 min, followed by the addition of 50 µL of 1 M NaOH and 50 µL of distilled water, and the mixture was vortexed. Absorbance was measured at 510 nm (y = 0.0023x + 0.052), and results were expressed as mg (+)-catechin equivalent ((+)-CE) per liter of seed oil. The free radical scavenging activities of fig seed oils were evaluated using DPPH and ABTS spectrophotometric assays as described by Goztepe et al. (2022). In the DPPH assay, 250 μL of extract was reacted with 250 μL of 0.2 mM DPPH solution for 30 min, and the absorbance change at 517 nm was measured (y = 1.0971x + 0.1191). In the ABTS assay, 10 μL of extract was incubated with 88 μL of ABTS solution (7 mM ABTS + 2.45 mM potassium persulfate, initial absorbance at 734 nm = 0.700) for 6 min, and the absorbance change at 734 nm was recorded (y = 0.5762x + 0.0069). Results were expressed as TEAC (Trolox equivalent antioxidant capacity). For the qualification and quantification of individual polyphenols, the method of Sengul-Binat and Toklucu-Kırca (2023) was applied. Six polyphenols in the extracts were analyzed using a Shimadzu LC20A HPLC-PDA system with a C-18 column (25 cm × 4.6 mm, i.d. 5 µm, Macherey-Nagel, Germany). Injection volume was 20 µL, and the column temperature was 40 °C. Detection wavelengths were 254, 272, 275, 279, and 356 nm. The mobile phases were 2% acetic acid in water (A) and methanol (B), with a flow rate of 0.4 mL/min and a gradient program: 95% A initially, 50% A at 10 min, 30% A at 15 min, and 95% A at 25 min. Quantification was performed using the external standard method (y = 170774x − 52499 for gallic acid, y = 72615x + 14701 for (−)-epicatechin, y = 46876x + 10995 for chlorogenic acid, y = 179252x + 86075 for syringic acid, y = 85758x + 31811 for rutin, and y = 34060x − 24844 for catechin). Qualification was carried out by comparing sample spectra with standards, retention times, and the standard addition method. Statistical analysis Analysis results were given as ”mean ± standard deviation” obtained from triplicate evaluations. To evaluate the differences between fig seed oil samples, comparisons were made using the SPSS 22.0 program. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) and Duncan’s multiple range test were applied at a 5% significance level. RESULTS & DISCUSSIONS The amount of fig seed oil extracted by cold press extraction was calculated as approximately 0.25 g oil/g seed (0.01 g oil/g fresh fig) using Eq. 1. Approximately 800 g of oil was obtained from 80 kg of fresh figs, 800 gr of oil was obtained from 50 kg of Sarilop dried figs, and 800 gr of oil was obtained from 80 kg of Divrekkara dried figs. Physicochemical Properties of Figs Seed Oil The physicochemical properties of fig seed oils were analysed in terms of colour values (L*, a*, b*), UV absorbance values (K 232 , K 266 , K 270 , K 274, ΔK), free fatty acid content (%FFA) and peroxide values. When examining colour values, L* values were found to be highest in the Bursa siyahi variety at 28.06±1.17, while in other varieties these values ranged from 26.33±2.68 to 26.74±2.19. The a* (redness) and b* (yellowness) values were measured in the range of 2.1±0.06–2.91±0.92 and 8.4±1.56–10.05±0.42, respectively. No statistically significant difference was observed in colour values between varieties. Looking at the UV absorbance values, the K 232 value was lowest in the Bursa Siyahi variety at 1.45±0.75 and highest in the dried Sarilop variety at 2.24±0.30. The K 266 , K 270 , and K 274 values were found to be in the ranges of 0.28±0.16 0.52±0.19, 0.30±0.17–0.56±0.21, and 0.35±0.19–0.61±0.23, respectively. These values can be interpreted as indicators of the oil’s oxidation level and quality. PVs indicate the presence of primary oxidation products (i.e., conjugated hydroperoxides), while K 232 and K 270 indicate the presence of secondary oxidation products (dienes and trienes conjugated systems). The ΔK value indicates whether the oil has undergone change and shows possible signs of refining/blending. According to IOC (International Olive Council) and EU standards, ΔK ≤ 0.01 should be for EVOO (Extra Virgin Olive Oil). Higher values may indicate purity issues or oxidative deterioration in the oil. As fig seed oils yield values below the 0.01 limit and negative values, no issues are observed regardless of variety. The free fatty acid ratio (%FFA) ranged from 0.25±0.05 to 0.36±0.08 in all samples, with the lowest value found in the Divrekkara dry sample and the highest in the Sarilop dry sample. Peroxide values (meg O₂/kg oil) were determined to be 0 in all varieties, indicating that the oils are highly stable and fresh in terms of oxidation. The . chemical parameters of the analysed fig seed oils indicate that these oils possess high quality and oxidative stability. The free fatty acid (FA) values measured in all samples ranged from 0.25% to 0.36%, with no statistically significant differences detected between varieties, remaining below the ≤0.8% limit set by the IOC and EU for EVOO. Giuffrè et al., (2017) indicating that the oils underwent minimal hydrolytic degradation during production and storage. Peroxide values (PV) were found to be 0 in all samples, confirming that the oils are free from primary oxidation products and possess high oxidative stability. Furthermore, ΔK values obtained by UV spectrophotometric analysis ranged from -0.015 to -0.005, falling below the EVOO standard limit of ≤0.01, indicating that the chemical purity and integrity of the oils were preserved. In light of these findings, fig seed oils are considered to be of high quality and stability in terms of both free acidity and oxidative parameters. The results showed differences when compared to literature values. These differences are likely due to plant species, variety, genetic factors, and analytical conditions. Additionally, the saturated and unsaturated fatty acid content of seed oils can alter the physicochemical properties of oil samples (Duman et al., 2018). Overall, it was concluded that although the physical and chemical parameters of fig seed oils did not differ statistically among the varieties, some variations were observed. Nevertheless, all samples were of high quality and exhibited good oxidative stability. In particular, the Bursa Siyahi variety stood out in terms of colour values and UV absorbance values. Antioxidant Properties of Fig Seed Oil The total phenolic contents, flavonoid amounts, and antioxidant activities of fig seed oils (DPPH and ABTS assays) were compared. Bursa Siyahi exhibited the highest total phenolic content (172.54 ± 2.99 mg GAE/L DM), followed by Sarilop fresh (133.25 ± 13.93 mg GAE/L DM) and Sarilop dry (111.24 ± 8.48 mg GAE/L DM), while lower levels were observed in other varieties (Table 2). In terms of antioxidant capacity, Bursa Siyahi also showed the highest DPPH (140.68 ± 19.01 mg Trolox/L DM) and ABTS (646.21 ± 28.92 mg Trolox/L DM) activities, as well as the highest flavonoid content (38.10 ± 12.39 mg catechins/L DM). Oils from fresh fruits generally exhibited higher phenolic, flavonoid, and antioxidant values than those from dried fruits, confirming the superior functional properties of Bursa Siyahi. Comparable results have been reported in the literature. Soltana et al. (2016) found 144.89 mg/L phenolics and 124.5 mg/L flavonoids in Kholi fig seed oils, with 215.86 mg Trolox/L antioxidant activity (DPPH). Abreu-Naranjo et al. (2020) reported phenolic content of 150 mg GAE/L and antioxidant activity of 1.11 mM (DPPH) and 1.94 mM (ABTS) in caper seed oils. In our study, total phenolic compounds ranged from 84.52 ± 4 to 172.54 ± 2.99 mg GAE/L, with Bursa Siyahi consistently highest. Phenolic compounds are known to exert free radical scavenging, lipid peroxidation inhibition, and anticarcinogenic and antimutagenic effects (Güven et al., 2019). Considering the rising demand for unsaturated oils with strong antioxidant capacity (Hssaini et al., 2020), fig seed oils, particularly Bursa Siyahi, can be regarded as promising candidates for functional foods and nutritional supplements. Phenolic compounds of fig seed oils were analyzed in ppm dry matter (DM), and significant differences were observed among different varieties (Table 3). Gallic acid content was highest in the Bursa Siyahi variety (1.74 ± 0.12 ppm), while lower levels were detected in Sarilop fresh (0.92 ± 0.01 ppm), Sarilop dry (0.98 ± 0.01 ppm), Divrekkara fresh (0.89 ± 0.01 ppm), and Divrekkara dry (0.91 ± 0.05 ppm). Similarly, catechin concentration was highest in the Bursa Siyahi sample at 2.63 ± 0.06 ppm, while it varied between 0.95 and 1.53 ppm in the other varieties. Epicatechin content was significantly higher in the Bursa Siyahi variety at 6.75 ± 0.49 ppm, with moderate levels in Sarilop fresh (2.66 ± 0.18 ppm), and lower levels in Sarilop dry (0.59 ± 0.12 ppm), Divrekkara fresh (0.40 ± 0.10 ppm), and Divrekkara dry (0.15 ± 0.17 ppm) samples. Chlorogenic acid was detected only in Bursa Siyahi (5.49 ± 0.53 ppm) and Sarilop varieties, reaching its highest value in Bursa Siyahi. Chlorogenic acid was not detected in the Divrekkara varieties. In terms of syringic acid content, the Bursa Siyahi sample showed the highest level at 6.99 ± 0.31 ppm. Sarilop dry (5.71 ± 0.3 ppm) and Sarilop fresh (4.68 ± 0.04 ppm) varieties had moderate levels, while Divrekkara dry (3.15 ± 0.34 ppm) and Divrekkara fresh (2.58 ± 0.15 ppm) varieties had lower concentrations. Rutin was not detected in all samples. The findings reveal that the Bursa Siyahi variety exhibits high phenolic compounds, particularly gallic acid, epicatechin, chlorogenic acid, and syringic acid. Other varieties generally have lower phenolic compound levels. These differences suggest that fig varieties and harvesting conditions have significant effects on the phenolic compound profile. High phenolic compounds contribute positively to the oil’s antioxidant capacity and, consequently, its functional properties. Tocopherol Analysis Results of Fig Seed Oils The tocopherol contents of fig seed oils are shown in Table 4. The alpha and gamma tocopherol contents of the samples were found to be statistically significant (p≤0.05). The alpha tocopherol content was highest in the Sarilop fresh sample at 133.39 mg/L and lowest in the Divrekkara fresh and Divrekkara dry samples at 84.61 mg/L and 90.53 mg/L, respectively. Beta and delta tocopherol components were not detected in any of the samples. The highest contents were found in the Bursa Siyahi and Divrekkara fresh samples, at 3617.21 mg/L and 3611.07 mg/L, respectively, while the lowest contents were found in the Sarilop fresh and Sarilop fresh samples, at 3099.61 mg/L and 3133.03 mg/L, respectively. Tocopherols are important lipophilic phenolic compounds with strong antioxidant and functional content due to their biological activities (Köseoglu et al., 2016). Fig seed oil can be considered a valuable and unique source of gamma-tocopherol. Analyses have shown that fig seed oil contains much higher amounts of gamma-tocopherol than many other plant seed sources (Baygeldi et al., 2021). It has been suggested that gamma-tocopherol may possess stronger antioxidant properties than alpha-tocopherol and that foods rich in gamma-tocopherol may reduce the risk of cardiovascular disease (Soltana et al., 2016; Baygeldi et al., 2021). It can be said that Bursa Siyahi and Divrekkara fresh samples with high gamma-tocopherol contents have stronger antioxidant potential. Sirinyildiz et al. (2023) found that the alpha-tocopherol content of fig seed oils ranged from 101.62 to 114.07 mg/L, and gamma-tocopherol content ranging from 3888.22 to 4132.09 mg/L. Güven et al. (2019) reported that the gamma-tocopherol content was 4267 mg/L and the alpha-tocopherol content was 157 mg/L, Ustun-Argon et al. (2021) reported that the alpha-tocopherol content was 6.088 mg/L, and the gamma-tocopherol content is 634 mg/L. Baygeldi et al. (2021) reported that the gamma-tocopherol content is 314.61 mg/100 g, the delta-tocopherol content is 7.40 mg/100 g, and the alpha-tocopherol content is 3.71 mg/100 g. Similar results were obtained in the present study and were found to be consistent with the literature. The quality of fig seed oil varies depending on the variety, growing region, drying, pre-treatment, and extraction conditions, and these factors play a decisive role in oil yield and the preservation of bioactive compounds. Alpha-tocopherol constitutes approximately 90% of the total tocopherols in olive oil, and the amount of alpha-tocopherol in olive oils was found to range between 296.40 and 377.64 mg/L according to Köseoglu et al. (2016). Baygeldi et al., (2021) stated that canola, cottonseed oil, corn, olive oil, sesame, soybean oil and walnut oil contained 4.2, 11.1, 60.2, 0.7, 29.0, 79.7 and 59.5 mg/100 g gamma-tocopherol, respectively. The tocopherol content of fig seed oil is predominantly derived from gamma-tocopherol. Considering that the benefits of the gamma-tocopherol form of tocopherols have only recently been discovered, gamma-tocopherol can be considered a very important and unique source in fig seed oil. As seen in the studies conducted, fig seed oil has been shown to contain much higher amounts of gamma-tocopherol than many other vegetable seed oils. Fatty Acid Composition of Fig Seed Oils The fatty acid compositions obtained from the seeds of five fig varieties are shown in Table 5. The fatty acid compositions of the studied varieties varied significantly (P< 0.05). The percentages of fatty acids, from highest to lowest, were: linolenic, linoleic, oleic, palmitic, stearic, 11-eicosenoic, arachidic, and behenic acid. Palmitoleic acid was found only in the fresh and dry varieties of the Divrekkara variety. All fig seed oils were high in unsaturated fatty acids, and the unsaturated fatty acid content ranged from 87.59% (Divrekkara dry) to 88.72% (Sarilop fresh). Polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) constituted 69.32% to 73.07% of the total unsaturated fatty acids, with the highest PUFA percentage observed in the Sarilop fresh variety and the lowest in the Bursa siyahi variety. In all samples, linolenic acid, also known as PUFA, was the predominant fatty acid, ranging from 36.75% (Sarilop dry) to 38.88% (Divrekkara fresh). This was followed by linoleic acid, with percentages ranging from 30.98% in Bursa siyahi to 36.10% in Sarilop fresh. Polyunsaturated fatty acids are categorised as omega-3 or omega-6. As the human body lacks the enzyme necessary to produce these fatty acids, they are considered essential and must be obtained through diet. Linoleic acid, an essential omega-6 fatty acid, plays a crucial role in maintaining good health. Oils rich in linolenic acid, an essential omega-3 fatty acid, reduce inflammation and skin conditions, and support heart health by regulating cardiovascular function (Ojha et al., 2024). The amount of monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFA) in the varieties ranged from 15.26% to 18.63%, with the highest MUFA value detected in Bursa siyahi, with oleic acid being the major MUFA. The Bursa siyahi variety contained significantly higher amounts of oleic acid (18.35%) than other varieties, and oleic acid, a major MUFA, contributed significantly to the MUFA percentage of the varieties. There is evidence to suggest that diets rich in oleic acid may have beneficial effects on body health and thus contribute to the prevention of obesity Moreover, oleic acid has been associated with positive contributions on the cardiovascular system. (Ojha et al., 2024). An analysis of saturated fatty acids (SFA) in various fig varieties revealed that Divrekkara dry exhibited the highest SFA content, measuring at 12.41%, while Divrekkara demonstrated the lowest, with a content of 11.28%. Palmitic acid exhibited a significant influence on the SFA percentages across different fig varieties, with its content ranging from 7.55% to 8.47%. Stearic acid was the second most abundant saturated fatty acid detected, with its percentage ranging between 3.40% and 3.73%. As demonstrated in Table 5, Divrekkara exhibited the highest percentage of stearic acid, while Sarilop fresh demonstrated the lowest. The presence of other saturated fatty acids in the fig varieties was minimal, with only arachidonic acid (0.22% - 0.25%) and behenic acid (0.08% - 0.09%) being detected. PUFA/SFA is an index often used to assess the impact of diet on cardiovascular health. This index assumes that all PUFAs in the diet can lower low-density lipoprotein cholesterol and serum cholesterol levels, while all SFAs can contribute to elevated serum cholesterol levels. Therefore, the higher the ratio, the more favorable the effect (Chen and Liu, 2020). Our research indicated that the Sarilop fresh fig variety exhibited the highest PUFA/SFA ratio (6.48%), followed by the Sarilop Dry, Divrekkara fresh, Divrekkara Dry, and Bursa siyahi varieties. Hssaini et al. (2021) reported that the main components in fig seed oils from four varieties were linolenic acid (38.436-43.573%), linoleic acid (28.90-34.51%), and oleic acid (13.438-15.642%). A study by Ergun and Bozkurt (2020) determined that the highest fatty acid content in fig seed oil was α-Linolenic acid (26.31%), followed by linoleic acid (24.27%) and oleic acid (19.65%). Important fatty acids in fresh fig seed oils of Mor Güz and Sarilop varieties were determined by Duman et al., (2018) as palmitic, oleic, linoleic and linolenic fatty acids at the rates of 7.06-6.96%, 15.78-15.98%, 31.87-30.33% and 40.88-42.11%, respectively. Our findings are generally consistent with the literature, and similar to the literature, the varieties we used in our study are particularly rich in polyunsaturated fatty acids. This suggests that fig seed oil should be included in the human diet due to its potential health benefits and its commercial production should be encouraged. CONCLUSIONS In this study, oils obtained from the seeds of fresh and dried fig varieties of three different fig species (Ficus carica L.) cultivated in Türkiye were characterised in terms of their fatty acid profile, tocopherol components, and antioxidant properties. The analyses showed that all samples were rich in unsaturated fatty acids; linoleic acid (C18:2) and linolenic acid (C18:3) were identified as the main fatty acids. Depending on the variety and fresh/dried fig status, significant amounts of palmitic (C16:0), stearic (C18:0), and oleic (C18:1) acids were detected. When examining the tocopherol profile, γ-tocopherol was found to be the predominant tocopherol type and to play an important role in antioxidant capacity. Tocopherol contents between fresh and dried samples differed among varieties, generally being detected in higher amounts in fresh fig varieties. Antioxidant capacity and total phenolic content, evaluated by DPPH and ABTS radical scavenging activities, were significant in all samples and showed statistical differences between fresh and dried forms. The Bursa Siyahi fig variety, consumed fresh, stood out. 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Phytochemical evaluation of ficus carica seeds and their cold pressed oil. Appetite. 2021;1:14. https://dx.doi.org/10.18579/jopcr/v20i4.2 Acknowledgements This study was supported by the General Directorate of Agricultural Research and Policy (TAGEM) titled Production of Fig Seed Oil from Some Fig Varieties and Investigation of Its Effects on the Reproductive System’ and numbered TAGEM/HSGYAD/Ü/23/A3/P6/5749. Authorship H.Ş.B. conducted the experiments, analyzed the data, and wrote the article. D.Y.T. performed the fatty acid analysis and helped write the article. D.S. performed the tocopherol analysis and assisted in writing. E. N. contributed to data interpretation. Z.B., R.K., E.Ç., and N.T contributed to fieldwork, sample collection, and experimental procedures. Conflict of Interest Statement The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper. Figure Legends Figure 1 Visual appearances of the varieties: a) Cross section of Sarilop Fresh, b) Sarilop Fresh, c) Sarilop Dried, d) Cross section of Bursa Siyahi Fresh, e) Bursa Siyahi Fresh, f) Cross section of Divrekkara Fresh, g) Divrekkara Fresh, h) Divrekkara Dried Tables Table 1. Physicochemical Properties of Fig Seed Oils Bursa Siyahi 28,06±1,17 2,1±0,06 10,05±0,42 1,45±0,75 0,28±0,16 0,30±0,17 0,35±0,19 -0.015 0,33±0,06 nd Sarilop Fresh 26,33±2,68 2,31±0,92 8,6±2,14 2,03±0,71 0,52±0,19 0,56±0,21 0,61±0,23 -0.005 0,27±0,05 nd Sarilop Dried 26,48±1,23 2,91±0,21 8,4±1,56 2,24±0,30 0,41±0,09 0,45±0,1 0,50±0,10 -0.005 0,36±0,08 nd Divrekkara Fresh 26,74±2,19 2,34±0,49 9,4±1,21 1,672±0,23 0,30±0,07 0,33±0,07 0,39±0,08 -0.015 0,26±0,06 nd Divrekkara Dried 26,54±1,35 2,34±0,49 8,95±1,60 1,91±0,12 0,32±0,024 0,35±0,024 0,4±0,020 -0.010 0,25±0,05 nd As there were no significant statistical differences, no lettering was performed (p<0.05). Table 2. Antioxidant Properties of Fig Seed Oils Bursa Siyahi 172,54±2,99 a 140,68±19,01 a 646,21±28,92 a 38,1±12,39 a Sarilop Fresh 133,25±13,93 b 98,87±28,8 b 283,14±51,49 b 26,81±10,61 b Sarilop Dried 111,24±8,48 c 72,02±30,33 bc 225,09±45,47 c 21,62±5,5 b Divrekkara Fresh 93,13±4,08 d 72,42±22,23 bc 154,49±34,81 d 23,02±11,03 b Divrekkara Dried 84,52±4,66 d 65,42±21,05 c 141,65±42,91 d 20,47±11,5 b TPC: Total phenolic content (mg gallic acid equivalents/L dry weight) AOA: Total antioxidant activity ( mg trolox/ L dry weight) Flavonoid: Total Flavonoid content (mg catechin/L dry weight) Different letters in the same row denote the significant differences between the values (p<0.05). Table 3. Phenolic Profile of Fig Seed Oils (mg/L dry weight) Bursa Siyahi 1,74±0,12 a 2,63±0,06 6,75±0,49 a 5,49±0,53 a 6,99±0,31 a n.d Sarilop Fresh 0,92±0,01 b 0,95±0,06 2,66±0,18 b 0,67±0,18 b 4,68±0,04 c n.d Sarilop Dried 0,98±0,01 b 1,53±0,05 0,59±0,12 c 0,21±0,01 b 5,71±0,3 b n.d Divrekkara Fresh 0,89±0,01 b 1,09±0,14 0,4±0,1 c n.d 2,58±0,15 d n.d Divrekkara Dried 0,91±0,05 b 1,08±0,1 0,15±0,17 c n.d 3,15±0,34 e n.d Different letters in the same row denote the significant differences between the values (p<0.05). no significant statistical differences, no lettering was performed Table 4. Tocopherol Contents of Fig Seed Oils (mg/L dry weight) Bursa Siyahi 116,25±4,89 b nd 3617,21±49,06 a nd Sarilop Fresh 133,39±9,62 a nd 3099,61±40,64 c nd Sarilop Dried 121,44±6,18 b nd 3133,03±64,09 c nd Divrekkara Fresh 84,61±2,34 c nd 3611,07±24,08 a nd Divrekkara Dried 90,53±13,5 c nd 3483,69±132,82 b nd Different letters in the same row denote the significant differences between the values (p<0.05). Table 5. Fatty Acid Composition of Fig Seed Oils Bursa Siyahi 8,05±0,03 c nd 3,66±0,02 b 18,35±0,07 a 30,98±0,08 e 38,34±0,1 c 0,25±0 a 0,28±0,01 b 0,08±0 12,04±0,05 c 69,32±0,04 e 18,63±0,07 a 5,76±0,02 e Sarilop Fresh 7,55±0,01 e nd 3,40±0,04 c 15,34±0,04 c 36,1±0,02 a 36,97±0,01 d 0,24±0,01 b 0,31±0,02 a 0,08±0 11,28±0,05 e 73,07±0,01 a 15,65±0,04 c 6,48±0,03 a Sarilop Dried 7,62±0,02 d nd 3,44±0,01 c 15,64±0,01 b 35,93±0,02 b 36,75±0,01 e 0,24±0 b 0,3±0 ab 0,08±0 11,39±0,03 d 72,68±0,02 b 15,93±0,01 b 6,38±0,02 b Divrekkara Fresh 8,26±0,01 b 0,07±0 3,73±0,01 a 14,93±0,01 e 33,55±0,01 d 38,88±0,02 a 0,23±0 c 0,26±0,01 c 0,09±0 12,31±0,01 b 72,43±0,02 c 15,26±0,01 e 5,88±0,01 c Divrekkara Dried 8,47±0,08 a 0,07±0 3,64±0,02 b 15,07±0 d 33,69±0,02 c 38,5±0,01 b 0,22±0,01 d 0,25±0,01 c 0,09±0,01 12,41±0,04 a 72,19±0,03 d 15,4±0,02 d 5,82±0,02 d MUFA: Monounsaturated Fatty acid PUFA: Polyunsaturated Fatty acid SFA: Saturated Fatty acid Different letters in the same row denote the significant differences between the values (p<0.05) Supplementary Material File (figures.docx) Download 923.19 KB Information & Authors Information Version history V1 Version 1 14 October 2025 Copyright This work is licensed under a Non Exclusive No Reuse License. Keywords antioxidants food and feed science / nutrition and health lipid chemistry / lipid analysis oilseeds Authors Affiliations Hafizenur SENGUL-BINAT 0000-0002-8719-2935 [email protected] Fig Research Institute View all articles by this author Demet YILDIZ-TURGUT Batı Akdeniz Agricultural Research Institute View all articles by this author Didar SEVİM Zeytincilik Arastirma Enstitusu Mudurlugu Izmir View all articles by this author Emine NAKİLCİOĞLU Ege Universitesi Gida Muhendisligi Bolumu View all articles by this author Ziya BINAT Fig Research Institute View all articles by this author Ramazan KONAK Fig Research Institute View all articles by this author Erdem ÇİÇEK Fig Research Institute View all articles by this author Nilgün TAN Fig Research Institute View all articles by this author Metrics & Citations Metrics Article Usage 286 views 163 downloads .FvxKWukQNSOunydq8rnd { width: 100px; } Citations Download citation Hafizenur SENGUL-BINAT, Demet YILDIZ-TURGUT, Didar SEVİM, et al. Characterization of Oils from Fresh and Dried Fig (Ficus carica L.) Seeds: Fatty Acids, Tocopherols, and Antioxidant Properties. Authorea . 14 October 2025. DOI: https://doi.org/10.22541/au.176046319.97455698/v1 If you have the appropriate software installed, you can download article citation data to the citation manager of your choice. Simply select your manager software from the list below and click Download. For more information or tips please see 'Downloading to a citation manager' in the Help menu . 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