Urban Climate Variability and its Impact on Butterfly Species Richness and Community Structure in Indore, India

Urban Climate Variability and its Impact on Butterfly Species Richness and Community Structure in Indore, India | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Urban Climate Variability and its Impact on Butterfly Species Richness and Community Structure in Indore, India Harsh Vishwakarma, Abhay Kumar Verma, Vipul Keerti Sharma This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-7346767/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Due to growing climate variability, environments are becoming more susceptible to the impact of climactic change, especially locally upon the biodiversity and especially the more ecologically sensitive species, including the butterfly. The current work examines the climate change and butterfly diversity with regard to three types of habitats (urban habitat, wetland landscape, and the periphery landscape) in the city of Indore, Madhya Pradesh, India, between 2021 and 2023. The 71 butterfly species collected during the study fell under five families using standardized ecological survey techniques such as Pollard Walks and Transect Walks as well as the use of photographs. Diversity measures of butterflies were presented as species richness, abundance, Shannon-Wiener Index, Simpson Index, and evenness (Pielou), which were sampled and calculated on an annual basis and analyzed in respect to climate parameters: average temperature, total annual rainfall, and relative humidity. Climate information pointed to a slow rise in the mean annual temperature (25.1°C in 2021 to 25.5°C in the year 2023) and precipitation and minor variations of humidity. The abundance and diversities of butterflies were highest in 2022, which was also a year of highly moderate temperatures and precipitation, and declined in 2023, especially at an urban level. Correlation analysis indicated a high positive relationship between temperature and richness (r = 0.93) and abundance (r = 0.92), but the association of rainfall and humidity is complex, where there is a negative relationship with excess rain and richness. Certain habitats were more resilient, such as peripheral and wetland ones, and some were steeper, such as urban ones, because of habitat fragmentation and urban heat island activity. Trends at the species level indicated that generalists such as Eurema hecabe were stable, whereas specialists were decreasing. Although the study relies on a relatively short dataset of three years, its results confirm how flexible butterfly communities can be to pursue the minor changes of the climate condition and emphasize the ecological significance of semi-natural environments within the urban matrices. Climate Analysis and Modeling Ecological Modeling Butterfly Diversity Climate Change Community Structure Indore Species Richness Urban Ecology Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 Figure 6 1. INTRODUCTION Two intersecting global trends (climate change and accelerated urbanization) have become the features of the 21st century that are putting a new and previously unknown level of pressure on biodiversity. The anthropogenic greenhouse gas emission has caused climate change that has been experienced through increasing the world temperature, fluctuations in precipitation, and an increase in extreme weather conditions. The effects are directly on the physiology, behaviour, distribution, and survival of the species and are more so on the organisms sensitive to microclimatic changes. Butterflies (Order: Lepidoptera) are among representatives of such nature and can be viewed as good bioindicators since they have a short life cycle, they have narrow temperature limits, and they are dependent on certain host plants. However, butterflies are important components of ecosystems because of their ecosystem functions as pollinators and prey species and can be used to assess environmental health and ecological stability. Their population dynamics are closely related to the climatic factors so that they tend to be very sensitive to slight changes in the environment and are closely associated with temperature, humidity, and rainfall. Their metabolism, flight activity, mating, and oviposition depend on temperature, and their availability on rainfall not only determines the availability of nectar and the general state of their larval host plants but also affects their habitat structure. Therefore, the abundance, diversity, and spatial distribution of butterflies can easily change along with any climate alterations. The cities, hitherto viewed as biodiversity-depleted, are increasingly viewed as actually capable of holding large amounts of insect diversity, particularly in the managed greenspace, wetlands, and woodlands along the urban fringe. They, however, face ecological obstacles posed by urban microclimates, which are typified by increased temperature (urban heat island effect), drier air, disconnected patches, and shifted hydrological regimes. The ability of butterflies to respond to climatic change is further complicated by the synergistic effect of land-use change, and the changes can destabilize phenology and host plant abundance and population fragmentation. Irrespective of these difficulties, specific urban biotopes, and especially the ones with heterogeneous vegetation cover and water bodies, can be regarded as refugia, sheltering a diverse community of butterflies and mitigating climate pressure. The occurrence of more than 1,800 butterfly species together with diverse climatic and ecological zones in India makes India a rich background to study biodiversity response to variations in the environment. Nevertheless, the better part of studies on butterflies in India has been focused on the well-protected areas, such as the national parks and wildlife sanctuaries. The gap related to the longitudinal research within the context of butterfly diversity in the condition of rampant urbanization, especially that regarding the relationship between climate and biodiversity, is conspicuous. The city of Indore, located in Central India, the largest city in Madhya Pradesh, and constituting a tier-2 city, has a complex ecological city mosaic that includes dense urban cores, wetland systems, fragments of several woods, and educational campuses, as well as agricultural fringes. It has a combination of tropical climates due to having definite summer, monsoon, and winter seasons; therefore, it represents a desirable case example of temporal and spatial biodiversity changes in terms of climate change. Based on this ecological context, our central hypothesis is that butterfly diversity in Indore responds positively to moderate climatic conditions, particularly balanced temperature and rainfall, and that wetland and peripheral habitats will show greater resilience to climate variability than urban habitats due to their richer vegetation structure and microclimatic stability. In the present study, the question was to determine the effect of climate variability, that is, average temperature, total annual rainfall, and relative humidity, on butterfly diversity with a three-year study in Indore (2021 to 2023). The range of anthropogenic pressure and habitat heterogeneity is bracketed by the chosen study habitats: urban (e.g., Holkar Science College), wetland (e.g., Sirpur Lake), and peripheral (e.g., Choral and Jamli). The objectives of the research are directly linked to this hypothesis as follows: To catalog the species richness and abundance of butterflies in various habitats of Indore to establish baseline diversity patterns under different levels of anthropogenic pressure. To analyze the dynamics of temporal change in the structure of a butterfly community with the help of ecological indices (Shannon-Wiener, Simpson's, and evenness of Pielou) to assess whether diversity stability differs among habitat types. To compare the metrics of butterfly diversity to local climatic variables over time to test the predicted positive response of diversity to moderate temperature and rainfall. To determine species-scale patterns to climate change and habitat type to identify indicator species for climate resilience and vulnerability. 2. LITERATURE REVIEW It is common knowledge that butterflies are excellent indicators of environmental shift since they are dependent on environmental factors and the host plant (Kunte, 2000 ; Ehrlich & Murphy, 1987 ). Many field studies in the world indicated that climate variables, especially the temperature and precipitation, directly influence butterfly phenology, distribution, and community structure (Parmesan et al., 1999 ; Forister et al., 2010 ). Minor climatic changes are known as a cause of disrupted life cycles of butterflies in tropical areas, especially by a shift in accessibility to larval host plants and nectar sources (Bonebrake et al., 2010 ). Original texts by Kunte ( 2000 , 2008 ) and Kehimkar ( 2008 ) have documented the diversity of butterflies in different ecosystems in India and pointed out their conservation value. Tiple et al. ( 2007 ) publications in Maharashtra demonstrated that there were seasonal effects and that abundance of butterflies was significantly correlated with the environment (temperature and rainfall). Equally, Singh and Pandey (2004) reported the diversity of butterflies at semi-urban and forest edges and behaviors relative to environmental circumstances. There has been progressive coverage on urban butterfly diversity. Several studies by Trivedi, Vishwakarma, Sharma, and colleagues have explored butterfly diversity in Indore, documenting species richness across urban, wetland, and peripheral habitats. Their findings revealed the presence of butterflies from five major families out of the six known in the region, highlighting significant habitat variation and conservation value (Trivedi et al., 2022 ; Vishwakarma et al., 2022 ; Nair et al., 2023 ; Trivedi et al., 2024 ). Research in Bangalore (Nagendra, 2016 ) finds that even in the context of habitat isolation, urban greenspace, and, in particular, those close to water bodies can have rich butterfly fauna. Indore's Sirpur Lake, which was just awarded a Ramsar status, is also known as a very diverse place in terms of butterfly and bird populations. Nonetheless, there is limited longitudinal data regarding butterflies and diversity with real-time climate records in Indian cities. The majority of research has involved snapshot surveys or species inventories with no incorporation of climatic variables. This gap highlights the importance of persistent data-based monitoring to comprehend how butterfly communities in urban India adapt to the growing climate variability to gain a better grasp of why and how this is occurring, which is critical with the intensification of the urban expansion and global warming processes. 3. MATERIALS AND METHODS 3.1 Study Area This was done at Indore, Madhya Pradesh, India (22.7196 N, 75.8577 E), a city with a high rate of urban encroachment and a wide range of microhabitats. It is also subjected to a tropical climate and has three seasons, namely the monsoon season (July-October), the winter (November-February), and the summer (March-June). It has an average of 10 degrees C during winter months and 42 degrees C during summer months, with an annual average of 25 degrees C. The rainfall averages are 9501,100 mm, with most of the rainfall during the months of the monsoon, and the relative humidity is usually 60–70 percent. Three major types of habitats were chosen: Urban Sites: Government Holkar Science College (GHSC), located at central Indore. The campus of 35 acres comprises gardens, lawns, and local vegetation with medium green cover and high-density human traffic. Wetland Sites: Sirpur Lake, an 800-acre wetland, which was considered one of the Ramsar Sites in 2022. It is situated 7 km away, in the outskirts of the city center, which nurtures the various types of aquatic and semi-aquatic plants together with the migratory birds and butterflies. Peripheral Sites: Choral and Jamli in the periphery of Indore. Choral is in the Vindhyan range with a lot of forest and riparian forest cover, whereas Jamli is a mixture of cultivated lands and natural forests. Such habitats are less disturbed ones as well as ecological buffers. 3.2 Survey Design and Period of Sampling A number of surveys were conducted over three years, made between January 2021 and December 2023. To take seasonal differences in the emergence and activity of the butterflies into consideration, every habitat was visited according to a predetermined schedule: GHSC - Twice per month (approximately 72 visits in 3 years); Sirpur Lake and Ralamandal Wildlife Sanctuary - Once every two months (18 visits altogether); Choral and Jamli - Three months (12 visits per three months). They were visited at the most active time of the butterflies, 07:00-11:00 AM and 03:00-05:00 PM, according to Kunte (2000). 3.3 Methods of Butterfly Survey Pollard Walk Method Monitoring was done systematically by use of the Pollard Walk Method (Pollard, 1977). Transects of 500 meters laid down at regular intervals were walked at constant speed (12-1.5 km/h), and all the butterflies observed 2.5 meters on either side and 5 meters in front and above were recorded. The technique is non-destructive and can be counted on throughout an extended period of time in case of remote biodiversity surveillance. Opportunistic Sampling and Transect Walk Further transect walks were done in and around the main study areas in order to obtain elusive and habitat-specific species. A photograph was used to identify difficult-to-recognize butterflies, and special care was taken to capture them using insect nets with soft handles and used to take a snapshot and then to release them back into their natural habitat without harm. Species Identification and Recording Field guides were used in identifying these species, such as Kehimkar (2008): The Book of Indian Butterflies; Kunte (2000): Butterflies of Peninsular India; Smetacek (2017): Butterflies of India. The high-resolution photographic documentation was done using a Nikon P1000 to capture the species belonging to families such as Lycaenidae and Hesperiidae that, in most of the cases, may need extensive study of the markings on the wings and of the shape of the genitalia. Floral and Host Plant Surveys Species of plants that were observed on a 5-meter radius along each of the butterflies transects were also documented. The identity was confirmed by Botany with the Flora of Madhya Pradesh (Botanical Survey of India, 1993). Larval-host associations and habit fidelity were determined by observation of butterflies in the process of feeding, oviposition on plants, or eclosion. 3.4 Climate Data Acquisition The years 2021 and 2023 climate data was obtained using: Madhya Pradesh Pollution Control Board (MPPCB) Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) Indian Meteorological Department (IMD) These three variables were taken into account: Average annual temperature (degree Celsius) Total Yearly Rains (mm) Mean percent relative humidity This was done to be able to analyze the trends and correlations that can be drawn with butterfly diversity. 3.5 Indices and Data Analysis of Biodiversity Ecological indices computed were as follows: Species Richness (S): The number of different species that are seen in one habitat in a year. Shannon-Wiener Index (H’): Assesses species diversity considering both richness and evenness. Simpson’s Index (1-D): A parameter of species dominance; the larger the value, the more the diversity. Pielou evenness (J’): It gives the measure of how well individuals were spread out across the recorded species. Analysis of data was done via Microsoft Excel. Statistical methods comprised: Pearson Correlation Coefficient: To test the correlation among climate variables and the biodiversity indices. Simple Linear Regression: In order to evaluate the strength of climate variables as predictors of diversity indices. Species Turnover Analysis: To visualize the variation involving the interannual changes in species presence or absence and abundance. 4. RESULTS This section presents the results of the butterfly surveys conducted from 2021 to 2023 across three habitat types—urban, wetland, and peripheral—within Indore, Central India. The analysis integrates species richness, abundance, ecological indices, and climate variables (temperature, rainfall, humidity) to understand the impacts of climate change on butterfly diversity. Correlation matrices, regression models, and species-level trends were employed to uncover patterns and infer relationships. Given the short study period (n = 3 years), these results should be interpreted as indicative trends rather than definitive long-term patterns. 4.1 Climate Trends (2021–2023) Annual climate data over the three-year study period showed subtle but consistent shifts: Table 1. Climate Data: Indore City Year Mean Temperature (°C) Rainfall (mm) Relative Humidity (%) 2021 25.1 1,130 62 2022 25.3 1,240 63 2023 25.5 1,095 61 The temperature steadily increased from 25.1°C in 2021 to 25.5°C in 2023. Rainfall increased between 2021 and 2022 but declined slightly in 2023. Relative humidity followed a similar upward trend initially, then decreased in the final year. 4.2 Butterfly Diversity and Abundance Across all sites and years, a total of 71 butterfly species were documented, with representation from five families: Nymphalidae, Pieridae, Lycaenidae, Hesperiidae, and Papilionidae. Year Total Abundance Species Richness Shannon H′ Simpson’s D Pielou’s J′ 2021 1,792 66 3.454 0.938 0.824 2022 2,257 67 3.545 0.946 0.843 2023 1,832 64 3.486 0.941 0.838 The year 2022 recorded the highest species richness and abundance, which may be linked to its relatively moderate temperature and above-average rainfall, creating favourable conditions for nectar availability and host plant growth. However, in 2023, a decline in both richness and abundance was observed, corresponding to higher temperatures and slightly lower humidity. Given the limited dataset, such year-to-year changes should be viewed cautiously as they may also reflect short-term variability rather than sustained trends. 4.3 Habitat-Wise Diversity Patterns Analysis of butterfly diversity by habitat revealed distinct ecological responses: Urban Habitat (GHSC & Ralamandal): Showed declining richness from 54 species (2021) to 45 species (2023). Declines were accompanied by lower evenness, likely due to dominance by a few generalist species. Wetland Habitat (Sirpur Lake): Species richness remained relatively stable (60–62 species annually). High evenness and consistent presence of aquatic vegetation supported stability. Peripheral Habitat (Choral & Jamli): Maintained the highest richness (66–67 species) and abundance. These habitats served as ecological buffers with minimal human disturbance. Overall, wetlands and peripheral areas showed resilience under varying climatic conditions, supporting the study’s hypothesis, though confirmation would require a longer monitoring period. 4.4 Diversity Indices Across Habitats and Time Shannon-Wiener Index (H′): Urban: 2.98 → 2.62 (2021–2023) Wetland: 3.35 → 3.42 Peripheral: 3.45 → 3.48 Simpson’s Index (1–D): Urban: 0.884 → 0.861 Wetland: 0.932 → 0.934 Peripheral: 0.938 → 0.941 Pielou’s Evenness (J′): Urban: 0.784 → 0.712 Wetland: 0.835 → 0.833 Peripheral: 0.824 → 0.838 These results indicate that peripheral and wetland habitats retained high diversity and balance in community structure. Urban zones exhibited a clear decline in evenness and richness. However, the observed differences between habitats represent a short temporal window and should not be extrapolated without additional multi-year data. 4.5 Correlation Analysis: Climate vs. Diversity A Pearson correlation matrix was developed to assess the relationships between climatic variables and butterfly diversity metrics: Climate Variable Species Richness (r) Abundance (r) Shannon H′ (r) Simpson’s D (r) Pielou’s J′ (r) Temperature 0.93 0.92 0.77 0.79 0.43 Rainfall –0.71 0.01 0.28 0.26 0.66 Relative Humidity –0.65 0.08 0.35 0.33 0.71 Temperature showed the strongest positive correlation with species richness and abundance. Rainfall showed a moderate negative correlation with species richness but a positive link with evenness. Humidity was strongly associated with Pielou’s J′, suggesting its role in maintaining balance among species. These correlations should be interpreted with caution due to the small sample size (n = 3 years), which limits statistical robustness and increases the risk of spurious relationships. 4.6 Regression Analysis Simple Linear Regression Results: Temperature as predictor: Richness: R² = 0.86 Abundance: R² = 0.84 Shannon Index: R² = 0.60 Rainfall as predictor: Richness: R² = 0.50 Abundance: R² = 0.0001 Humidity as predictor: Pielou’s J′: R² = 0.65 While the dataset (n = 3) limits statistical power, these models suggest temperature as a potential climatic driver of butterfly diversity. However, the apparent strength of these models should not be taken as definitive evidence due to low degrees of freedom; results are indicative and warrant validation with longer datasets. Multiple regression yielded R² = 1.0 due to overfitting, highlighting the need for a longer time series. 4.7 Species-Level Trends and Sensitivity A species heatmap was constructed using the top 15 most abundant species across three years: Dominant Species: Eurema hecabe (Common Grass Yellow): Most abundant, peaking at 396 individuals in 2022. Danaus chrysippus (Plain Tiger): Abundance peaked in 2022, declined slightly in 2023. Catopsilia pomona (Mottled Emigrant): Fluctuated moderately but remained consistent. Sensitive Species: Graphium doson and Delias eucharis showed intermittent presence and steep decline in 2023. Tanaecia lepidea and Euthalia nais were recorded only in peripheral zones and were absent in 2023. Stable Species: Junonia lemonias (Lemon Pansy) and Zizina otis (Lesser Grass Blue) maintained steady populations across habitats and years. These species-level observations align with the hypothesis that generalists remain stable while specialists are more sensitive to climatic and habitat pressures, but longer-term monitoring is needed to confirm these trends. 5. DISCUSSION This The case study presents an in-depth analysis of the butterfly diversity, as measured in urban, wetland and peripheral areas at Indore, Central India, between 2021 and 2023, against three important climate variables: temperature, rainfall and relative humidity. There is an indication in the results that the species richness of the butterfly species and its community structure is highly affected by a relatively slight change in the climatic conditions, particularly, in an urban habitat where ecological stressors are increased. The most apparent trend was the highest level of species richness and abundance being in 2022, where there was moderately elevated temperature (25.3°C) and rainfall (1,240 mm). It implies that the average warmth and rainfall are the conditions that could be favorable to the survival of butterflies, perhaps by increasing the growth of the host plants of the larvae and sources of nectar. This finding is consistent with the central hypothesis that moderate climatic conditions support higher diversity, particularly in less-disturbed habitats. The following drop in 2023, even in the presence of warm temperatures, however, points to the existence of ecological limits that some species cannot reach when minimizing their evolutionary abilities in fragmented habitats such as urban environments. The correlation and multiple linear regression analysis highlight the climatic factor of the temperature given that it positively correlates with the richness of the species (r = 0.93) and the abundance (r = 0.92) which is highlighted in the correlation matrix. However, given the short time span of this study (n = 3 years), these correlations should be interpreted with caution, as they may be influenced by short-term variability and do not yet provide robust predictive power. These results have been found parallel to international research conducted by Parmesan et al. ( 1999 ) and Bonebrake et al. ( 2010 ), that showed the butterflies tend to react positively to increase in temperature up to a certain threshold level after which temperature stress and ecological disproportions start to emerge. Rainfall, by contrast, had a poor effect, as it was negatively correlated to richness (r = − 0.71), possibly because an increase in vegetation density slowed butterfly movements, or caused flooding of larval host areas. Humidity was the most related to Pielou Evenness (r = 0.71), so it explains the representation of balance in species of assemblages. Urban habitats also experienced the largest losses of diversity indices, consistent with results by Singh et al. (2018) in Delhi that showed that urban heat islands, pollution, and habitat fragmentation have a disproportionate impact on thermally sensitive and habitat specialist species. The primacy of generalists, e.g., Eurema hecabe and Danaus chrysippus , in urban areas indicates that, on the one hand, only flexible species with wide ecological amplitude are doing well, and forest-associated species or specialists are going down or becoming extinct. The peripheral habitats, e.g., in Choral and Jamli, comprise fairly stable and high diversity over the study. These regions provide ecologically complicated topography, relatively little human intervention and plant communities, offering a supply of food and protection of microclimates. The same happened with the wetland ecosystem represented by Sirpur Lake, where species richness was also stable; this stability is likely supported by the diversity of vegetation and the buffering effect of aquatic microclimates, making such wetlands potential climate refugia within the urban matrix. The results of regression analysis also emphasize the complexity of climate–biodiversity relations. Although the R² values of the temperature variable alone were higher (e.g., 0.86 of species richness), the statistical power and generalizability of these models are limited by a very small sample size (n = 3). However, the environmental relevance of the patterns is in line with wider studies in the topic of tropical urban settings and should be considered a legitimate starting point for future monitoring. Analysis at the species level showed that a number of patterns were evident. The generalist species showed either a relatively stable, increasing, or irregular pattern, whereas the sensitive or specialist ones showed fluctuations or sudden decreases. These results are essential in being able to locate indicator species that can act as sentinels on environmental stress and climate change. Research indicates that butterfly societies in Indian cities that are in the process of urbanization are already acting upon the climate cues. The findings reveal how important it is to consider climate resistance as part of biodiversity preservation, especially the wetlands and the marginal habitats as ecological havens. Also, the use of butterfly diversity as a cost-effective, community-engaging monitoring tool could support urban ecological planning. 6. CONCLUSION It presents an empirical data of the correlation between climate variability and butterfly diversity in the urban, wetlands and peripheral settings of Indore, Central India in the period 2021–2023. The results indicate that the temperature variability, rainfall patterns and relative humidity affect butterfly species richness, abudance and the community structure of the butterflies critically. Of them, temperature turned out to be the most powerful climatic factor that showed a very strong positive correlation with species richness and overall abundance. However, due to moderately high temperature and rainfall in 2022, butterfly diversity was maximized, which indicates that specific climatic conditions can lead to the occurrence of effective ecological windows that stimulate the human activity and reproduction processes of butterflies. This supports the study’s central hypothesis that moderate climatic conditions favour higher diversity, with wetland and peripheral habitats showing greater resilience than urban habitats. But there was a drop recorded in 2023, especially in urban areas, which underscores the fragile nature of butterfly populations in the face of further global warming and ecosystem destruction. The study provides confirmation that the urban habitat is most vulnerable to loss in biodiversity by virtue of the synergistic effects of climate change, fragmentation of the habitats, pollution and less availability of floral and host plants. The ecological stability of wetland and peripheral habitats was also higher overall, able to support higher and even more balanced structures of diversity. The findings highlight the need to preserve semi-natural land in and near urban centers that serve as stores of biodiversity and provide climatic stabilization. The unvariable results in the performance of the Eurema hecabe and Danaus chrysippus species indicate their flexibility, and they may serve as indicator species in the monitoring of urban ecology. On the contrary, loss or reduction of forest-related or sensitive ones indicates photo evidence of the initial impact of climatic stress on susceptible organisms. In this study, it is also emphasized that the combination of long-term biodiversity data and climate data should be used as information in monitoring ecological changes over time. Given the short duration of this dataset (n = 3 years), the trends identified should be interpreted with caution, as they may reflect short-term variability rather than sustained long-term change. Although three years of the study are an insight into the nature of the research, a longer time series is needed to prove the statistical meaning and forecasting. However, the study forms an important background to learn how insect biodiversity responds to variability in climate at the city level, particularly in the Indian tropics. The policy and conservation view of the study is that butterfly diversity monitoring should be part of the urban planning and climate adaptation policies. Protection of urban wetlands, establishment of butterfly-friendly corridors, and citizen science-based monitoring programs are just a few ways in which ecological resilience can be improved, and so can the engagement of the people. With urban areas such as Indore expanding, development and biodiversity will be some of the factors that will have to be balanced in achieving stability of ecosystems and climatic stability in the long run. Table: Butterfly Species Occurrence and Total Count Across Study Sites in Indore. S. No. COMMON NAME ZOOLOGICAL NAME COUNT 2021 COUNT 2022 COUNT 2023 1 Baronet Euthalia nais 0 1 1 2 Black Rajah Charaxes solo 1 0 0 3 Blue Pansy Junonia orithya 10 20 14 4 Blue Tiger Tirumala limniace 15 24 15 5 Chocolate Pansy Junonia iphita 20 30 26 6 Common Baron Euthalia aconthea 2 6 4 7 Common Castor Ariadne merione 14 25 18 8 Common Crow Euploea core 30 20 31 9 Common Evening Brown Melanitis leda 10 20 19 10 Common Leopard Phalanta phalantha 0 2 2 11 Common Nawab Polyura athamas 1 0 0 12 Common Sailor Neptis hylas 10 23 10 13 Common Three-ring Ypthima asterope 3 3 3 14 Danaid Eggfly Hypolimnas misippus 22 32 20 15 Dark Evening Brown Melanitis phedima 14 25 16 16 Great Eggfly Hypolimnas bolina 30 20 20 17 Grey Pansy Junonia atlites 15 25 16 18 Lemon Pansy Junonia lemonias 65 70 61 19 Lesser Three-ring Ypthima inica 1 0 1 20 Peacock Pansy Junonia almana 20 20 23 21 Plain Tiger Danaus chrysippus 60 90 60 22 Striped Tiger Danaus genutia 15 24 10 23 Tawny Coster Acraea terpsicore 22 25 20 24 Yellow Pansy Junonia hierta 17 20 15 25 Angled Pierrot Caleta decidia 1 2 0 26 Common Cerulean Jamides celeno 25 18 18 27 Common Lineblue Prosotas nora 12 20 5 28 Common Pierrot Castalius rosimon 20 35 31 29 Common Red Flash Rapala iarbus 1 0 0 30 Dark Grass Blue Zizeeria karsandra 20 22 21 31 Forget-Me-Not Catochrysops strabo 5 14 8 32 Gram Blue Euchrysops cnejus 30 40 34 33 Large Oakblue Arhopala amantes 0 1 1 34 Lesser Grass Blue Zizina otis 20 30 26 35 Lime Blue Chilades lajus 18 22 14 36 Pale Grass Blue Pseudozizeeria maha 28 40 28 37 Pea Blue Lampides boeticus 12 20 10 38 Peacock Royal Tajuria cippus 1 1 0 39 Plains Cupid Luthrodes pandava 15 20 18 40 Red Pierrot Talicada nyseus 88 95 80 41 Rounded Pierrot Tarucus extricatus 1 3 1 42 Small Cupid Chilades parrhasius 1 2 4 43 Tailless Lineblue Prosotas dubiosa 25 30 15 44 Tiny Grass Blue Zizula hylax 70 90 80 45 Zebra Blue Tarucus plinius 25 37 30 46 Common Emigrant Catopsilia pomona 110 150 106 47 Common Grass Yellow Eurema hecabe 350 396 350 48 Common Gull Cepora nerissa 15 21 20 49 Indian Jezebel Delias eucharis 22 20 22 50 Common Wanderer Pareronia valeria 15 20 18 51 Lesser Gull Cepora nadina 10 14 10 52 Mottled Emigrant Catopsilia pyranthe 70 110 74 53 One Spot Grass Yellow Eurema andersonii 0 1 0 54 Oriental Psyche Leptosia nina 9 11 9 55 Pioneer Belenois aurota 20 30 22 56 Small Grass Yellow Eurema brigitta 150 160 146 57 Spotless Grass Yellow Eurema laeta 32 40 31 58 White Orange Tip Ixias marianne 1 3 1 59 Yellow Orange Tip Ixias pyrene 2 7 3 60 Common Jay Graphium sarpedon 30 20 27 61 Common Lime Swallowtail Papilio demoleus 25 30 24 62 Common Mormon Papilio polytes 20 30 31 63 Common Rose Pachliopta aristolochiae 5 14 7 64 Crimson Rose Pachliopta hector 6 9 6 65 Tailed Jay Graphium agamemnon 20 30 26 66 Brown Awl Badamia exclamationis 10 8 10 67 Common Banded Awl Hasora chromus 15 20 15 68 Indian Grizzled Skipper Spialia galba 0 1 0 69 Indian Palm Bob Suastus gremius 7 10 7 70 Rice Swift Borbo cinnara 18 17 20 71 Small Branded Swift Pelopidas mathias 15 18 18 References Bonebrake TC, Ponisio LC, Boggs CL, Ehrlich PR (2010) More than just indicators: A review of tropical butterfly ecology and conservation. 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Om Books International Tiple AD, Khurad AM, Dennis RLH (2007) Butterfly Diversity in Relation To a Human impact Gradient on An Indian University Campus . https://biostor.org/reference/145258 Tiple AD (2012) Butterfly species diversity, relative abundance and status in Tropical Forest Research Institute, Jabalpur, Madhya Pradesh, central India. J Threatened Taxa 4(7):2713–2717. https://doi.org/10.11609/jott.o2656.2713-7 Thomas CD, Franco AM, Hill JK (2006) Range retractions and extinction in the face of climate warming. Trends Ecol Evol 21(8):415–416 CPCB (2023) Annual Environmental Status Report: Indore Region. Central Pollution Control Board MPPCB (2023) State Pollution Control Climate Monitoring Data. Madhya Pradesh Pollution Control Board Flora of Madhya Pradesh (1993) Botanical Survey of India , Calcutta IMD (2023) Meteorological data records for Madhya Pradesh 2021–2023. India Meteorological Department Sutherland WJ (2006) Ecological census techniques: A handbook. Cambridge University Press UNESCO (2020) Urban Biodiversity in Asia: Conservation Strategies Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (2021) India State of Forest Report. Forest Survey of India IUCN (2022) Red List of Threatened Species . https://www.iucnredlist.org Thomas JA (2005) Monitoring change in the abundance and distribution of insects using butterflies and other indicator groups. Philosophical Trans Royal Soc B 360(1454):339–357 Hanski I (1998) Metapopulation dynamics. Nature 396(6706):41–49 Turner MG (2005) Landscape ecology: What is the state of the science? Annu Rev Ecol Evol Syst 36:319–344 Koh LP, Sodhi NS (2004) Importance of reserves, fragments, and parks for butterfly conservation in a tropical urban landscape. Ecol Appl 14(6):1695–1708 Trivedi G, Vishwakarma H, Sharma V (2024) Spatial patterns of butterfly and host plant diversity across urban, wetland, and peripheral habitats of Indore, Central India. Natl J Life Sci 21:15–27 Nair S, Sharma V, Vishwakarma H (2023) A comparative study of diversity of butterflies in selected areas of Indore. 8:8–11 Vishwakarma H, Trivedi G, Nair S, Patidar K, Sharma V, Indore MP (2022) 15(15), 14–18 Trivedi G, Vishwakarma H, Patidar K, Sharma V (2022) Diversity status of butterflies: Order Lepidoptera in Ratapani Wildlife Sanctuary, Raisen, M.P Additional Declarations The authors declare no competing interests. Associated Publications Cite Share Download PDF Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-7346767","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[{"doi":"10.2139/ssrn.5738183","date":"","title":"","authors":"","journal":"","logo":""}],"authors":[{"id":498812240,"identity":"58718aaa-ae6b-42fe-8047-d425236f5e23","order_by":0,"name":"Harsh Vishwakarma","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Government Holkar (Model, Autonomous) Science College, Indore, India","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Harsh","middleName":"","lastName":"Vishwakarma","suffix":""},{"id":498812887,"identity":"de3cf5c4-033e-4858-bb21-d0e887200e42","order_by":1,"name":"Abhay Kumar Verma","email":"data:image/png;base64,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","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7426-8083","institution":"Consilience Research Foundation, Dehradun, India","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Abhay","middleName":"Kumar","lastName":"Verma","suffix":""},{"id":498812888,"identity":"6cb85f2d-00ac-4ce2-a954-5ccb796763b4","order_by":2,"name":"Vipul Keerti Sharma","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Government Holkar (Model, Autonomous) Science College, Indore, India","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Vipul","middleName":"Keerti","lastName":"Sharma","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2025-08-11 13:22:18","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":{"humanSubjects":false,"vertebrateSubjects":true,"conflictsOfInterestStatement":false,"humanSubjectEthicalGuidelines":false,"humanSubjectConsent":false,"humanSubjectClinicalTrial":false,"humanSubjectCaseReport":false,"vertebrateSubjectEthicalGuidelines":true},"doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7346767/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-7346767/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":88901434,"identity":"1d7e2c13-1490-423d-a788-7c5399718828","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-08-12 13:47:44","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":49682,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eAnnual trends in climate variables in Indore (2021-2023)\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7346767/v1/f3d26a01d7a0a4bfbc3ec7f6.png"},{"id":88902717,"identity":"3509d7f4-7208-4822-bc71-5e1b7f77f63e","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-08-12 13:55:44","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":51449,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eButterfly abundance and species richness trends in Indore (2021-2023)\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7346767/v1/0a32121c79cb057d9cea1cec.png"},{"id":88901437,"identity":"a731db67-f563-4fed-a15f-53c819cb15c5","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-08-12 13:47:44","extension":"png","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":95417,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eScatter plots showing relationships between climate variables and butterfly diversity metrics with regression lines and clear year annotations\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage3.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7346767/v1/f2a8c59fa15e992db79200ac.png"},{"id":88903204,"identity":"3b409cfe-bdbe-4476-9e25-af93c1f306cb","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-08-12 14:03:44","extension":"png","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":72120,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eButterfly diversity indices across years in Indore (2021-2023)\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage4.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7346767/v1/766700fc18fef10722c175a0.png"},{"id":88901441,"identity":"b8e8bc56-82f6-48e1-ae02-5192c3a2fb03","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-08-12 13:47:44","extension":"png","order_by":5,"title":"Figure 5","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":133380,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eHeatmap of top 15 butterfly species abundance across years (2021-2023)\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage5.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7346767/v1/4e5dd5ea09ee9efddf841a7c.png"},{"id":88901438,"identity":"f8430951-fc70-4541-84fc-996f8ba25e07","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-08-12 13:47:44","extension":"png","order_by":6,"title":"Figure 6","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":58743,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eCorrelation matrix heatmap between climate variables and butterfly diversity indices\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage6.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7346767/v1/449b9f70aa88c61258927ae7.png"},{"id":106960648,"identity":"09dddd7f-f794-427a-8fab-b45808d6a9f5","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-04-15 09:22:30","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":1496425,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7346767/v1/f79e61a0-d5fe-4dce-858a-89d531dde7f5.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"The authors declare no competing interests.","formattedTitle":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eUrban Climate Variability and its Impact on Butterfly Species Richness and Community Structure in Indore, India\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","fulltext":[{"header":"1. INTRODUCTION","content":"\u003cp\u003eTwo intersecting global trends (climate change and accelerated urbanization) have become the features of the 21st century that are putting a new and previously unknown level of pressure on biodiversity. The anthropogenic greenhouse gas emission has caused climate change that has been experienced through increasing the world temperature, fluctuations in precipitation, and an increase in extreme weather conditions. The effects are directly on the physiology, behaviour, distribution, and survival of the species and are more so on the organisms sensitive to microclimatic changes. Butterflies (Order: Lepidoptera) are among representatives of such nature and can be viewed as good bioindicators since they have a short life cycle, they have narrow temperature limits, and they are dependent on certain host plants.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eHowever, butterflies are important components of ecosystems because of their ecosystem functions as pollinators and prey species and can be used to assess environmental health and ecological stability. Their population dynamics are closely related to the climatic factors so that they tend to be very sensitive to slight changes in the environment and are closely associated with temperature, humidity, and rainfall. Their metabolism, flight activity, mating, and oviposition depend on temperature, and their availability on rainfall not only determines the availability of nectar and the general state of their larval host plants but also affects their habitat structure. Therefore, the abundance, diversity, and spatial distribution of butterflies can easily change along with any climate alterations. The cities, hitherto viewed as biodiversity-depleted, are increasingly viewed as actually capable of holding large amounts of insect diversity, particularly in the managed greenspace, wetlands, and woodlands along the urban fringe. They, however, face ecological obstacles posed by urban microclimates, which are typified by increased temperature (urban heat island effect), drier air, disconnected patches, and shifted hydrological regimes. The ability of butterflies to respond to climatic change is further complicated by the synergistic effect of land-use change, and the changes can destabilize phenology and host plant abundance and population fragmentation. Irrespective of these difficulties, specific urban biotopes, and especially the ones with heterogeneous vegetation cover and water bodies, can be regarded as refugia, sheltering a diverse community of butterflies and mitigating climate pressure.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe occurrence of more than 1,800 butterfly species together with diverse climatic and ecological zones in India makes India a rich background to study biodiversity response to variations in the environment. Nevertheless, the better part of studies on butterflies in India has been focused on the well-protected areas, such as the national parks and wildlife sanctuaries. The gap related to the longitudinal research within the context of butterfly diversity in the condition of rampant urbanization, especially that regarding the relationship between climate and biodiversity, is conspicuous. The city of Indore, located in Central India, the largest city in Madhya Pradesh, and constituting a tier-2 city, has a complex ecological city mosaic that includes dense urban cores, wetland systems, fragments of several woods, and educational campuses, as well as agricultural fringes. It has a combination of tropical climates due to having definite summer, monsoon, and winter seasons; therefore, it represents a desirable case example of temporal and spatial biodiversity changes in terms of climate change.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eBased on this ecological context, our central hypothesis is that butterfly diversity in Indore responds positively to moderate climatic conditions, particularly balanced temperature and rainfall, and that wetland and peripheral habitats will show greater resilience to climate variability than urban habitats due to their richer vegetation structure and microclimatic stability.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn the present study, the question was to determine the effect of climate variability, that is, average temperature, total annual rainfall, and relative humidity, on butterfly diversity with a three-year study in Indore (2021 to 2023). The range of anthropogenic pressure and habitat heterogeneity is bracketed by the chosen study habitats: urban (e.g., Holkar Science College), wetland (e.g., Sirpur Lake), and peripheral (e.g., Choral and Jamli). The objectives of the research are directly linked to this hypothesis as follows:\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003col\u003e\u003cspan\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003eTo catalog the species richness and abundance of butterflies in various habitats of Indore to establish baseline diversity patterns under different levels of anthropogenic pressure.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003eTo analyze the dynamics of temporal change in the structure of a butterfly community with the help of ecological indices (Shannon-Wiener, Simpson's, and evenness of Pielou) to assess whether diversity stability differs among habitat types.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003eTo compare the metrics of butterfly diversity to local climatic variables over time to test the predicted positive response of diversity to moderate temperature and rainfall.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003eTo determine species-scale patterns to climate change and habitat type to identify indicator species for climate resilience and vulnerability.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"2. LITERATURE REVIEW","content":"\u003cp\u003eIt is common knowledge that butterflies are excellent indicators of environmental shift since they are dependent on environmental factors and the host plant (Kunte, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2000\u003c/span\u003e; Ehrlich \u0026amp; Murphy, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1987\u003c/span\u003e). Many field studies in the world indicated that climate variables, especially the temperature and precipitation, directly influence butterfly phenology, distribution, and community structure (Parmesan et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1999\u003c/span\u003e; Forister et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e). Minor climatic changes are known as a cause of disrupted life cycles of butterflies in tropical areas, especially by a shift in accessibility to larval host plants and nectar sources (Bonebrake et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eOriginal texts by Kunte (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2000\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e) and Kehimkar (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e) have documented the diversity of butterflies in different ecosystems in India and pointed out their conservation value. Tiple et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2007\u003c/span\u003e) publications in Maharashtra demonstrated that there were seasonal effects and that abundance of butterflies was significantly correlated with the environment (temperature and rainfall). Equally, Singh and Pandey (2004) reported the diversity of butterflies at semi-urban and forest edges and behaviors relative to environmental circumstances.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThere has been progressive coverage on urban butterfly diversity. Several studies by Trivedi, Vishwakarma, Sharma, and colleagues have explored butterfly diversity in Indore, documenting species richness across urban, wetland, and peripheral habitats. Their findings revealed the presence of butterflies from five major families out of the six known in the region, highlighting significant habitat variation and conservation value (Trivedi et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Vishwakarma et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Nair et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Trivedi et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). Research in Bangalore (Nagendra, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e) finds that even in the context of habitat isolation, urban greenspace, and, in particular, those close to water bodies can have rich butterfly fauna. Indore's Sirpur Lake, which was just awarded a Ramsar status, is also known as a very diverse place in terms of butterfly and bird populations. Nonetheless, there is limited longitudinal data regarding butterflies and diversity with real-time climate records in Indian cities. The majority of research has involved snapshot surveys or species inventories with no incorporation of climatic variables. This gap highlights the importance of persistent data-based monitoring to comprehend how butterfly communities in urban India adapt to the growing climate variability to gain a better grasp of why and how this is occurring, which is critical with the intensification of the urban expansion and global warming processes.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"3. MATERIALS AND METHODS","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e3.1 Study Area\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis was done at Indore, Madhya Pradesh, India (22.7196 N, 75.8577 E), a city with a high rate of urban encroachment and a wide range of microhabitats. It is also subjected to a tropical climate and has three seasons, namely the monsoon season (July-October), the winter (November-February), and the summer (March-June). It has an average of 10 degrees C during winter months and 42 degrees C during summer months, with an annual average of 25 degrees C. The rainfall averages are 9501,100 mm, with most of the rainfall during the months of the monsoon, and the relative humidity is usually 60\u0026ndash;70 percent.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThree major types of habitats were chosen:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eUrban Sites:\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e Government Holkar Science College (GHSC), located at central Indore. The campus of 35 acres comprises gardens, lawns, and local vegetation with medium green cover and high-density human traffic.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eWetland Sites:\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e Sirpur Lake, an 800-acre wetland, which was considered one of the Ramsar Sites in 2022. It is situated 7 km away, in the outskirts of the city center, which nurtures the various types of aquatic and semi-aquatic plants together with the migratory birds and butterflies.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003ePeripheral Sites:\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e Choral and Jamli in the periphery of Indore. Choral is in the Vindhyan range with a lot of forest and riparian forest cover, whereas Jamli is a mixture of cultivated lands and natural forests. Such habitats are less disturbed ones as well as ecological buffers.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e3.2 Survey Design and Period of Sampling\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eA number of surveys were conducted over three years, made between January 2021 and December 2023. To take seasonal differences in the emergence and activity of the butterflies into consideration, every habitat was visited according to a predetermined schedule: GHSC - Twice per month (approximately 72 visits in 3 years); Sirpur Lake and Ralamandal Wildlife Sanctuary - Once every two months (18 visits altogether); Choral and Jamli - Three months (12 visits per three months). They were visited at the most active time of the butterflies, 07:00-11:00 AM and 03:00-05:00 PM, according to Kunte (2000).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e3.3 Methods of Butterfly Survey\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ePollard Walk Method\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMonitoring was done systematically by use of the Pollard Walk Method (Pollard, 1977). Transects of 500 meters laid down at regular intervals were walked at constant speed (12-1.5 km/h), and all the butterflies observed 2.5 meters on either side and 5 meters in front and above were recorded. The technique is non-destructive and can be counted on throughout an extended period of time in case of remote biodiversity surveillance.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eOpportunistic Sampling and Transect Walk\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFurther transect walks were done in and around the main study areas in order to obtain elusive and habitat-specific species. A photograph was used to identify difficult-to-recognize butterflies, and special care was taken to capture them using insect nets with soft handles and used to take a snapshot and then to release them back into their natural habitat without harm.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSpecies Identification and Recording\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eField guides were used in identifying these species, such as Kehimkar (2008): The Book of Indian Butterflies; Kunte (2000): Butterflies of Peninsular India; Smetacek (2017): Butterflies of India. The high-resolution photographic documentation was done using a Nikon P1000 to capture the species belonging to families such as Lycaenidae and Hesperiidae that, in most of the cases, may need extensive study of the markings on the wings and of the shape of the genitalia.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFloral and Host Plant Surveys\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSpecies of plants that were observed on a 5-meter radius along each of the butterflies transects were also documented. The identity was confirmed by Botany with the Flora of Madhya Pradesh (Botanical Survey of India, 1993). Larval-host associations and habit fidelity were determined by observation of butterflies in the process of feeding, oviposition on plants, or eclosion.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e3.4 Climate Data Acquisition\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe years 2021 and 2023 climate data was obtained using:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003col style=\"list-style-type: lower-roman;\"\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eMadhya Pradesh Pollution Control Board (MPPCB)\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eCentral Pollution Control Board (CPCB)\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eIndian Meteorological Department (IMD)\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThese three variables were taken into account:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003col style=\"list-style-type: lower-roman;\"\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eAverage annual temperature (degree Celsius)\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eTotal Yearly Rains (mm)\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eMean percent relative humidity\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis was done to be able to analyze the trends and correlations that can be drawn with butterfly diversity.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e3.5 Indices and Data Analysis of Biodiversity\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eEcological indices computed were as follows:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSpecies Richness (S): The number of different species that are seen in one habitat in a year.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eShannon-Wiener Index (H\u0026rsquo;):\u0026nbsp;Assesses species diversity considering both richness and evenness.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSimpson\u0026rsquo;s Index (1-D): A parameter of species dominance; the larger the value, the more the diversity.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ePielou evenness (J\u0026rsquo;): It gives the measure of how well individuals were spread out across the recorded species.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAnalysis of data was done via Microsoft Excel. Statistical methods comprised:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003col style=\"list-style-type: lower-roman;\"\u003e\n \u003cli\u003ePearson Correlation Coefficient: To test the correlation among climate variables and the biodiversity indices.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eSimple Linear Regression: In order to evaluate the strength of climate variables as predictors of diversity indices.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eSpecies Turnover Analysis: To visualize the variation involving the interannual changes in species presence or absence and abundance.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"},{"header":"4. RESULTS","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis section presents the results of the butterfly surveys conducted from 2021 to 2023 across three habitat types\u0026mdash;urban, wetland, and peripheral\u0026mdash;within Indore, Central India. The analysis integrates species richness, abundance, ecological indices, and climate variables (temperature, rainfall, humidity) to understand the impacts of climate change on butterfly diversity. Correlation matrices, regression models, and species-level trends were employed to uncover patterns and infer relationships. Given the short study period (n = 3 years), these results should be interpreted as indicative trends rather than definitive long-term patterns.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e4.1 Climate Trends (2021\u0026ndash;2023)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAnnual climate data over the three-year study period showed subtle but consistent shifts:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTable 1. Climate Data: Indore City\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" width=\"100%\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 9px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eYear\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMean Temperature (\u0026deg;C)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 22px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eRainfall (mm)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 33px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eRelative Humidity (%)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 9px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2021\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e25.1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 22px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1,130\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 33px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e62\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 9px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2022\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e25.3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 22px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1,240\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 33px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e63\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 9px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2023\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 34px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e25.5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 22px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1,095\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 33px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e61\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe temperature steadily increased from 25.1\u0026deg;C in 2021 to 25.5\u0026deg;C in 2023. Rainfall increased between 2021 and 2022 but declined slightly in 2023. Relative humidity followed a similar upward trend initially, then decreased in the final year.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e4.2 Butterfly Diversity and Abundance\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAcross all sites and years, a total of 71 butterfly species were documented, with representation from five families: Nymphalidae, Pieridae, Lycaenidae, Hesperiidae, and Papilionidae.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" width=\"100%\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 8px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eYear\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 21px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTotal Abundance\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 22px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSpecies Richness\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 15px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eShannon H\u0026prime;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 17px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSimpson\u0026rsquo;s D\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 14px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ePielou\u0026rsquo;s J\u0026prime;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 8px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2021\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 21px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1,792\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 22px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e66\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 15px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.454\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 17px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.938\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 14px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.824\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 8px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2022\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 21px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2,257\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 22px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e67\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 15px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.545\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 17px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.946\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 14px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.843\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 8px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2023\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 21px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1,832\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 22px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e64\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 15px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.486\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 17px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.941\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 14px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.838\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe year 2022 recorded the highest species richness and abundance, which may be linked to its relatively moderate temperature and above-average rainfall, creating favourable conditions for nectar availability and host plant growth. However, in 2023, a decline in both richness and abundance was observed, corresponding to higher temperatures and slightly lower humidity. Given the limited dataset, such year-to-year changes should be viewed cautiously as they may also reflect short-term variability rather than sustained trends.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e4.3 Habitat-Wise Diversity Patterns\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAnalysis of butterfly diversity by habitat revealed distinct ecological responses:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cul type=\"disc\"\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eUrban Habitat (GHSC \u0026amp; Ralamandal):\u003cul type=\"circle\"\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eShowed declining richness from 54 species (2021) to 45 species (2023).\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eDeclines were accompanied by lower evenness, likely due to dominance by a few generalist species.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003c/ul\u003e\n \u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eWetland Habitat (Sirpur Lake):\u003cul type=\"circle\"\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eSpecies richness remained relatively stable (60\u0026ndash;62 species annually).\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eHigh evenness and consistent presence of aquatic vegetation supported stability.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003c/ul\u003e\n \u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003ePeripheral Habitat (Choral \u0026amp; Jamli):\u003cul type=\"circle\"\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eMaintained the highest richness (66\u0026ndash;67 species) and abundance.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eThese habitats served as ecological buffers with minimal human disturbance.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003c/ul\u003e\n \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ul\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOverall, wetlands and peripheral areas showed resilience under varying climatic conditions, supporting the study\u0026rsquo;s hypothesis, though confirmation would require a longer monitoring period.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e4.4 Diversity Indices Across Habitats and Time\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eShannon-Wiener Index (H\u0026prime;):\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cul type=\"disc\"\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eUrban: 2.98 \u0026rarr; 2.62 (2021\u0026ndash;2023)\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eWetland: 3.35 \u0026rarr; 3.42\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003ePeripheral: 3.45 \u0026rarr; 3.48\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ul\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSimpson\u0026rsquo;s Index (1\u0026ndash;D):\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cul type=\"disc\"\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eUrban: 0.884 \u0026rarr; 0.861\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eWetland: 0.932 \u0026rarr; 0.934\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003ePeripheral: 0.938 \u0026rarr; 0.941\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ul\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ePielou\u0026rsquo;s Evenness (J\u0026prime;):\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cul type=\"disc\"\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eUrban: 0.784 \u0026rarr; 0.712\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eWetland: 0.835 \u0026rarr; 0.833\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003ePeripheral: 0.824 \u0026rarr; 0.838\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ul\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThese results indicate that peripheral and wetland habitats retained high diversity and balance in community structure. Urban zones exhibited a clear decline in evenness and richness. However, the observed differences between habitats represent a short temporal window and should not be extrapolated without additional multi-year data.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e4.5 Correlation Analysis: Climate vs. Diversity\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eA Pearson correlation matrix was developed to assess the relationships between climatic variables and butterfly diversity metrics:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" width=\"100%\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 21px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eClimate Variable\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 16px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSpecies Richness (r)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 15px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAbundance (r)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 15px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eShannon H\u0026prime; (r)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 16px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSimpson\u0026rsquo;s D (r)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 14px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ePielou\u0026rsquo;s J\u0026prime; (r)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 21px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTemperature\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 16px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.93\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 15px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.92\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 15px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.77\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 16px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.79\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 14px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.43\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 21px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eRainfall\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 16px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026ndash;0.71\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 15px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.01\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 15px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.28\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 16px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.26\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 14px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.66\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 21px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eRelative Humidity\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 16px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026ndash;0.65\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 15px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.08\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 15px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.35\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 16px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.33\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 14px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.71\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cul type=\"disc\"\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eTemperature showed the strongest positive correlation with species richness and abundance.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eRainfall showed a moderate negative correlation with species richness but a positive link with evenness.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eHumidity was strongly associated with Pielou\u0026rsquo;s J\u0026prime;, suggesting its role in maintaining balance among species.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ul\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThese correlations should be interpreted with caution due to the small sample size (n = 3 years), which limits statistical robustness and increases the risk of spurious relationships.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e4.6 Regression Analysis\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSimple Linear Regression Results:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cul type=\"disc\"\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eTemperature as predictor:\u003cul type=\"circle\"\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eRichness: R\u0026sup2; = 0.86\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eAbundance: R\u0026sup2; = 0.84\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eShannon Index: R\u0026sup2; = 0.60\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003c/ul\u003e\n \u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eRainfall as predictor:\u003cul type=\"circle\"\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eRichness: R\u0026sup2; = 0.50\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eAbundance: R\u0026sup2; = 0.0001\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003c/ul\u003e\n \u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eHumidity as predictor:\u003cul type=\"circle\"\u003e\n \u003cli\u003ePielou\u0026rsquo;s J\u0026prime;: R\u0026sup2; = 0.65\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003c/ul\u003e\n \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ul\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWhile the dataset (n = 3) limits statistical power, these models suggest temperature as a potential climatic driver of butterfly diversity. However, the apparent strength of these models should not be taken as definitive evidence due to low degrees of freedom; results are indicative and warrant validation with longer datasets. Multiple regression yielded R\u0026sup2; = 1.0 due to overfitting, highlighting the need for a longer time series.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e4.7 Species-Level Trends and Sensitivity\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eA species heatmap was constructed using the top 15 most abundant species across three years:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cul type=\"disc\"\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eDominant Species:\u003cul type=\"circle\"\u003e\n \u003cli\u003e\u003cem\u003eEurema hecabe\u003c/em\u003e (Common Grass Yellow): Most abundant, peaking at 396 individuals in 2022.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003e\u003cem\u003eDanaus chrysippus\u003c/em\u003e (Plain Tiger): Abundance peaked in 2022, declined slightly in 2023.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003e\u003cem\u003eCatopsilia pomona\u003c/em\u003e (Mottled Emigrant): Fluctuated moderately but remained consistent.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003c/ul\u003e\n \u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eSensitive Species:\u003cul type=\"circle\"\u003e\n \u003cli\u003e\u003cem\u003eGraphium doson\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eDelias eucharis\u003c/em\u003e showed intermittent presence and steep decline in 2023.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003e\u003cem\u003eTanaecia lepidea\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eEuthalia nais\u003c/em\u003e were recorded only in peripheral zones and were absent in 2023.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003c/ul\u003e\n \u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eStable Species:\u003cul type=\"circle\"\u003e\n \u003cli\u003e\u003cem\u003eJunonia lemonias\u003c/em\u003e (Lemon Pansy) and \u003cem\u003eZizina otis\u003c/em\u003e (Lesser Grass Blue) maintained steady populations across habitats and years.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003c/ul\u003e\n \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ul\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThese species-level observations align with the hypothesis that generalists remain stable while specialists are more sensitive to climatic and habitat pressures, but longer-term monitoring is needed to confirm these trends.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"5. DISCUSSION","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis The case study presents an in-depth analysis of the butterfly diversity, as measured in urban, wetland and peripheral areas at Indore, Central India, between 2021 and 2023, against three important climate variables: temperature, rainfall and relative humidity. There is an indication in the results that the species richness of the butterfly species and its community structure is highly affected by a relatively slight change in the climatic conditions, particularly, in an urban habitat where ecological stressors are increased. The most apparent trend was the highest level of species richness and abundance being in 2022, where there was moderately elevated temperature (25.3\u0026deg;C) and rainfall (1,240 mm). It implies that the average warmth and rainfall are the conditions that could be favorable to the survival of butterflies, perhaps by increasing the growth of the host plants of the larvae and sources of nectar. This finding is consistent with the central hypothesis that moderate climatic conditions support higher diversity, particularly in less-disturbed habitats. The following drop in 2023, even in the presence of warm temperatures, however, points to the existence of ecological limits that some species cannot reach when minimizing their evolutionary abilities in fragmented habitats such as urban environments.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe correlation and multiple linear regression analysis highlight the climatic factor of the temperature given that it positively correlates with the richness of the species (r\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.93) and the abundance (r\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.92) which is highlighted in the correlation matrix. However, given the short time span of this study (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;3 years), these correlations should be interpreted with caution, as they may be influenced by short-term variability and do not yet provide robust predictive power. These results have been found parallel to international research conducted by Parmesan et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1999\u003c/span\u003e) and Bonebrake et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e), that showed the butterflies tend to react positively to increase in temperature up to a certain threshold level after which temperature stress and ecological disproportions start to emerge. Rainfall, by contrast, had a poor effect, as it was negatively correlated to richness (r = \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;0.71), possibly because an increase in vegetation density slowed butterfly movements, or caused flooding of larval host areas. Humidity was the most related to Pielou Evenness (r\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.71), so it explains the representation of balance in species of assemblages.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eUrban habitats also experienced the largest losses of diversity indices, consistent with results by Singh et al. (2018) in Delhi that showed that urban heat islands, pollution, and habitat fragmentation have a disproportionate impact on thermally sensitive and habitat specialist species. The primacy of generalists, e.g., \u003cem\u003eEurema hecabe\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eDanaus chrysippus\u003c/em\u003e, in urban areas indicates that, on the one hand, only flexible species with wide ecological amplitude are doing well, and forest-associated species or specialists are going down or becoming extinct. The peripheral habitats, e.g., in Choral and Jamli, comprise fairly stable and high diversity over the study. These regions provide ecologically complicated topography, relatively little human intervention and plant communities, offering a supply of food and protection of microclimates. The same happened with the wetland ecosystem represented by Sirpur Lake, where species richness was also stable; this stability is likely supported by the diversity of vegetation and the buffering effect of aquatic microclimates, making such wetlands potential climate refugia within the urban matrix.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe results of regression analysis also emphasize the complexity of climate\u0026ndash;biodiversity relations. Although the R\u0026sup2; values of the temperature variable alone were higher (e.g., 0.86 of species richness), the statistical power and generalizability of these models are limited by a very small sample size (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;3). However, the environmental relevance of the patterns is in line with wider studies in the topic of tropical urban settings and should be considered a legitimate starting point for future monitoring. Analysis at the species level showed that a number of patterns were evident. The generalist species showed either a relatively stable, increasing, or irregular pattern, whereas the sensitive or specialist ones showed fluctuations or sudden decreases. These results are essential in being able to locate indicator species that can act as sentinels on environmental stress and climate change. Research indicates that butterfly societies in Indian cities that are in the process of urbanization are already acting upon the climate cues. The findings reveal how important it is to consider climate resistance as part of biodiversity preservation, especially the wetlands and the marginal habitats as ecological havens. Also, the use of butterfly diversity as a cost-effective, community-engaging monitoring tool could support urban ecological planning.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"6. CONCLUSION","content":"\u003cp\u003eIt presents an empirical data of the correlation between climate variability and butterfly diversity in the urban, wetlands and peripheral settings of Indore, Central India in the period 2021\u0026ndash;2023. The results indicate that the temperature variability, rainfall patterns and relative humidity affect butterfly species richness, abudance and the community structure of the butterflies critically. Of them, temperature turned out to be the most powerful climatic factor that showed a very strong positive correlation with species richness and overall abundance.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eHowever, due to moderately high temperature and rainfall in 2022, butterfly diversity was maximized, which indicates that specific climatic conditions can lead to the occurrence of effective ecological windows that stimulate the human activity and reproduction processes of butterflies. This supports the study\u0026rsquo;s central hypothesis that moderate climatic conditions favour higher diversity, with wetland and peripheral habitats showing greater resilience than urban habitats. But there was a drop recorded in 2023, especially in urban areas, which underscores the fragile nature of butterfly populations in the face of further global warming and ecosystem destruction. The study provides confirmation that the urban habitat is most vulnerable to loss in biodiversity by virtue of the synergistic effects of climate change, fragmentation of the habitats, pollution and less availability of floral and host plants. The ecological stability of wetland and peripheral habitats was also higher overall, able to support higher and even more balanced structures of diversity. The findings highlight the need to preserve semi-natural land in and near urban centers that serve as stores of biodiversity and provide climatic stabilization. The unvariable results in the performance of the \u003cem\u003eEurema hecabe\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eDanaus chrysippus\u003c/em\u003e species indicate their flexibility, and they may serve as indicator species in the monitoring of urban ecology. On the contrary, loss or reduction of forest-related or sensitive ones indicates photo evidence of the initial impact of climatic stress on susceptible organisms.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn this study, it is also emphasized that the combination of long-term biodiversity data and climate data should be used as information in monitoring ecological changes over time. Given the short duration of this dataset (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;3 years), the trends identified should be interpreted with caution, as they may reflect short-term variability rather than sustained long-term change. Although three years of the study are an insight into the nature of the research, a longer time series is needed to prove the statistical meaning and forecasting. However, the study forms an important background to learn how insect biodiversity responds to variability in climate at the city level, particularly in the Indian tropics. The policy and conservation view of the study is that butterfly diversity monitoring should be part of the urban planning and climate adaptation policies. Protection of urban wetlands, establishment of butterfly-friendly corridors, and citizen science-based monitoring programs are just a few ways in which ecological resilience can be improved, and so can the engagement of the people. With urban areas such as Indore expanding, development and biodiversity will be some of the factors that will have to be balanced in achieving stability of ecosystems and climatic stability in the long run.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eTable: Butterfly Species Occurrence and Total Count Across Study Sites in Indore.\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"No\" id=\"Tabc\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"6\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eS. No.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCOMMON NAME\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eZOOLOGICAL NAME\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCOUNT 2021\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCOUNT 2022\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCOUNT 2023\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBaronet\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eEuthalia nais\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBlack Rajah\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eCharaxes solo\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBlue Pansy\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eJunonia orithya\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e14\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBlue Tiger\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eTirumala limniace\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e15\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e24\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e15\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eChocolate Pansy\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eJunonia iphita\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e30\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e26\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCommon Baron\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eEuthalia aconthea\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCommon Castor\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAriadne merione\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e14\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e25\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e18\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCommon Crow\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eEuploea core\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e30\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e31\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e9\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCommon Evening Brown\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eMelanitis leda\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e19\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCommon Leopard\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ePhalanta phalantha\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e11\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCommon Nawab\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ePolyura athamas\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCommon Sailor\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eNeptis hylas\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e23\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e13\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCommon Three-ring\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eYpthima asterope\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e14\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDanaid Eggfly\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eHypolimnas misippus\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e22\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e32\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e15\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDark Evening Brown\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eMelanitis phedima\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e14\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e25\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e16\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e16\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eGreat Eggfly\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eHypolimnas bolina\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e30\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e17\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eGrey Pansy\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eJunonia atlites\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e15\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e25\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e16\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e18\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLemon Pansy\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eJunonia lemonias\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e65\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e70\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e61\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e19\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLesser Three-ring\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eYpthima inica\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePeacock Pansy\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eJunonia almana\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e23\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e21\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePlain Tiger\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eDanaus chrysippus\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e60\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e90\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e60\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e22\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eStriped Tiger\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eDanaus genutia\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e15\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e24\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e23\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTawny Coster\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAcraea terpsicore\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e22\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e25\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e24\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eYellow Pansy\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eJunonia hierta\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e17\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e15\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e25\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAngled Pierrot\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eCaleta decidia\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e26\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCommon Cerulean\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eJamides celeno\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e25\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e18\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e18\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e27\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCommon Lineblue\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eProsotas nora\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e28\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCommon Pierrot\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eCastalius rosimon\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e35\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e31\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e29\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCommon Red Flash\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eRapala iarbus\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e30\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDark Grass Blue\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eZizeeria karsandra\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e22\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e21\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e31\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eForget-Me-Not\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eCatochrysops strabo\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e14\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e32\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eGram Blue\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eEuchrysops cnejus\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e30\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e40\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e34\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e33\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLarge Oakblue\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eArhopala amantes\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e34\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLesser Grass Blue\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eZizina otis\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e30\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e26\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e35\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLime Blue\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eChilades lajus\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e18\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e22\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e14\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e36\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePale Grass Blue\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ePseudozizeeria maha\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e28\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e40\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e28\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e37\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePea Blue\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eLampides boeticus\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e38\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePeacock Royal\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eTajuria cippus\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e39\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePlains Cupid\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eLuthrodes pandava\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e15\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e18\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e40\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eRed Pierrot\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eTalicada nyseus\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e88\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e95\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e80\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e41\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eRounded Pierrot\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eTarucus extricatus\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e42\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSmall Cupid\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eChilades parrhasius\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e43\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTailless Lineblue\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eProsotas dubiosa\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e25\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e30\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e15\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e44\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTiny Grass Blue\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eZizula hylax\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e70\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e90\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e80\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e45\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eZebra Blue\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eTarucus plinius\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e25\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e37\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e30\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e46\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCommon Emigrant\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eCatopsilia pomona\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e110\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e150\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e106\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e47\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCommon Grass Yellow\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eEurema hecabe\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e350\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e396\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e350\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e48\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCommon Gull\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eCepora nerissa\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e15\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e21\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e49\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eIndian Jezebel\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eDelias eucharis\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e22\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e22\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e50\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCommon Wanderer\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ePareronia valeria\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e15\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e18\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e51\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLesser Gull\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eCepora nadina\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e14\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e52\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMottled Emigrant\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eCatopsilia pyranthe\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e70\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e110\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e74\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e53\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eOne Spot Grass Yellow\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eEurema andersonii\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e54\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eOriental Psyche\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eLeptosia nina\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e9\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e11\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e9\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e55\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePioneer\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eBelenois aurota\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e30\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e22\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e56\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSmall Grass Yellow\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eEurema brigitta\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e150\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e160\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e146\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e57\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSpotless Grass Yellow\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eEurema laeta\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e32\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e40\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e31\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e58\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eWhite Orange Tip\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eIxias marianne\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e59\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eYellow Orange Tip\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eIxias pyrene\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e60\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCommon Jay\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eGraphium sarpedon\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e30\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e27\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e61\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCommon Lime Swallowtail\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ePapilio demoleus\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e25\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e30\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e24\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e62\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCommon Mormon\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ePapilio polytes\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e30\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e31\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e63\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCommon Rose\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ePachliopta aristolochiae\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e14\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e64\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCrimson Rose\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ePachliopta hector\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e9\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e65\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTailed Jay\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eGraphium agamemnon\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e30\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e26\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e66\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBrown Awl\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eBadamia exclamationis\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e67\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCommon Banded Awl\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eHasora chromus\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e15\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e15\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e68\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eIndian Grizzled Skipper\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSpialia galba\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e69\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eIndian Palm Bob\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSuastus gremius\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e70\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eRice Swift\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eBorbo cinnara\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e18\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e17\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e71\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSmall Branded Swift\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ePelopidas mathias\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e15\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e18\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e18\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eBonebrake TC, Ponisio LC, Boggs CL, Ehrlich PR (2010) More than just indicators: A review of tropical butterfly ecology and conservation. 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Natl J Life Sci 21:15\u0026ndash;27\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eNair S, Sharma V, Vishwakarma H (2023) A comparative study of diversity of butterflies in selected areas of Indore. 8:8\u0026ndash;11\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eVishwakarma H, Trivedi G, Nair S, Patidar K, Sharma V, Indore MP (2022) 15(15), 14\u0026ndash;18\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eTrivedi G, Vishwakarma H, Patidar K, Sharma V (2022) Diversity status of butterflies: Order Lepidoptera in Ratapani Wildlife Sanctuary, Raisen, M.P\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":true,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"Government Holkar (Model, Autonomous) Science College, Indore, India","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Butterfly Diversity, Climate Change, Community Structure, Indore, Species Richness, Urban Ecology","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7346767/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-7346767/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eDue to growing climate variability, environments are becoming more susceptible to the impact of climactic change, especially locally upon the biodiversity and especially the more ecologically sensitive species, including the butterfly. The current work examines the climate change and butterfly diversity with regard to three types of habitats (urban habitat, wetland landscape, and the periphery landscape) in the city of Indore, Madhya Pradesh, India, between 2021 and 2023. The 71 butterfly species collected during the study fell under five families using standardized ecological survey techniques such as Pollard Walks and Transect Walks as well as the use of photographs. Diversity measures of butterflies were presented as species richness, abundance, Shannon-Wiener Index, Simpson Index, and evenness (Pielou), which were sampled and calculated on an annual basis and analyzed in respect to climate parameters: average temperature, total annual rainfall, and relative humidity. Climate information pointed to a slow rise in the mean annual temperature (25.1\u0026deg;C in 2021 to 25.5\u0026deg;C in the year 2023) and precipitation and minor variations of humidity. The abundance and diversities of butterflies were highest in 2022, which was also a year of highly moderate temperatures and precipitation, and declined in 2023, especially at an urban level. Correlation analysis indicated a high positive relationship between temperature and richness (r\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.93) and abundance (r\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.92), but the association of rainfall and humidity is complex, where there is a negative relationship with excess rain and richness. Certain habitats were more resilient, such as peripheral and wetland ones, and some were steeper, such as urban ones, because of habitat fragmentation and urban heat island activity. Trends at the species level indicated that generalists such as \u003cem\u003eEurema hecabe\u003c/em\u003e were stable, whereas specialists were decreasing. Although the study relies on a relatively short dataset of three years, its results confirm how flexible butterfly communities can be to pursue the minor changes of the climate condition and emphasize the ecological significance of semi-natural environments within the urban matrices.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Urban Climate Variability and its Impact on Butterfly Species Richness and Community Structure in Indore, India","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-08-12 13:47:40","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7346767/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":1}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"7aa57e16-c4d9-4635-880d-b307251d38bc","owner":[],"postedDate":"August 12th, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[{"id":53049560,"name":"Climate Analysis and Modeling"},{"id":53049561,"name":"Ecological Modeling"}],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-04-13T21:05:23+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2025-08-12 13:47:40","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-7346767","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-7346767","identity":"rs-7346767","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}