From Family Dynamics to Adolescent Social Functioning: A Longitudinal Study of Parental Depression and Emotional Insecurity

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Razavi, Rebecca Y. M. Cheung, Patrick T. Davies, E. Mark Cummings This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-7295938/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Published Journal Publication published 02 Apr, 2026 Read the published version in Journal of Child and Family Studies → Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract The present study tested the relation between parental depressive symptoms and adolescent social maladjustment, with parental negative expressiveness and adolescents’ emotional insecurity as key mediating processes. By extending family-based concepts to the social sphere, this study explored how emotional processes within the family were related to adolescents’ social functioning. In this study, data were collected from 272 families annually over a three-year period, beginning when adolescents were in the seventh grade. Structural equation modeling was employed to assess parental depressive symptoms at Time 1, parental negative expressiveness and adolescent emotional insecurity at Time 2, and adolescent social maladjustment at Time 3. Findings indicated that both mothers’ and fathers’ depressive symptoms significantly contributed to parental negative expressiveness, affecting not only the their own but also their partners’ emotional expression. Parental negative expressiveness, in turn, was significantly related to adolescents’ emotional insecurity. Heightened emotional insecurity was associated with greater social maladjustment in the form of peer difficulties, delinquent behaviors, conduct issues, and social withdrawal, after controlling for autoregressive effects. These findings enrich the literature by delineating the longitudinal effects of parental depressive symptoms on social functioning in adolescence. Parental depressive symptoms adolescent social maladjustment emotional security parental negative expressiveness Figures Figure 1 Introduction Adolescence is characterized by significant developmental changes across cognitive, social, affective, and biological domains (Arnett, 1999). It is a period whereby children undergo emotional fluctuations and increased susceptibility to internalizing and externalizing problems (Arnett, 1999; Cicchetti & Rogosch, 2002). Social adjustment is particularly relevant in adolescence (Romppanen et al., 2021; Telzer et al., 2017) due to an increased need for social acceptance and a growing desire for autonomy from both family and peers (Goosby et al., 2013). Difficulties in social relationships at this period are linked to serious long-term consequences, including school dropout, criminal behavior, and psychological disorders (Allen et al., 2022; Chen et al., 2024; Parker & Asher, 1987). As such, understanding the factors shaping social relationships is crucial, with a focus from a family perspective given its influence at this developmental period (Kapetanovic et al., 2020; Morris et al., 2007; Parke & Ladd, 1992; Smith & Pollak, 2022). Parental Depressive Symptoms and Adolescent Development Among the most significant family-level predictors of adolescent outcomes is parental depression (Keijser et al., 2020). Of note, recent studies have identified parental socialization of depressotypic cognition and affect, destructive conflict, and parenting as processes between parental depressive symptoms and child maladjustment (Cheung et al., 2021; Cummings et al., 2014; Goodman et al., 2020). According to the interactional model of depression (Coyne, 1976; Coyne & Gotlib, 1983; Downey & Coyne, 1990), depressive symptoms can induce avoidance and negative emotionality between social partners (Akinci et al., 2022; Gotlib & Robinson, 1982; Meyerhoff et al., 2023). Consistent with the actor-partner interdependence model (Cook & Kenny, 2005), recent studies also suggested that mothers’ and fathers’ depressive symptoms are dyadically related (Barooj-Kiakalaee et al., 2022; Cheung et al., 2022; Martin et al., 2023; Neri et al., 2022). Within the family setting, parental depressive symptoms are associated with more interparental and parent-child hostility, anger, irritability, and criticisms (Cummings et al., 2014; Low & Stocker, 2005; Tully et al., 2008), thereby heightening negative emotional expressiveness while simultaneously reducing positive emotional interactions among family members (Psychogiou et al., 2017). In addition, mothers’ and fathers’ depressive symptoms both contribute to interparental conflict, insecure attachment, and diminished parental warmth, ultimately affecting child adjustment (Cummings et al., 2005). Given the far-reaching implications of depression among mothers and fathers, it is pivotal to delineate the underlying processes between their depressive symptoms and adolescent adjustment. The Role of Parents’ Negative Emotional Expressiveness Halberstadt et al. (1995; 1999) defined parents’ emotional expressiveness as the ways in which they socialize themselves through verbal and nonverbal expressions, such as facial expressions, body language, tone of voice, and verbal communication, which are typically—but not exclusively—emotional in nature. As discussed earlier, in households where parental depression is present, parents’ negative emotional expressiveness often escalates, further increasing adolescents’ internalizing and externalizing problems (Keller et al., 2009; Kouros et al., 2010). In addition, previous research revealed that maternal combinations of emotional expression, emotionality, depressive symptoms, and stress were significantly associated with poorer child outcomes (Hooper et al., 2015). Recent studies similarly suggested that adolescents’ perceptions of high parental negative emotional expressiveness were associated with increased adolescent loneliness (Wang et al., 2024). Adolescents exposed to higher levels of parental negative emotional expressiveness also tend to exhibit lower self-esteem and increased depressive symptoms (Ding et al., 2023; Liu et al., 2024; Wang et al., 2024). As such, parental emotional expressiveness is of particular importance to adolescents’ emotional development and adjustment (Eisenberg et al., 2003; Kehoe et al., 2013; Wang et al., 2024), namely their emotional expression and regulation skills (Wong et al., 2010) and internalizing problems (Chen et al., 2022). The effects of emotional expressiveness can extend beyond the household, shaping how adolescents navigate broader social environments. As children interact with peers, they often apply the expressive styles learned within the family context (Boyum & Parke, 1995). Therefore, it is not surprising that family expressiveness is directly linked to children’s peer relationship quality and peer competence (e.g., Cassidy et al., 1992), reinforcing the notion that family interactions play a crucial role in shaping social functioning beyond the home (Morris et al., 2007). Adolescents’ Emotional Insecurity as a Response to Negative Family Dynamics In accordance with family systems theory (Cox & Paley, 2003), family subsystems such as interparental subsystem and parent-child subsystem are interrelated. For example, couples with high levels of negative emotional expressiveness often struggle with clear emotional communication and effective conflict resolution, which can undermine adolescents’ sense of security in the interparental relationship (Cummings & Davies, 2002; Khurshid et al., 2024; Morris et al., 2007). According to emotional security theory (Davies & Cummings, 1994), emotional security is a metaphorical bridge between the child and the world. When interparental relationships function well, parents serve as a secure base that allows children to explore their environment with confidence (Waters & Cummings, 2000). However, when this bridge is weakened or eroded due to a negative family environment, children may struggle to find stability, leading to uncertainty in their interactions with others and hesitancy in forming relationships. Cummings et al. (2013) found that emotional insecurity in early childhood served as process for the effects of parental depressive symptoms and negative emotional expressiveness on internalizing problems by second grade. Importantly, children who are repeatedly exposed to negative emotional expressiveness within the family may develop maladaptive coping mechanisms, such as hypervigilance, withdrawal, and aggression (Cummings et al., 2000), which are indices of emotional insecurity associated with maladjusted outcomes (Cummings et al., 2006; Davies et al., 2002; Laible, 2006; Wong et al., 2009). The Current Study Building on the foundation of theories (Cook & Kenny, 2005; Cox & Paley, 2003; Coyne & Gotlib, 1983; Davies & Cummings, 1994) and empirical research (e.g., Ding et al., 2023; Liu et al., 2024; Martin et al., 2023), the current study positioned mothers’ and fathers’ depressive symptoms as upstream predictors that initiate a cascading sequence of emotional disruptions within the family. We postulated that depressive symptoms in mothers and fathers would contribute to increased expressions of negative emotion, which in turn would undermine emotional security—a critical foundation for their social competence and adjustment in adolescence (Cummings et al., 2012). In this study spanning across three waves, we hypothesized that mothers’ and fathers’ depressive symptoms at Time 1 (T1) would have actor and partner effects on their respective negative emotional expressiveness at Time 2 (T2). We also hypothesized that mothers’ and fathers’ negative emotional expressiveness would both be related to adolescents’ emotional insecurity at T2 which, in turn, would predict adolescents’ social maladjustment at Time 3 (T3), as indexed by their peer problems, conduct problems, delinquency, and withdrawal symptoms. Finally, we hypothesized that parents’ negative emotional expressiveness and adolescents’ emotional insecurity at T2 would mediate the relation between parental depressive symptoms at T1 and adolescents’ social maladjustment at T3, over and above baseline social maladjustment at T1. Methods Participants The participants in this study were drawn from a larger, multi-site longitudinal research project focused on family functioning and development. The sample consisted of two cohorts of families recruited from mid-sized cities in the Midwest and Northeast regions of the United States. Recruitment methods included newspaper advertisements, flyers distributed through childcare agencies, posters at schools and community events, and direct-mail postcards sent to homes. Families from both recruitment areas were comparable across key demographic variables, including children’s gender, race and ethnicity, parental relationship to the child, education level, household income, marital status, and fathers' age. However, mothers’ ages showed a statistically significant difference between the two recruitment areas ( t = 2.34, p < .05). To be eligible for inclusion, families had to meet specific criteria. Initially, couples were required to have been together for at least three years and to be proficient in English. A second cohort was later recruited to enhance the sample size, with slightly modified criteria: parents in these families had to be together for at least one year and had a child in seventh grade. Families recruited later did not differ from earlier recruits on critical demographic factors such as family income, marital status, or child age. This study utilizes data collected during the second phase of the broader longitudinal research project, consisting of three waves of data collection. The initial data collection (T1) occurred when adolescents were primarily in seventh grade, followed by semiannual assessments over three years during their eighth (T2) and ninth-grade years (T3). Attrition across waves was minimal, with an 89% retention rate from T1 to T3. Families lost to attrition did not significantly differ from those who remained in the study on demographic variables. The final sample reflected the racial and ethnic composition of the recruitment communities. The majority of participants identified as European American (79.6%), followed by African American (14.6%), Hispanic (3.8%), Multiracial (2.3%), American Indian or Alaskan Native (1.5%), Asian American (1.2%), and Other (0.8%). At T1, the study included 281 adolescents and their mothers and fathers (or primary caregivers). Adolescents were between 11 and 14 years old ( M = 12.64, SD = 0.57), with an equal gender distribution (51% female). Median family income fell between $55,000 and $74,999, though reported incomes ranged from under $6,000 (10 families) to over $125,000 (27 families). Most couples were married (84%), with the remainder reporting cohabitation, single status, divorce, separation, or widowhood. These distributions remained relatively stable across T2 and T3. At T1, fathers’ ages ranged from 25 to 76 years ( M = 43.67, SD = 6.74). The majority were biological fathers (71.9%), though the sample also included stepfathers, adoptive fathers, legal guardians, and other male caregivers. Nearly half of the fathers (49.5%) held at least an associate’s degree, with educational levels ranging from completion of seventh grade to doctoral degrees. Most fathers (75.8%) reported full-time employment. Mothers ranged from 25 to 71 years old ( M = 41.73, SD = 5.99), with 91.8% being biological mothers. The remainder consisted of adoptive mothers, grandmothers, stepmothers, aunts, legal guardians, and live-in partners. Over half (52.3%) of the mothers held at least an associate’s degree, with educational backgrounds ranging from completion of sixth grade to doctoral degrees. Approximately 45.9% of the mothers reported working full-time. In addition, teachers were recruited to complete mailed surveys assessing the academic performance and social adjustment of the adolescents. At T3, 250 teachers provided reports. Most of these teachers (38.8%) taught ninth grade, although they worked with students from grades 7 through 12. A majority (80.4%) reported knowing the student moderately well or very well, with an average teacher-student relationship length of 13.25 months ( SD = 9.87). Procedure Each year, mothers, fathers, and adolescents participated in a family laboratory session lasting approximately three hours. A second annual visit involved only the mother and adolescent. During these visits, participants completed electronic questionnaires, responded to interview questions, and engaged in video-recorded conversations with other family members. All adult participants received monetary compensation upon completion of the laboratory sessions, while adolescents received gift cards of their choice as an incentive for participation. Measures Parental Depressive Symptoms. Parental depressive symptoms were measured at T1 using the Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression Scale (CES-D; Radloff, 1977), a 20-item self-report questionnaire assessing depressive symptomatology experienced in the past week. Mothers and fathers rated each item on a four-point Likert scale ranging from 0 (rarely or none of the time) to 3 (most or all of the time). The CES-D demonstrated strong internal consistency (mothers: α = .87; fathers: α = .86) and moderate test-retest reliability across the waves. A CES-D score of 16 or higher indicated clinically significant depressive symptoms, with 16.7% of mothers and 13.7% of fathers meeting this criterion at Time 1. Approximately 48.7% of mothers and 43.8% of fathers reported clinically significant symptoms at least once across subsequent waves, though chronic depression (i.e., persisting across all waves) was rare, occurring in less than 5% of parents. Parental Negative Emotional Expressiveness. At T2, parental negative emotional expressiveness was assessed using the 12-item Negative Expressiveness subscale from the Self-Expressiveness in the Family Questionnaire – Short Form (SEFQ; Halberstadt, 1995). Both mothers and fathers reported how frequently they displayed negative emotions toward family members across various contexts, using a 9-point Likert scale (1 = rarely, 9 = frequently). This subscale captures a range of negative emotions, including anger, distress, disappointment, contempt, and hostility. Sample items include, “Expressing momentary anger over a trivial irritation,” “Showing contempt for another’s actions,” and “Expressing dissatisfaction with someone else’s behavior.” Internal consistency was strong for both mothers (α = .84) and fathers (α = .86), supporting the scale’s reliability in measuring negative emotional expression within family dynamics. Adolescents’ Emotional Insecurity. At T2, adolescents’ emotional insecurity in response to interparental conflict was assessed using the 37-item Security in Marital Subsystems Scale (SIMS-PR; Davies et al., 2002). This measure captures parents' evaluations of their children’s reactions to negative family environment across five distinct subscales, including emotional reactivity, behavioral dysfunction, involvement in conflict, masking, and avoidance. Each subscale reflects a unique aspect of children's coping mechanisms and emotional responses to negativity within the family environment. Both mothers and fathers completed the measure, rating their adolescent child’s reactions using a 5-point Likert scale (1 = not at all like him/her to 5 = a whole lot like him/her). Sample items include: “[My child] still seems upset after we argue,” “Gets involved in the argument,” “Yells at family members,” and “Becomes very quiet and withdrawn.” To ensure a comprehensive multi-informant assessment, scores were summed across both parents for each subscale, capturing a balanced perspective on the child’s emotional security. The correlation between mothers’ and fathers’ reports on each subscale was significant ( r s = .19 - .50, p s < .01, between mothers’ and fathers’ report across the subscales), This scale was selected to assess multiple dimensions of adolescents’ responses to negative expressiveness and conflict in the family environment. Parent ratings were combined into a single score for each subscale. The internal consistency was adequate, with α = .70 - .84 across the subscales. Adolescents’ Social Maladjustment. At T3, adolescent social maladjustment was evaluated using multi-informant assessments. Parents reported on adolescents’ delinquency and withdrawn behaviors using the Aggression and Withdrawal subscales from the Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL; Achenbach, 1991), with ratings on a three-point Likert scale (0 = not true, 1 = somewhat true, 2 = very true). The scales demonstrated strong internal consistency across waves (α = .87–.90), and parental reports were significantly correlated ( r = .51–.55, p s < .01). Adolescents self-reported their experiences with peer and conduct problems using the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ; Goodman, 1997), with each five-item subscale rated on a three-point scale (0 = not true, 1 = somewhat true, 2 = certainly true). Internal consistency for peer problems (α = .64) and conduct problems (α = .63) was moderate, aligning with prior research while maintaining strong predictive validity. By incorporating multiple time points and using diverse informants, these assessments comprehensively capture the longitudinal pathways linking parental depressive symptoms (T1), negative emotional expressiveness (T2), emotional insecurity (T2), and adolescent social maladjustment (T3), with baseline social maladjustment (T1) controlled for in the analysis. Analytic Plan Structural equation modeling (SEM) was conducted using the lavaan package in R, with full information maximum likelihood (FIML) estimation applied to address missing data. This method minimizes bias due to attrition while maximizing statistical power by incorporating all available data points (Enders, 2010). Latent variables were constructed for core constructs, including emotional insecurity and social maladjustment, providing enhanced reliability, reduced measurement error, and a stronger representation of unobserved constructs (Cunningham et al., 2008). To account for the limitations of the chi-square (χ²) statistic, which can be overly sensitive in large samples, model fit indices including the Root Mean Square Error of Approximation (RMSEA), Comparative Fit Index (CFI), and Tucker-Lewis Index (TLI) were evaluated, with RMSEA .90 indicating adequate model fit (Browne & Cudeck, 1993; Arbuckle & Wothke, 1999). This study used a latent structural model to capture both direct and mediated pathways from maternal and paternal depressive symptoms to adolescents’ social maladjustment, via parental negative emotional expressiveness and emotional insecurity. By incorporating both maternal and paternal processes and modeling emotional insecurity as a latent construct, this approach allows for a nuanced understanding of how risk cascades through the family system and into adolescents’ social development. This study utilized data from the Me and My Family Project, a longitudinal investigation directed by Dr. E. Mark Cummings (University of Notre Dame) and Dr. Patrick T. Davies (University of Rochester). All procedures were approved by the University of Notre Dame Institutional Review Board. Study materials. Due to the sensitivity and confidentiality agreements associated with the Me and My Family Project dataset, the data are not publicly available. However, this dataset has been used in numerous peer-reviewed publications, and additional information is available upon request from the principal investigators. This study was not preregistered. Results Descriptive statistics and intercorrelations among the study variables (see Table 1) offered an overview of the central tendencies and relationships among the core constructs, supporting the robustness of the SEM framework. The hypothesized structural equation model fit adequately to the data based on several model statistics, including RMSEA = .05, CFI = .92, and TLI = .91. All paths associated with the indicators of the latent variables including emotional insecurity and social maladjustment were statistically significant ( p s < .05), confirming that each observed measure contributed meaningfully to its respective latent construct. Paternal depressive symptoms at T1 significantly predicted paternal negative expressiveness at T2 (β = 0.220, p = 0.002), while maternal depressive symptoms at T1 were also significantly associated with maternal negative expressiveness at T2 (β = 0.222, p = 0.03). Additionally, paternal depressive symptoms at T1 were directly linked to maternal negative expressiveness at T2 (β = 0.175, p = .001), maternal depressive symptoms at T1 also predicted paternal negative expressiveness at T2 (β = 0.123, p = .001), suggesting partner effects. Paternal negative expressiveness was further associated adolescents’ emotional insecurity at T2 (β = 0.568, p = .000), whereas maternal negative expressiveness showed a smaller but still significant effect (β = 0.184, p = .001). Finally, emotional insecurity was a significant predictor of social maladjustment at Time 3 (β = 0.575, p = .000) over and above autoregressive effect of social adjustment (β = 0.718, p = 0.021), suggesting that heightened emotional insecurity increased the likelihood of adolescents experiencing social maladjustment over time. The model explained 80% of the variance in social maladjustment at T3, indicating a substantial predictive power of the proposed pathways and confirming the robustness of the theoretical framework in explaining the observed developmental patterns. To test for mediation effects, bootstrapping was conducted. Specifically, the indirect effects of parental depressive symptoms on parental negative expressiveness, adolescent emotional insecurity, and social problems were examined. Using the current data, the 95% confidence interval (CI) based on 1,000 bootstrap samples with replacement indicated that the indirect effects of parental depressive symptoms on adolescents’ social problems did not include zero (95% CI: 0.005, 0.0232), providing evidence of a significant indirect effect. Next, specific indirect pathways were examined. The 95% CI based on 10,000 bootstrap samples with replacement indicated that the specific indirect effect of parental depressive symptoms on adolescents’ emotional insecurity did not include zero (95% CI: 0.001, 0.018), supporting parental negative emotional expressiveness as a significant mediator between parental depressive symptoms and adolescent insecurity. Finally, the 95% CI based on 1,000 bootstrap samples with replacement indicated that the specific indirect effects of parental negative emotional expressiveness on social maladjustment problems did not include zero (95% CI: 0.016, 0.544), supporting the mediating roles of negative expressiveness and emotional insecurity in linking parental depressive symptoms to adolescent adjustment. Discussion The present study demonstrated mothers’ and fathers’ depressive symptoms as significant contributors of adolescent social maladjustment, with mediating processes including parental negative emotional expressiveness and adolescents’ emotional insecurity. Supporting the theories of depression and family relations (Cox & Paley, 2003 ; Coyne & Gotlib, 1983 ; Davies & Cummings, 1994 ), these findings elucidated specific mechanisms through which parental depressive symptoms affected adolescents’ social functioning. By focusing on peer-related outcomes such as social maladjustment, this study also extended family-based emotional models beyond the traditional focus on intrapersonal and internalizing outcomes (e.g., Cummings et al., 2013 ; Hale & Zeman, 2023 ; Lobo et al., 2021 ), addressing a critical gap in the literature by demonstrating how family emotional processes translate into adolescents’ social worlds. Consistent with the interactional model of depression (Coyne, 1976 ; Coyne & Gotlib, 1983 ; Downey & Coyne, 1990 ), the present findings revealed actor and partner effects of parental depression on negative emotional expressiveness (see also Cook & Kenny, 2005 ). More specifically, mothers’ and fathers’ depressive symptoms significantly predicted their own and their partners’ negative expressiveness. These findings supported previous research by highlighting the interconnected nature of parental emotional dynamics within the family system (Cummings & Davies, 2010). Our findings further reinforced the role of parents’ negative emotional expressiveness as a mechanism through which parental depressive symptoms undermined adolescent functioning. In other words, the emotional climate of the family, particularly when shaped by heightened parental negativity, had significant implications for adolescents’ ability to develop and maintain stable social relationships. By explicitly linking mothers’ and fathers’ emotional functioning to adolescents’ emotional insecurity and observable social behaviors beyond the family setting—an area often excluded from family process models (e.g., Cheung et al., 2020 ; Cummings et al., 2013 ; Hale & Zeman, 2023 ; Kouros et al., 2008 ; Lobo et al., 2021 ), the study served as a novel contribution to the literature. The present study provided empirical support for emotional security theory (Davies & Cummings, 1994 ) as an explanatory framework for understanding the impact of parental depressive symptoms on child adjustment in adolescence. The findings also supported family systems theory (Cox & Paley, 2003 ), in that parental depression not only increased negative emotional expressiveness but also disrupted constructive family communication, thereby contributing to heightened emotional insecurity in children (Kane & Garber, 2004 ). Regardless of parents’ gender, our study also indicated that parents’ negativity undermined adolescents’ sense of security (see also Cheung et al., 2016 ; Ching & Wu, 2018 for similar findings). However, fathers’ effect appeared to be stronger than mothers’ effect on adolescents: Compared to mothers’ negative emotional expressiveness, fathers’ negative expressiveness was more strongly associated with emotional insecurity, underscoring the unique role of fathers in shaping adolescents’ emotional security. This aligned with an earlier study demonstrating that fathers’ depressive symptoms contributed to child adjustment difficulties through their impact on interparental conflict, parenting behaviors, and children’s emotional security (Schacht et al., 2009 ), possibly because paternal depressive symptoms deviated from traditional gender norms and thus might be perceived as more threatening by adolescents (Reeb et al., 2009). To further examine the role of parents’ gender, future research may examine its moderating effect between parental depression and psychosocial development in adolescence. Limitations and Future Directions The current study demonstrated that adolescents’ social maladjustment—including difficulties in peer relationships and behavioral challenges—was shaped by mothers’ and fathers’ depressive symptoms, negative expressiveness, and adolescents’ emotional insecurity. These findings aligned with previous research highlighting the role of negative family emotional environments in forming child and adolescent regulatory processes (Cummings, et al, 2000 ; Goodman & Gotlib, 1999). Nevertheless, the present findings should be interpreted in light of several limitations. First of all, the sample diversity was limited, as the study primarily included two-parent households from mid-sized cities, potentially reducing generalizability to single-parent families or more diverse socioeconomic backgrounds. Second, the self- and partner- questionnaire reports could lead to method bias (Podsakoff et al., 2012 ). Future research should incorporate a multi-method approach that involves observational and physiological measures to reduce biases. Third, while structural equation modeling allowed for robust testing of the hypothesized model, future research should incorporate cross-lagged panel designs to clarify the directionality of these relationships over time (Shrout & Bolger, 2002 ). Fourth, other factors such as genetics and culture were not considered in the present study. Prior research suggests that the transmission of depression from parent to child may involve both environmental and genetic components (Silberg et al., 2010). Future studies should examine gene-environment interactions to provide a more comprehensive understanding of these dynamics. Conclusion Grounded in theories of depression and family relations (Cox & Paley, 2003; Coyne & Gotlib, 1983; Davies & Cummings, 1994), this study offers important contributions to the literature by highlighting the unique roles of maternal and paternal depressive symptoms, negative emotional expressiveness, and emotional insecurity in shaping adolescents’ social maladjustment. By demonstrating how negative emotional dynamics within the family system reverberate into adolescents’ external social contexts, this work advances our understanding of the broader implications of family-based risk factors. Interventions aimed at reducing negative expressiveness and fostering emotional security could play a vital role in preventing social maladjustment among adolescents in families affected by parental depression. By addressing both parental emotional functioning and adolescent emotional security, future clinical efforts can help disrupt the cycle of depression and maladjustment within families. Declarations Declaration of Interest Statement The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper. Author Contribution R.S.R. conceptualized the study, conducted the analyses, and drafted the main manuscript text. R.Y.M.C. provided guidance on the analytic strategy, contributed to the theoretical framing, and assisted with manuscript revisions. P.T.D. supervised the data collection and contributed to model development and interpretation. E.M.C. oversaw the project design, contributed to the theoretical rationale, and provided critical feedback on manuscript drafts. All authors reviewed and approved the final manuscript. References Achenbach, T. M., & Ruffle, T. M. (2000). 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Parent, family, and child characteristics: Associations with mother- and father-reported emotion socialization practices. Journal of Family Psychology, 23 (4), 452–463. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0015552 Wong, M. S., Diener, M. L., & Isabella, R. A. (2008). Parents' emotion-related beliefs and behaviors and child grade: Associations with children's perceptions of peer competence. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 29 (3), 175–186. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appdev.2008.02.003 Zhou, H., Li, Q., Liu, Z., Li, K., Geng, X., & Fang, X. (2024). Family emotional expressiveness and adolescents’ cyberbullying bystanders: The mediating role of empathy. Frontiers in Psychology, 15 , Article 11129703. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2024.11129703 Table Table 1 Descriptive statistics and intercorrelations among key study variables, including parental depressive symptoms, negative expressiveness, emotional insecurity, and adolescent social maladjustment. Withdrawn 1 1.78 2 Conduct Problems Time 3 1 0.21** 1.87 1.8 Peer Problems Time 3 1 0.29** 0.24** 1.58 1.6 Delinquency Time 3 1 0.17** 0.43** 0.41** 1.49 2.25 Dismissive 1 0.19** 0.06 0.14* 0.23** 3.86 1.98 Masking 1 0.24** 0.18** -0.02 -0.02 0.28** 8.89 3.49 Behavioral Dysregulation 1 0.06 0.07 0.28** 0.19** 0.09 0.18* 6.68 2.47 Involvement 1 0.33** -0.02 -0.01 0.09 0.08 0.07 0.07 17.63 7 Avoidance 1 0.14* 0.31** 0.27** 0.1 0.29** 0.17* 0.1 0.41** 8.79 3.58 Mother Negative Expressive ness 1 0.39** 0.15* 0.38** 0.13 0.06 0.25** 0.16* 0.15* 0.32** 37.47 13.52 Father Negative Expressiveness 1 0.27** 0.12 0.07 0.19** 0.3** 0.21** 0.37** 0.1 0.19** 0.26** 36.98 14.54 Withdrawn 1 0.29** 0.29** 0.34** 0.07 0.17* 0.28** 0.22** 0.19** 0.26** 0.12 0.62** 1.88 1.99 Conduct Problems Time 1 1 0.15* 0.18** 0.18** 0.08 0.04 0.12 0.04 0.12 0.38** 0.27** 0.34** 0.18** 1.85 1.83 Peer Problems Time 1 1 0.44** 0.19** 0.11 0.12 0.07 0.12 0.12 0.11 0.02 0.16* 0.36** 0.14* 0.12 1.42 1.52 Delinquency Time 1 1 0.27** 0.46** 0.43** 0.36** 0.23** 0.15* 0.09 0.23** 0.12 0.25** 0.62** 0.2** 0.36** 0.39** 1.36 1.72 Mother Depression 1 0.1 0.06 0.05 0.18** 0.27** 0.16* 0.03 0.13 0.09 0.15* 0.1 0.11 0.14* 0.16* 0.05 16.52 6.17 Father Depression 1 0.25** 0.22** 0.18** 0.18** 0.13* 0.24** 0.23** 0.16* 0.12 0.06 0.16* 0.05 0.24** 0.29** 0.17* 0.26** 15.85 5.2 Father Depression Mother Depression Delinquency Time 1 Peer Problems Time 1 Conduct Problems Time 1 Withdrawn Father Negative Expressiveness Mother Negative Expressive ness Avoidance Involvement Behavioral Dysregulation Masking Dismissive Delinquency Time 3 Peer Problems Time 3 Conduct Problems Time 3 Withdrawn Mean SD Note: The table presents means, standard deviations, and correlation coefficients to provide an overview of the central tendencies and relationships that inform the structural equation modeling analysis. Asterisks indicate levels of statistical significance: * p < .05, ** p < .01. Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Cite Share Download PDF Status: Published Journal Publication published 02 Apr, 2026 Read the published version in Journal of Child and Family Studies → Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. Our growing team is made up of researchers and industry professionals working together to solve the most critical problems facing scientific publishing. Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-7295938","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":503214645,"identity":"7cd627e1-d610-404b-bfba-808ad4e70267","order_by":0,"name":"Reyhaneh S. Razavi","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"University of Notre Dame","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Reyhaneh","middleName":"S.","lastName":"Razavi","suffix":""},{"id":503214646,"identity":"c2916dcd-6f5f-48d8-9114-007627b04483","order_by":1,"name":"Rebecca Y. M. 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Mark Cummings","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"University of Notre Dame","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"E.","middleName":"Mark","lastName":"Cummings","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2025-08-05 03:53:07","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7295938/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-7295938/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[{"content":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-026-03295-0","type":"published","date":"2026-04-02T15:57:53+00:00"}],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":89697612,"identity":"ac22d7a9-3ce9-47e5-bf28-46b7b3f11392","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-08-22 18:37:05","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":101155,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eStructural equation model illustrating the relationships among parental depressive symptoms, negative expressiveness, emotional insecurity, and adolescents’ social maladjustment over time\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eNote: \u003c/em\u003eSolid arrows represent significant predictive paths (\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e \u0026lt; 0.05), while the gray arrows represent the indicators of latent variables.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7295938/v1/32d4c1b7b0f8cc71a30eae69.png"},{"id":106343394,"identity":"408f5c4d-3543-4492-87ec-cfb798fbe686","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-04-07 16:05:02","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":973667,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7295938/v1/38c70618-61b5-49ca-babc-56a9503fe8c4.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"From Family Dynamics to Adolescent Social Functioning: A Longitudinal Study of Parental Depression and Emotional Insecurity","fulltext":[{"header":"Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eAdolescence is characterized by significant developmental changes across cognitive, social, affective, and biological domains (Arnett, 1999). It is a period whereby children undergo emotional fluctuations and increased susceptibility to internalizing and externalizing problems (Arnett, 1999; Cicchetti \u0026amp; Rogosch, 2002). Social adjustment is particularly relevant in adolescence (Romppanen et al., 2021; Telzer et al., 2017) due to an increased need for social acceptance and a growing desire for autonomy from both family and peers (Goosby et al., 2013). Difficulties in social relationships at this period are linked to serious long-term consequences, including school dropout, criminal behavior, and psychological disorders (Allen et al., 2022; Chen et al., 2024; Parker \u0026amp; Asher, 1987). As such, understanding the factors shaping social relationships is crucial, with a focus from a family perspective given its influence at this developmental period (Kapetanovic et al., 2020; Morris et al., 2007; Parke \u0026amp; Ladd, 1992; Smith \u0026amp; Pollak, 2022).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eParental Depressive Symptoms and Adolescent Development\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAmong the most significant family-level predictors of adolescent outcomes is parental depression (Keijser et al., 2020). Of note, recent studies have identified parental socialization of depressotypic cognition and affect, destructive conflict, and parenting as processes between parental depressive symptoms and child maladjustment (Cheung et al., 2021; Cummings et al., 2014; Goodman et al., 2020). According to the interactional model of depression (Coyne, 1976; Coyne \u0026amp; Gotlib, 1983; Downey \u0026amp; Coyne, 1990), depressive symptoms can induce avoidance and negative emotionality between social partners (Akinci et al., 2022; Gotlib \u0026amp; Robinson, 1982; Meyerhoff et al., 2023). Consistent with the actor-partner interdependence model (Cook \u0026amp; Kenny, 2005), recent studies also suggested that mothers’ and fathers’ depressive symptoms are dyadically related (Barooj-Kiakalaee et al., 2022; Cheung et al., 2022; Martin et al., 2023; Neri et al., 2022). Within the family setting, parental depressive symptoms are associated with more interparental and parent-child hostility, anger, irritability, and criticisms (Cummings et al., 2014; Low \u0026amp; Stocker, 2005; Tully et al., 2008), thereby heightening negative emotional expressiveness while simultaneously reducing positive emotional interactions among family members (Psychogiou et al., 2017). In addition, mothers’ and fathers’ depressive symptoms both contribute to interparental conflict, insecure attachment, and diminished parental warmth, ultimately affecting child adjustment (Cummings et al., 2005). Given the far-reaching implications of depression among mothers and fathers, it is pivotal to delineate the underlying processes between their depressive symptoms and adolescent adjustment.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eThe Role of Parents’ Negative Emotional Expressiveness\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHalberstadt et al. (1995; 1999) defined parents’ emotional expressiveness as the ways in which they socialize themselves through verbal and nonverbal expressions, such as facial expressions, body language, tone of voice, and verbal communication, which are typically—but not exclusively—emotional in nature. As discussed earlier, in households where parental depression is present, parents’ negative emotional expressiveness often escalates, further increasing adolescents’ internalizing and externalizing problems (Keller et al., 2009; Kouros et al., 2010). In addition, previous research revealed that maternal combinations of emotional expression, emotionality, depressive symptoms, and stress were significantly associated with poorer child outcomes (Hooper et al., 2015). Recent studies similarly suggested that adolescents’ perceptions of high parental negative emotional expressiveness were associated with increased adolescent loneliness (Wang et al., 2024). Adolescents exposed to higher levels of parental negative emotional expressiveness also tend to exhibit lower self-esteem and increased depressive symptoms (Ding et al., 2023; Liu et al., 2024; Wang et al., 2024). As such, parental emotional expressiveness is of particular importance to adolescents’ emotional development and adjustment (Eisenberg et al., 2003; Kehoe et al., 2013; Wang et al., 2024), namely their emotional expression and regulation skills (Wong et al., 2010) and internalizing problems (Chen et al., 2022).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe effects of emotional expressiveness can extend beyond the household, shaping how adolescents navigate broader social environments. As children interact with peers, they often apply the expressive styles learned within the family context (Boyum \u0026amp; Parke, 1995). Therefore, it is not surprising that family expressiveness is directly linked to children’s peer relationship quality and peer competence (e.g., Cassidy et al., 1992), reinforcing the notion that family interactions play a crucial role in shaping social functioning beyond the home (Morris et al., 2007).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAdolescents’ Emotional Insecurity as a Response to Negative Family Dynamics\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn accordance with family systems theory (Cox \u0026amp; Paley, 2003), family subsystems such as interparental subsystem and parent-child subsystem are interrelated. For example, couples with high levels of negative emotional expressiveness often struggle with clear emotional communication and effective conflict resolution, which can undermine adolescents’ sense of security in the interparental relationship (Cummings \u0026amp; Davies, 2002; Khurshid et al., 2024; Morris et al., 2007). According to emotional security theory (Davies \u0026amp; Cummings, 1994), emotional security is a metaphorical bridge between the child and the world. When interparental relationships function well, parents serve as a secure base that allows children to explore their environment with confidence (Waters \u0026amp; Cummings, 2000). However, when this bridge is weakened or eroded due to a negative family environment, children may struggle to find stability, leading to uncertainty in their interactions with others and hesitancy in forming relationships. Cummings et al. (2013) found that emotional insecurity in early childhood served as process for the effects of parental depressive symptoms and negative emotional expressiveness on internalizing problems by second grade. Importantly, children who are repeatedly exposed to negative emotional expressiveness within the family may develop maladaptive coping mechanisms, such as hypervigilance, withdrawal, and aggression (Cummings et al., 2000), which are indices of emotional insecurity associated with maladjusted outcomes (Cummings et al., 2006; Davies et al., 2002; Laible, 2006; Wong et al., 2009).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eThe Current Study\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBuilding on the foundation of theories (Cook \u0026amp; Kenny, 2005; Cox \u0026amp; Paley, 2003; Coyne \u0026amp; Gotlib, 1983; Davies \u0026amp; Cummings, 1994) and empirical research (e.g., Ding et al., 2023; Liu et al., 2024; Martin et al., 2023), the current study positioned mothers’ and fathers’ depressive symptoms as upstream predictors that initiate a cascading sequence of emotional disruptions within the family. We postulated that depressive symptoms in mothers and fathers would contribute to increased expressions of negative emotion, which in turn would undermine emotional security—a critical foundation for their social competence and adjustment in adolescence (Cummings et al., 2012).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn this study spanning across three waves, we hypothesized that mothers’ and fathers’ depressive symptoms at Time 1 (T1) would have actor and partner effects on their respective negative emotional expressiveness at Time 2 (T2). We also hypothesized that mothers’ and fathers’ negative emotional expressiveness would both be related to adolescents’ emotional insecurity at T2 which, in turn, would predict adolescents’ social maladjustment at Time 3 (T3), as indexed by their peer problems, conduct problems, delinquency, and withdrawal symptoms. Finally, we hypothesized that parents’ negative emotional expressiveness and adolescents’ emotional insecurity at T2 would mediate the relation between parental depressive symptoms at T1 and adolescents’ social maladjustment at T3, over and above baseline social maladjustment at T1.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Methods","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eParticipants\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe participants in this study were drawn from a larger, multi-site longitudinal research project focused on family functioning and development. The sample consisted of two cohorts of families recruited from mid-sized cities in the Midwest and Northeast regions of the United States. Recruitment methods included newspaper advertisements, flyers distributed through childcare agencies, posters at schools and community events, and direct-mail postcards sent to homes. Families from both recruitment areas were comparable across key demographic variables, including children’s gender, race and ethnicity, parental relationship to the child, education level, household income, marital status, and fathers' age. However, mothers’ ages showed a statistically significant difference between the two recruitment areas (\u003cem\u003et\u003c/em\u003e = 2.34, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e \u0026lt; .05).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTo be eligible for inclusion, families had to meet specific criteria. Initially, couples were required to have been together for at least three years and to be proficient in English. A second cohort was later recruited to enhance the sample size, with slightly modified criteria: parents in these families had to be together for at least one year and had a child in seventh grade. Families recruited later did not differ from earlier recruits on critical demographic factors such as family income, marital status, or child age.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis study utilizes data collected during the second phase of the broader longitudinal research project, consisting of three waves of data collection. The initial data collection (T1) occurred when adolescents were primarily in seventh grade, followed by semiannual assessments over three years during their eighth (T2) and ninth-grade years (T3). Attrition across waves was minimal, with an 89% retention rate from T1 to T3. Families lost to attrition did not significantly differ from those who remained in the study on demographic variables.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe final sample reflected the racial and ethnic composition of the recruitment communities. The majority of participants identified as European American (79.6%), followed by African American (14.6%), Hispanic (3.8%), Multiracial (2.3%), American Indian or Alaskan Native (1.5%), Asian American (1.2%), and Other (0.8%). At T1, the study included 281 adolescents and their mothers and fathers (or primary caregivers). Adolescents were between 11 and 14 years old (\u003cem\u003eM\u003c/em\u003e = 12.64, \u003cem\u003eSD\u003c/em\u003e = 0.57), with an equal gender distribution (51% female). Median family income fell between $55,000 and $74,999, though reported incomes ranged from under $6,000 (10 families) to over $125,000 (27 families). Most couples were married (84%), with the remainder reporting cohabitation, single status, divorce, separation, or widowhood. These distributions remained relatively stable across T2 and T3.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAt T1, fathers’ ages ranged from 25 to 76 years (\u003cem\u003eM\u003c/em\u003e = 43.67, \u003cem\u003eSD\u003c/em\u003e = 6.74). The majority were biological fathers (71.9%), though the sample also included stepfathers, adoptive fathers, legal guardians, and other male caregivers. Nearly half of the fathers (49.5%) held at least an associate’s degree, with educational levels ranging from completion of seventh grade to doctoral degrees. Most fathers (75.8%) reported full-time employment.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMothers ranged from 25 to 71 years old (\u003cem\u003eM\u003c/em\u003e = 41.73, \u003cem\u003eSD\u003c/em\u003e = 5.99), with 91.8% being biological mothers. The remainder consisted of adoptive mothers, grandmothers, stepmothers, aunts, legal guardians, and live-in partners. Over half (52.3%) of the mothers held at least an associate’s degree, with educational backgrounds ranging from completion of sixth grade to doctoral degrees. Approximately 45.9% of the mothers reported working full-time.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn addition, teachers were recruited to complete mailed surveys assessing the academic performance and social adjustment of the adolescents. At T3, 250 teachers provided reports. Most of these teachers (38.8%) taught ninth grade, although they worked with students from grades 7 through 12. A majority (80.4%) reported knowing the student moderately well or very well, with an average teacher-student relationship length of 13.25 months (\u003cem\u003eSD\u003c/em\u003e = 9.87).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eProcedure\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eEach year, mothers, fathers, and adolescents participated in a family laboratory session lasting approximately three hours. A second annual visit involved only the mother and adolescent. During these visits, participants completed electronic questionnaires, responded to interview questions, and engaged in video-recorded conversations with other family members. All adult participants received monetary compensation upon completion of the laboratory sessions, while adolescents received gift cards of their choice as an incentive for participation.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMeasures\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eParental Depressive Symptoms.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eParental depressive symptoms were measured at T1 using the Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression Scale (CES-D; Radloff, 1977), a 20-item self-report questionnaire assessing depressive symptomatology experienced in the past week. Mothers and fathers rated each item on a four-point Likert scale ranging from 0 (rarely or none of the time) to 3 (most or all of the time). The CES-D demonstrated strong internal consistency (mothers: α = .87; fathers: α = .86) and moderate test-retest reliability across the waves. A CES-D score of 16 or higher indicated clinically significant depressive symptoms, with 16.7% of mothers and 13.7% of fathers meeting this criterion at Time 1. Approximately 48.7% of mothers and 43.8% of fathers reported clinically significant symptoms at least once across subsequent waves, though chronic depression (i.e., persisting across all waves) was rare, occurring in less than 5% of parents.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eParental Negative Emotional Expressiveness.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eAt T2, parental negative emotional expressiveness was assessed using the 12-item Negative Expressiveness subscale from the Self-Expressiveness in the Family Questionnaire – Short Form (SEFQ; Halberstadt, 1995). Both mothers and fathers reported how frequently they displayed negative emotions toward family members across various contexts, using a 9-point Likert scale (1 = rarely, 9 = frequently). This subscale captures a range of negative emotions, including anger, distress, disappointment, contempt, and hostility. Sample items include, “Expressing momentary anger over a trivial irritation,” “Showing contempt for another’s actions,” and “Expressing dissatisfaction with someone else’s behavior.” Internal consistency was strong for both mothers (α = .84) and fathers (α = .86), supporting the scale’s reliability in measuring negative emotional expression within family dynamics.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAdolescents’ Emotional Insecurity.\u003c/strong\u003e At T2, adolescents’ emotional insecurity in response to interparental conflict was assessed using the 37-item Security in Marital Subsystems Scale (SIMS-PR; Davies et al., 2002). This measure captures parents' evaluations of their children’s reactions to negative family environment across five distinct subscales, including emotional reactivity, behavioral dysfunction, involvement in conflict, masking, and avoidance. Each subscale reflects a unique aspect of children's coping mechanisms and emotional responses to negativity within the family environment. Both mothers and fathers completed the measure, rating their adolescent child’s reactions using a 5-point Likert scale (1 = not at all like him/her to 5 = a whole lot like him/her). Sample items include: “[My child] still seems upset after we argue,” “Gets involved in the argument,” “Yells at family members,” and “Becomes very quiet and withdrawn.” To ensure a comprehensive multi-informant assessment, scores were summed across both parents for each subscale, capturing a balanced perspective on the child’s emotional security. The correlation between mothers’ and fathers’ reports on each subscale was significant (\u003cem\u003er\u003c/em\u003es = .19 - .50, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003es \u0026lt; .01, between mothers’ and fathers’ report across the subscales), This scale was selected to assess multiple dimensions of adolescents’ responses to negative expressiveness and conflict in the family environment. Parent ratings were combined into a single score for each subscale. The internal consistency was adequate, with α = .70 - .84 across the subscales.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAdolescents’ Social Maladjustment.\u003c/strong\u003e At T3, adolescent social maladjustment was evaluated using multi-informant assessments. Parents reported on adolescents’ delinquency and withdrawn behaviors using the Aggression and Withdrawal subscales from the Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL; Achenbach, 1991), with ratings on a three-point Likert scale (0 = not true, 1 = somewhat true, 2 = very true). The scales demonstrated strong internal consistency across waves (α = .87–.90), and parental reports were significantly correlated (\u003cem\u003er\u003c/em\u003e = .51–.55, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003es \u0026lt; .01). Adolescents self-reported their experiences with peer and conduct problems using the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ; Goodman, 1997), with each five-item subscale rated on a three-point scale (0 = not true, 1 = somewhat true, 2 = certainly true). Internal consistency for peer problems (α = .64) and conduct problems (α = .63) was moderate, aligning with prior research while maintaining strong predictive validity.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBy incorporating multiple time points and using diverse informants, these assessments comprehensively capture the longitudinal pathways linking parental depressive symptoms (T1), negative emotional expressiveness (T2), emotional insecurity (T2), and adolescent social maladjustment (T3), with baseline social maladjustment (T1) controlled for in the analysis.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAnalytic Plan\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eStructural equation modeling (SEM) was conducted using the lavaan package in R, with full information maximum likelihood (FIML) estimation applied to address missing data. This method minimizes bias due to attrition while maximizing statistical power by incorporating all available data points (Enders, 2010). Latent variables were constructed for core constructs, including emotional insecurity and social maladjustment, providing enhanced reliability, reduced measurement error, and a stronger representation of unobserved constructs (Cunningham et al., 2008). To account for the limitations of the chi-square (χ²) statistic, which can be overly sensitive in large samples, model fit indices including the Root Mean Square Error of Approximation (RMSEA), Comparative Fit Index (CFI), and Tucker-Lewis Index (TLI) were evaluated, with RMSEA \u0026lt; .05 and CFI and TLI \u0026gt; .90 indicating adequate model fit (Browne \u0026amp; Cudeck, 1993; Arbuckle \u0026amp; Wothke, 1999).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis study used a latent structural model to capture both direct and mediated pathways from maternal and paternal depressive symptoms to adolescents’ social maladjustment, via parental negative emotional expressiveness and emotional insecurity. By incorporating both maternal and paternal processes and modeling emotional insecurity as a latent construct, this approach allows for a nuanced understanding of how risk cascades through the family system and into adolescents’ social development.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis study utilized data from the Me and My Family Project, a longitudinal investigation directed by Dr. E. Mark Cummings (University of Notre Dame) and Dr. Patrick T. Davies (University of Rochester). All procedures were approved by the University of Notre Dame Institutional Review Board. Study materials. Due to the sensitivity and confidentiality agreements associated with the Me and My Family Project dataset, the data are not publicly available. However, this dataset has been used in numerous peer-reviewed publications, and additional information is available upon request from the principal investigators. This study was not preregistered.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Results","content":"\u003cp\u003eDescriptive statistics and intercorrelations among the study variables (see Table 1) offered an overview of the central tendencies and relationships among the core constructs, supporting the robustness of the SEM framework. The hypothesized structural equation model fit adequately to the data based on several model statistics, including RMSEA = .05, CFI = .92, and TLI = .91. All paths associated with the indicators of the latent variables including emotional insecurity and social maladjustment were statistically significant (\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003es \u0026lt; .05), confirming that each observed measure contributed meaningfully to its respective latent construct.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ePaternal depressive symptoms at T1 significantly predicted paternal negative expressiveness at T2 (β = 0.220, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e = 0.002), while maternal depressive symptoms at T1 were also significantly associated with maternal negative expressiveness at T2 (β = 0.222, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e = 0.03). Additionally, paternal depressive symptoms at T1 were directly linked to maternal negative expressiveness at T2 (β = 0.175, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e = .001), maternal depressive symptoms at T1 also predicted paternal negative expressiveness at T2 (β = 0.123, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e = .001), suggesting partner effects. Paternal negative expressiveness was further associated adolescents’ emotional insecurity at T2 (β = 0.568, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e = .000), whereas maternal negative expressiveness showed a smaller but still significant effect (β = 0.184, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e = .001). Finally, emotional insecurity was a significant predictor of social maladjustment at Time 3 (β = 0.575, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e = .000) over and above autoregressive effect of social adjustment (β = 0.718, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e = 0.021), suggesting that heightened emotional insecurity increased the likelihood of adolescents experiencing social maladjustment over time.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe model explained 80% of the variance in social maladjustment at T3, indicating a substantial predictive power of the proposed pathways and confirming the robustness of the theoretical framework in explaining the observed developmental patterns. To test for mediation effects, bootstrapping was conducted. Specifically, the indirect effects of parental depressive symptoms on parental negative expressiveness, adolescent emotional insecurity, and social problems were examined. Using the current data, the 95% confidence interval (CI) based on 1,000 bootstrap samples with replacement indicated that the indirect effects of parental depressive symptoms on adolescents’ social problems did not include zero (95% CI: 0.005, 0.0232), providing evidence of a significant indirect effect. Next, specific indirect pathways were examined. The 95% CI based on 10,000 bootstrap samples with replacement indicated that the specific indirect effect of parental depressive symptoms on adolescents’ emotional insecurity did not include zero (95% CI: 0.001, 0.018), supporting parental negative emotional expressiveness as a significant mediator between parental depressive symptoms and adolescent insecurity. Finally, the 95% CI based on 1,000 bootstrap samples with replacement indicated that the specific indirect effects of parental negative emotional expressiveness on social maladjustment problems did not include zero (95% CI: 0.016, 0.544), supporting the mediating roles of negative expressiveness and emotional insecurity in linking parental depressive symptoms to adolescent adjustment.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe present study demonstrated mothers\u0026rsquo; and fathers\u0026rsquo; depressive symptoms as significant contributors of adolescent social maladjustment, with mediating processes including parental negative emotional expressiveness and adolescents\u0026rsquo; emotional insecurity. Supporting the theories of depression and family relations (Cox \u0026amp; Paley, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2003\u003c/span\u003e; Coyne \u0026amp; Gotlib, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1983\u003c/span\u003e; Davies \u0026amp; Cummings, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1994\u003c/span\u003e), these findings elucidated specific mechanisms through which parental depressive symptoms affected adolescents\u0026rsquo; social functioning. By focusing on peer-related outcomes such as social maladjustment, this study also extended family-based emotional models beyond the traditional focus on intrapersonal and internalizing outcomes (e.g., Cummings et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e; Hale \u0026amp; Zeman, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Lobo et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR53\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e), addressing a critical gap in the literature by demonstrating how family emotional processes translate into adolescents\u0026rsquo; social worlds.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eConsistent with the interactional model of depression (Coyne, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1976\u003c/span\u003e; Coyne \u0026amp; Gotlib, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1983\u003c/span\u003e; Downey \u0026amp; Coyne, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1990\u003c/span\u003e), the present findings revealed actor and partner effects of parental depression on negative emotional expressiveness (see also Cook \u0026amp; Kenny, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e). More specifically, mothers\u0026rsquo; and fathers\u0026rsquo; depressive symptoms significantly predicted their own and their partners\u0026rsquo; negative expressiveness. These findings supported previous research by highlighting the interconnected nature of parental emotional dynamics within the family system (Cummings \u0026amp; Davies, 2010). Our findings further reinforced the role of parents\u0026rsquo; negative emotional expressiveness as a mechanism through which parental depressive symptoms undermined adolescent functioning. In other words, the emotional climate of the family, particularly when shaped by heightened parental negativity, had significant implications for adolescents\u0026rsquo; ability to develop and maintain stable social relationships. By explicitly linking mothers\u0026rsquo; and fathers\u0026rsquo; emotional functioning to adolescents\u0026rsquo; emotional insecurity and observable social behaviors beyond the family setting\u0026mdash;an area often excluded from family process models (e.g., Cheung et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Cummings et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e; Hale \u0026amp; Zeman, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Kouros et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e; Lobo et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR53\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e), the study served as a novel contribution to the literature.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe present study provided empirical support for emotional security theory (Davies \u0026amp; Cummings, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1994\u003c/span\u003e) as an explanatory framework for understanding the impact of parental depressive symptoms on child adjustment in adolescence. The findings also supported family systems theory (Cox \u0026amp; Paley, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2003\u003c/span\u003e), in that parental depression not only increased negative emotional expressiveness but also disrupted constructive family communication, thereby contributing to heightened emotional insecurity in children (Kane \u0026amp; Garber, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2004\u003c/span\u003e). Regardless of parents\u0026rsquo; gender, our study also indicated that parents\u0026rsquo; negativity undermined adolescents\u0026rsquo; sense of security (see also Cheung et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e; Ching \u0026amp; Wu, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e for similar findings). However, fathers\u0026rsquo; effect appeared to be stronger than mothers\u0026rsquo; effect on adolescents: Compared to mothers\u0026rsquo; negative emotional expressiveness, fathers\u0026rsquo; negative expressiveness was more strongly associated with emotional insecurity, underscoring the unique role of fathers in shaping adolescents\u0026rsquo; emotional security. This aligned with an earlier study demonstrating that fathers\u0026rsquo; depressive symptoms contributed to child adjustment difficulties through their impact on interparental conflict, parenting behaviors, and children\u0026rsquo;s emotional security (Schacht et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR65\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e), possibly because paternal depressive symptoms deviated from traditional gender norms and thus might be perceived as more threatening by adolescents (Reeb et al., 2009). To further examine the role of parents\u0026rsquo; gender, future research may examine its moderating effect between parental depression and psychosocial development in adolescence.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eLimitations and Future Directions\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe current study demonstrated that adolescents\u0026rsquo; social maladjustment\u0026mdash;including difficulties in peer relationships and behavioral challenges\u0026mdash;was shaped by mothers\u0026rsquo; and fathers\u0026rsquo; depressive symptoms, negative expressiveness, and adolescents\u0026rsquo; emotional insecurity. These findings aligned with previous research highlighting the role of negative family emotional environments in forming child and adolescent regulatory processes (Cummings, et al, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2000\u003c/span\u003e; Goodman \u0026amp; Gotlib, 1999). Nevertheless, the present findings should be interpreted in light of several limitations. First of all, the sample diversity was limited, as the study primarily included two-parent households from mid-sized cities, potentially reducing generalizability to single-parent families or more diverse socioeconomic backgrounds. Second, the self- and partner- questionnaire reports could lead to method bias (Podsakoff et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR60\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e). Future research should incorporate a multi-method approach that involves observational and physiological measures to reduce biases. Third, while structural equation modeling allowed for robust testing of the hypothesized model, future research should incorporate cross-lagged panel designs to clarify the directionality of these relationships over time (Shrout \u0026amp; Bolger, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR66\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2002\u003c/span\u003e). Fourth, other factors such as genetics and culture were not considered in the present study. Prior research suggests that the transmission of depression from parent to child may involve both environmental and genetic components (Silberg et al., 2010). Future studies should examine gene-environment interactions to provide a more comprehensive understanding of these dynamics.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eGrounded in theories of depression and family relations (Cox \u0026amp; Paley, 2003; Coyne \u0026amp; Gotlib, 1983; Davies \u0026amp; Cummings, 1994), this study offers important contributions to the literature by highlighting the unique roles of maternal and paternal depressive symptoms, negative emotional expressiveness, and emotional insecurity in shaping adolescents\u0026rsquo; social maladjustment. By demonstrating how negative emotional dynamics within the family system reverberate into adolescents\u0026rsquo; external social contexts, this work advances our understanding of the broader implications of family-based risk factors. Interventions aimed at reducing negative expressiveness and fostering emotional security could play a vital role in preventing social maladjustment among adolescents in families affected by parental depression. By addressing both parental emotional functioning and adolescent emotional security, future clinical efforts can help disrupt the cycle of depression and maladjustment within families.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eDeclaration of Interest Statement\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAuthor Contribution\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eR.S.R. conceptualized the study, conducted the analyses, and drafted the main manuscript text. R.Y.M.C. provided guidance on the analytic strategy, contributed to the theoretical framing, and assisted with manuscript revisions. P.T.D. supervised the data collection and contributed to model development and interpretation. E.M.C. oversaw the project design, contributed to the theoretical rationale, and provided critical feedback on manuscript drafts. All authors reviewed and approved the final manuscript.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAchenbach, T. M., \u0026amp; Ruffle, T. M. (2000). The Child Behavior Checklist and related forms for assessing behavioral/emotional problems and competencies. \u003cem\u003ePediatrics in Review\u003c/em\u003e, 21(8), 265-271. https://doi.org/10.1542/pir.21-8-265\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAkinci, E., Wieser, M. O., Vanscheidt, S., Diop, S., Flasbeck, V., Akinci, B., ... \u0026amp; Mavrogiorgou, P. (2022). Impairments of social interaction in depressive disorder. \u003cem\u003ePsychiatry Investigation, 19\u003c/em\u003e(3), 178-189. https://doi.org/10.30773/pi.2021.0289\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAllen, J. P., Costello, M., Kansky, J., \u0026amp; Loeb, E. L. (2022). 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J., Parry, E., Nath, S., Kallitsoglou, A., \u0026amp; Russell, G. (2017). Parental depressive symptoms, children\u0026rsquo;s emotional and behavioural problems, and parents\u0026rsquo; expressed emotion\u0026mdash;Critical and positive comments. \u003cem\u003ePLOS ONE, 12\u003c/em\u003e(10), e0183546. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0183546\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eRadloff, L. S. (1977). The CES-D scale: A self-report depression scale for research in the general population. \u003cem\u003eApplied Psychological Measurement, 1\u003c/em\u003e(3), 385\u0026ndash;401.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eReeb, B. T., \u0026amp; Conger, K. J. (2009). The unique effect of paternal depressive symptoms on adolescent functioning: Associations with gender and father-adolescent relationship closeness. \u003cem\u003eJournal of Family Psychology, 23\u003c/em\u003e(5), 758\u0026ndash;761. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0016354\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eRomppanen, E., Korhonen, M., Salmelin, R. K., Puura, K., \u0026amp; Luoma, I. (2021). The significance of adolescent social competence for mental health in young adulthood. \u003cem\u003eMental Health \u0026amp; Prevention, 24\u003c/em\u003e, 200198. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mhp.2021.200198\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eSchacht, P. M., Cummings, E. M., \u0026amp; Davies, P. T. (2009). Fathering in family context and child adjustment: A longitudinal analysis. \u003cem\u003eJournal of Family Psychology, 23\u003c/em\u003e(5), 790\u0026ndash;797. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0016741\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eShrout, P. E., \u0026amp; Bolger, N. (2002). Mediation in experimental and nonexperimental studies: New procedures and recommendations. \u003cem\u003ePsychological Methods, 7\u003c/em\u003e(4), 422\u0026ndash;445. https://doi.org/10.1037/1082-989X.7.4.422\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eSmith, K. E., \u0026amp; Pollak, S. D. (2022). Early life stress and neural development: Implications for understanding the developmental effects of COVID-19. \u003cem\u003eCognitive, Affective \u0026amp; Behavioral Neuroscience, 22\u003c/em\u003e(4), 643\u0026ndash;654. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13415-021-00901-0\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eStocker, C. M., Richmond, M. K., Rhoades, G. K., \u0026amp; Kiang, L. (2007). Family emotional processes and adolescents\u0026apos; adjustment. \u003cem\u003eSocial Development, 16\u003c/em\u003e(2), 310\u0026ndash;325. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9507.2007.00386.x\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eTelzer, E. H., van Hoorn, J., Rogers, C. R., \u0026amp; Do, K. T. (2017). Social influence on positive youth development: A developmental neuroscience perspective. \u003cem\u003eAdvances in Child Development and Behavior, 54\u003c/em\u003e, 215\u0026ndash;258. https://doi.org/10.1016/bs.acdb.2017.10.003\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eTully, E. C., Iacono, W. G., \u0026amp; McGue, M. (2008). An adoption study of parental depression as an environmental liability for adolescent depression and childhood disruptive disorders. \u003cem\u003eAmerican Journal of Psychiatry, 165\u003c/em\u003e(9), 1148\u0026ndash;1154. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.2008.07091438\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eWaters, E., \u0026amp; Cummings, E. M. (2000). A secure base from which to explore close relationships. \u003cem\u003eChild Development, 71\u003c/em\u003e(1), 164\u0026ndash;172. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8624.00130\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eWang, H., Hou, Y., Chen, J., Yang, X., \u0026amp; Wang, Y. (2024). The association between discrepancies in parental emotional expressivity, adolescent loneliness and depression: A multi-informant study using response surface analysis. \u003cem\u003eJournal of Youth and Adolescence, 53\u003c/em\u003e(12), 2407\u0026ndash;2422. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-024-02078-z\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eWong, M. S., McElwain, N. L., \u0026amp; Halberstadt, A. G. (2009). Parent, family, and child characteristics: Associations with mother- and father-reported emotion socialization practices. \u003cem\u003eJournal of Family Psychology, 23\u003c/em\u003e(4), 452\u0026ndash;463. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0015552\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eWong, M. S., Diener, M. L., \u0026amp; Isabella, R. A. (2008). Parents\u0026apos; emotion-related beliefs and behaviors and child grade: Associations with children\u0026apos;s perceptions of peer competence. \u003cem\u003eJournal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 29\u003c/em\u003e(3), 175\u0026ndash;186. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appdev.2008.02.003\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eZhou, H., Li, Q., Liu, Z., Li, K., Geng, X., \u0026amp; Fang, X. (2024). Family emotional expressiveness and adolescents\u0026rsquo; cyberbullying bystanders: The mediating role of empathy. \u003cem\u003eFrontiers in Psychology, 15\u003c/em\u003e, Article 11129703. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2024.11129703\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"},{"header":"Table","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable 1 \u003cem\u003eDescriptive statistics and intercorrelations among key study variables, including parental depressive symptoms, negative expressiveness, emotional insecurity, and adolescent social maladjustment.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"0\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" width=\"624\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 6.9965%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWithdrawn\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.159%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.159%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.8657%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 4.311%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 4.311%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.0883%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 6.9965%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.0177%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 4.8763%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.7951%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 6.5018%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 4.0283%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.0883%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.8657%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 4.311%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 4.311%;\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.0883%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 2.6148%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.78\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 2.6148%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 6.9965%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eConduct Problems Time 3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.159%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.159%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.8657%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 4.311%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 4.311%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.0883%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 6.9965%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.0177%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 4.8763%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.7951%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 6.5018%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 4.0283%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.0883%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.8657%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 4.311%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 4.311%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.0883%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.21**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 2.6148%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.87\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 2.6148%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 6.9965%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePeer Problems Time 3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.159%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.159%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.8657%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 4.311%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 4.311%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.0883%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 6.9965%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.0177%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 4.8763%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.7951%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 6.5018%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 4.0283%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.0883%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.8657%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 4.311%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 4.311%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.29**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.0883%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.24**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 2.6148%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.58\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 2.6148%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 6.9965%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDelinquency Time 3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.159%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.159%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.8657%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 4.311%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 4.311%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.0883%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 6.9965%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.0177%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 4.8763%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.7951%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 6.5018%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 4.0283%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.0883%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.8657%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 4.311%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.17**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 4.311%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.43**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.0883%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.41**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 2.6148%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.49\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 2.6148%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.25\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 6.9965%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDismissive\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.159%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.159%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.8657%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 4.311%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 4.311%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.0883%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 6.9965%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.0177%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 4.8763%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.7951%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 6.5018%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 4.0283%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.0883%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.8657%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.19**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 4.311%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.06\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 4.311%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.14*\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.0883%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.23**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 2.6148%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.86\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 2.6148%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.98\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 6.9965%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMasking\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.159%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.159%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.8657%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 4.311%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 4.311%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.0883%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 6.9965%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.0177%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 4.8763%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.7951%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 6.5018%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 4.0283%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.0883%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.24**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.8657%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.18**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 4.311%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.02\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 4.311%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.02\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.0883%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.28**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 2.6148%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8.89\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 2.6148%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.49\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 6.9965%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBehavioral Dysregulation\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.159%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.159%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.8657%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 4.311%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 4.311%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.0883%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 6.9965%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.0177%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 4.8763%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.7951%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 6.5018%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 4.0283%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.06\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.0883%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.07\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.8657%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.28**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 4.311%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.19**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 4.311%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.09\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.0883%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.18*\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 2.6148%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6.68\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 2.6148%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.47\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 6.9965%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eInvolvement\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.159%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.159%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.8657%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 4.311%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 4.311%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.0883%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 6.9965%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.0177%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 4.8763%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.7951%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 6.5018%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.33**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 4.0283%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.02\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.0883%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.01\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.8657%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.09\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 4.311%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.08\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 4.311%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.07\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.0883%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.07\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 2.6148%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e17.63\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 2.6148%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 6.9965%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAvoidance\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.159%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.159%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.8657%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 4.311%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 4.311%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.0883%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 6.9965%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.0177%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 4.8763%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.7951%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.14*\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 6.5018%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.31**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 4.0283%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.27**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.0883%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.8657%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.29**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 4.311%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.17*\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 4.311%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.0883%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.41**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 2.6148%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8.79\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 2.6148%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.58\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 6.9965%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMother Negative Expressive ness\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.159%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.159%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.8657%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 4.311%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 4.311%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.0883%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 6.9965%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.0177%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 4.8763%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.39**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.7951%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.15*\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 6.5018%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.38**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 4.0283%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.13\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.0883%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.06\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.8657%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.25**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 4.311%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.16*\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 4.311%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.15*\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.0883%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.32**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 2.6148%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e37.47\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 2.6148%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e13.52\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 6.9965%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFather Negative Expressiveness\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.159%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.159%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.8657%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 4.311%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 4.311%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.0883%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 6.9965%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.0177%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.27**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 4.8763%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.12\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.7951%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.07\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 6.5018%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.19**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 4.0283%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.3**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.0883%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.21**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.8657%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.37**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 4.311%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 4.311%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.19**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.0883%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.26**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 2.6148%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e36.98\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 2.6148%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e14.54\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 6.9965%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWithdrawn\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.159%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.159%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.8657%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 4.311%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 4.311%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.0883%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 6.9965%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.29**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.0177%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.29**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 4.8763%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.34**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.7951%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.07\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 6.5018%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.17*\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 4.0283%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.28**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.0883%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.22**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.8657%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.19**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 4.311%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.26**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 4.311%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.12\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.0883%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.62**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 2.6148%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.88\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 2.6148%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.99\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 6.9965%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eConduct Problems Time 1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.159%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.159%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.8657%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 4.311%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 4.311%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.0883%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.15*\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 6.9965%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.18**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.0177%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.18**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 4.8763%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.08\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.7951%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.04\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 6.5018%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.12\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 4.0283%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.04\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.0883%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.12\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.8657%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.38**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 4.311%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.27**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 4.311%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.34**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.0883%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.18**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 2.6148%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.85\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 2.6148%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.83\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 6.9965%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePeer Problems Time 1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.159%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.159%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.8657%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 4.311%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 4.311%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.44**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.0883%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.19**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 6.9965%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.11\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.0177%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.12\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 4.8763%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.07\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.7951%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.12\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 6.5018%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.12\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 4.0283%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.11\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.0883%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.02\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.8657%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.16*\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 4.311%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.36**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 4.311%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.14*\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.0883%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.12\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 2.6148%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.42\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 2.6148%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.52\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 6.9965%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDelinquency Time 1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.159%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.159%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.8657%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 4.311%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.27**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 4.311%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.46**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.0883%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.43**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 6.9965%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.36**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.0177%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.23**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 4.8763%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.15*\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.7951%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.09\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 6.5018%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.23**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 4.0283%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.12\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.0883%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.25**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.8657%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.62**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 4.311%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.2**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 4.311%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.36**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.0883%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.39**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 2.6148%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.36\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 2.6148%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.72\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 6.9965%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMother Depression\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.159%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.159%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.8657%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 4.311%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.06\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 4.311%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.05\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.0883%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.18**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 6.9965%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.27**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.0177%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.16*\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 4.8763%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.03\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.7951%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.13\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 6.5018%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.09\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 4.0283%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.15*\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.0883%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.8657%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.11\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 4.311%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.14*\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 4.311%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.16*\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.0883%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.05\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 2.6148%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e16.52\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 2.6148%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6.17\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 6.9965%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFather Depression\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.159%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.159%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.25**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.8657%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.22**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 4.311%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.18**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 4.311%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.18**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.0883%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.13*\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 6.9965%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.24**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.0177%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.23**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 4.8763%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.16*\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.7951%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.12\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 6.5018%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.06\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 4.0283%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.16*\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.0883%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.05\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.8657%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.24**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 4.311%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.29**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 4.311%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.17*\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.0883%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.26**\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 2.6148%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e15.85\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 2.6148%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5.2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 6.9965%;\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.159%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFather Depression\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.159%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMother Depression\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.8657%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDelinquency Time 1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 4.311%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePeer Problems Time 1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 4.311%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eConduct Problems Time 1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.0883%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWithdrawn\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 6.9965%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFather Negative Expressiveness\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.0177%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMother Negative Expressive ness\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 4.8763%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAvoidance\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.7951%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eInvolvement\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 6.5018%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBehavioral Dysregulation\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 4.0283%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMasking\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.0883%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDismissive\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.8657%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDelinquency Time 3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 4.311%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePeer Problems Time 3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 4.311%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eConduct Problems Time 3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 5.0883%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWithdrawn\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 2.6148%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMean\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 2.6148%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSD\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eNote:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003eThe table presents means, standard deviations, and correlation coefficients to provide an overview of the central tendencies and relationships that inform the structural equation modeling analysis. Asterisks indicate levels of statistical significance: *\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e \u0026lt; .05, **\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e \u0026lt; .01.\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":true,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Parental depressive symptoms, adolescent social maladjustment, emotional security, parental negative expressiveness","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7295938/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-7295938/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eThe present study tested the relation between parental depressive symptoms and adolescent social maladjustment, with parental negative expressiveness and adolescents\u0026rsquo; emotional insecurity as key mediating processes. By extending family-based concepts to the social sphere, this study explored how emotional processes within the family were related to adolescents\u0026rsquo; social functioning. In this study, data were collected from 272 families annually over a three-year period, beginning when adolescents were in the seventh grade. Structural equation modeling was employed to assess parental depressive symptoms at Time 1, parental negative expressiveness and adolescent emotional insecurity at Time 2, and adolescent social maladjustment at Time 3. Findings indicated that both mothers\u0026rsquo; and fathers\u0026rsquo; depressive symptoms significantly contributed to parental negative expressiveness, affecting not only the their own but also their partners\u0026rsquo; emotional expression. Parental negative expressiveness, in turn, was significantly related to adolescents\u0026rsquo; emotional insecurity. Heightened emotional insecurity was associated with greater social maladjustment in the form of peer difficulties, delinquent behaviors, conduct issues, and social withdrawal, after controlling for autoregressive effects. These findings enrich the literature by delineating the longitudinal effects of parental depressive symptoms on social functioning in adolescence.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"From Family Dynamics to Adolescent Social Functioning: A Longitudinal Study of Parental Depression and Emotional Insecurity","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-08-22 18:37:01","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7295938/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"463ee955-47d9-422c-9aa2-ecb54aef94ba","owner":[],"postedDate":"August 22nd, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-04-07T16:02:02+00:00","versionOfRecord":{"articleIdentity":"rs-7295938","link":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-026-03295-0","journal":{"identity":"journal-of-child-and-family-studies","isVorOnly":false,"title":"Journal of Child and Family Studies"},"publishedOn":"2026-04-02 15:57:53","publishedOnDateReadable":"April 2nd, 2026"},"versionCreatedAt":"2025-08-22 18:37:01","video":"","vorDoi":"10.1007/s10826-026-03295-0","vorDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-026-03295-0","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-7295938","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-7295938","identity":"rs-7295938","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}