Host Preference Dynamics of Rice Weevil (Sitophilus oryzae L.) in Stored Cereals

Host Preference Dynamics of Rice Weevil (Sitophilus oryzae L.) in Stored Cereals | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Host Preference Dynamics of Rice Weevil (Sitophilus oryzae L.) in Stored Cereals Aashish Gyawali, Apsara Neupane, Achyut Gaire, Kapil Kafle This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-8309450/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Published Journal Publication published 24 Mar, 2026 Read the published version in Archives of Agriculture and Environmental Science → Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Exploring the host preference dynamics of rice weevil ( Sitophilus oryzae L. ) can establish effective pest management strategies in stored cereals. Despite the importance of stored product pests in agriculture, limited studies have focused on the grain preference of rice weevil in different cereal grains under controlled conditions. This study aimed to evaluate the host preference of S. oryzae in six different cereals and assess their resistance to infestation. The experiment was conducted at the Entomology laboratory of Rampur Campus, Chitwan, from May to August 2025 under both free-choice and no-choice conditions. Six treatments comprising one hundred grains each of rice, maize, wheat, barley, sorghum, and oats were evaluated in a Completely Randomized Design (CRD) with four replications. Fifteen pairs of newly emerged rice weevils from the stock culture were introduced under no-choice conditions, whereas fifty pairs per replication were introduced under free-choice conditions. The assessed parameters were grain damage percentage, weight loss percentage, and germination percentage before and after the treatment. Under free-choice conditions, wheat recorded the highest grain damage (28.25%) and weight loss (20.01%), whereas oats showed the lowest damage (3.25%) and weight loss (1.52%); the greatest reduction in germination was also in wheat (20%) and the smallest in oats (3%). Under no-choice conditions, wheat again had the highest grain damage (14.50%) and weight loss (17.44%), both significantly greater at the 0.1% level, while oats had the lowest damage (4.75%) and weight loss (2.21%); correspondingly, the highest reduction in germination occurred in wheat (18%) and the lowest in oats (3%). This study establishes that wheat is a highly preferred host, while oats exhibit higher resistance against rice weevil. Grain damage Free choice No choice Sitophilus oryzae Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 1. INTRODUCTION Cereal crops significantly contribute to food and nutrition security in Nepal, as the dietary fulfillment of Nepalese people is primarily centered on these crops. Cereals provide 65% and 60% of the Nepalese population of total food energy and protein (Dahal et al., 2022 ). Despite their vital role in food security, cereal crops are highly susceptible to different storage pests. Emery and Cousins ( 2019 ) claim that insect infestations cause the annual loss of between one-quarter and one-third of the world's grain harvest during storage. With losses estimated at 20–30% in tropical areas and 5–10% in temperate regions, the degree of both quantitative and qualitative damage caused by insect pests varies by location (Talukder, 2006; Rajendran & Sriranjini, 2008 ). Different insects, including Rice/maize weevil ( Sitophilus spp) , Angoumois grain moth ( Sitotroga cerealella , Oliver), Indian meal moth ( Ploida interpunctella , Hübner), Lesser grain borer ( Rhyzopertha dominica F.), Khapra beetle ( Trogoderma granarium , Everts), red rust flour beetle ( Tribolium castaneum , Herbst), and legume weevil ( Callosobruchus spp .). Among these, the rice weevil ( Sitophilus oryzae L.) is a cosmopolitan insect that infects various cereals, including Maize, Rice, Wheat, Barley, and sorghum (Bhatia et al., 1975 ). The rice weevil is 2–3 mm long characterized by a dark brown coloration, including four distinct patches on the elytra and noticeable spots on the thorax and abdomen. The maize weevil is slightly larger, averaging around 3 mm in length, and ranges in color from dull red brown to black, with four reddish stains on the elytra. Both species are capable of flight, but the maize weevil is a more vigorous flyer with well-developed wings, while the rice weevil can fly and is attracted to light (Ahmed et al., 2020 b). Adults resemble granary weevils but differ in hue and patterns. Adults resemble granary weevils but differ in hue and patterns. Presence of wings concealed beneath wing covers, and thorax extensively pitted with round punctures. Generally, both sexes are similar; however, the male's rostrum is shorter and larger. Females deposit approximately 300 to 400 eggs. Adults are proficient fliers, traveling between granaries and grain fields for direct infestation (Ahmad et al., 2022 ). Both larva and adult stages of the rice weevil are capable of damaging the grains by boring and feeding into them (Rees, 2004 ; Khanal et al., 2021 ). Adult weevils feed mainly on endosperms, which decreases the carbohydrate content of the grains. In contrast, larvae feed on the germ of the grain, removing the proteins and vitamin content of the grain (Akhter et al., 2017 ). These damages are often hastened when moisture content (> 12%), relative humidity (> 70%), and temperature (> 27˚C) favor the growth and development of the weevil (Khanal et al., 2021 ). The rice weevil, Sitophilus oryzae L (Coleoptera: Curculionidae), is one of the most destructive pests of stored grains (Maize, Rice, Wheat, and other cereals) (Cogburn, 1977 ; Padín et al., 2002 ; USDA, 2016; Vijay & Bhuvaneswari, 2018 ; Charles Kasozi et al., 2018). Different cereals, stored in traditional structures such as bhakari (rolled bamboo or straw mat), wooden baskets, earthen clay pots, bamboo baskets, hung in rope with husks, and raised piled structures, are especially infested by the Rice weevil (Kandel, 2021 ). Rural farmers in Nepal lack the necessary technology and skills for proper long-term management of stored grains. Existing storage practices adopted by farmers, whether for short-term or long-term use, are predominantly outdated and inefficient, making the stored pest vulnerable to infestation by pests such as rice weevils. Nepalese farmers prioritize enhancing production rather than minimizing post-harvest losses, especially due to storage pests (Subedi et al., 2009 ). The proposed study on the oviposition preferences of Sitophilus oryzae is based on the need to tackle the critical post-harvest challenge. Although efforts have been made to enhance grain production, inadequate storage management and unchecked infestations of Sitophilus oryzae lead to significant post-harvest losses. Particularly among rural smallholder farmers of Chitwan, who rely on a traditional storage system. The capability of S. oryzae to infest and damage grains urges us to study its host preferences to develop targeted pest management strategies, including improved storage facilities. Prior studies show that S. oryzae exhibits strong oviposition (egg-laying) preferences based on grain type, nutritional value, and storage conditions (Gvozdenac et al., 2020). 2. MATERIALS AND METHODS 2.1 Description of study area The study was conducted in the Entomology laboratory of Rampur Campus located at Khairahani − 5, Chitwan, from May to August 2025, at 27° 36’ 17” N latitude, 84° 33’ 12” E longitude, 213 m above sea level. 2.2 Mass rearing Six plastic jars (16.6 × 7.7 cm), each of 500g capacity, were used. Wheat grains were cleaned, sterilized at 60°C for 4 hours in a hot air oven, shade dried, and frozen at -20°C for 24 hours to eliminate any infestation at any insect stage (Yadhav et al., 2018). Adults of S. oryzae were collected from the infested grains and introduced into the jars, with fifteen pairs of rice weevil released into each jar. The jar was covered with a fine mesh for aeration. Parent weevils were removed after 7 days of inoculation to prevent overlapping generations and uncontrolled populations. The females laid eggs inside the grains, where the larvae developed internally, feeding until pupation. After 4–6 weeks, newly emerged adults (pure culture) were collected. 2.3 Treatment details Table 1 Details of treatments used S.N. Treatments Variety 1. T1 = Rice ( Oryza sativa) Sawa Mansuli sub- 1 2. T2 = Maize ( Zea mays ) Arun- 2 3. T3 = Wheat ( Triticum aestivum ) Gautam 4. T4 = Barley ( Hordeum vulgare ) Local 5. T5 = Sorghum ( Sorghum bicolor ) Local 6. T6 = Oats ( Avena sativa) Local 2.4 Experimental setup 2.5 Free choice setup 100 grains of each cereal seed were placed in separate petri plates. The petri plates were arranged horizontally in a circular manner at equal distances from the center within a plastic basin measuring 45 cm × 15 cm. The plastic basin was divided into six equal compartments to accommodate all treatments. Fifty pairs of newly emerged rice weevils ( Sitophilus oryzae ) were released at the center of the basin, providing the adults with a free choice of grains. The basin was then covered with a nylon net to allow proper aeration while preventing insect escape. The experiment was conducted under controlled conditions, with a temperature of 30 ± 5°C and relative humidity of 60 ± 10%. This setup allowed the observation and recording of rice weevil host preference among different cereal grains. 2.6 No choice setup Insects were morphologically identified as follows: rice weevil: smaller, dull reddish, with four brown spots on the elytra (Koehler, 2021); maize weevil: slightly larger, dark brown to black with reddish stains on the elytra (Mason & McDonough, 2012). In the no-choice test, 100 grains from each of the six treatments (i.e., crops) were placed in 16.6×7.7 cm cylindrical jars, which were replicated four times in a Completely Randomized design (CRD). Fifty pairs of newly emerged rice weevils ( Sitophilus oryzae ) were released into each jar. The jars were then covered with a nylon net to allow proper aeration while preventing insect escape. The experiment was conducted under controlled conditions, with a temperature of 30 ± 5°C and relative humidity of 60 ± 10%. This setup allowed the observation and recording of rice weevil host preference among different cereal grains. 2.7 Observations Data were recorded from the 15th day and data were collected for 60-day period. 2.7.1 Grain damage For recording grain damage percentage, emergence hole, oviposition puncture, and broken grains with frass were observed in grains at every 15-day interval and grain damage percentage is calculated as; Damage% = \(\:\frac{Nd}{Tn}\times\:100\dots\:\dots\:..\left(\text{e}\text{q}\:1\right)\) (Enobakhare and Law-Ogbomo, 2002 ) Where, Nd = No. of damaged grains Tn = Total number of grains 2.7.2 Weight loss To assess the extent of seed damage caused by insect infestation, weight loss was calculated as an indicator of quantitative deterioration at the end of the research. The reduction in seed weight results from the consumption of seed contents by insects, leaving behind damaged or hollow grains. The percentage of weight loss was determined using the following formula: Weight loss % = \(\:\:\left(\frac{W1-W2}{W1}\right)\times\:100\) ………… (Eq. 2) Lal, 1988 ) where, W1 = Initial weight of seed before infestation W2 = Final weight of damaged seed 2.7.3 Germination percentage Germination percent was assessed before and at the end of the research using petri plate method. Before the experiment, 100 randomly selected seeds from each cereal were placed in petri plate dishes (99mm × 20 mm) on moist filter paper and maintained at room temperature. At the end of the experiment, 25 grains from each replication (a total of 100 grains per treatment) were tested in the same way. After the completion of germination, the number of germinated grains was counted and recorded, and the germination percentage was calculated using the following formula: \(\:G\text{e}\text{r}\text{m}\text{i}\text{n}\text{a}\text{t}\text{i}\text{o}\text{n}\:\mathbf{\%}=\frac{\text{N}\text{G}}{\text{T}\text{G}}\:\text{X}\:\:100\) ………. (Eq. 3) (ISTA, 2023) where, NG = number of seeds germinated TG = total number of seeds tested 2.8 Statistical analysis Data was recorded and entered in Microsoft Excel (2023). The mean values of different parameters obtained from the study were recorded and subjected to statistical analysis by using the analysis of variance (ANOVA) technique using the R Studio software (Version 2025.05.1). Treatment means were compared using Duncan’s multiple range test (DMRT) at 5% probability level and significant differences among the means were separated by using least significant difference (LSD) at 5% level. 3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 3.1 Free choice test 3.1.1 Grain damage Significant differences in damage percentage were observed at all-time points (p < 0.001). The percentage of grain damage was highest in wheat at 15 days, 30 days,45 days and 60 days with 7.25%,13.50%,22.00% and 28.25% respectively. While oats had the least number of grain damage percentage i.e 1.00%,2.00%,3.00% and 3.25% at 15, 30, 45 and 60 days respectively. The ascending order of grain damage percentage at the end of an experiment was oats < rice < barley < maize < sorghum < wheat where rest of the treatment differ significantly but barley and rice did not differ significantly with each other at 5% level of significance by LSD test. Sorghum, maize, barley and rice had 16.00%,13.50%, 8.00% and 7.50% of grain damage, respectively at the end of the experiment. In line with the findings of Awadalla et al. (2024), our research confirms that cereal grains show varying levels of damage from Sitophilus oryzae during storage. Wheat was the most affected, suffering the highest grain at the end of the experiment and oats the least preferred. None of the cereals showed immunity to the weevil (Bhargude et al., 2021 ). The strong preference for wheat can be explained by its higher content of attractive volatiles, such as 2-ethylhexanol, piperitone, and (+)-Δ-cadiene, which act as chemical cues that stimulate weevil migration and oviposition, ultimately leading to greater infestation and grain damage (Lu et al., 2024 ). This shows wheat is a prime target for the rice weevil, likely due to its nutrients and structure, which make it easy for the pest to infest. In contrast, oats were the least affected, supporting their lower vulnerability and less instances of grain damage (Awadalla et al. 2021). The reason behind this is the presence of natural defense compounds like avenacosides, phenolics, and fatty acids, which function as feeding deterrents, lower palatability and hinder larval development, thereby providing oats with a degree of resistance against storage pests (Manjhu et al., 2022 ). Oats and many barleys are “covered” cereals; the lemma and palea remain tightly adherent to the caryopsis after threshing, creating a dense, lignocellulosic hull (hydroxycinnamic acids). This husk is a physical barrier to oviposition and can reduce kernel palatability to internal feeders like S. oryzae (Kärkönen et al., 2022 ). Table 2 Grain damage percentage caused by S. oryzae at different time frames Treatments Grain damage % 15th day 30th day 45th day 60th day T1 (Rice) 2.25 ± 0.25 d 3.50 ± 0.29 d 7.25 ± 0.48 d 7.50 ± 0.29 d T2 (Maize) 3.50 ± 0.29 c 7.00 ± 0.41 c 12.50 ± 0.29 c 13.50 ± 0.29 c T3 (Wheat) 7.25 ± 0.25 a 13.50 ± 0.29 a 22.00 ± 0.41 a 28.25 ± 0.48 a T4 (Barley) 2.0 ± 0.00 d 5.50 ± 0.00 d 6.50 ± 0.29 d 8.00 ± 0.00 d T5 (Sorghum) 4.75 ± 0.25 b 9.25 ± 0.25 b 13.50 ± 0.29 b 16.00 ± 0.41 b T6 (Oats) 1.0 ± 0.00 e 2.0 ± 0.00 e 3.00 ± 0.00 e 3.25 ± 0.25 e Grand Mean 3.45 6.37 10.79 12.75 SEm ± 0.21 0.25 0.32 0.32 LSD 0.63 0.76 0.94 0.95 CV% 12.28 8.05 6.08 5.06 F Test *** *** *** *** Note: CV: Coefficient of Variation; LSD: Least significant difference; SEm±: Standard error of mean; ***: Significant at 0.001 level of significance; Values with the same letters in a column are not significantly different at 5% level of significance by LSD test. 3.1.2 Weight loss The experiment evaluated weight loss percentages caused by Sitophilus oryzae among six grain treatments (T1: Rice, T2: Maize, T3: Wheat, T4: Barley, T5: Sorghum, T6: Oats). Significant differences in weight loss were observed among the treatments (p < 0.001). Wheat (T3) exhibited the highest weight loss of 20.01%, significantly greater than all other treatments. Sorghum (T5) followed with 16.01% weight loss, statistically distinguishable from maize (T2) at 13.01%. Rice (T1) recorded 9.99% weight loss, followed by barley (T4) at 7.03%. Oats (T6) showed the lowest weight loss at 1.52%, significantly lower than all other treatments. Subedi et al. ( 2009 ) confirmed higher weight loss percentages in wheat and polished rice under free-choice conditions, indicating wheat's suitability for weevil feeding and reproduction. Awadalla et al. (2021) supported this, noting that wheat attracted the maximum number of weevils, resulting in the highest weight loss percentage. The preference for wheat is likely due to its nutritional content, presence of volatiles and lack of physical barriers, making it more accessible for feeding and oviposition. In contrast, oats was the least preferred grain and similar findings were found on (Manju et al., 2022). Table 3 Weight loss percentage caused by S. oryzae at day 60 Treatments Weight loss (%) T1 (Rice) 9.99 ± 0.08 d T2 (Maize) 13.01 ± 0.26 c T3 (Wheat) 20.01 ± 0.10 a T4 (Barley) 7.03 ± 0.08 e T5 (Sorghum) 16.01 ± 0.25 b T6 (Oats) 1.52 ± 0.09 f Grand Mean 11.26 SEm ± 2.91 LSD 0.16 CV% 2.91 F Test *** Note: CV: Coefficient of Variation; LSD: Least significant difference; SEm±: Standard error of mean; ***: Significant at 0.001 level of significance; Values with the same letters in a column are not significantly different at 5% level of significance by LSD test. 3.1.3 Germination percentage Table 4 Germination percentage of different grains pre and post infestation of S. oryzae Treatments Germination % Before After T1 (Rice) 94 ± 1.11 a 84 ± 1.63 b T2 (Maize) 93 ± 1.00 ab 82 ± 1.15 b T3 (Wheat) 90 ± 1.15 b 70 ± 1.15 c T4 (Barley) 86 ± 1.15 c 81 ± 2.52 b T5 (Sorghum) 96 ± 1.63 a 89 ± 1.91 a T6 (Oats) 82 ± 1.15 d 79 ± 1 b Grand Mean 90.16 80.83 SEm ± 1.2 1.6 LSD 3.6 4.9 CV% 2.71 4.08 F Test *** *** Note: CV: Coefficient of Variation; LSD: Least significant difference; SEm±: Standard error of mean; ***: Significant at 0.001 level of significance; Values with the same letters in a column are not significantly different at 5% level of significance by LSD test Significant differences were observed among treatments for both pre and post infestation germination percentages (p < 0.001). Before infestation, sorghum (T5) and rice (T1) exhibited the highest germination percentages at 96% and 94% respectively, statistically similar to each other but significantly higher than other treatments. Maize (T2) followed with 93%, statistically indistinguishable from wheat (T3) at 90%. Barley (T4) recorded 86%, and oats (T6) had the lowest germination at 82%, significantly lower than all other treatments. After infestation, sorghum (T5) maintained the highest germination percentage at 89%, significantly higher than other treatments. Rice (T1), maize (T2), barley (T4), and oats (T6) recorded 84%, 82%, 81%, and 79%, respectively, with no significant differences among them. Wheat (T3) showed the lowest germination at 70%, significantly lower than all other treatments. The highest difference in germination percentage was obtained in wheat i.e 20% and lowest in oats i.e 3%. The results of this study, showing significant germination percentage reduction in wheat is due to Sitophilus oryzae infestation, are consistent with past research by Mehta et al. ( 2021 ), who reported substantial germination declines in wheat due to severe embryo injury caused by rice weevil larvae, as supported by Liu et al. (2021), who noted that germination losses primarily arise from larval feeding on the embryo. The embryo, being critical for seed viability, when damaged by larvae, directly reduces germination potential, explaining wheat’s high susceptibility. Conversely, oats exhibited the least germination reduction, aligning with Manjhu et al. ( 2022 ), who attributed oats’ resistance to protective compounds like avenacosides that deter larval embryo damage. Sorghum, despite higher grain damage compared to maize, showed a similar germination reduction, likely because S. oryzae primarily caused endosperm damage in sorghum, which affects grain weight more than the embryo critical for germination. 3.2 No- choice test 3.2.1 Grain damage There were significant differences among the treatments in the grain damage percentage caused by S. oryzae at the 15th day (p < 0.01), 30th day (p < 0.001), 45th day (p < 0.001), and 60th day (p < 0.001). During the experiment, at the 15th day, the greatest number of damaged grains was observed in sorghum (5.75%), which was statistically distinguishable from maize (3.50%), barley (3.50%) and oats (3.0%) and grain damage percentage in rice (5.25%) and in wheat (5.50%) was statistically indistinguishable (Table 2 ). On day 30, the highest percentage of grain damage was found in rice (9.0%), followed by maize (7.5%), wheat (6.5%), sorghum (6.0%), barley (4.0%), and oats (3.0%). Damage caused by S. oryzae on day 45 was lowest in oats (4.0%), and highest in rice (10.25%), followed by maize (9.75%), wheat (9.0%), sorghum (8%), and barley (4.50%). Similarly, on day 60, Wheat (14.50%) recorded the highest damage caused by S. oryzae , followed by rice (13.0%), maize (12.25%), sorghum (9.50%), barley (6.0%), and the lowest damage was found in oats (4.75%) which is statistically similar to that of barley. Grain damage values across wheat, rice and maize were found statistically non-significant at 60 days. Findings are consistent with the findings of Bhargude et al. ( 2021 ) However, these findings are opposite to observations of Subedi et al. ( 2009 ), who reported that polished rice (14%) was the most susceptible grain under no-choice conditions. Polishing rice (i.e., removing bran and pericarp layers) increases its susceptibility to S. oryzae infestation (Lucas & Riudavets, 2002 ). Wheat, maize, rice release high amounts of semiochemicals (aldehyde, ketones from lipid/carbohydrate metabolism), and weevil uses these volatiles as a signal to locate their host (Germinara et al., 2008 ). Behavioral assays with single cereal volatiles have shown clear attraction responses in weevil reinforcing the role of cereal odor chemistry in host finding (Germinara et al., 2008 ). Oats and many barleys are “covered” cereals; the lemma and palea remain tightly adherent to the caryopsis after threshing, creating a dense, lignocellulosic hull (hydroxycinnamic acids). This husk is a physical barrier to oviposition and can reduce kernel palatability to internal feeders like S. oryzae (Kärkönen et al., 2022 ). Previous studies on oat and barley hulls document their lignocellulosic toughness, consistent with this barrier hypothesis (Rosentrater & Bucklin, 2018 ). Lignin concentration of the hulls is negatively correlated with digestibility (Crosbie et al. 1984 ; Thompson et al. 2000). Phenolics and proanthocyanidins found on hulls of oats and barley are widely reported to reduce palatability or deter feeding in phytophagous insects (Varga et al., 2018 ). Table 5 Grain damage percentage caused by S. oryzae at different time frames Grain damage% Treatments 15th day 30th day 45th day 60th day T1 (Rice) 5.25 ± 0.85 a 9.00 ± 0.40 a 10.25 ± 0.25 a 13.00 ± 0.40 a T2 (Maize) 3.50 ± 0.50 b 7.5 ± 0.28 b 9.75 ± 0.47 ab 12.25 ± 1.31 a T3 (Wheat) 5.50 ± 0.28 a 6.5 ± 0.28 bc 9.0 ± 0.40 bc 14.50 ± 0.86 a T4 (Barley) 3.50 ± 0.64 b 4.0 ± 0.40 d 4.50 ± 0.28 d 6.00 ± 0.40 c T5 (Sorghum) 5.75 ± 0.25 a 6.0 ± 0.40 c 8.0 ± 0.48 c 9.50 ± 0.64 b T6 (Oats) 3.00 ± 0.00 b 3.0 ± 0.40 d 4.0 ± 0.00 d 4.75 ± 0.25 c Grand Mean 4.41 6.00 7.58 10 SEm ± 0.5 0.37 0.34 0.74 LSD 1.50 1.10 1.02 2.20 CV % 22.95 12.42 9.06 2.20 F Test ** *** *** *** Note: CV: Coefficient of Variation; LSD: Least significant difference; SEm±: Standard error of mean; **: Significant at 0.01 level of significance; ***: Significant at 0.001 level of significance; Values with the same letters in a column are not significantly different at 5% level of significance by LSD test 3.2.2 Weight loss Table 6 Weight loss percentage caused by S. oryzae infestation in different host crops Treatments Weight loss (%) T1 (Rice) 13.22 ± 0.32 b T2 (Maize) 9.01 ± 0.22 c T3 (Wheat) 17.44 ± 0.24 a T4 (Barley) 7.63 ± 0.46 d T5 (Sorghum) 4.27 ± 0.41 e T6 (Oats) 2.21 ± 0.26 f Grand Mean 8.96 SEm ± 0.33 LSD 0.99 CV % 7.43 F Test *** Note: CV: Coefficient of Variation; LSD: Least significant difference; SEm±: Standard error of mean; ***: Significant at 0.001 level of significance; Values with the same letters in a column are not significantly different at 5% level of significance by LSD test The data recorded on weight loss due to the infestation of S. oryzae on different selected cereals are presented in Table 6 above. Based on the weight loss percentage, wheat (17.44%) appeared to be the most preferred host for S. oryzae , which was significantly greater (p < 0.001) than all observed values of other treatments aligning with the findings of Subedi et al. ( 2009 ) and Awadella et al. (2024). The lowest weight loss was seen in oats (2.21%). Rice (13.22%), maize (9.01%), barley (7.63%), and sorghum (4.27%) also differed significantly from each other in weight loss assessment. Wheat’s headspace contains higher amounts of key attractants- 2-ethylhexanol, piperitone, and (+)-Δ-cadiene than the other cereals, they are major components in both maize and wheat but abundant in wheat, so odor field from wheat more often exceeds S. oryzae ’s olfactory response threshold; consequently, more adults arrive and settle and oviposition increases and cumulative weight loss is greater in wheat. While oats and barley emit weaker/different blends of these cues, causing lower weight losses (Lu et al., 2024 ). The results from the research are compatible with NHPI (Natal Hypothesis Preference Induction) but don't prove the natal experience effects. The NHPI hypothesis predicts that females prefer to lay their eggs on the same host species on which they developed as larvae (Davis & Stamps, 2004 ). Beyond the NHPI, innate olfactory biases, along with cereal-specific volatile compounds of the host (Trematerra et al., 2013 ). 3.2.3 Germination percentage There were significant differences among the treatments in germination percentage before the infestation(p < 0.001) of S. oryzae and after the infestation(p < 0.001). The results obtained on the effect of S. oryzae infestation on the germination percentage of different selected grains are presented in Table 7 . Table 7 Germination percentage of different grains before and after the infestation by S. oryzae Germination % Treatments Before After T1 (Rice) 94 ± 1.11 a 81 ± 1.00 b T2 (Maize) 93 ± 1.00 ab 83 ± 1.00 b T3 (Wheat) 90 ± 1.15 b 72 ± 1.63 c T4 (Barley) 86 ± 1.15 c 81 ± 1.00 b T5 (Sorghum) 96 ± 1.63 a 88 ± 1.63 a T6 (Oats) 82 ± 1.15 d 79 ± 1.00 b Grand Mean 90.16 80.66 SEm ± 1.2 1.2 LSD 3.6 3.7 CV % 2.71 3.09 F Test *** *** Note: CV: Coefficient of Variation; LSD: Least significant difference; SEm±: Standard error of mean; ***: Significant at 0.001 level of significance; Values with the same letters in a column are not significantly different at 5% level of significance by LSD test Before the infestation highest germination percentage was observed in sorghum (96%), which was on par with rice (94%) and maize (93%). The lowest germination percentage was observed in oats (82%). Wheat (90%) and barley (86%) were intermediate and statistically different from extremes. After the infestation by S. oryzae , sorghum maintained the highest germination percentage (88%), which was statistically significant from all other cereals. Germination percentage of maize (83%), rice (81%), barley (81%), oats (79%) was statistically significant. The highest absolute reduction in germination percentage was observed in wheat (18%), which was significantly higher than that of other cereals (p < 0.001). It was followed by rice (13%), maize (10%), which didn’t differ significantly from each other but were significantly different from other treatments. Reduction in germination percentage in sorghum was 8%, barley (5%), and the lowest was found in oats (3%), where barley and oats at significantly par (p < 0.001). As wheat recorded the highest weight loss, the pattern matches S. oryzae biology: adults feed on the endosperm, while larvae consume the germ, damaging the embryo and reducing viability (Mehta et al., 2021 ). Weight loss in grains occurs mainly due to endosperm damage and reduction in germination percentage is largely caused by embryo injury (Dal Bello et al., 2000 ). Infestation creates hot and humid environment inside the seed that promotes the mold and eventually lowers the viability of the seeds (FAO, 2013 ). Avenacocides concentrated in husk, preventing grain damage and weight loss, resulting in the lowest germination percentage drop (Pesico et al., 2013). 3.3 Comparison between no-choice and free-choice conditions 3.3.1 Grain damage Grain damage at 60 days was greatest in wheat under free choice (28.50%) than in no choice conditions (14.50%). The lowest grain damage was observed in oats under free choice conditions (3.75%) than in no choice conditions (4.75%) as shown in the figure (1). 3.3.2 Weight loss The figure (2) below illustrates the percentage of weight loss in different grains caused by S. oryzae after 60 days under no-choice and free-choice conditions. The highest weight loss was observed in wheat under both no-choice (17.44%) and free-choice (20.1%). Lowest weight loss was observed in oats under free choice (1.52%) and 2.21% under no choice conditions, suggesting a strong level of resistance or non-preference by the weevil. 3.3.3 Germination percentage The graph above shows the loss in germination viability in percentage points (pp) of different grains caused by S. oryzae . Overall, the drop in germination percentage varied among the grains. Wheat experienced the highest percentage drop (20%) under free choice and 17% under no choice conditions. The lowest percentage drop was observed in oats (3%) under both free choice and no choice conditions. 4. CONCLUSION This study found that different host grains have significant effect on infestation dynamics of S. oryzae , on grain damage, weight loss and germination percentage in both free choice and no choice conditions. Wheat was consistently most susceptible grain, showing the highest grain damage (14.50% in no-choice; 28.25% at 60 days in free-choice), the greatest weight loss (17.44% in no-choice and 20.01% in free choice) and the largest germination reduction (18% in no choice and 20% in free choice), whereas oats were least preferred, with the lowest grain damage (4.75% in no-choice; 3.25% at 60 days in free-choice), minimal weight loss (1.52–2.21%), and only 3% germination reduction likely due to the protective effect of the husk, suggesting husked grains can be stored longer than unhusked grains. Overall, all major cereals were attackable, but oats and barley were relatively less preferred and thus more suitable for longer storage, while wheat requires strict protection and frequent inspection to minimize losses; to enhance robustness and external validity, future work should include multi-year trials with larger sample sizes, validation under farmers’ storage conditions, and biochemical studies to identify host volatiles influencing S. oryzae behavior. Declarations Acknowledgement Authors would like to extend their deepest gratitude to Institute of Agriculture and Animal Science, Rampur Campus, Tribhuvan University, Nepal, for providing research support and facilities throughout the experiment. No external funding was received for this research. Consent for publication All authors agree to be coauthors in the order submitted. Author contribution CRediT: Aashish Gyawali: Data curation, data analysis, Investigation, Methods, Resources, Software, Writing - original draft, review and editing; Apsara Neupane: Investigation, Methodology, Resources, writing – review and editing; Achyut Gaire: Conceptualization, Review and editing, Kapil Kafle: Conceptualization, Resources, Supervision, Validation, final review and editing. Data availability Data will be made available upon request via the corresponding email address. Funding Not applicable Conflict of Interest The authors indicate no conflict of interest in this work. References Ahmad, R., Hassan, S., Dar, S. A., Nighat, S., Devi, Y. K., Javeed, K., Usmani, S., Ansari, M. J., Erturk, S., Alkan, M., & Hussain, B. (2022). Stored grain pests and current advances for their management. In Postharvest Technology – Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Applications (pp. 1–38). IntechOpen. https://doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.101503 Ahmed, A. G., Ali, M. H. M., Osama, S. S., Mahmoud, Z. N., Nasr, D. H., Sheikheldin, M. E., Altaf-Ul-Amin, M., Afendi, F. M., Kanaya, S., Idris, I., Sinrang, A. W., Arsyad, A., Alwi, S., Sandira, M. I., Fonseka, D. L. C. K., Wickramaarachchi, W. W. U. I., Sarker, M. J., Patwary, M. S. A., Uddin, A. M. M. B., … Parikh, P. (2020). Recent research advances in biology (Vol. 2). Book Publisher International. https://doi.org/10.3329/bjz.v45i2.35708 Akhter, M., Sultana, S., Akter, T., & Begum, S. (2017). Oviposition preference and development of rice weevil, Sitophilus oryzae (Linnaeus) (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) in different stored grains. Bangladesh Journal of Zoology , 45 (2), 131–138. https://doi.org/10.3329/bjz.v45i2.35708 Awadallah, S. S. I., Ata, T. E., Hashem, A. S., & Shetefa, M. F. (2024). Influence of Different Stored Grains on Adult Emergence Rates and Weight Loss by the Rice Weevil Sitophilus oryzae (Coleoptera: Curculionidae). Journal of Plant Protection and Pathology , 15 (1), 45–49. https://doi.org/10.21608/jppp.2024.258681.1201 Bhargude, A. R., Patil, S. K., & Bhede, B. V. (2021). Susceptibility of selected cereal crops in storage to rice weevil, Sitophilus oryzae (Linnaeus). The Pharma Innovation Journal , 10 (1), 570–575. Bhatia, K., Singh, V. S., & Bansal, M. G. (1975). Varietal resistance in barley grain to laboratory infestation of rice weevil and lesser grain borer. Bulletin of Grain Technology , 13 (2), 69–72. Cogburn, R. R. (1977). Susceptibility of varieties of stored rough rice to losses caused by storage insects. Journal of Stored Products Research , 13 , 29–34. Crosbie, G. B., Tarr, A. W., Portmann, P. A., & Rowe, J. B. (1984). Variation in hull composition and digestibility among oat genotypes. Crop Science , 25 (4), 678–680. Dahal, N., et al. (2022). A Study on Dynamics of Major Cereal Crop Production in Nepal . International Journal of Social Sciences and Management, 9(1), 13–18. https://doi.org/10.3126/ijssm.v9i1.42716 Dal Bello, G., Padin, S., Lastra, C., & Fabrizio, M. (2000). Laboratory evaluation of chemical–biological control of the rice weevil ( Sitophilus oryzae L.) in stored grains. Journal of Stored Products Research , 37 , 77–84. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0022–474X(00)00009–6 Davis, J. M., & Stamps, J. A. (2004). The effect of natal experience on habitat preferences. Trends in Ecology & Evolution , 19 (8), 411–416. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0169–5347(04)00116–8 Emery, R., & Cousins, D. (2019). Insect pests of stored grain . Agriculture and Food, Department of Primary Industries and Regional Development, 8. Enobakhare, D. A., & Law-Ogbomo, K. E. (2002). Reduction of post-harvest loss caused by Sitophilus zeamais (Motsch) in three varieties of maize treated with plant products. Post-Harvest Science , 1 , 1–6. FAO. (2013). Manual of the prevention of post-harvest grain losses: The fundamentals of storage . Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. https://www.fao.org/3/i3324e/i3324e.pdf Germinara, G. S., De Cristofaro, A., & Rotundo, G. (2008). Behavioral responses of adult Sitophilus granarius to individual cereal volatiles. Journal of Chemical Ecology , 34 (4), 523–529. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10886–008–9454–y International Seed Testing Association. (2023). Chapter 5: The germination test. In International Rules for Seed Testing, 2023 (pp. i-5–58). ISTA. https://doi.org/10.15258/istarules.2023.I Kandel, P. (2021). Assessment of postharvest pest management practices in Nepal and efficacy of hypoxia for controlling Sitophilus oryzae L. (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) [Master’s thesis, Purdue University]. Purdue University Repository. Kärkönen, A., Korpinen, R., Järvenpää, E., Aalto, A., & Saranpää, P. (2022). Properties of oat and barley hulls and suitability for food packaging materials. Journal of natural fibers, 19(16), 13326–13336. https://doi.org/10.1080/15440478.2022.2091709 Khanal, D., Neupane, S. B., Bhattarai, A., Khatri-Chhetri, S., Nakarmi, N., Sapkota, S., et al. (2021). Evaluation of botanical powders for the management of rice weevil ( Sitophilus oryzae L. Coleoptera: Curculionidae) in Rupandehi, Nepal. Advances in Agriculture, 2021 , Article 6624307. https://doi.org/10.1155/2021/8878525 Lal, S. (1988). Estimation of losses and economics of specific storage losses. In Proceedings of the Regional Workshop on On-Farm Storage Facilities and Design, Haripur, India (pp. 79–89). Lu, S., Zhang, L., Lu, Y., Chen, M., & Wang, Z. (2024). Host volatiles potentially drive two evolutionarily related weevils to select different grains. Insects , 15 (5), 300. https://doi.org/10.3390/insects15050300 Lucas, É., & Riudavets, J. (2002). Biological and mechanical control of Sitophilus oryzae (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) in rice. Journal of Stored Products Research , 38 (3), 293–304. Manjhu, A., Lekha, Mahla, M. K., Chhangani, G., & Kumar, K. (2022). Host preference studies of rice weevil, Sitophilus oryzae L. on various cereals. The Pharma Innovation Journal, 11(1), 1363–1367. Mehta, V., Kumar, S., & Jayaram, S. (2021). Damage potential, effect on germination, and development of Sitophilus oryzae (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) on wheat grains in Northwestern Himalayas. Journal of Insect Science, 21(3), 8. https://doi.org/10.1093/jisesa/ieab042 Padín, S., Dal Bello, G., & Fabrizio, M. (2002). Grain loss caused by Tribolium castaneum , Sitophilus oryzae and Acanthoscelides obtectus in stored durum wheat and beans treated with Beauveria bassiana . Journal of Stored Products Research, 38 (1), 69–74. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0022–474X(00)00046–1 Pescio, Ł., Wawrzyniak-Szołkowska, A., Oleszek, W., & Stochmal, A. (2013). Rapid analysis of avenacosides in grain and husks of oats by UPLC–TQ–MS. Food Chemistry , 141 (3), 2300–2304. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2013.04.094 Rajendran, S., & Sriranjini, V. (2008). Plant products as fumigants for stored-product insect control. Journal of Stored Products Research , 44 (2), 126–135. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jspr.2007.08.003 Rees, D. (2004). Insects of Stored Products . CSIRO Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1071/9780643101128 Rosentrater, K. A., & Bucklin, R. (2018). Structural, physical, and engineering properties of cereal grains and grain products. In M. S. Ahmed, B. K. Tiwari, & S. Ahmed (Eds.), Handbook of cereal science and technology (pp. 167–194). Academic Press. Subedi, S., GC, Y. D., Thapa, R. B., & Rijal, J. P. (2009). Rice weevil ( Sitophilus oryzae L.) host preference of selected stored grains in Chitwan, Nepal. Journal of Institute of Agriculture and Animal Science , 30 , 151–158. Trematerra, P., Lupi, C., & Athanassiou, C. (2013). Does natal habitat preference modulate cereal kernel preferences in the rice weevil? Arthropod-Plant Interactions , 7 (3), 287–297. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11829–012–9243–y United States Department of Agriculture (USDA). (2016). Stored-grain insect reference . Federal Grain Inspection Service. Varga, M., Jójárt, R., Fónad, P., Mihály, R., & Palágyi, A. (2018). Phenolic composition and antioxidant activity of colored oats. Food Chemistry, 268, 153–161. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2018.06.035 Vijay, S., & Bhuvaneswari, K. (2018). Biology and development of Sitophilus oryzae L. feeding on split pulses. Indian Journal of Agricultural Research , 52 (2), 111–118. https://doi.org/10.18805/IJARe.A–4693 Yadav, M. K., Bhargava, M. C., Choudhary, M. D., & Choudhary, S. (2018). Relative susceptibility of different wheat varieties against rice weevil, Sitophilus oryzae (Linn.). Journal of Entomology and Zoology Studies , 6 (2), 2877–2879. 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1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":29480,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eGrain damage due to \u003c/strong\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eS. oryzae\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/em\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e on different hosts\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8309450/v1/b92f4b8c5d4575c4af5f6358.png"},{"id":97769342,"identity":"eeae1526-b7e9-4c65-9822-4b2bc6960d69","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-09 07:40:58","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":28475,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eWeight loss caused by \u003c/strong\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eS. oryzae\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/em\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e on different hosts\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8309450/v1/ba23cf7426bbd74ce48ad958.png"},{"id":97769341,"identity":"e1a1f399-c875-46ba-b4e7-d8b9bc907999","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-09 07:40:58","extension":"png","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":49319,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eGermination percentage drop by \u003c/strong\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eS. oryzae\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/em\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e on different hosts\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"3.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8309450/v1/bae999c72afb5a6d23bf83df.png"},{"id":105848474,"identity":"bb450922-731e-4209-89fd-56fd41cf7011","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-03-31 18:39:56","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":1288202,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8309450/v1/08121e2f-c645-470a-9f03-70fce44505a6.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Host Preference Dynamics of Rice Weevil (Sitophilus oryzae L.) in Stored Cereals","fulltext":[{"header":"1. INTRODUCTION","content":"\u003cp\u003eCereal crops significantly contribute to food and nutrition security in Nepal, as the dietary fulfillment of Nepalese people is primarily centered on these crops. Cereals provide 65% and 60% of the Nepalese population of total food energy and protein (Dahal et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Despite their vital role in food security, cereal crops are highly susceptible to different storage pests. Emery and Cousins (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e) claim that insect infestations cause the annual loss of between one-quarter and one-third of the world's grain harvest during storage. With losses estimated at 20\u0026ndash;30% in tropical areas and 5\u0026ndash;10% in temperate regions, the degree of both quantitative and qualitative damage caused by insect pests varies by location (Talukder, 2006; Rajendran \u0026amp; Sriranjini, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e). Different insects, including Rice/maize weevil (\u003cem\u003eSitophilus spp)\u003c/em\u003e, Angoumois grain moth (\u003cem\u003eSitotroga cerealella\u003c/em\u003e, Oliver), Indian meal moth (\u003cem\u003ePloida interpunctella\u003c/em\u003e, H\u0026uuml;bner), Lesser grain borer (\u003cem\u003eRhyzopertha dominica\u003c/em\u003e F.), Khapra beetle (\u003cem\u003eTrogoderma granarium\u003c/em\u003e, Everts), red rust flour beetle (\u003cem\u003eTribolium castaneum\u003c/em\u003e, Herbst), and legume weevil (\u003cem\u003eCallosobruchus spp\u003c/em\u003e.). Among these, the rice weevil (\u003cem\u003eSitophilus oryzae\u003c/em\u003e L.) is a cosmopolitan insect that infects various cereals, including Maize, Rice, Wheat, Barley, and sorghum (Bhatia et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1975\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe rice weevil is 2\u0026ndash;3 mm long characterized by a dark brown coloration, including four distinct patches on the elytra and noticeable spots on the thorax and abdomen. The maize weevil is slightly larger, averaging around 3 mm in length, and ranges in color from dull red brown to black, with four reddish stains on the elytra. Both species are capable of flight, but the maize weevil is a more vigorous flyer with well-developed wings, while the rice weevil can fly and is attracted to light (Ahmed et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003eb). Adults resemble granary weevils but differ in hue and patterns. Adults resemble granary weevils but differ in hue and patterns. Presence of wings concealed beneath wing covers, and thorax extensively pitted with round punctures. Generally, both sexes are similar; however, the male's rostrum is shorter and larger. Females deposit approximately 300 to 400 eggs. Adults are proficient fliers, traveling between granaries and grain fields for direct infestation (Ahmad et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Both larva and adult stages of the rice weevil are capable of damaging the grains by boring and feeding into them (Rees, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2004\u003c/span\u003e; Khanal et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). Adult weevils feed mainly on endosperms, which decreases the carbohydrate content of the grains. In contrast, larvae feed on the germ of the grain, removing the proteins and vitamin content of the grain (Akhter et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). These damages are often hastened when moisture content (\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;12%), relative humidity (\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;70%), and temperature (\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;27˚C) favor the growth and development of the weevil (Khanal et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe rice weevil, \u003cem\u003eSitophilus oryzae\u003c/em\u003e L (Coleoptera: Curculionidae), is one of the most destructive pests of stored grains (Maize, Rice, Wheat, and other cereals) (Cogburn, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1977\u003c/span\u003e; Pad\u0026iacute;n et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2002\u003c/span\u003e; USDA, 2016; Vijay \u0026amp; Bhuvaneswari, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; Charles Kasozi et al., 2018). Different cereals, stored in traditional structures such as bhakari (rolled bamboo or straw mat), wooden baskets, earthen clay pots, bamboo baskets, hung in rope with husks, and raised piled structures, are especially infested by the Rice weevil (Kandel, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). Rural farmers in Nepal lack the necessary technology and skills for proper long-term management of stored grains. Existing storage practices adopted by farmers, whether for short-term or long-term use, are predominantly outdated and inefficient, making the stored pest vulnerable to infestation by pests such as rice weevils. Nepalese farmers prioritize enhancing production rather than minimizing post-harvest losses, especially due to storage pests (Subedi et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe proposed study on the oviposition preferences of \u003cem\u003eSitophilus oryzae\u003c/em\u003e is based on the need to tackle the critical post-harvest challenge. Although efforts have been made to enhance grain production, inadequate storage management and unchecked infestations of \u003cem\u003eSitophilus oryzae\u003c/em\u003e lead to significant post-harvest losses. Particularly among rural smallholder farmers of Chitwan, who rely on a traditional storage system. The capability of \u003cem\u003eS. oryzae\u003c/em\u003e to infest and damage grains urges us to study its host preferences to develop targeted pest management strategies, including improved storage facilities. Prior studies show that \u003cem\u003eS. oryzae\u003c/em\u003e exhibits strong oviposition (egg-laying) preferences based on grain type, nutritional value, and storage conditions (Gvozdenac et al., 2020).\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"2. MATERIALS AND METHODS","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e2.1 Description of study area\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe study was conducted in the Entomology laboratory of Rampur Campus located at Khairahani \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;5, Chitwan, from May to August 2025, at 27\u0026deg; 36\u0026rsquo; 17\u0026rdquo; N latitude, 84\u0026deg; 33\u0026rsquo; 12\u0026rdquo; E longitude, 213 m above sea level.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec4\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e2.2 Mass rearing\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eSix plastic jars (16.6 \u0026times; 7.7 cm), each of 500g capacity, were used. Wheat grains were cleaned, sterilized at 60\u0026deg;C for 4 hours in a hot air oven, shade dried, and frozen at -20\u0026deg;C for 24 hours to eliminate any infestation at any insect stage (Yadhav et al., 2018). Adults of \u003cem\u003eS. oryzae\u003c/em\u003e were collected from the infested grains and introduced into the jars, with fifteen pairs of rice weevil released into each jar. The jar was covered with a fine mesh for aeration. Parent weevils were removed after 7 days of inoculation to prevent overlapping generations and uncontrolled populations. The females laid eggs inside the grains, where the larvae developed internally, feeding until pupation. After 4\u0026ndash;6 weeks, newly emerged adults (pure culture) were collected.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec5\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e2.3 Treatment details\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDetails of treatments used\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"3\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eS.N.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTreatments\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eVariety\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e1.\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eT1\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Rice (\u003cem\u003eOryza sativa)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSawa Mansuli sub- 1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e2.\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eT2\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Maize (\u003cem\u003eZea mays\u003c/em\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eArun- 2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e3.\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eT3\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Wheat (\u003cem\u003eTriticum aestivum\u003c/em\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eGautam\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e4.\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eT4\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Barley (\u003cem\u003eHordeum vulgare\u003c/em\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLocal\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e5.\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eT5\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Sorghum (\u003cem\u003eSorghum bicolor\u003c/em\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLocal\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e6.\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eT6\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Oats (\u003cem\u003eAvena sativa)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLocal\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e2.4 Experimental setup\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e2.5 Free choice setup\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e100 grains of each cereal seed were placed in separate petri plates. The petri plates were arranged horizontally in a circular manner at equal distances from the center within a plastic basin measuring 45 cm \u0026times; 15 cm. The plastic basin was divided into six equal compartments to accommodate all treatments. Fifty pairs of newly emerged rice weevils (\u003cem\u003eSitophilus oryzae\u003c/em\u003e) were released at the center of the basin, providing the adults with a free choice of grains. The basin was then covered with a nylon net to allow proper aeration while preventing insect escape. The experiment was conducted under controlled conditions, with a temperature of 30\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;5\u0026deg;C and relative humidity of 60\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;10%. This setup allowed the observation and recording of rice weevil host preference among different cereal grains.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec6\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e2.6 No choice setup\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eInsects were morphologically identified as follows: rice weevil: smaller, dull reddish, with four brown spots on the elytra (Koehler, 2021); maize weevil: slightly larger, dark brown to black with reddish stains on the elytra (Mason \u0026amp; McDonough, 2012). In the no-choice test, 100 grains from each of the six treatments (i.e., crops) were placed in 16.6\u0026times;7.7 cm cylindrical jars, which were replicated four times in a Completely Randomized design (CRD). Fifty pairs of newly emerged rice weevils (\u003cem\u003eSitophilus oryzae\u003c/em\u003e) were released into each jar. The jars were then covered with a nylon net to allow proper aeration while preventing insect escape. The experiment was conducted under controlled conditions, with a temperature of 30\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;5\u0026deg;C and relative humidity of 60\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;10%. This setup allowed the observation and recording of rice weevil host preference among different cereal grains.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec7\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e2.7 Observations\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eData were recorded from the 15th day and data were collected for 60-day period.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e2.7.1 Grain damage\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eFor recording grain damage percentage, emergence hole, oviposition puncture, and broken grains with frass were observed in grains at every 15-day interval and grain damage percentage is calculated as;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eDamage% = \u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\(\\:\\frac{Nd}{Tn}\\times\\:100\\dots\\:\\dots\\:..\\left(\\text{e}\\text{q}\\:1\\right)\\)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e (Enobakhare and Law-Ogbomo, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2002\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eWhere, Nd\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;No. of damaged grains\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eTn\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Total number of grains\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec9\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e2.7.2 Weight loss\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eTo assess the extent of seed damage caused by insect infestation, weight loss was calculated as an indicator of quantitative deterioration at the end of the research. The reduction in seed weight results from the consumption of seed contents by insects, leaving behind damaged or hollow grains. The percentage of weight loss was determined using the following formula:\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eWeight loss % =\u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\(\\:\\:\\left(\\frac{W1-W2}{W1}\\right)\\times\\:100\\)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip; (Eq.\u0026nbsp;2) Lal, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1988\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003ewhere, W1\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Initial weight of seed before infestation\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eW2\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Final weight of damaged seed\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec10\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e2.7.3 Germination percentage\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eGermination percent was assessed before and at the end of the research using petri plate method. Before the experiment, 100 randomly selected seeds from each cereal were placed in petri plate dishes (99mm \u0026times; 20 mm) on moist filter paper and maintained at room temperature. At the end of the experiment, 25 grains from each replication (a total of 100 grains per treatment) were tested in the same way. After the completion of germination, the number of germinated grains was counted and recorded, and the germination percentage was calculated using the following formula:\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\(\\:G\\text{e}\\text{r}\\text{m}\\text{i}\\text{n}\\text{a}\\text{t}\\text{i}\\text{o}\\text{n}\\:\\mathbf{\\%}=\\frac{\\text{N}\\text{G}}{\\text{T}\\text{G}}\\:\\text{X}\\:\\:100\\)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;\u0026hellip;. (Eq.\u0026nbsp;3) (ISTA, 2023)\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003ewhere,\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eNG\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;number of seeds germinated\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eTG\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;total number of seeds tested\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e2.8 Statistical analysis\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eData was recorded and entered in Microsoft Excel (2023). The mean values of different parameters obtained from the study were recorded and subjected to statistical analysis by using the analysis of variance (ANOVA) technique using the R Studio software (Version 2025.05.1). Treatment means were compared using Duncan\u0026rsquo;s multiple range test (DMRT) at 5% probability level and significant differences among the means were separated by using least significant difference (LSD) at 5% level.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec13\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.1 Free choice test\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec14\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.1.1 Grain damage\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eSignificant differences in damage percentage were observed at all-time points (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001). The percentage of grain damage was highest in wheat at 15 days, 30 days,45 days and 60 days with 7.25%,13.50%,22.00% and 28.25% respectively. While oats had the least number of grain damage percentage i.e 1.00%,2.00%,3.00% and 3.25% at 15, 30, 45 and 60 days respectively. The ascending order of grain damage percentage at the end of an experiment was oats\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;rice\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;barley\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;maize\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;sorghum\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;wheat where rest of the treatment differ significantly but barley and rice did not differ significantly with each other at 5% level of significance by LSD test. Sorghum, maize, barley and rice had 16.00%,13.50%, 8.00% and 7.50% of grain damage, respectively at the end of the experiment. In line with the findings of Awadalla et al. (2024), our research confirms that cereal grains show varying levels of damage from \u003cem\u003eSitophilus oryzae\u003c/em\u003e during storage. Wheat was the most affected, suffering the highest grain at the end of the experiment and oats the least preferred. None of the cereals showed immunity to the weevil (Bhargude et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). The strong preference for wheat can be explained by its higher content of attractive volatiles, such as 2-ethylhexanol, piperitone, and (+)-Δ-cadiene, which act as chemical cues that stimulate weevil migration and oviposition, ultimately leading to greater infestation and grain damage (Lu et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). This shows wheat is a prime target for the rice weevil, likely due to its nutrients and structure, which make it easy for the pest to infest. In contrast, oats were the least affected, supporting their lower vulnerability and less instances of grain damage (Awadalla et al. 2021). The reason behind this is the presence of natural defense compounds like avenacosides, phenolics, and fatty acids, which function as feeding deterrents, lower palatability and hinder larval development, thereby providing oats with a degree of resistance against storage pests (Manjhu et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Oats and many barleys are \u0026ldquo;covered\u0026rdquo; cereals; the lemma and palea remain tightly adherent to the caryopsis after threshing, creating a dense, lignocellulosic hull (hydroxycinnamic acids). This husk is a physical barrier to oviposition and can reduce kernel palatability to internal feeders like \u003cem\u003eS. oryzae\u003c/em\u003e (K\u0026auml;rk\u0026ouml;nen et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eGrain damage percentage caused by \u003cem\u003eS. oryzae\u003c/em\u003e at different time frames\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"5\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTreatments\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"4\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eGrain damage %\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e15th day\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e30th day\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e45th day\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e60th day\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eT1 (Rice)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.25\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.25\u003csup\u003ed\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.50\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.29 \u003csup\u003ed\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7.25\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.48 \u003csup\u003ed\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7.50\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.29\u003csup\u003ed\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eT2 (Maize)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.50\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.29 \u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7.00\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.41 \u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e12.50\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.29 \u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e13.50\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.29\u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eT3 (Wheat)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7.25\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.25\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e13.50\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.29\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e22.00\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.41 \u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e28.25\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.48 \u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eT4 (Barley)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.0\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.00\u003csup\u003ed\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5.50\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.00\u003csup\u003ed\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6.50\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.29 \u003csup\u003ed\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e8.00\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.00 \u003csup\u003ed\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eT5 (Sorghum)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.75\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.25\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e9.25\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.25\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e13.50\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.29 \u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e16.00\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.41 \u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eT6 (Oats)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.0\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.00\u003csup\u003ee\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.0\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.00 \u003csup\u003ee\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.00\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.00 \u003csup\u003ee\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.25\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.25 \u003csup\u003ee\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eGrand Mean\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.45\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6.37\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e10.79\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e12.75\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eSEm\u003c/b\u003e\u0026plusmn;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.21\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.25\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.32\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.32\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eLSD\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.63\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.76\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.94\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.95\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eCV%\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e12.28\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e8.05\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6.08\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5.06\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eF Test\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e***\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e***\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e***\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e***\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003ctfoot\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"5\"\u003eNote: CV: Coefficient of Variation; LSD: Least significant difference; SEm\u0026plusmn;: Standard error of mean; ***: Significant at 0.001 level of significance; Values with the same letters in a column are not significantly different at 5% level of significance by LSD test.\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tfoot\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec15\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.1.2 Weight loss\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe experiment evaluated weight loss percentages caused by \u003cem\u003eSitophilus oryzae\u003c/em\u003e among six grain treatments (T1: Rice, T2: Maize, T3: Wheat, T4: Barley, T5: Sorghum, T6: Oats). Significant differences in weight loss were observed among the treatments (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001). Wheat (T3) exhibited the highest weight loss of 20.01%, significantly greater than all other treatments. Sorghum (T5) followed with 16.01% weight loss, statistically distinguishable from maize (T2) at 13.01%. Rice (T1) recorded 9.99% weight loss, followed by barley (T4) at 7.03%. Oats (T6) showed the lowest weight loss at 1.52%, significantly lower than all other treatments. Subedi et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e) confirmed higher weight loss percentages in wheat and polished rice under free-choice conditions, indicating wheat's suitability for weevil feeding and reproduction. Awadalla et al. (2021) supported this, noting that wheat attracted the maximum number of weevils, resulting in the highest weight loss percentage. The preference for wheat is likely due to its nutritional content, presence of volatiles and lack of physical barriers, making it more accessible for feeding and oviposition. In contrast, oats was the least preferred grain and similar findings were found on (Manju et al., 2022).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eWeight loss percentage caused by \u003cem\u003eS. oryzae\u003c/em\u003e at day 60\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"2\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTreatments\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eWeight loss (%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eT1 (Rice)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e9.99\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.08 \u003csup\u003ed\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eT2 (Maize)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e13.01\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.26\u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eT3 (Wheat)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e20.01\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.10\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eT4 (Barley)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7.03\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.08 \u003csup\u003ee\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eT5 (Sorghum)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e16.01\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.25\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eT6 (Oats)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.52\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.09\u003csup\u003ef\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eGrand Mean\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e11.26\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eSEm\u003c/b\u003e\u0026plusmn;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.91\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eLSD\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.16\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eCV%\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.91\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eF Test\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e***\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eNote: CV: Coefficient of Variation; LSD: Least significant difference; SEm\u0026plusmn;: Standard error of mean; ***: Significant at 0.001 level of significance; Values with the same letters in a column are not significantly different at 5% level of significance by LSD test.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec16\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.1.3 Germination percentage\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab4\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 4\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eGermination percentage of different grains pre and post infestation of \u003cem\u003eS. oryzae\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"3\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTreatments\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c3\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eGermination %\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBefore\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAfter\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eT1 (Rice)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e94\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.11\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e84\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.63\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eT2 (Maize)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e93\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.00\u003csup\u003eab\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e82\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.15\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eT3 (Wheat)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e90\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.15\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e70\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.15\u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eT4 (Barley)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e86\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.15\u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e81\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.52\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eT5 (Sorghum)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e96\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.63\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e89\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.91 \u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eT6 (Oats)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e82\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.15\u003csup\u003ed\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e79\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1 \u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eGrand Mean\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e90.16\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e80.83\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eSEm\u003c/b\u003e\u0026plusmn;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eLSD\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.9\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eCV%\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.71\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.08\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eF Test\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e***\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e***\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003ctfoot\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"3\"\u003eNote: CV: Coefficient of Variation; LSD: Least significant difference; SEm\u0026plusmn;: Standard error of mean; ***: Significant at 0.001 level of significance; Values with the same letters in a column are not significantly different at 5% level of significance by LSD test\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tfoot\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eSignificant differences were observed among treatments for both pre and post infestation germination percentages (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001). Before infestation, sorghum (T5) and rice (T1) exhibited the highest germination percentages at 96% and 94% respectively, statistically similar to each other but significantly higher than other treatments. Maize (T2) followed with 93%, statistically indistinguishable from wheat (T3) at 90%. Barley (T4) recorded 86%, and oats (T6) had the lowest germination at 82%, significantly lower than all other treatments. After infestation, sorghum (T5) maintained the highest germination percentage at 89%, significantly higher than other treatments. Rice (T1), maize (T2), barley (T4), and oats (T6) recorded 84%, 82%, 81%, and 79%, respectively, with no significant differences among them. Wheat (T3) showed the lowest germination at 70%, significantly lower than all other treatments. The highest difference in germination percentage was obtained in wheat i.e 20% and lowest in oats i.e 3%. The results of this study, showing significant germination percentage reduction in wheat is due to \u003cem\u003eSitophilus oryzae\u003c/em\u003e infestation, are consistent with past research by Mehta et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e), who reported substantial germination declines in wheat due to severe embryo injury caused by rice weevil larvae, as supported by Liu et al. (2021), who noted that germination losses primarily arise from larval feeding on the embryo. The embryo, being critical for seed viability, when damaged by larvae, directly reduces germination potential, explaining wheat\u0026rsquo;s high susceptibility. Conversely, oats exhibited the least germination reduction, aligning with Manjhu et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e), who attributed oats\u0026rsquo; resistance to protective compounds like avenacosides that deter larval embryo damage. Sorghum, despite higher grain damage compared to maize, showed a similar germination reduction, likely because \u003cem\u003eS. oryzae\u003c/em\u003e primarily caused endosperm damage in sorghum, which affects grain weight more than the embryo critical for germination.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec17\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.2 No- choice test\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec18\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.2.1 Grain damage\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThere were significant differences among the treatments in the grain damage percentage caused by \u003cem\u003eS. oryzae\u003c/em\u003e at the 15th day (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.01), 30th day (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001), 45th day (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001), and 60th day (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001). During the experiment, at the 15th day, the greatest number of damaged grains was observed in sorghum (5.75%), which was statistically distinguishable from maize (3.50%), barley (3.50%) and oats (3.0%) and grain damage percentage in rice (5.25%) and in wheat (5.50%) was statistically indistinguishable (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eOn day 30, the highest percentage of grain damage was found in rice (9.0%), followed by maize (7.5%), wheat (6.5%), sorghum (6.0%), barley (4.0%), and oats (3.0%). Damage caused by \u003cem\u003eS. oryzae\u003c/em\u003e on day 45 was lowest in oats (4.0%), and highest in rice (10.25%), followed by maize (9.75%), wheat (9.0%), sorghum (8%), and barley (4.50%). Similarly, on day 60, Wheat (14.50%) recorded the highest damage caused by \u003cem\u003eS. oryzae\u003c/em\u003e, followed by rice (13.0%), maize (12.25%), sorghum (9.50%), barley (6.0%), and the lowest damage was found in oats (4.75%) which is statistically similar to that of barley. Grain damage values across wheat, rice and maize were found statistically non-significant at 60 days. Findings are consistent with the findings of Bhargude et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e) However, these findings are opposite to observations of Subedi et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e), who reported that polished rice (14%) was the most susceptible grain under no-choice conditions. Polishing rice (i.e., removing bran and pericarp layers) increases its susceptibility to \u003cem\u003eS. oryzae\u003c/em\u003e infestation (Lucas \u0026amp; Riudavets, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2002\u003c/span\u003e). Wheat, maize, rice release high amounts of semiochemicals (aldehyde, ketones from lipid/carbohydrate metabolism), and weevil uses these volatiles as a signal to locate their host (Germinara et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e). Behavioral assays with single cereal volatiles have shown clear attraction responses in weevil reinforcing the role of cereal odor chemistry in host finding (Germinara et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e). Oats and many barleys are \u0026ldquo;covered\u0026rdquo; cereals; the lemma and palea remain tightly adherent to the caryopsis after threshing, creating a dense, lignocellulosic hull (hydroxycinnamic acids). This husk is a physical barrier to oviposition and can reduce kernel palatability to internal feeders like \u003cem\u003eS. oryzae\u003c/em\u003e (K\u0026auml;rk\u0026ouml;nen et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Previous studies on oat and barley hulls document their lignocellulosic toughness, consistent with this barrier hypothesis (Rosentrater \u0026amp; Bucklin, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). Lignin concentration of the hulls is negatively correlated with digestibility (Crosbie et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1984\u003c/span\u003e; Thompson et al. 2000). Phenolics and proanthocyanidins found on hulls of oats and barley are widely reported to reduce palatability or deter feeding in phytophagous insects (Varga et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab5\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 5\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eGrain damage percentage caused by \u003cem\u003eS. oryzae\u003c/em\u003e at different time frames\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"5\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"4\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eGrain damage%\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTreatments\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e15th day\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e30th day\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e45th day\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e60th day\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eT1 (Rice)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5.25\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.85\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e9.00\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.40\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e10.25\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.25\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e13.00\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.40\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eT2 (Maize)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.50\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.50\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7.5\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.28\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e9.75\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.47\u003csup\u003eab\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e12.25\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.31\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eT3 (Wheat)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5.50\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.28\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6.5\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.28\u003csup\u003ebc\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e9.0\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.40\u003csup\u003ebc\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e14.50\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.86\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eT4 (Barley)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.50\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.64\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.0\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.40\u003csup\u003ed\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.50\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.28\u003csup\u003ed\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6.00\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.40\u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eT5 (Sorghum)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5.75\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.25\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6.0\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.40\u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e8.0\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.48\u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e9.50\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.64\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eT6 (Oats)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.00\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.00\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.0\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.40\u003csup\u003ed\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.0\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.00\u003csup\u003ed\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.75\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.25\u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eGrand Mean\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.41\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6.00\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7.58\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eSEm\u003c/b\u003e\u0026plusmn;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.37\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.34\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.74\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eLSD\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.50\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.10\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.02\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.20\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eCV %\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e22.95\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e12.42\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e9.06\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.20\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eF Test\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e**\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e***\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e***\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e***\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003ctfoot\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"5\"\u003eNote: CV: Coefficient of Variation; LSD: Least significant difference; SEm\u0026plusmn;: Standard error of mean; **: Significant at 0.01 level of significance; ***: Significant at 0.001 level of significance; Values with the same letters in a column are not significantly different at 5% level of significance by LSD test\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tfoot\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec19\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.2.2 Weight loss\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab6\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 6\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eWeight loss percentage caused by\u003c/b\u003e \u003cb\u003eS. oryzae\u003c/b\u003e \u003cb\u003einfestation in different host crops\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"2\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTreatments\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eWeight loss (%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eT1 (Rice)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e13.22\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.32\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eT2 (Maize)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e9.01\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.22\u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eT3 (Wheat)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e17.44\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.24\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eT4 (Barley)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7.63\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.46\u003csup\u003ed\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eT5 (Sorghum)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.27\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.41\u003csup\u003ee\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eT6 (Oats)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.21\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.26\u003csup\u003ef\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eGrand Mean\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e8.96\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eSEm\u003c/b\u003e\u0026plusmn;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.33\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eLSD\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.99\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eCV %\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7.43\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eF Test\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e***\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003ctfoot\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"2\"\u003eNote: CV: Coefficient of Variation; LSD: Least significant difference; SEm\u0026plusmn;: Standard error of mean; ***: Significant at 0.001 level of significance; Values with the same letters in a column are not significantly different at 5% level of significance by LSD test\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tfoot\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe data recorded on weight loss due to the infestation of S. oryzae on different selected cereals are presented in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e above. Based on the weight loss percentage, wheat (17.44%) appeared to be the most preferred host for \u003cem\u003eS. oryzae\u003c/em\u003e, which was significantly greater (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001) than all observed values of other treatments aligning with the findings of Subedi et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e) and Awadella et al. (2024). The lowest weight loss was seen in oats (2.21%). Rice (13.22%), maize (9.01%), barley (7.63%), and sorghum (4.27%) also differed significantly from each other in weight loss assessment. Wheat\u0026rsquo;s headspace contains higher amounts of key attractants- 2-ethylhexanol, piperitone, and (+)-Δ-cadiene than the other cereals, they are major components in both maize and wheat but abundant in wheat, so odor field from wheat more often exceeds \u003cem\u003eS. oryzae\u003c/em\u003e\u0026rsquo;s olfactory response threshold; consequently, more adults arrive and settle and oviposition increases and cumulative weight loss is greater in wheat. While oats and barley emit weaker/different blends of these cues, causing lower weight losses (Lu et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). The results from the research are compatible with NHPI (Natal Hypothesis Preference Induction) but don't prove the natal experience effects. The NHPI hypothesis predicts that females prefer to lay their eggs on the same host species on which they developed as larvae (Davis \u0026amp; Stamps, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2004\u003c/span\u003e). Beyond the NHPI, innate olfactory biases, along with cereal-specific volatile compounds of the host (Trematerra et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec20\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.2.3 Germination percentage\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThere were significant differences among the treatments in germination percentage before the infestation(p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001) of \u003cem\u003eS.\u003c/em\u003e oryzae and after the infestation(p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001). The results obtained on the effect of \u003cem\u003eS. oryzae\u003c/em\u003e infestation on the germination percentage of different selected grains are presented in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab7\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab7\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 7\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eGermination percentage of different grains before and after the infestation by \u003cem\u003eS. oryzae\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"3\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c3\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eGermination %\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTreatments\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBefore\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAfter\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eT1 (Rice)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e94\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.11\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e81\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.00\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eT2 (Maize)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e93\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.00\u003csup\u003eab\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e83\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.00\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eT3 (Wheat)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e90\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.15\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e72\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.63\u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eT4 (Barley)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e86\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.15\u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e81\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.00\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eT5 (Sorghum)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e96\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.63\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e88\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.63\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eT6 (Oats)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e82\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.15\u003csup\u003ed\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e79\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.00\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eGrand Mean\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e90.16\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e80.66\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eSEm\u003c/b\u003e\u0026plusmn;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eLSD\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eCV %\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.71\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.09\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eF Test\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e***\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e***\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003ctfoot\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"3\"\u003eNote: CV: Coefficient of Variation; LSD: Least significant difference; SEm\u0026plusmn;: Standard error of mean; ***: Significant at 0.001 level of significance; Values with the same letters in a column are not significantly different at 5% level of significance by LSD test\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tfoot\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eBefore the infestation highest germination percentage was observed in sorghum (96%), which was on par with rice (94%) and maize (93%). The lowest germination percentage was observed in oats (82%). Wheat (90%) and barley (86%) were intermediate and statistically different from extremes. After the infestation by \u003cem\u003eS. oryzae\u003c/em\u003e, sorghum maintained the highest germination percentage (88%), which was statistically significant from all other cereals. Germination percentage of maize (83%), rice (81%), barley (81%), oats (79%) was statistically significant. The highest absolute reduction in germination percentage was observed in wheat (18%), which was significantly higher than that of other cereals (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001). It was followed by rice (13%), maize (10%), which didn\u0026rsquo;t differ significantly from each other but were significantly different from other treatments. Reduction in germination percentage in sorghum was 8%, barley (5%), and the lowest was found in oats (3%), where barley and oats at significantly par (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001). As wheat recorded the highest weight loss, the pattern matches S. oryzae biology: adults feed on the endosperm, while larvae consume the germ, damaging the embryo and reducing viability (Mehta et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). Weight loss in grains occurs mainly due to endosperm damage and reduction in germination percentage is largely caused by embryo injury (Dal Bello et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2000\u003c/span\u003e). Infestation creates hot and humid environment inside the seed that promotes the mold and eventually lowers the viability of the seeds (FAO, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e). Avenacocides concentrated in husk, preventing grain damage and weight loss, resulting in the lowest germination percentage drop (Pesico et al., 2013).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec21\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.3 Comparison between no-choice and free-choice conditions\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec22\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.3.1 Grain damage\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eGrain damage at 60 days was greatest in wheat under free choice (28.50%) than in no choice conditions (14.50%). The lowest grain damage was observed in oats under free choice conditions (3.75%) than in no choice conditions (4.75%) as shown in the figure (1).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec23\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.3.2 Weight loss\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe figure (2) below illustrates the percentage of weight loss in different grains caused by \u003cem\u003eS. oryzae\u003c/em\u003e after 60 days under no-choice and free-choice conditions. The highest weight loss was observed in wheat under both no-choice (17.44%) and free-choice (20.1%). Lowest weight loss was observed in oats under free choice (1.52%) and 2.21% under no choice conditions, suggesting a strong level of resistance or non-preference by the weevil.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec24\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.3.3 Germination percentage\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe graph above shows the loss in germination viability in percentage points (pp) of different grains caused by \u003cem\u003eS. oryzae\u003c/em\u003e. Overall, the drop in germination percentage varied among the grains. Wheat experienced the highest percentage drop (20%) under free choice and 17% under no choice conditions. The lowest percentage drop was observed in oats (3%) under both free choice and no choice conditions.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"4. CONCLUSION","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis study found that different host grains have significant effect on infestation dynamics of \u003cem\u003eS. oryzae\u003c/em\u003e, on grain damage, weight loss and germination percentage in both free choice and no choice conditions. Wheat was consistently most susceptible grain, showing the highest grain damage (14.50% in no-choice; 28.25% at 60 days in free-choice), the greatest weight loss (17.44% in no-choice and 20.01% in free choice) and the largest germination reduction (18% in no choice and 20% in free choice), whereas oats were least preferred, with the lowest grain damage (4.75% in no-choice; 3.25% at 60 days in free-choice), minimal weight loss (1.52\u0026ndash;2.21%), and only 3% germination reduction likely due to the protective effect of the husk, suggesting husked grains can be stored longer than unhusked grains. Overall, all major cereals were attackable, but oats and barley were relatively less preferred and thus more suitable for longer storage, while wheat requires strict protection and frequent inspection to minimize losses; to enhance robustness and external validity, future work should include multi-year trials with larger sample sizes, validation under farmers\u0026rsquo; storage conditions, and biochemical studies to identify host volatiles influencing \u003cem\u003eS. oryzae\u003c/em\u003e behavior.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAcknowledgement\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAuthors would like to extend their deepest gratitude to Institute of Agriculture and Animal Science, Rampur Campus, Tribhuvan University, Nepal, for providing research support and facilities throughout the experiment. No external funding was received for this research.\u003c/p\u003e\n\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConsent for publication\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAll authors agree to be coauthors in the order submitted.\u003c/p\u003e\n\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAuthor contribution\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eCRediT: Aashish Gyawali: Data curation, data analysis, Investigation, Methods, Resources, Software, Writing - original draft, review and editing; Apsara Neupane: Investigation, Methodology, Resources, writing \u0026ndash; review and editing; Achyut Gaire: Conceptualization, Review and editing, Kapil Kafle: Conceptualization, Resources, Supervision, Validation, final review and editing.\u003c/p\u003e\n\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eData availability \u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eData will be made available upon request via the corresponding email address.\u003c/p\u003e\n\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFunding\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNot applicable\u003c/p\u003e\n\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConflict of Interest\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors indicate no conflict of interest in this work.\u003c/p\u003e\n\n"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAhmad, R., Hassan, S., Dar, S. 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K., Bhargava, M. C., Choudhary, M. D., \u0026amp; Choudhary, S. (2018). Relative susceptibility of different wheat varieties against rice weevil, \u003cem\u003eSitophilus oryzae\u003c/em\u003e (Linn.). \u003cem\u003eJournal of Entomology and Zoology Studies\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e6\u003c/em\u003e(2), 2877\u0026ndash;2879.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":true,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":true,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Grain damage, Free choice, No choice, Sitophilus oryzae","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8309450/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-8309450/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eExploring the host preference dynamics of rice weevil (\u003cem\u003eSitophilus oryzae\u003c/em\u003e L.\u003cem\u003e)\u003c/em\u003e can establish effective pest management strategies in stored cereals. Despite the importance of stored product pests in agriculture, limited studies have focused on the grain preference of rice weevil in different cereal grains under controlled conditions. This study aimed to evaluate the host preference of \u003cem\u003eS. oryzae\u003c/em\u003e in six different cereals and assess their resistance to infestation. The experiment was conducted at the Entomology laboratory of Rampur Campus, Chitwan, from May to August 2025 under both free-choice and no-choice conditions. Six treatments comprising one hundred grains each of rice, maize, wheat, barley, sorghum, and oats were evaluated in a Completely Randomized Design (CRD) with four replications. Fifteen pairs of newly emerged rice weevils from the stock culture were introduced under no-choice conditions, whereas fifty pairs per replication were introduced under free-choice conditions. The assessed parameters were grain damage percentage, weight loss percentage, and germination percentage before and after the treatment. Under free-choice conditions, wheat recorded the highest grain damage (28.25%) and weight loss (20.01%), whereas oats showed the lowest damage (3.25%) and weight loss (1.52%); the greatest reduction in germination was also in wheat (20%) and the smallest in oats (3%). Under no-choice conditions, wheat again had the highest grain damage (14.50%) and weight loss (17.44%), both significantly greater at the 0.1% level, while oats had the lowest damage (4.75%) and weight loss (2.21%); correspondingly, the highest reduction in germination occurred in wheat (18%) and the lowest in oats (3%). This study establishes that wheat is a highly preferred host, while oats exhibit higher resistance against rice weevil.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Host Preference Dynamics of Rice Weevil (Sitophilus oryzae L.) in Stored Cereals","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-12-09 07:40:53","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8309450/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":1}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"86996f18-4622-4769-9330-4dac8a67384d","owner":[],"postedDate":"December 9th, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"published-in-journal","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-03-31T18:39:07+00:00","versionOfRecord":{"articleIdentity":"rs-8309450","link":"https://doi.org/10.26832/24566632.2026.110103","journal":{"identity":"archives-of-agriculture-and-environmental-science","isVorOnly":true,"title":"Archives of Agriculture and Environmental Science"},"publishedOn":"2026-03-25 00:00:00","publishedOnDateReadable":"March 25th, 2026"},"versionCreatedAt":"2025-12-09 07:40:53","video":"","vorDoi":"10.26832/24566632.2026.110103","vorDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.26832/24566632.2026.110103","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-8309450","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-8309450","identity":"rs-8309450","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}