Thermoregulatory Responses to Air Temperature of −5 o C at Different Wind Speeds: Significance of Strong Wind in a Mild Cold Environment

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For most people temperatures below 0 o C is considered ‘cold’. Urban people who live in temperate climates are accustomed to mild cold with varying wind speeds, but relatively few studies have examined the effects of wind speed in mild cold on individuals wearing winter clothing, especially compared to studies conducted in severe cold environments. We examined thermoregulatory responses to varying wind speeds in mild cold, considering anthropometric characteristics of individuals. Methods Ten healthy males (23.9 ± 3.3 y in age, 175.8 ± 4.9 cm in height, 74.4 ± 7.0 kg in body weight) participated in the following four wind conditions (0, 2, 4.5, and 7 m·s⁻¹) at an air temperature of − 5°C (Wind chill temperature: -5 o C ~ -12 o C). Subjects wore winter clothing (I T , 2.1 clo) and every trial consisted of 80 min (10-min rest, 60-min walking, and 10-min recovery). Results Rectal and gastrointestinal temperatures remained stable across all the conditions, suggesting sufficient insulation from the winter clothing. However, peripheral skin temperatures, particularly on the hand, foot, and finger significantly decreased with higher wind speeds (all P s < 0.05). At 7 m·s⁻¹, the temperature of the fingers dropped to an average of 12.7°C. Overweight subjects showed less frequent shivering compared to normal-weight subjects, while body surface area (BSA) and body mass index (BMI) negatively correlated with overall thermal comfort (all Ps < 0.05). Subjective thermal and wind sensations also increased with wind speed (all Ps < 0.05). Conclusions While typical winter clothing (2.1 clo) effectively maintains core temperature in wind chill conditions down to − 12°C, extremities, particularly the hands, require better insulation. Peripheral skin temperatures and thermal comfort, provide reliable indicators for assessing cold stress. Physical properties of the body also influenced cold responses, with overweight individuals exhibiting less frequent shivering and larger body surface areas correlating with greater cold sensitivity. These findings offer insights into optimizing winter clothing design to improve comfort and safety in windy conditions in mild cold. Wind speed Cold stress Cold strain index Core temperature Shivering Subjective responses Body surface area Body mass index Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 Figure 6 Background There is no universally accepted definition of "cold," but temperatures below 0°C are generally considered cold [ 1 ]. Recent years have witnessed record-breaking extreme temperature events and cold waves in the United States and East Asian countries, highlighting the need to investigate the impacts of these cold phenomena [ 2 , 3 ]. Cold waves, characterized by prolonged periods of decreasing temperatures, and extreme cold events, marked by sudden drops and brief periods of intense cold, present significant risks to health [ 4 ]. In South Korea, although average winter temperatures have remained relatively stable over the past decade, there has been an increase in the number of days with temperatures of − 5°C and − 10°C, suggesting a trend toward more extreme cold events [ 5 ]. Consequently, cold-related illnesses and the relative risk of mortality due to cold waves have risen annually [ 6 ]. The contemporary population is generally well-protected in winter, wearing clothing with sufficient insulation and benefitting from reliable indoor heating systems in urbanized areas. Nevertheless, as mentioned earlier, the increasing frequency of unexpected cold waves likely contributes to rising rates of winter illnesses, including colds, and the prevalence of cold-related health conditions. In particular, sudden gusts of wind, which are common in urban areas with dense high-rise buildings, often cause discomfort for pedestrians [ 7 ]. Analitis et al. found that a 1°C decrease in temperature correlates with a 1.35% increase in daily mortality rates, underscoring the severe impact of cold waves [ 8 ]. Many previous studies have demonstrated that the addition of wind exacerbates cold stress [ 9 , 10 ]. However, urban people who live in temperate climates are accustomed to mild cold with varying wind speeds, and relatively few studies have examined the effects of wind speed in mild cold on individuals wearing winter clothing, especially compared to studies conducted in severe cold environments. The Wind Chill Index (WCI) or Wind Chill Temperature (WCT, t wc ), which combines air temperature and wind speed to measure cold stress, provides a standardized way to assess cold exposure [ 11 ]. It categorizes cold stress into four levels: Uncomfortably cold (− 10 to − 24°C), Very cold (risk of skin freezing) (− 25 to − 34°C), Bitterly cold (freezing in 10 minutes) (− 35 to − 59°C), and Extremely cold (freezing in 2 minutes) (below − 60°C) [ 12 ]. Typically, the wind speeds experienced in urban areas of temperate regions such as Korea and Japan reach a maximum of around 7 m·s⁻¹. Consequently, winters in these regions fall within the 'Uncomfortably cold' category on the WCT index [ 13 , 14 , 15 ]. The ISO 11079 [ 16 ] standard outlines a methodology for assessing cold stress in individuals exposed to cold environments using the Wind Chill Temperature (WCT). Health and safety organizations in countries like the United States, Canada, and Northern Europe also utilize the Wind Chill Index (WCI) to provide guidelines on appropriate clothing insulation to withstand winter conditions comfortably. Despite these standards, there is a lack of quantified data on the specific cold stress experienced by residents of temperate regions with mild winter climates, such as South Korea or Japan. In particular, there is limited research on the psycho-physiological responses of individuals to wind speeds in mild cold environments. Therefore, this study examined both the physiological and subjective responses to wind speeds up to 7 m·s⁻¹ in mild cold, considering anthropometric characteristics of individuals. Methods Subjects Ten males with no history of cold-related illnesses participated in the experiment (mean ± SD: 23.9 ± 3.3 y in age, 175.8 ± 4.9 cm in height, 74.4 ± 7.0 kg in body weight, 24.0 ± 1.8 kg/m 2 in body mass index [BMI], 1.94 ± 0.11 m 2 in body surface area, and 19.8 ± 3.4% in total body fat; 4 overweight and 6 normal BMI). According to the World Health Organization (WHO) guidelines [ 17 ], subjects with a BMI of 25 or higher were classified as overweight in the Asia-Pacific region. The experimental protocol was approved by the Institutional Review Board at Seoul National University (IRB No. 2108/002–017). Experimental conditions and clothing Subjects underwent all the following four wind speed conditions: 0, 2, 4.5, 7 m·s⁻¹. In typical urban environments, daily wind speeds are generally below 7 m·s⁻¹ [ 13 ]. In the present study, the artificial wind was generated using two large fans, each equipped with 75 cm diameter blades and positioned at heights of 165 cm and 90 cm, respectively. The wind intensity was controlled by varying the revolutions per minute (RPM) of the fans. Wind speed measurements were taken at three different height levels (50 cm, 100 cm, and 150 cm above the floor) using an anemometer (KA-23, Kanomax, Japan). Each measurement was repeated three times, and the average of these readings was used for each wind speed condition. All trials were conducted in a climate chamber at an air temperature of − 5 o C. The experimental clothing consisted of a brief, long pants, a short-sleeve T-shirt, a long-sleeve T-shirt, a padded jacket (80% duck down and 20% feathers), single-layer polyester-acrylic blend finger gloves (34 g), socks, and running shoes (3,234 g in total clothing mass, excluding the shoes). The experimental clothing ensemble was corresponded to typical winter clothing in Korea. The padded jacket was available in three sizes: M, L, and XL, allowing for selection according to the subjects’ body sizes. The thermal insulation of the experimental clothing ensemble was measured using a thermal manikin (Newton, 20 zones, Thermetrics Inc., USA) in a standard environment (21 o C with 50%RH, wind speed < 0.2 m·s⁻¹) and the four experimental conditions. For the standard condition, the thermal insulation of the air layer ( I a ) was 0.62 clo, and the total thermal insulation ( I T ) was 2.08 clo. The total clothing insulation for the four wind speed conditions (0, 2, 4.5, 7 m·s⁻¹) at the air temperature of -5 o C were 2.04, 1.42, 1.12, and 0.80 clo, respectively (100%, 70%, 55%, and 39%). The wind chill temperatures corresponding to each condition were calculated to be − 5°C, − 8°C, − 10°C, and − 12°C. Minimal required clothing insulation (IREQ min ) were 2.7, 2.7, 2.8, and 2.8 clo for the wind chill temperature of − 5°C, − 8°C, − 10°C, and − 12°C, respectively [ 16 ]. Experimental protocol and measurements A trial consisted of a 10-min rest followed by a 60-min walking on a treadmill at 4 km·h⁻¹ and a 10-min recovery. Wind was activated during the 60-min walking phase only. All experiments were conducted during the same hours (9:00 to 11:00 AM) to minimize the effects of circadian rhythms. The experiment was terminated if rectal temperature fell below 36.2°C or exceeded 39.2°C, if their heart rate reached 90% of the maximum heart rate, or if the subject chose to withdraw. Rectal temperature ( T re ) was recorded using a portable rectal thermometer (LT8A, Gram Corps., Japan) with a thermistor sensor, at a depth of 15–16 cm within the rectum. Auditory canal temperature ( T ac ) was measured with the same device and a sensor at a depth of 2–3 cm within the ear canal. Gastrointestinal temperature ( T pill ) was measured using a telemetric pill and a data logger (e-Celsius, France). To account for the transit time of the pill through the esophagus, subjects ingested the pill 4-h prior to every trial. Skin temperature ( T sk ) was measured using the identical thermometer (LT8A, Gram Corps., Japan) at the following 11 skin sites: the forehead ( T forehead ), chest ( T chest ), upper back ( T back ), abdomen ( T abdomen ), forearm ( T forearm ), dorsal hand ( T hand ), thigh ( T thigh ), calf ( T calf ), dorsal foot ( T foot ), the 3rd finger ( T finger ), and big toe (hallux) ( T toe ). All the temperature measurements were recorded every 5 s for the 80 min. Mean skin temperature was calculated using the formula from Hardy and DuBois (1938): Mean T sk = 0.07 T forehead + 0.35( T chest + T back + T abdomen )/3 + 0.14 T forearm + 0.05 T hand + 0.19 T thigh + 0.13 T calf + 0.07 T foot . Cold Strain Index (CSI) was calculated using rectal temperature ( T re ) and mean skin temperature ( \(\:\overline{T}\) sk ): CSI = 6.67( T re t − T re 0 ) ⋅ (35 − T re 0 ) ⁻¹ + 3.33( \(\:\overline{T}\) sk t − \(\:\overline{T}\) sk 0 ) ⋅ (20 − \(\:\overline{T}\) sk 0 ) ⁻¹. If T re t ​ is greater than T re 0 ​, then the term ( T re t − T re 0 ) is set to 0. Clothing microclimate temperature and humidity were monitored using portable recorders (Thermo recorder TR-72U, T&D, Japan) in the innermost air layer over the chest and back areas. Body weight was recorded three times each, immediately before and after the experiment, using a scale (ID2, Sartorius, Mettler-Toledo, Germany; unit: g). Total body mass loss was assessed with the difference. Energy expenditure was continuously monitored for 80 min using a metabolic analyzer (Quark-CPET, COSMED, Italy) based on the breath-by-breath method. Heart rate (HR) was recorded every 1 s using a portable heart rate monitor (RS400/800, Polar, Finland). Blood pressure (BP) was measured using a portable sphygmomanometer, three times each, at rest, immediately following exercise, and the recovery period. Thermal sensation was assessed using a 9-point categorical scale with intervals of 0.5 points [4 Very hot, 3 Hot, 2 Warm (slightly hot), 1 Slightly warm, 0 Not both, -1 Slightly cool, -2 Cool, -3 Cold, -4 Very cold]. Thermal comfort was evaluated using a 7-point categorical scale with intervals of 0.5 points [3 Very comfortable, 2 Comfortable, 1 A little comfortable, 0 Neither, -1 A little uncomfortable, -2 Uncomfortable, -3 Very uncomfortable]. Sensation to wind was evaluated using a 6-point categorical scale with intervals of 0.5 points [5 Very, very strong, 4 Very strong, 3 Strong, 2 Slightly strong, 1 Weak, 0 Almost none]. Thermal sensation and thermal comfort were recorded separately for the whole body, hands, and feet. For shivering sensation, subjects indicated the specific body regions where they felt shivered, based on a predetermined body segmentation chart (21 regions + fingers [#22] + toes [#23] [ 18 ]. All subjective responses were recorded every 10 min. Data analysis Statistical analyses were conducted using IBM SPSS Statistics version 26.0. Data were presented as mean ± standard deviation (SD) or standard error (SE). Normality was assessed using the Shapiro-Wilk test. Differences among the four wind speed conditions were analyzed using repeated measures ANOVA, followed by Bonferroni correction for multiple comparisons. For non-parametric variables, the Friedman test was used to evaluate differences across the four conditions. The P -values of less than 0.05 were considered statistically significant. Results Rectal, gastrointestinal, and auditory canal temperatures No significant differences in T re among the four wind speed conditions during rest, exercise, and recovery were found (Fig. 1 A). T pill showed no differences among the four wind conditions (Fig. 1 B). T ac gradually increased for the 0 m/s wind condition during the 60-min walking, while for the three wind conditions, T ac gradually decreased during the walking. There was a significant difference between the wind speed conditions of 0 m⋅s − 1 and − 7 m⋅s − 1 (Fig. 1 C, P < 0.05). Skin temperature _T sk at rest showed no significant differences among the four wind conditions (Table 1 ). During the walking, _T sk gradually decreased, reaching 26.2 to 29.6°C at the end of the exposure, and showed significant group differences ( P < 0.001, Table 1 ). There were no significant differences in chest, back, forearm, and calf temperatures among the four wind conditions, while forehead, abdomen, thigh, hand, finger, foot, and toe temperatures showed group differences among the four wind conditions, especially at the end of walking (all Ps < 0.05, Table 1 ). In particular, hand and finger temperatures gradually decreased during exercise for all the four wind conditions, showing 13.7 ± 0.3 o C and 12.9 ± 0.8 o C, respectively, at the end of exercise for the 7 m·s − 1 wind condition. Thigh, foot, and toe temperature also decreased during exercise with significant differences among the four conditions (Table 1 ). Table 1 Mean and regional skin temperatures for the four wind speed conditions T sk Wind speed (m·s⁻¹) REST (no-wind) EXERCISE (wind) RECOVERY (no-wind) Initial 3 min Last 3 min Initial 3 min Last 3 min Initial 3 min Last 3 min Mean skin temp. ( _T sk ) 0 31.8 ± 0.1 31.2 ± 0.1 30.7 ± 0.2 29.6 ± 0.3 d 29.8 ± 0.3 d 29.9 ± 0.3 c 2 31.4 ± 0.3 30.8 ± 0.3 30.3 ± 0.3 28.0 ± 0.4 c 28.4 ± 0.4 c 29.1 ± 0.3 b 4.5 31.7 ± 0.3 31.1 ± 0.3 30.5 ± 0.3 27.2 ± 0.3 b 27.6 ± 0.3 b 28.6 ± 0.3 b 7 31.5 ± 0.4 31.1 ± 0.2 30.1 ± 0.3 26.2 ± 0.4 a 26.9 ± 0.3 a 28.0 ± 0.3 a P -value 0.699 0.402 0.315 < 0.001 < 0.001 < 0.001 Forehead skin temp. 0 33.1 ± 0.4 33.3 ± 0.3 33.0 ± 0.3 32.4 ± 0.4 b 32.5 ± 0.4 b 33.1 ± 0.3 b 2 32.8 ± 0.2 32.7 ± 0.3 31.8 ± 0.5 29.0 ± 1.0 a 29.8 ± 0.8 a 31.8 ± 0.5 a 4.5 33.0 ± 0.4 33.0 ± 0.5 32.0 ± 0.7 29.4 ± 1.0 a 30.2 ± 0.9 a 32.6 ± 0.4 ab 7 33.0 ± 0.3 33.4 ± 0.2 31.8 ± 0.4 27.2 ± 1.2 a 28.9 ± 0.9 a 32.2 ± 0.4 a P -value 0.849 0.345 0.195 < 0.001 0.001 0.025 Abdomen skin temp. 0 33.1 ± 0.2 33.3 ± 0.2 33.2 ± 0.2 33.2 ± 0.3 d 33.2 ± 0.3 d 33.6 ± 0.3 d 2 32.9 ± 0.4 33.1 ± 0.4 33.0 ± 0.3 31.4 ± 0.5 c 31.5 ± 0.5 c 32.1 ± 0.5 c 4.5 32.9 ± 0.4 33.1 ± 0.4 32.9 ± 0.4 29.4 ± 0.6 b 29.5 ± 0.7 b 30.6 ± 0.7 b 7 32.9 ± 0.3 33.1 ± 0.4 32.6 ± 0.4 26.7 ± 0.9 a 26.9 ± 0.9 a 28.2 ± 0.9 a P -value 0.929 0.934 0.507 < 0.001 < 0.001 < 0.001 Hand skin temp. 0 30.1 ± 0.4 28.6 ± 0.3 27.9 ± 0.3 23.5 ± 1.2 d 23.5 ± 1.2 d 24.4 ± 1.2 d 2 29.4 ± 0.9 28.2 ± 0.9 27.4 ± 0.9 19.4 ± 1.5 c 19.9 ± 1.6 c 21.5 ± 1.8 c 4.5 30.3 ± 0.3 29.3 ± 0.5 28.1 ± 0.5 16.3 ± 1.1 b 16.5 ± 1.1 b 18.5 ± 1.0 b 7 30.4 ± 0.3 29.0 ± 0.5 27.5 ± 0.5 13.7 ± 0.3 a 14.2 ± 0.3 a 16.0 ± 0.7 a P -value 0.452 0.398 0.708 < 0.001 < 0.001 < 0.001 3rd finger skin temp. 0 30.1 ± 0.8 28.4 ± 1.3 24.9 ± 1.2 23.7 ± 2.4 c 26.0 ± 2.1 c 28.3 ± 1.8 b 2 27.0 ± 2.2 25.8 ± 2.5 23.2 ± 2.3 19.5 ± 2.2 b 21.3 ± 2.4 b 24.7 ± 2.1 b 4.5 28.4 ± 1.6 26.4 ± 2.2 23.0 ± 2.1 15.5 ± 2.1 a 17.2 ± 2.1 ab 23.9 ± 2.0 b 7 28.8 ± 1.1 26.4 ± 1.8 22.6 ± 1.7 12.9 ± 0.8 a 14.5 ± 0.7 a 20.4 ± 2.0 a P -value 0.301 0.545 0.614 < 0.001 < 0.001 0.003 Thigh skin temp. 0 30.2 ± 0.6 28.9 ± 0.8 27.7 ± 0.5 b 25.0 ± 0.6 c 25.8 ± 0.5 d 26.6 ± 0.6 c 2 29.0 ± 0.7 28.1 ± 0.7 26.8 ± 0.6 a 21.7 ± 0.8 b 22.5 ± 0.8 c 24.4 ± 0.8 b 4.5 29.2 ± 0.4 27.9 ± 0.5 26.4 ± 0.5 a 18.3 ± 0.6 a 19.7 ± 0.7 b 22.4 ± 0.8 a 7 28.1 ± 1.3 27.6 ± 0.4 24.6 ± 1.3 a 16.3 ± 1.8 a 18.4 ± 1.4 a 21.4 ± 1.2 a P -value 0.267 0.140 0.030 < 0.001 < 0.001 < 0.001 Foot skin temp. 0 31.8 ± 0.4 30.7 ± 0.4 30.4 ± 0.4 29.6 ± 1.1 b 29.6 ± 1.1 c 29.3 ± 1.0 c 2 30.6 ± 0.7 29.6 ± 0.8 29.3 ± 0.8 27.6 ± 1.5 a 27.7 ± 1.4 b 27.5 ± 1.4 b 4.5 31.7 ± 0.4 30.8 ± 0.5 30.4 ± 0.5 26.0 ± 1.3 a 26.1 ± 1.3 ab 26.0 ± 1.2 ab 7 31.2 ± 0.9 31.3 ± 0.3 30.8 ± 0.3 26.2 ± 1.4 a 26.3 ± 1.4 a 26.0 ± 1.3 a P -value 0.563 0.156 0.217 < 0.001 < 0.001 < 0.001 Toe skin temp. 0 28.2 ± 1.2 25.8 ± 1.2 24.9 ± 1.2 22.6 ± 2.1 c 22.6 ± 2.0 c 22.1 ± 2.0 b 2 26.2 ± 1.4 24.4 ± 1.5 23.5 ± 1.5 19.8 ± 2.3 b 19.8 ± 2.3 b 19.1 ± 2.2 a 4.5 28.2 ± 1.1 26.5 ± 1.3 25.5 ± 1.3 17.4 ± 2.0 a 17.3 ± 1.9 a 16.9 ± 2.0 a 7 27.2 ± 1.6 26.5 ± 0.7 25.6 ± 0.7 17.6 ± 1.8 ab 17.6 ± 1.9 ab 17.0 ± 1.7 a P -value 0.677 0.358 0.356 < 0.001 < 0.001 0.001 Note : Values are presented as the averaged skin temperatures on the trunk of ten subjects (°C), expressed as Mean ± SE. a , b , c , and d represent significantly-classified groups by pairwise comparisons with the Bonferroni correction. Heart rate, energy expenditure, blood pressure, and total body mass loss For heart rate, there were no significant differences among the four wind speed conditions. The average heart rate ranged from 71 to 74 bpm at rest, from 95 to 101 bpm at the end of the 60-min walking, and returned to resting levels with an average of 73 to 77 bpm during recovery. Energy expenditure was calculated as 261 to 290 kcal h⁻¹ on average, with no significant difference among the four wind conditions. No significant differences were observed in both diastolic and systolic blood pressure among the four wind speed conditions, and blood pressure remained within the normal range throughout. Total body mass loss (insensible perspiration) during the 80-min exposure averaged between 186 and 200 g/trial, with no significant differences among the four wind speed conditions. Clothing microclimate Significant differences in clothing microclimate temperature on the chest among the four wind conditions were found for the 60-min walking, with temperatures decreasing to an average of 26.9°C for the 7 m·s⁻¹ condition (Fig. 2 A). These differences persisted until the early recovery period (Fig. 2 A). Clothing microclimate temperature on the upper back showed similar results as those from the chest (Fig. 2 B). During the 60-min walking, the four wind conditions were divided into statistically distinct groups: no wind = 2 m·s⁻¹ wind > 7 m·s⁻¹ wind. The 4.5 m·s⁻¹ wind condition was statistically classified as the same as either the 2 ms⁻¹ or the 7 ms⁻¹ wind conditions (Fig. 2 ). For clothing microclimate humidity on the chest, significant differences were observed among the four wind conditions, during the latter part of the 60-min walking, with humidity decreasing to an average of 17%RH at a wind speed of 7 m·s⁻¹ (Fig. 2 C). Clothing microclimate humidity on the upper back showed similar results as those from the chest (Fig. 2 D). During the latter part of the 60-min walking, the four wind conditions were divided into three statistically distinct conditions: no wind > 2 m·s⁻¹ wind > 7 m·s⁻¹ wind. The 4.5 m·s⁻¹ wind group was statistically classified as the same as either the 2 m·s⁻¹ or the 7 m·s⁻¹ wind conditions. Subjective responses Significant differences in overall thermal sensation were observed among the four wind conditions after just 10 min of wind exposure. Additionally, the 4.5 m·s⁻¹ condition exhibited significant differences in thermal sensation compared to both the 0 m·s⁻¹ and 7 m·s⁻¹ conditions. After 60 min of exposure to − 5°C with 7 m·s⁻¹ wind, the overall body sensation averaged − 3.2, corresponding to a “cold” rating (Fig. 3 A). Hand and foot thermal sensations showed similar tendencies as those from overall thermal sensations (Fig. 3 B, 3 C). At the 40-min exposure of the 7 m·s⁻¹ wind condition, the hand thermal sensation was − 3.9 on average, categorized as "very cold," which was approximately one point lower than that recorded for the feet or overall body (Fig. 3 B, 3 C). Significant differences in overall thermal comfort were observed between the 0 m·s⁻¹ and 7 m·s⁻¹ wind conditions after 10 min of wind exposure. Thermal comfort under the 4.5 m·s⁻¹ or 2 m·s⁻¹ wind conditions showed significant differences compared to that at 0 m·s⁻¹ or 7 m·s⁻¹ conditions (Fig. 4 A). After 70 min of exposure to − 5°C for the 7 m·s⁻¹ wind condition, the overall thermal comfort averaged − 2.1, indicating a rating of "uncomfortable." Similarly, hand and foot thermal comfort followed the overall body trend, though discomfort was more pronounced in the hands. By the 50-min exposure for the 7 m·s⁻¹ wind condition, the average hand comfort rating was − 3.0, categorized as "very uncomfortable," which was approximately one point lower than the comfort ratings for the feet (average − 1.7) or the entire body (average − 2.2) (Fig. 4 ). Significant differences were observed between the 0 m·s⁻¹, 2 m·s⁻¹, 4.5 m·s⁻¹, and 7 m·s⁻¹ conditions. After 60-min of exposure, the wind sensation was rated as an average of 0.3, 1.3, 2.0, and 3.1 points, respectively, corresponding to "none," "weak," "moderately strong," and "strong" sensations (Fig. 5 ). The total number of shivering sensations reported was 20, 40, 55, and 114 times for the 0 m·s⁻¹, 2 m·s⁻¹, 4.5 m·s⁻¹, and 7 m·s⁻¹ conditions, respectively (Table 2 ). The most frequently reported body region with shivering sensation was the hands (without fingers) for all the four wind conditions, followed by the palms, feet, fingers, and thighs. For the 7 m·s⁻¹ condition, shivering was predominantly reported in the hands, palms, thighs, and feet. Additionally, for the 7 m·s⁻¹ condition, shivering was reported in regions where it was not observed under the other conditions, such as the forehead, chest, calves, and buttocks. We plotted the shivering frequency from the four conditions by two subject groups divided into the overweight (4 individuals) and normal group (6 individuals). The frequency of reported shivering sensations was smaller for the overweight group compared to the normal group for all the three wind conditions (Table 2 ). Table 2. Total frequencies of shivering sensation according to the normal and overweight group 0 m·s⁻¹ 2 m·s⁻¹ 4.5 m·s⁻¹ 7 m·s⁻¹ Normal (n = 6) Overweight (n = 4) Normal (n = 6) Overweight (n = 4) Normal (n = 6) Overweight (n = 4) Normal (n = 6) Overweight (n = 4) Total frequency 7 13 34 6 41 14 63 51 Relationships between Cold Strain Index (CSI), subjective responses, hand temperature, and physical properties Cold strain index (CSI) averaged between point 0.67 and 1.54, with significant differences among the four wind conditions (Table 3 ). There were negative correlations between CSI and overall thermal sensation, or hand temperature (rho = -0.718 for thermal sensation, rho = -0.747 for hand temperature, all Ps < 0.001; Fig. 6 ). Hand temperature was highly correlated with overall thermal comfort, as well as hand thermal sensation and comfort. Body surface area (BSA) showed a significant negative correlation with overall thermal sensation and comfort, as well as hand thermal sensation and comfort at the end of the exercise. Hand temperature was highly correlated with overall thermal sensation and comfort, hand thermal sensation and comfort, and overall wind speed sensation (Table 4 ). BMI and BSA per unit body weight showed a significant negative and positive correlation, respectively, only with overall thermal comfort, while total body fat (%) did not show any significant relationships with psychological responses. Table 3 Cold strain index (CSI) for the four wind speed conditions Wind speed (m·s⁻¹) REST (no-wind) EXERCISE (wind) RECOVERY (no-wind) Initial 3 min Last 3 min Initial 3 min Last 3 min Initial 3 min Last 3 min 0 0.07 ± 0.06 0.28 ± 0.06 0.43 ± 0.06 0.67 ± 0.06 a 0.62 ± 0.06 a 0.58 ± 0.06 a 2 0.06 ± 0.08 0.30 ± 0.08 0.46 ± 0.08 1.03 ± 0.08 b 0.92 ± 0.08 ab 0.73 ± 0.08 ab 4.5 0.07 ± 0.06 0.25 ± 0.06 0.48 ± 0.06 1.34 ± 0.06 bc 1.21 ± 0.06 c 0.94 ± 0.06 b 7 0.07 ± 0.08 0.22 ± 0.08 0.54 ± 0.08 1.54 ± 0.08 c 1.33 ± 0.08 bc 1.04 ± 0.08 b P -value 0.797 0.614 0.493 < 0.001 < 0.001 0.001 Note 1 : Values are presented as Mean ± SE. Note 2 : a , b , and c represent significantly-classified groups by pairwise comparisons with the Bonferroni correction. Table 4 Relationships between physical properties and subjective sensations Thermal sensation Thermal comfort Wind sensation Overall Hands Feet Overall Hands Feet Overall BMI (kg·m⁻²) ρ -0.005 -0.005 -0.030 -0.335 -0.151 -0.216 -0.015 Sig. 0.974 0.974 0.854 0.035 0.353 0.182 0.925 Total body fat (%) ρ 0.159 0.072 0.086 -0.256 -0.015 -0.085 -0.145 Sig. 0.327 0.658 0.596 0.111 0.928 0.603 0.373 * BSA (m 2 ) ρ -0.334 -0.360 -0.341 -0.341 -0.312 -0.447 0.133 Sig. 0.035 0.023 0.032 0.032 0.050 0.004 0.415 BSA·body weight − 1 (cm 2 ·kg − 1 ) ρ 0.063 0.076 0.114 0.352 0.193 0.297 -0.031 Sig. 0.699 0.639 0.483 0.026 0.232 0.063 0.851 Hand temp. (°C) ρ 0.728 0.681 0.509 0.485 0.673 0.492 -0.696 Sig. < 0.001 < 0.001 < 0.001 0.002 < 0.001 0.001 < 0.001 Note : * Body surface area was calculated using Lee and Choi's formula [ 18 ]. Discussion Is the typical winter clothing sufficient to protect the body from strong winds in mild winter temperatures? This study found that typical winter clothing (I T = 2.1 clo) effectively maintained core body temperature in mild winter temperature (− 5 o C) with the strong wind of 7 m·s⁻¹. However, the mean skin temperature dropped below 27 o C, and the finger temperature dropped below 13 o C after 60-min walking even while wearing gloves. Subjects felt very cold in their hands during the 60-min walking with wind. In fact, during the 60-min walk, T re increased by an average of 0.4 to 0.5°C, and T pill increased by an average of 0.2°C. This indicates that the heat generated from physical activity exceeded the heat lost in the cold and windy conditions. Moderate exercise could generate sufficient heat to compensate for heat loss in cold conditions [ 19 ], but the present results suggest that the everyday winter clothing is not sufficient to support comfort in strong wind conditions. Localized cold discomfort was noted, particularly in the extremities (hands and feet), which points to the need for better insulation for these areas. The subjects in the present study reported shivering in the hands and palms the most, which verifies that the thermal insulation of the extremities is lower than that of the trunk (core body) [ 20 ]. In the present study, the WCT ranged from − 5 o C to – 12 o C, and the CSI scores were below 2, remaining within the "mild cold" category. The CSI scores suggest that the thermal burden in everyday winter conditions with proper clothing is manageable for most people. However, improving the insulation of gloves and footwear is necessary when facing strong winds, even in the mild cold category. What is an efficient way to measure everyday cold stress? In the present study, the first half of the CSI formula became zero because the rectal temperature gradually increased during cold exposure. In this case, the CSI is a function of mean skin temperature (the last half of the CSI formula). As we found strong correlations between thermal sensations, thermal comfort, hand dorsum temperature, and the CSI, cold stress from strong winds in mild cold temperatures could be estimated using non-invasive measures, such as peripheral skin temperatures and subjective responses. In particular, hand dorsum temperature was a reliable reflection of cold exposure, especially in windy conditions. These findings align with previous studies that used skin temperature as a proxy for cold strain in real-world conditions [ 21 ]. That is, given that core temperature remained stable, monitoring hand temperature, thermal sensation and comfort are sufficient to assess cold stress in everyday situations. What are the efficient methods for maintaining thermal comfort? The present study showed that wind significantly reduced the thermal insulation of clothing ensemble, and the clothing insulation at wind speed of 4.5 m·s⁻¹ was reduced down to 55% (2.04 clo, 1.42 clo, 1.12 clo, and 0.80 clo, respectively). Winslow et al. reported that clothing insulation decreases with air movement and that windproof designs are crucial in maintaining thermal comfort [ 22 ]. Therefore, wind-resistant outer layers and filling materials are essential to preventing cold discomfort and potential injuries. In particular, still air within the filling materials should be preserved when exposed to strong winds. Air-padding jackets could be designed for this purpose [ 23 ]. Despite subjects wearing both gloves and shoes, finger temperatures were on average 5°C lower than toe temperatures, likely due to the thicker insulation provided by shoes and socks compared to gloves. The role of body surface area and temperature correlations in cold sensation The study found a significant negative correlation between body surface area (BSA) and overall thermal sensation and comfort, as well as hand thermal sensation and comfort. This suggests that individuals with a larger BSA perceive cold conditions more acutely, as larger BSA are more sensitive to cold environments due to increased heat loss from greater surface area exposure [ 24 ]. On the other hand, BSA per unit weight showed a significant negative correlation only with overall thermal comfort. While BSA per unit weight reflects the balance between heat loss and metabolic heat production, its effect may be limited under mild cold conditions, where changes in metabolic rate are less pronounced [ 25 ]. In this study, the mild cold stimuli and relatively small differences in body weight among the subjects likely reduced the prominence of the effect of BSA per unit weight. Conversely, when core temperature remained stable, the impact of BSA differences on heat loss appeared more pronounced, resulting in a clearer correlation with thermal sensation [ 26 ]. Body mass index and shivering response frequency The analysis of the relationship between BMI and shivering frequency demonstrated that subjects with normal BMI reported shivering over twice as frequently as mildly overweight subjects under windy conditions. Higher BMI often corresponds to greater overall body mass, which provides increased thermal inertia, reducing the rate of body cooling and potentially delaying the onset of thermoregulatory responses such as shivering. Conversely, individuals with lower BMI may experience more rapid cooling due to smaller body mass, leading to more frequent shivering under similar environmental conditions [ 25 ]. This relationship is consistent with earlier findings demonstrating that BMI influences thermoregulatory responses beyond the effects of body composition alone. Tikuisis et al. noted that BMI better predicted shivering frequency in cold environments compared to fat percentage or lean mass individually [ 20 ]. Similarly, Havenith et al. emphasized the role of surface area-to-mass ratio in cold stress responses, which BMI inherently captures [ 25 ]. Future research should investigate a wider BMI range and harsher cold environments to clarify BMI’s specific contributions to thermoregulatory processes. Conclusions This study examined the physiological and psychological responses of young males, while wearing typical winter clothing (I T , 2.1 clo) and walking for 60 min in − 5°C with four wind conditions (0 m·s⁻¹, 2 m·s⁻¹, 4.5 m·s⁻¹, 7 m·s⁻¹). The wind chill temperature under the present experimental conditions ranged from − 5 o C to 12 o C, which is categorized as mild cold. We found that rectal and gastrointestinal temperatures were not reduced and metabolic rate did not increase even while facing the strong wind (-7 m/s), while peripheral skin temperatures (hand, finger, foot, and toe) and psychological responses were significantly affected by the strong wind. These results suggest that the selected winter clothing provides adequate insulation for maintaining core body temperature, but is not sufficient to support peripheral insulation and thermal comfort. Overweight subjects exhibited less frequent shivering than those with normal weight, a larger body surface area correlated with greater sensitivity to cold. Non-invasive indicators, including hand temperature, thermal sensation, thermal comfort, and wind speed sensation, could predict the physiological impacts of wind exposure up to 7 m·s⁻¹ in mild cold temperatures. This study provides valuable insights for designing winter clothing and ensuring safe outdoor activities in mild cold environments, emphasizing the importance of protecting extremities from wind chill. Abbreviations CSI Cold Strain Index T re Rectal temperature T pill Gastrointestinal temperature T ac Auditory canal temperature BMI Body mass index BSA Body surface area Declarations Ethics approval and consent to participate This study was approved by the Institutional Review Board at Seoul National University (IRB No. 2108/002–017). Each subject in this study was provided with detailed information about the research and confidentiality before written informed consent was obtained. Consent for publication Not applicable. Competing interests The authors declare that they have no competing interests. Funding This research was supported by the Basic Research Program through the National Research Foundation of Korea (NRF) funded by the MIST (2022R1A4A5034046) and … Author Contribution DH: Conceptualization; Data curation; Formal analysis; Experiment preparation; Investigation; Visualization; Writing - original draft.CE: Experiment preparation; Investigation; Data curationG: Experiment preparation; Investigation; Data curationH: Experiment preparation; Investigation; Data curationJK: Resources; Validation; Writing - reviewKR: Project administration; Resources; Supervision; Validation; Writing - reviewJY: Conceptualization; Funding acquisition; Investigation; Methodology; Project administration; Resources; Supervision; Validation; Writing - review & editing. Acknowledgement We sincerely thank Hoyeon Jeong and Yoon Jeong Hur for their valuable technical support. Data Availability The datasets used and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request. References ISO 12894. Cold environments - Determination of cold stress situations using universally applicable principles. Geneva: International Organization for Standardization; 2001. Gasparrini A, Guo Y, Sera F, et al. Projections of temperature-related excess mortality under climate change scenarios. Lancet Planet Health. 2017; doi: 10.1016/S2542-5196(17)30156-0 . Smith ET, Sheridan SC. The characteristics of extreme cold events and cold air outbreaks in the eastern United States. Int J Climatol. 2018;38 Suppl 1; doi: 10.1002/joc.5375 . IPCC. Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Masson-Delmotte V, Zhai P, Pirani A, et al, eds. Cambridge University Press. 2021; doi: 10.1017/9781009157896 . Jeon M, Cho Y. An analysis of a winter-time temperature change and an extreme cold waves frequency in Korea. J Climate Change Res. 2015; doi: 10.15531/KSCCR.2015.6.2.87 . Lee W, Choi HM, Lee JY, Kim DH, Honda Y, Kim H. Temporal changes in mortality impacts of heat wave and cold spell in Korea and Japan. Environment international. 2018; doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2018.04.017 . Kim H, Lee K, Kim T. Investigation of Pedestrian Comfort with Wind Chill during Winter. Sustainability. 2018; doi.org/10.3390/su10010274 . Analitis A, Katsouyanni K, Biggeri A, et al. Effects of cold weather on mortality: results from 15 European cities within the PHEWE project. Am J Epidemiol. 2008; doi: 10.1093/aje/kwn266 . He X, Shao L, Tang Y, Hao L. Understanding outdoor cold stress and thermal perception of the elderly in severely cold climates: A case study in Harbin. Land. 2024; doi: 10.3390/land13060864 . Workplace Hazards in Extreme Temperatures: Cold and Hot Environments. HSE Study Guide. 2024. Available from: https://www.hsestudyguide.com . Accessed 18 Nov 2024. Osczevski R, Bluestein M. The new wind chill equivalent temperature chart. Bull Am Meteorol Soc. 2005; doi: 10.1175/BAMS-86-10-1453 . Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Cold Stress. Available from: https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/topics/coldstress/default.html [Accessed 18 July 2023]. Mortezazadeh M, Zou J, Hosseini M, Yang S, Wang L. Estimating Urban Wind Speeds and Wind Power Potentials Based on Machine Learning with City Fast Fluid Dynamics Training Data. Atmosphere. 2022; doi.org/10.3390/atmos13020214 Ngarambe J, Nganyiyimana J, Kim I, Santamouris M, Yun GY. Synergies between urban heat island and heat waves in Seoul: The role of wind speed and land use characteristics. PLoS ONE. 2020; doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0243571 . Park MS, Chae JH. Features of sea–land-breeze circulation over the Seoul Metropolitan Area. Geosci Lett. 2018; doi: 10.1186/s40562-018-0127-6 . ISO 11079. Ergonomics of the thermal environment - Determination of cold stress when using required clothing insulation (clo value) and work rate. Geneva: International Organization for Standardization; 2007. WHO Consultation on Obesity (‎1999: Geneva, Switzerland)‎ & World Health Organization. Obesity: preventing and managing the global epidemic: report of a WHO consultation. World Health Organization. 2000; https://iris.who.int/handle/10665/42330 . Accessed 30 Oct 2024. Lee JY, Choi JW. Estimation of regional body surface area covered by clothing. J Hum Environ Syst. 2009; doi.org/10.1618/jhes.12.35 . Havenith G. Clothing and thermoregulation. Curr Probl Dermatol. 2003; doi: 10.1159/000072236 . Tikuisis P, Eyolfson D, Xu X, Giesbrecht GG. Shivering endurance and fatigue during cold water immersion in humans. Eur J Appl Physiol. 2002; https://doi.org/10.1007/s00421-002-0589-1 . Gavhed D, Holmer I. Evaluation of cold protective clothing and the thermal environment at workplaces with different methods and techniques. Appl Ergon. 2000;31(1):29–38. Winslow CE, Gagge A, Herrington LP. The influence of air movement upon heat losses from the clothed human body. American Journal of Physiology-Legacy Content. 1939: doi.org/10.1152/ajplegacy.1939.127.3.505 . Kwon J, Kim S, Baek YJ, Lee JY. Comparison and evaluation of clothing insulation of newly-developed air-filled baffle jackets and down padded jackets. Fashion & Textile Research Journal. 2021; doi.org/10.5805/SFTI.2021.23.2.261 Schmidt-Nielsen K. Scaling: Why is animal size so important? New York: Cambridge University Press; 1984. Havenith G, Luttikholt VG, Vrijkotte TG. The relative influence of body characteristics on humid heat stress response. Eur J Appl Physiol. 1995; doi.org/10.1007/BF00238575 . Fiala D, Lomas KJ, Stohrer M. A computer model of human thermoregulation for a wide range of environmental conditions: The passive system. J Appl Physiol. 1999; doi.org/10.1152/jappl.1999.87.5.1957 . Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Cite Share Download PDF Status: Published Journal Publication published 12 Jan, 2026 Read the published version in Journal of Physiological Anthropology → Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. Our growing team is made up of researchers and industry professionals working together to solve the most critical problems facing scientific publishing. Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-7284826","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":501186342,"identity":"1f560f83-8f68-45e1-86bb-eb06171983c3","order_by":0,"name":"Do-Hee Kim","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Seoul National University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Do-Hee","middleName":"","lastName":"Kim","suffix":""},{"id":501186347,"identity":"68be3cad-4c7c-492d-898c-a7b63c7f3bd7","order_by":1,"name":"Cho-Eun Lee","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Seoul National University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Cho-Eun","middleName":"","lastName":"Lee","suffix":""},{"id":501186348,"identity":"e17222a1-ec2b-485f-b027-2ffddeedf7dc","order_by":2,"name":"Gyeongri Kang","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Seoul National University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Gyeongri","middleName":"","lastName":"Kang","suffix":""},{"id":501186351,"identity":"98bbe842-5d13-4d6e-aa86-9aaa2657d7c9","order_by":3,"name":"Heeyoung Ju","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Seoul National University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Heeyoung","middleName":"","lastName":"Ju","suffix":""},{"id":501186352,"identity":"f8a88dcb-62b8-4cb3-a394-b23b39c54264","order_by":4,"name":"Jeong-Kyun Ju","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Seoul National University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Jeong-Kyun","middleName":"","lastName":"Ju","suffix":""},{"id":501186353,"identity":"867fd139-0710-4193-ad0c-d5251eb583dd","order_by":5,"name":"Kyu Rang Kim","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Seoul National University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Kyu","middleName":"Rang","lastName":"Kim","suffix":""},{"id":501186355,"identity":"e2377a49-c191-4bbd-9bd2-0f229dec4e69","order_by":6,"name":"Joo-Young Lee","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAA00lEQVRIie3RsQrCMBCA4StCXI66XhHiK5wEipPP0lLoVMQHcBAEJ9EH8DEE54CQqeLasZOrmZxEzeIgCNHNIT/ccvDBwQGEQn9Y7CayLLD32pCPCDcdmsYymf9CAK1UrL8m3YUh4jTfnY6GYDaGZKs9BE3BUy7zfTMpCUwB/TjzEKqGLbFxBFMCoUGi77DBxWrkR77b1I7cvyGEUYssFEOVUrTU0PcSLJUiFpKaSo3ydYHJykN63cM5sTf3yk09bOx1LKn2kPcy96OfQCgUCoU+9wSmRjUlkR+YQwAAAABJRU5ErkJggg==","orcid":"","institution":"Seoul National University","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Joo-Young","middleName":"","lastName":"Lee","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2025-08-03 17:38:11","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7284826/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-7284826/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[{"content":"https://doi.org/10.1186/s40101-025-00419-1","type":"published","date":"2026-01-12T16:28:44+00:00"}],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":89569321,"identity":"7171dfe2-9313-4556-8abe-8d5d50cc40e0","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-08-21 11:53:02","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":106379,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eTime courses of rectal temperature (A), gastrointestinal temperature (B), and auditory canal temperature (C) for the four wind speed conditions (Mean ± SE).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eNote:\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e a\u003c/sup\u003e and \u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e represent significantly-classified groups by pairwise comparisons with the Bonferroni correction.\u003cbr\u003e\n; \u003cem\u003eN.S.\u003c/em\u003e means No Significance, *\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e \u0026lt; 0.05.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"image1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7284826/v1/5c596fa534fe1a98160788f0.png"},{"id":89569322,"identity":"784a2463-5d62-41f0-b163-50a36beee54e","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-08-21 11:53:02","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":150873,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eTime courses of chest (A) and back (B) clothing microclimate temperatures, chest (C) and back (D) clothing microclimate humidity for the four wind speed conditions (Mean ± SE).\u003cbr\u003e\n\u003cem\u003eNote:\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e a\u003c/sup\u003e, \u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e, and \u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e represent significantly-classified; *\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e \u0026lt; 0.05, **\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e \u0026lt; 0.01, and ***\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e \u0026lt; 0.001.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"image2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7284826/v1/76913e4da50b1a142d623eb4.png"},{"id":89569326,"identity":"c22d0ea4-e081-4640-bfef-6002b78a8c2b","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-08-21 11:53:02","extension":"png","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":85328,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eTime courses of overall (A), hand (B), and foot (C) thermal sensation for the four wind speed conditions (Mean ± SD).\u003cbr\u003e\n\u003cem\u003eNote:\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e a\u003c/sup\u003e, \u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e, and \u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e represent significantly classified groups; **\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e \u0026lt; 0.01, ***\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e \u0026lt; 0.001.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"image3.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7284826/v1/36b1cd289c6066230ad26521.png"},{"id":89569324,"identity":"dcd32515-1eaa-4584-92a3-e0f9ce2f273f","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-08-21 11:53:02","extension":"png","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":86351,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eTime courses of overall (A), hand (B), and foot (C) thermal comfort for the four wind speed conditions (Mean ± SD). \u003cem\u003eNote:\u003c/em\u003e *\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e\u0026lt; 0.05, **\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e \u0026lt; 0.01, ***\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e \u0026lt; 0.001\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"image4.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7284826/v1/def22b312b497df3300d4062.png"},{"id":89571046,"identity":"94bee35e-abf6-43b6-b893-fb9ade0e5592","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-08-21 12:09:02","extension":"png","order_by":5,"title":"Figure 5","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":51461,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eTime courses of overall wind speed sensation for the four wind speed conditions (Mean ± SD).\u003cbr\u003e\n\u003cem\u003eNote:\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e \u003c/sup\u003e*\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e \u0026lt; 0.05, **\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e \u0026lt; 0.01, ***\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e \u0026lt; 0.001.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"image5.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7284826/v1/6f6ce9d0e6576d02a65e0886.png"},{"id":89569329,"identity":"44631f4f-a450-43e6-93ce-b0ccf81ee6f1","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-08-21 11:53:02","extension":"png","order_by":6,"title":"Figure 6","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":71367,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eRelationships between Cold Strain Index (CSI) and overall thermal, hand dorsum temperature at the end of exercise for the four air temperature conditions.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"image6.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7284826/v1/81ffe80cabe30ad43ac5cbac.png"},{"id":100614498,"identity":"c093ef31-1034-4f21-9d6b-b02fa0c45ae0","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-01-19 17:20:48","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":1827531,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7284826/v1/1da81473-8f4c-46f7-a457-2975f8a15a38.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Thermoregulatory Responses to Air Temperature of −5 o C at Different Wind Speeds: Significance of Strong Wind in a Mild Cold Environment","fulltext":[{"header":"Background","content":"\u003cp\u003eThere is no universally accepted definition of \"cold,\" but temperatures below 0°C are generally considered cold [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e]. Recent years have witnessed record-breaking extreme temperature events and cold waves in the United States and East Asian countries, highlighting the need to investigate the impacts of these cold phenomena [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e]. Cold waves, characterized by prolonged periods of decreasing temperatures, and extreme cold events, marked by sudden drops and brief periods of intense cold, present significant risks to health [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e]. In South Korea, although average winter temperatures have remained relatively stable over the past decade, there has been an increase in the number of days with temperatures of − 5°C and − 10°C, suggesting a trend toward more extreme cold events [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e]. Consequently, cold-related illnesses and the relative risk of mortality due to cold waves have risen annually [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe contemporary population is generally well-protected in winter, wearing clothing with sufficient insulation and benefitting from reliable indoor heating systems in urbanized areas. Nevertheless, as mentioned earlier, the increasing frequency of unexpected cold waves likely contributes to rising rates of winter illnesses, including colds, and the prevalence of cold-related health conditions. In particular, sudden gusts of wind, which are common in urban areas with dense high-rise buildings, often cause discomfort for pedestrians [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e]. Analitis et al. found that a 1°C decrease in temperature correlates with a 1.35% increase in daily mortality rates, underscoring the severe impact of cold waves [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e]. Many previous studies have demonstrated that the addition of wind exacerbates cold stress [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e]. However, urban people who live in temperate climates are accustomed to mild cold with varying wind speeds, and relatively few studies have examined the effects of wind speed in mild cold on individuals wearing winter clothing, especially compared to studies conducted in severe cold environments.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe Wind Chill Index (WCI) or Wind Chill Temperature (WCT, t\u003csub\u003ewc\u003c/sub\u003e), which combines air temperature and wind speed to measure cold stress, provides a standardized way to assess cold exposure [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e]. It categorizes cold stress into four levels: Uncomfortably cold (− 10 to − 24°C), Very cold (risk of skin freezing) (− 25 to − 34°C), Bitterly cold (freezing in 10 minutes) (− 35 to − 59°C), and Extremely cold (freezing in 2 minutes) (below − 60°C) [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e]. Typically, the wind speeds experienced in urban areas of temperate regions such as Korea and Japan reach a maximum of around 7 m·s⁻¹. Consequently, winters in these regions fall within the 'Uncomfortably cold' category on the WCT index [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e15\u003c/span\u003e]. The ISO 11079 [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e] standard outlines a methodology for assessing cold stress in individuals exposed to cold environments using the Wind Chill Temperature (WCT). Health and safety organizations in countries like the United States, Canada, and Northern Europe also utilize the Wind Chill Index (WCI) to provide guidelines on appropriate clothing insulation to withstand winter conditions comfortably. Despite these standards, there is a lack of quantified data on the specific cold stress experienced by residents of temperate regions with mild winter climates, such as South Korea or Japan. In particular, there is limited research on the psycho-physiological responses of individuals to wind speeds in mild cold environments. Therefore, this study examined both the physiological and subjective responses to wind speeds up to 7 m·s⁻¹ in mild cold, considering anthropometric characteristics of individuals.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Methods","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eSubjects\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eTen males with no history of cold-related illnesses participated in the experiment (mean ± SD: 23.9 ± 3.3 y in age, 175.8 ± 4.9 cm in height, 74.4 ± 7.0 kg in body weight, 24.0 ± 1.8 kg/m\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e in body mass index [BMI], 1.94 ± 0.11 m\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e in body surface area, and 19.8 ± 3.4% in total body fat; 4 overweight and 6 normal BMI). According to the World Health Organization (WHO) guidelines [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e], subjects with a BMI of 25 or higher were classified as overweight in the Asia-Pacific region. The experimental protocol was approved by the Institutional Review Board at Seoul National University (IRB No. 2108/002–017).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eExperimental conditions and clothing\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eSubjects underwent all the following four wind speed conditions: 0, 2, 4.5, 7 m·s⁻¹. In typical urban environments, daily wind speeds are generally below 7 m·s⁻¹ [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e]. In the present study, the artificial wind was generated using two large fans, each equipped with 75 cm diameter blades and positioned at heights of 165 cm and 90 cm, respectively. The wind intensity was controlled by varying the revolutions per minute (RPM) of the fans. Wind speed measurements were taken at three different height levels (50 cm, 100 cm, and 150 cm above the floor) using an anemometer (KA-23, Kanomax, Japan). Each measurement was repeated three times, and the average of these readings was used for each wind speed condition. All trials were conducted in a climate chamber at an air temperature of − 5\u003csup\u003eo\u003c/sup\u003eC. The experimental clothing consisted of a brief, long pants, a short-sleeve T-shirt, a long-sleeve T-shirt, a padded jacket (80% duck down and 20% feathers), single-layer polyester-acrylic blend finger gloves (34 g), socks, and running shoes (3,234 g in total clothing mass, excluding the shoes). The experimental clothing ensemble was corresponded to typical winter clothing in Korea. The padded jacket was available in three sizes: M, L, and XL, allowing for selection according to the subjects’ body sizes. The thermal insulation of the experimental clothing ensemble was measured using a thermal manikin (Newton, 20 zones, Thermetrics Inc., USA) in a standard environment (21\u003csup\u003eo\u003c/sup\u003eC with 50%RH, wind speed \u0026lt; 0.2 m·s⁻¹) and the four experimental conditions. For the standard condition, the thermal insulation of the air layer (\u003cem\u003eI\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003ea\u003c/sub\u003e) was 0.62 clo, and the total thermal insulation (\u003cem\u003eI\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003eT\u003c/sub\u003e) was 2.08 clo. The total clothing insulation for the four wind speed conditions (0, 2, 4.5, 7 m·s⁻¹) at the air temperature of -5\u003csup\u003eo\u003c/sup\u003eC were 2.04, 1.42, 1.12, and 0.80 clo, respectively (100%, 70%, 55%, and 39%). The wind chill temperatures corresponding to each condition were calculated to be − 5°C, − 8°C, − 10°C, and − 12°C. Minimal required clothing insulation (IREQ\u003csub\u003emin\u003c/sub\u003e) were 2.7, 2.7, 2.8, and 2.8 clo for the wind chill temperature of − 5°C, − 8°C, − 10°C, and − 12°C, respectively [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eExperimental protocol and measurements\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eA trial consisted of a 10-min rest followed by a 60-min walking on a treadmill at 4 km·h⁻¹ and a 10-min recovery. Wind was activated during the 60-min walking phase only. All experiments were conducted during the same hours (9:00 to 11:00 AM) to minimize the effects of circadian rhythms. The experiment was terminated if rectal temperature fell below 36.2°C or exceeded 39.2°C, if their heart rate reached 90% of the maximum heart rate, or if the subject chose to withdraw.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eRectal temperature (\u003cem\u003eT\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003ere\u003c/sub\u003e) was recorded using a portable rectal thermometer (LT8A, Gram Corps., Japan) with a thermistor sensor, at a depth of 15–16 cm within the rectum. Auditory canal temperature (\u003cem\u003eT\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003eac\u003c/sub\u003e) was measured with the same device and a sensor at a depth of 2–3 cm within the ear canal. Gastrointestinal temperature (\u003cem\u003eT\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003epill\u003c/sub\u003e) was measured using a telemetric pill and a data logger (e-Celsius, France). To account for the transit time of the pill through the esophagus, subjects ingested the pill 4-h prior to every trial. Skin temperature (\u003cem\u003eT\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003esk\u003c/sub\u003e) was measured using the identical thermometer (LT8A, Gram Corps., Japan) at the following 11 skin sites: the forehead (\u003cem\u003eT\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003eforehead\u003c/sub\u003e), chest (\u003cem\u003eT\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003echest\u003c/sub\u003e), upper back (\u003cem\u003eT\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003eback\u003c/sub\u003e), abdomen (\u003cem\u003eT\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003eabdomen\u003c/sub\u003e), forearm (\u003cem\u003eT\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003eforearm\u003c/sub\u003e), dorsal hand (\u003cem\u003eT\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003ehand\u003c/sub\u003e), thigh (\u003cem\u003eT\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003ethigh\u003c/sub\u003e), calf (\u003cem\u003eT\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003ecalf\u003c/sub\u003e), dorsal foot (\u003cem\u003eT\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003efoot\u003c/sub\u003e), the 3rd finger (\u003cem\u003eT\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003efinger\u003c/sub\u003e), and big toe (hallux) (\u003cem\u003eT\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003etoe\u003c/sub\u003e). All the temperature measurements were recorded every 5 s for the 80 min. Mean skin temperature was calculated using the formula from Hardy and DuBois (1938): Mean \u003cem\u003eT\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003esk\u003c/sub\u003e = 0.07\u003cem\u003eT\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003eforehead\u003c/sub\u003e + 0.35(\u003cem\u003eT\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003echest\u003c/sub\u003e + \u003cem\u003eT\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003eback\u003c/sub\u003e + \u003cem\u003eT\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003eabdomen\u003c/sub\u003e)/3 + 0.14\u003cem\u003eT\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003eforearm\u003c/sub\u003e + 0.05\u003cem\u003eT\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003ehand\u003c/sub\u003e + 0.19\u003cem\u003eT\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003ethigh\u003c/sub\u003e + 0.13\u003cem\u003eT\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003ecalf\u003c/sub\u003e + 0.07\u003cem\u003eT\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003efoot\u003c/sub\u003e. Cold Strain Index (CSI) was calculated using rectal temperature (\u003cem\u003eT\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003ere\u003c/sub\u003e) and mean skin temperature (\u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\(\\:\\overline{T}\\)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003csub\u003esk\u003c/sub\u003e): CSI = 6.67(\u003cem\u003eT\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003ere \u003cem\u003et\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e − \u003cem\u003eT\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003ere 0\u003c/sub\u003e) ⋅ (35 − \u003cem\u003eT\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003ere 0\u003c/sub\u003e) ⁻¹ + 3.33(\u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\(\\:\\overline{T}\\)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003csub\u003esk \u003cem\u003et\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e − \u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\(\\:\\overline{T}\\)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003csub\u003esk 0\u003c/sub\u003e) ⋅ (20 − \u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\(\\:\\overline{T}\\)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003csub\u003esk 0\u003c/sub\u003e) ⁻¹. If \u003cem\u003eT\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003ere \u003cem\u003et\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e​ is greater than \u003cem\u003eT\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003ere 0\u003c/sub\u003e​, then the term (\u003cem\u003eT\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003ere \u003cem\u003et\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e − \u003cem\u003eT\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003ere 0\u003c/sub\u003e) is set to 0.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eClothing microclimate temperature and humidity were monitored using portable recorders (Thermo recorder TR-72U, T\u0026amp;D, Japan) in the innermost air layer over the chest and back areas. Body weight was recorded three times each, immediately before and after the experiment, using a scale (ID2, Sartorius, Mettler-Toledo, Germany; unit: g). Total body mass loss was assessed with the difference. Energy expenditure was continuously monitored for 80 min using a metabolic analyzer (Quark-CPET, COSMED, Italy) based on the breath-by-breath method. Heart rate (HR) was recorded every 1 s using a portable heart rate monitor (RS400/800, Polar, Finland). Blood pressure (BP) was measured using a portable sphygmomanometer, three times each, at rest, immediately following exercise, and the recovery period.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThermal sensation was assessed using a 9-point categorical scale with intervals of 0.5 points [4 Very hot, 3 Hot, 2 Warm (slightly hot), 1 Slightly warm, 0 Not both, -1 Slightly cool, -2 Cool, -3 Cold, -4 Very cold]. Thermal comfort was evaluated using a 7-point categorical scale with intervals of 0.5 points [3 Very comfortable, 2 Comfortable, 1 A little comfortable, 0 Neither, -1 A little uncomfortable, -2 Uncomfortable, -3 Very uncomfortable]. Sensation to wind was evaluated using a 6-point categorical scale with intervals of 0.5 points [5 Very, very strong, 4 Very strong, 3 Strong, 2 Slightly strong, 1 Weak, 0 Almost none]. Thermal sensation and thermal comfort were recorded separately for the whole body, hands, and feet. For shivering sensation, subjects indicated the specific body regions where they felt shivered, based on a predetermined body segmentation chart (21 regions + fingers [#22] + toes [#23] [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e]. All subjective responses were recorded every 10 min.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eData analysis\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eStatistical analyses were conducted using IBM SPSS Statistics version 26.0. Data were presented as mean ± standard deviation (SD) or standard error (SE). Normality was assessed using the Shapiro-Wilk test. Differences among the four wind speed conditions were analyzed using repeated measures ANOVA, followed by Bonferroni correction for multiple comparisons. For non-parametric variables, the Friedman test was used to evaluate differences across the four conditions. The \u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e-values of less than 0.05 were considered statistically significant.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Results","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eRectal, gastrointestinal, and auditory canal temperatures\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNo significant differences in \u003cem\u003eT\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003ere\u003c/sub\u003e among the four wind speed conditions during rest, exercise, and recovery were found (Fig. \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003eA). \u003cem\u003eT\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003epill\u003c/sub\u003e showed no differences among the four wind conditions (Fig. \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003eB). \u003cem\u003eT\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003eac\u003c/sub\u003e gradually increased for the 0 m/s wind condition during the 60-min walking, while for the three wind conditions, \u003cem\u003eT\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003eac\u003c/sub\u003e gradually decreased during the walking. There was a significant difference between the wind speed conditions of 0 m\u0026sdot;s\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e and \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;7 m\u0026sdot;s\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e (Fig. \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003eC, P\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSkin temperature\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e_T\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003esk\u003c/sub\u003e at rest showed no significant differences among the four wind conditions (Table \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e). During the walking, \u003cem\u003e_T\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003esk\u003c/sub\u003e gradually decreased, reaching 26.2 to 29.6\u0026deg;C at the end of the exposure, and showed significant group differences (\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001, Table \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e). There were no significant differences in chest, back, forearm, and calf temperatures among the four wind conditions, while forehead, abdomen, thigh, hand, finger, foot, and toe temperatures showed group differences among the four wind conditions, especially at the end of walking (all Ps\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05, Table \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e). In particular, hand and finger temperatures gradually decreased during exercise for all the four wind conditions, showing 13.7\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.3\u003csup\u003eo\u003c/sup\u003eC and 12.9\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.8\u003csup\u003eo\u003c/sup\u003eC, respectively, at the end of exercise for the 7 m\u0026middot;s\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e wind condition. Thigh, foot, and toe temperature also decreased during exercise with significant differences among the four conditions (Table \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n \u003ctable id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMean and regional skin temperatures for the four wind speed conditions\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003c/caption\u003e\n \u003cthead\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eT\u003csub\u003esk\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWind speed\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(m\u0026middot;s⁻\u0026sup1;)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eREST\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(no-wind)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eEXERCISE\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(wind)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eRECOVERY\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(no-wind)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eInitial 3 min\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLast 3 min\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eInitial 3 min\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLast 3 min\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eInitial 3 min\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLast 3 min\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/thead\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" rowspan=\"4\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMean skin temp. (\u003cem\u003e_T\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003esk\u003c/sub\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e31.8\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e31.2\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e30.7\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e29.6\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.3\u003csup\u003ed\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e29.8\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.3\u003csup\u003ed\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e29.9\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.3\u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e31.4\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e30.8\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e30.3\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e28.0\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.4\u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e28.4\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.4\u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e29.1\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.3\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e31.7\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e31.1\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e30.5\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e27.2\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.3\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e27.6\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.3\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e28.6\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.3\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e31.5\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e31.1\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e30.1\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e26.2\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.4\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e26.9\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.3\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e28.0\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.3\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e-value\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.699\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.402\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.315\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" rowspan=\"4\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eForehead\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eskin temp.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e33.1\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e33.3\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e33.0\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e32.4\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.4\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e32.5\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.4\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e33.1\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.3\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e32.8\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e32.7\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e31.8\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e29.0\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.0\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e29.8\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.8\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e31.8\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.5\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e33.0\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e33.0\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e32.0\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e29.4\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.0\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e30.2\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.9\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e32.6\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.4\u003csup\u003eab\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e33.0\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e33.4\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e31.8\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e27.2\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.2\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e28.9\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.9\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e32.2\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.4\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e-value\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.849\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.345\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.195\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.025\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" rowspan=\"4\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAbdomen\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eskin temp.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e33.1\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e33.3\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e33.2\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e33.2\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.3\u003csup\u003ed\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e33.2\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.3\u003csup\u003ed\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e33.6\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.3\u003csup\u003ed\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e32.9\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e33.1\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e33.0\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e31.4\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.5\u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e31.5\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.5\u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e32.1\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.5\u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e32.9\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e33.1\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e32.9\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e29.4\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.6\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e29.5\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.7\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e30.6\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.7\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e32.9\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e33.1\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e32.6\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e26.7\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.9\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e26.9\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.9\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e28.2\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.9\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e-value\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.929\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.934\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.507\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" rowspan=\"4\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHand\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eskin temp.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e30.1\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e28.6\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e27.9\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e23.5\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.2\u003csup\u003ed\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e23.5\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.2\u003csup\u003ed\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e24.4\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.2\u003csup\u003ed\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e29.4\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.9\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e28.2\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.9\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e27.4\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.9\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e19.4\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.5\u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e19.9\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.6\u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e21.5\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.8\u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e30.3\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e29.3\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e28.1\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e16.3\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.1\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e16.5\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.1\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e18.5\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.0\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e30.4\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e29.0\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e27.5\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e13.7\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.3\u003c/strong\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ea\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e14.2\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.3\u003c/strong\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ea\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e16.0\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.7\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e-value\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.452\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.398\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.708\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" rowspan=\"4\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3rd finger\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eskin temp.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e30.1\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e28.4\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e24.9\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e23.7\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.4\u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e26.0\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.1\u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e28.3\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.8\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e27.0\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e25.8\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e23.2\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e19.5\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.2\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e21.3\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.4\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e24.7\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.1\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e28.4\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e26.4\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e23.0\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e15.5\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.1\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e17.2\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.1\u003csup\u003eab\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e23.9\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.0\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e28.8\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e26.4\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e22.6\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e12.9\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.8\u003c/strong\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ea\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e14.5\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.7\u003c/strong\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ea\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e20.4\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.0\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e-value\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.301\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.545\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.614\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.003\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" rowspan=\"4\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThigh\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eskin temp.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e30.2\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e28.9\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e27.7\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.5\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e25.0\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.6\u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e25.8\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.5\u003csup\u003ed\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e26.6\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.6\u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e29.0\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e28.1\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e26.8\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.6\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e21.7\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.8\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e22.5\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.8\u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e24.4\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.8\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e29.2\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e27.9\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e26.4\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.5\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e18.3\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.6\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e19.7\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.7\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e22.4\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.8\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e28.1\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e27.6\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e24.6\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.3\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e16.3\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.8\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e18.4\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.4\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e21.4\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.2\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e-value\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.267\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.140\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.030\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" rowspan=\"4\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFoot\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eskin temp.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e31.8\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e30.7\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e30.4\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e29.6\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.1\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e29.6\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.1\u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e29.3\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.0\u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e30.6\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e29.6\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e29.3\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e27.6\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.5\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e27.7\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.4\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e27.5\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.4\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e31.7\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e30.8\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e30.4\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e26.0\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.3\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e26.1\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.3\u003csup\u003eab\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e26.0\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.2\u003csup\u003eab\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e31.2\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.9\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e31.3\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e30.8\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e26.2\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.4\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e26.3\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.4\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e26.0\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.3\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e-value\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.563\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.156\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.217\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" rowspan=\"4\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eToe\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eskin temp.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e28.2\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e25.8\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e24.9\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e22.6\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.1\u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e22.6\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.0\u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e22.1\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.0\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e26.2\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e24.4\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e23.5\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e19.8\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.3\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e19.8\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.3\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e19.1\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.2\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e28.2\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e26.5\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e25.5\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e17.4\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.0\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e17.3\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.9\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e16.9\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.0\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e27.2\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e26.5\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e25.6\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e17.6\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.8\u003csup\u003eab\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e17.6\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.9\u003csup\u003eab\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e17.0\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.7\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e-value\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.677\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.358\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.356\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n \u003ctfoot\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"9\"\u003e\u003cem\u003eNote\u003c/em\u003e: Values are presented as the averaged skin temperatures on the trunk of ten subjects (\u0026deg;C), expressed as Mean\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;SE.\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tfoot\u003e\n \u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e, \u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e, \u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e, and \u003csup\u003ed\u003c/sup\u003e represent significantly-classified groups by pairwise comparisons with the Bonferroni correction.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eHeart rate, energy expenditure, blood pressure, and total body mass loss\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFor heart rate, there were no significant differences among the four wind speed conditions. The average heart rate ranged from 71 to 74 bpm at rest, from 95 to 101 bpm at the end of the 60-min walking, and returned to resting levels with an average of 73 to 77 bpm during recovery. Energy expenditure was calculated as 261 to 290 kcal h⁻\u0026sup1; on average, with no significant difference among the four wind conditions. No significant differences were observed in both diastolic and systolic blood pressure among the four wind speed conditions, and blood pressure remained within the normal range throughout. Total body mass loss (insensible perspiration) during the 80-min exposure averaged between 186 and 200 g/trial, with no significant differences among the four wind speed conditions.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eClothing microclimate\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSignificant differences in clothing microclimate temperature on the chest among the four wind conditions were found for the 60-min walking, with temperatures decreasing to an average of 26.9\u0026deg;C for the 7 m\u0026middot;s⁻\u0026sup1; condition (Fig. \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003eA). These differences persisted until the early recovery period (Fig. \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003eA). Clothing microclimate temperature on the upper back showed similar results as those from the chest (Fig. \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003eB). During the 60-min walking, the four wind conditions were divided into statistically distinct groups: no wind\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;2 m\u0026middot;s⁻\u0026sup1; wind\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;7 m\u0026middot;s⁻\u0026sup1; wind. The 4.5 m\u0026middot;s⁻\u0026sup1; wind condition was statistically classified as the same as either the 2 ms⁻\u0026sup1; or the 7 ms⁻\u0026sup1; wind conditions (Fig. \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e). For clothing microclimate humidity on the chest, significant differences were observed among the four wind conditions, during the latter part of the 60-min walking, with humidity decreasing to an average of 17%RH at a wind speed of 7 m\u0026middot;s⁻\u0026sup1; (Fig. \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003eC). Clothing microclimate humidity on the upper back showed similar results as those from the chest (Fig. \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003eD). During the latter part of the 60-min walking, the four wind conditions were divided into three statistically distinct conditions: no wind\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;2 m\u0026middot;s⁻\u0026sup1; wind\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;7 m\u0026middot;s⁻\u0026sup1; wind. The 4.5 m\u0026middot;s⁻\u0026sup1; wind group was statistically classified as the same as either the 2 m\u0026middot;s⁻\u0026sup1; or the 7 m\u0026middot;s⁻\u0026sup1; wind conditions.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSubjective responses\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSignificant differences in overall thermal sensation were observed among the four wind conditions after just 10 min of wind exposure. Additionally, the 4.5 m\u0026middot;s⁻\u0026sup1; condition exhibited significant differences in thermal sensation compared to both the 0 m\u0026middot;s⁻\u0026sup1; and 7 m\u0026middot;s⁻\u0026sup1; conditions. After 60 min of exposure to \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;5\u0026deg;C with 7 m\u0026middot;s⁻\u0026sup1; wind, the overall body sensation averaged \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;3.2, corresponding to a \u0026ldquo;cold\u0026rdquo; rating (Fig. \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003eA). Hand and foot thermal sensations showed similar tendencies as those from overall thermal sensations (Fig. \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003eB, \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003eC). At the 40-min exposure of the 7 m\u0026middot;s⁻\u0026sup1; wind condition, the hand thermal sensation was \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;3.9 on average, categorized as \u0026quot;very cold,\u0026quot; which was approximately one point lower than that recorded for the feet or overall body (Fig. \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003eB, \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003eC).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSignificant differences in overall thermal comfort were observed between the 0 m\u0026middot;s⁻\u0026sup1; and 7 m\u0026middot;s⁻\u0026sup1; wind conditions after 10 min of wind exposure. Thermal comfort under the 4.5 m\u0026middot;s⁻\u0026sup1; or 2 m\u0026middot;s⁻\u0026sup1; wind conditions showed significant differences compared to that at 0 m\u0026middot;s⁻\u0026sup1; or 7 m\u0026middot;s⁻\u0026sup1; conditions (Fig. \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003eA). After 70 min of exposure to \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;5\u0026deg;C for the 7 m\u0026middot;s⁻\u0026sup1; wind condition, the overall thermal comfort averaged \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;2.1, indicating a rating of \u0026quot;uncomfortable.\u0026quot; Similarly, hand and foot thermal comfort followed the overall body trend, though discomfort was more pronounced in the hands. By the 50-min exposure for the 7 m\u0026middot;s⁻\u0026sup1; wind condition, the average hand comfort rating was \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;3.0, categorized as \u0026quot;very uncomfortable,\u0026quot; which was approximately one point lower than the comfort ratings for the feet (average \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1.7) or the entire body (average \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;2.2) (Fig. \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e). Significant differences were observed between the 0 m\u0026middot;s⁻\u0026sup1;, 2 m\u0026middot;s⁻\u0026sup1;, 4.5 m\u0026middot;s⁻\u0026sup1;, and 7 m\u0026middot;s⁻\u0026sup1; conditions. After 60-min of exposure, the wind sensation was rated as an average of 0.3, 1.3, 2.0, and 3.1 points, respectively, corresponding to \u0026quot;none,\u0026quot; \u0026quot;weak,\u0026quot; \u0026quot;moderately strong,\u0026quot; and \u0026quot;strong\u0026quot; sensations (Fig. \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe total number of shivering sensations reported was 20, 40, 55, and 114 times for the 0 m\u0026middot;s⁻\u0026sup1;, 2 m\u0026middot;s⁻\u0026sup1;, 4.5 m\u0026middot;s⁻\u0026sup1;, and 7 m\u0026middot;s⁻\u0026sup1; conditions, respectively (Table \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e). The most frequently reported body region with shivering sensation was the hands (without fingers) for all the four wind conditions, followed by the palms, feet, fingers, and thighs. For the 7 m\u0026middot;s⁻\u0026sup1; condition, shivering was predominantly reported in the hands, palms, thighs, and feet. Additionally, for the 7 m\u0026middot;s⁻\u0026sup1; condition, shivering was reported in regions where it was not observed under the other conditions, such as the forehead, chest, calves, and buttocks. We plotted the shivering frequency from the four conditions by two subject groups divided into the overweight (4 individuals) and normal group (6 individuals). The frequency of reported shivering sensations was smaller for the overweight group compared to the normal group for all the three wind conditions (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable 2.\u003c/strong\u003e Total frequencies of shivering sensation according to the normal and overweight group\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" width=\"626\" class=\"fr-table-selection-hover\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"2\" style=\"width: 72px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"3\" style=\"width: 138px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0 m\u0026middot;s⁻\u0026sup1;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"4\" style=\"width: 138px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2 m\u0026middot;s⁻\u0026sup1;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"4\" style=\"width: 22.8435%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.5 m\u0026middot;s⁻\u0026sup1;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"3\" style=\"width: 21.5654%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7 m\u0026middot;s⁻\u0026sup1;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 62px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNormal\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(n = 6)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eOverweight (n = 4)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" style=\"width: 62px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNormal\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(n = 6)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eOverweight (n = 4)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" style=\"width: 63px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNormal\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(n = 6)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" style=\"width: 13.5783%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eOverweight (n = 4)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" style=\"width: 14.0131%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNormal\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(n = 6)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 12.0252%;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eOverweight (n = 4)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 72px;\"\u003eTotal frequency\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 62px;\"\u003e7\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 13.738%;\" colspan=\"2\"\u003e13\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 9.4249%;\" colspan=\"2\"\u003e34\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 13.738%;\" colspan=\"2\"\u003e6\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 9.2652%;\" colspan=\"2\"\u003e41\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 13.5783%;\" colspan=\"2\"\u003e14\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 14.0131%;\" colspan=\"2\"\u003e63\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 12.0252%;\"\u003e51\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eRelationships between Cold Strain Index (CSI), subjective responses, hand temperature, and physical properties\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eCold strain index (CSI) averaged between point 0.67 and 1.54, with significant differences among the four wind conditions (Table \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e). There were negative correlations between CSI and overall thermal sensation, or hand temperature (rho = -0.718 for thermal sensation, rho = -0.747 for hand temperature, all \u003cem\u003ePs\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001; Fig. \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e). Hand temperature was highly correlated with overall thermal comfort, as well as hand thermal sensation and comfort. Body surface area (BSA) showed a significant negative correlation with overall thermal sensation and comfort, as well as hand thermal sensation and comfort at the end of the exercise. Hand temperature was highly correlated with overall thermal sensation and comfort, hand thermal sensation and comfort, and overall wind speed sensation (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e). BMI and BSA per unit body weight showed a significant negative and positive correlation, respectively, only with overall thermal comfort, while total body fat (%) did not show any significant relationships with psychological responses.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n \u003ctable id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCold strain index (CSI) for the four wind speed conditions\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003c/caption\u003e\n \u003cthead\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWind\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003espeed\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(m\u0026middot;s⁻\u0026sup1;)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eREST\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(no-wind)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eEXERCISE\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(wind)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eRECOVERY\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(no-wind)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eInitial 3 min\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLast 3 min\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eInitial 3 min\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLast 3 min\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eInitial 3 min\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLast 3 min\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/thead\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.07\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.06\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.28\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.06\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.43\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.06\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.67\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.06\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.62\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.06\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.58\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.06\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.06\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.08\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.30\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.08\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.46\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.08\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.03\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.08\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.92\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.08\u003csup\u003eab\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.73\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.08\u003csup\u003eab\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.07\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.06\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.25\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.06\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.48\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.06\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.34\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.06\u003csup\u003ebc\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.21\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.06\u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.94\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.06\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.07\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.08\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.22\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.08\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.54\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.08\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.54\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.08\u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.33\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.08\u003csup\u003ebc\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.04\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.08\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e-value\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.797\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.614\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.493\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n \u003ctfoot\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"7\"\u003e\u003cem\u003eNote 1\u003c/em\u003e: Values are presented as Mean\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;SE.\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"7\"\u003e\u003cem\u003eNote 2\u003c/em\u003e: \u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e, \u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e, and \u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e represent significantly-classified groups by pairwise comparisons with the Bonferroni correction.\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tfoot\u003e\n \u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n \u003ctable id=\"Tab4\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 4\u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eRelationships between physical properties and subjective sensations\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003c/caption\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThermal sensation\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThermal comfort\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWind sensation\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eOverall\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHands\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFeet\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eOverall\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHands\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFeet\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eOverall\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBMI\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(kg\u0026middot;m⁻\u0026sup2;)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026rho;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.005\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.005\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.030\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.335\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.151\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.216\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.015\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSig.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.974\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.974\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.854\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e0.035\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.353\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.182\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.925\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTotal body fat (%)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026rho;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.159\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.072\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.086\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.256\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.015\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.085\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.145\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSig.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.327\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.658\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.596\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.111\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.928\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.603\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.373\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003eBSA\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(m\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026rho;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.334\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.360\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.341\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.341\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.312\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.447\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.133\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSig.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e0.035\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e0.023\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e0.032\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e0.032\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e0.050\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e0.004\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.415\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBSA\u0026middot;body weight\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(cm\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e\u0026middot;kg\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026rho;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.063\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.076\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.114\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.352\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.193\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.297\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.031\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSig.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.699\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.639\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.483\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e0.026\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.232\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.063\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.851\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHand temp. (\u0026deg;C)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026rho;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.728\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.681\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.509\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.485\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.673\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.492\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.696\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSig.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e0.002\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e0.001\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n \u003ctfoot\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"11\"\u003e\u003cem\u003eNote\u003c/em\u003e: \u003csup\u003e*\u003c/sup\u003e Body surface area was calculated using Lee and Choi\u0026apos;s formula [\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tfoot\u003e\n \u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eIs the typical winter clothing sufficient to protect the body from strong winds in mild winter temperatures?\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis study found that typical winter clothing (I\u003csub\u003eT\u003c/sub\u003e = 2.1 clo) effectively maintained core body temperature in mild winter temperature (\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;5\u003csup\u003eo\u003c/sup\u003eC) with the strong wind of 7 m\u0026middot;s⁻\u0026sup1;. However, the mean skin temperature dropped below 27\u003csup\u003eo\u003c/sup\u003eC, and the finger temperature dropped below 13\u003csup\u003eo\u003c/sup\u003eC after 60-min walking even while wearing gloves. Subjects felt very cold in their hands during the 60-min walking with wind. In fact, during the 60-min walk, \u003cem\u003eT\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003ere\u003c/sub\u003e increased by an average of 0.4 to 0.5\u0026deg;C, and \u003cem\u003eT\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003epill\u003c/sub\u003e increased by an average of 0.2\u0026deg;C. This indicates that the heat generated from physical activity exceeded the heat lost in the cold and windy conditions. Moderate exercise could generate sufficient heat to compensate for heat loss in cold conditions [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e], but the present results suggest that the everyday winter clothing is not sufficient to support comfort in strong wind conditions. Localized cold discomfort was noted, particularly in the extremities (hands and feet), which points to the need for better insulation for these areas. The subjects in the present study reported shivering in the hands and palms the most, which verifies that the thermal insulation of the extremities is lower than that of the trunk (core body) [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn the present study, the WCT ranged from \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;5\u003csup\u003eo\u003c/sup\u003eC to \u0026ndash; 12\u003csup\u003eo\u003c/sup\u003eC, and the CSI scores were below 2, remaining within the \"mild cold\" category. The CSI scores suggest that the thermal burden in everyday winter conditions with proper clothing is manageable for most people. However, improving the insulation of gloves and footwear is necessary when facing strong winds, even in the mild cold category.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eWhat is an efficient way to measure everyday cold stress?\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn the present study, the first half of the CSI formula became zero because the rectal temperature gradually increased during cold exposure. In this case, the CSI is a function of mean skin temperature (the last half of the CSI formula). As we found strong correlations between thermal sensations, thermal comfort, hand dorsum temperature, and the CSI, cold stress from strong winds in mild cold temperatures could be estimated using non-invasive measures, such as peripheral skin temperatures and subjective responses. In particular, hand dorsum temperature was a reliable reflection of cold exposure, especially in windy conditions. These findings align with previous studies that used skin temperature as a proxy for cold strain in real-world conditions [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e]. That is, given that core temperature remained stable, monitoring hand temperature, thermal sensation and comfort are sufficient to assess cold stress in everyday situations.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eWhat are the efficient methods for maintaining thermal comfort?\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe present study showed that wind significantly reduced the thermal insulation of clothing ensemble, and the clothing insulation at wind speed of 4.5 m\u0026middot;s⁻\u0026sup1; was reduced down to 55% (2.04 clo, 1.42 clo, 1.12 clo, and 0.80 clo, respectively). Winslow et al. reported that clothing insulation decreases with air movement and that windproof designs are crucial in maintaining thermal comfort [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e22\u003c/span\u003e]. Therefore, wind-resistant outer layers and filling materials are essential to preventing cold discomfort and potential injuries. In particular, still air within the filling materials should be preserved when exposed to strong winds. Air-padding jackets could be designed for this purpose [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e23\u003c/span\u003e]. Despite subjects wearing both gloves and shoes, finger temperatures were on average 5\u0026deg;C lower than toe temperatures, likely due to the thicker insulation provided by shoes and socks compared to gloves.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eThe role of body surface area and temperature correlations in cold sensation\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe study found a significant negative correlation between body surface area (BSA) and overall thermal sensation and comfort, as well as hand thermal sensation and comfort. This suggests that individuals with a larger BSA perceive cold conditions more acutely, as larger BSA are more sensitive to cold environments due to increased heat loss from greater surface area exposure [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e24\u003c/span\u003e]. On the other hand, BSA per unit weight showed a significant negative correlation only with overall thermal comfort. While BSA per unit weight reflects the balance between heat loss and metabolic heat production, its effect may be limited under mild cold conditions, where changes in metabolic rate are less pronounced [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e25\u003c/span\u003e]. In this study, the mild cold stimuli and relatively small differences in body weight among the subjects likely reduced the prominence of the effect of BSA per unit weight. Conversely, when core temperature remained stable, the impact of BSA differences on heat loss appeared more pronounced, resulting in a clearer correlation with thermal sensation [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e26\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eBody mass index and shivering response frequency\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe analysis of the relationship between BMI and shivering frequency demonstrated that subjects with normal BMI reported shivering over twice as frequently as mildly overweight subjects under windy conditions. Higher BMI often corresponds to greater overall body mass, which provides increased thermal inertia, reducing the rate of body cooling and potentially delaying the onset of thermoregulatory responses such as shivering. Conversely, individuals with lower BMI may experience more rapid cooling due to smaller body mass, leading to more frequent shivering under similar environmental conditions [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e25\u003c/span\u003e]. This relationship is consistent with earlier findings demonstrating that BMI influences thermoregulatory responses beyond the effects of body composition alone. Tikuisis et al. noted that BMI better predicted shivering frequency in cold environments compared to fat percentage or lean mass individually [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e]. Similarly, Havenith et al. emphasized the role of surface area-to-mass ratio in cold stress responses, which BMI inherently captures [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e25\u003c/span\u003e]. Future research should investigate a wider BMI range and harsher cold environments to clarify BMI\u0026rsquo;s specific contributions to thermoregulatory processes.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Conclusions","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis study examined the physiological and psychological responses of young males, while wearing typical winter clothing (I\u003csub\u003eT\u003c/sub\u003e, 2.1 clo) and walking for 60 min in \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;5\u0026deg;C with four wind conditions (0 m\u0026middot;s⁻\u0026sup1;, 2 m\u0026middot;s⁻\u0026sup1;, 4.5 m\u0026middot;s⁻\u0026sup1;, 7 m\u0026middot;s⁻\u0026sup1;). The wind chill temperature under the present experimental conditions ranged from \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;5\u003csup\u003eo\u003c/sup\u003eC to 12\u003csup\u003eo\u003c/sup\u003eC, which is categorized as mild cold. We found that rectal and gastrointestinal temperatures were not reduced and metabolic rate did not increase even while facing the strong wind (-7 m/s), while peripheral skin temperatures (hand, finger, foot, and toe) and psychological responses were significantly affected by the strong wind. These results suggest that the selected winter clothing provides adequate insulation for maintaining core body temperature, but is not sufficient to support peripheral insulation and thermal comfort. Overweight subjects exhibited less frequent shivering than those with normal weight, a larger body surface area correlated with greater sensitivity to cold. Non-invasive indicators, including hand temperature, thermal sensation, thermal comfort, and wind speed sensation, could predict the physiological impacts of wind exposure up to 7 m\u0026middot;s⁻\u0026sup1; in mild cold temperatures. This study provides valuable insights for designing winter clothing and ensuring safe outdoor activities in mild cold environments, emphasizing the importance of protecting extremities from wind chill.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Abbreviations","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionList\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003e\u003cb\u003eCSI\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCold Strain Index\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003e\u003cb\u003eT\u003c/b\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cb\u003ere\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eRectal temperature\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003e\u003cb\u003eT\u003c/b\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cb\u003epill\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eGastrointestinal temperature\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003e\u003cb\u003eT\u003c/b\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cb\u003eac\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAuditory canal temperature\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003e\u003cb\u003eBMI\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBody mass index\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"DefinitionListEntry\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"Term\"\u003e\u003cb\u003eBSA\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"Description\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBody surface area\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEthics approval and consent to participate\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cp\u003e This study was approved by the Institutional Review Board at Seoul National University (IRB No. 2108/002\u0026ndash;017). Each subject in this study was provided with detailed information about the research and confidentiality before written informed consent was obtained.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConsent for publication\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cp\u003eNot applicable.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCompeting interests\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe authors declare that they have no competing interests.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eFunding\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis research was supported by the Basic Research Program through the National Research Foundation of Korea (NRF) funded by the MIST (2022R1A4A5034046) and \u0026hellip;\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAuthor Contribution\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eDH: Conceptualization; Data curation; Formal analysis; Experiment preparation; Investigation; Visualization; Writing - original draft.CE: Experiment preparation; Investigation; Data curationG: Experiment preparation; Investigation; Data curationH: Experiment preparation; Investigation; Data curationJK: Resources; Validation; Writing - reviewKR: Project administration; Resources; Supervision; Validation; Writing - reviewJY: Conceptualization; Funding acquisition; Investigation; Methodology; Project administration; Resources; Supervision; Validation; Writing - review \u0026amp; editing.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAcknowledgement\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eWe sincerely thank Hoyeon Jeong and Yoon Jeong Hur for their valuable technical support.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eData Availability\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe datasets used and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eISO 12894. 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J Appl Physiol. 1999; \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003edoi.org/10.1152/jappl.1999.87.5.1957\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1152/jappl.1999.87.5.1957\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":true,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Wind speed, Cold stress, Cold strain index, Core temperature, Shivering, Subjective responses, Body surface area, Body mass index","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7284826/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-7284826/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003ch2\u003eBackground\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eAir temperature that is considered as cold varies according to individuals. For most people temperatures below 0\u003csup\u003eo\u003c/sup\u003eC is considered \u0026lsquo;cold\u0026rsquo;. Urban people who live in temperate climates are accustomed to mild cold with varying wind speeds, but relatively few studies have examined the effects of wind speed in mild cold on individuals wearing winter clothing, especially compared to studies conducted in severe cold environments. We examined thermoregulatory responses to varying wind speeds in mild cold, considering anthropometric characteristics of individuals.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eMethods\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eTen healthy males (23.9\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;3.3 y in age, 175.8\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;4.9 cm in height, 74.4\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;7.0 kg in body weight) participated in the following four wind conditions (0, 2, 4.5, and 7 m\u0026middot;s⁻\u0026sup1;) at an air temperature of \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;5\u0026deg;C (Wind chill temperature: -5\u003csup\u003eo\u003c/sup\u003eC ~ -12\u003csup\u003eo\u003c/sup\u003eC). Subjects wore winter clothing (I\u003csub\u003eT\u003c/sub\u003e, 2.1 clo) and every trial consisted of 80 min (10-min rest, 60-min walking, and 10-min recovery).\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eResults\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eRectal and gastrointestinal temperatures remained stable across all the conditions, suggesting sufficient insulation from the winter clothing. However, peripheral skin temperatures, particularly on the hand, foot, and finger significantly decreased with higher wind speeds (all \u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003es\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05). At 7 m\u0026middot;s⁻\u0026sup1;, the temperature of the fingers dropped to an average of 12.7\u0026deg;C. Overweight subjects showed less frequent shivering compared to normal-weight subjects, while body surface area (BSA) and body mass index (BMI) negatively correlated with overall thermal comfort (all \u003cem\u003ePs\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05). Subjective thermal and wind sensations also increased with wind speed (all \u003cem\u003ePs\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05).\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eConclusions\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eWhile typical winter clothing (2.1 clo) effectively maintains core temperature in wind chill conditions down to \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;12\u0026deg;C, extremities, particularly the hands, require better insulation. Peripheral skin temperatures and thermal comfort, provide reliable indicators for assessing cold stress. Physical properties of the body also influenced cold responses, with overweight individuals exhibiting less frequent shivering and larger body surface areas correlating with greater cold sensitivity. These findings offer insights into optimizing winter clothing design to improve comfort and safety in windy conditions in mild cold.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Thermoregulatory Responses to Air Temperature of −5 o C at Different Wind Speeds: Significance of Strong Wind in a Mild Cold Environment","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-08-21 11:52:57","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7284826/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"f946e9be-a278-4da4-b69b-31156ce3508f","owner":[],"postedDate":"August 21st, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-01-19T16:45:35+00:00","versionOfRecord":{"articleIdentity":"rs-7284826","link":"https://doi.org/10.1186/s40101-025-00419-1","journal":{"identity":"journal-of-physiological-anthropology","isVorOnly":false,"title":"Journal of Physiological Anthropology"},"publishedOn":"2026-01-12 16:28:44","publishedOnDateReadable":"January 12th, 2026"},"versionCreatedAt":"2025-08-21 11:52:57","video":"","vorDoi":"10.1186/s40101-025-00419-1","vorDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1186/s40101-025-00419-1","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-7284826","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-7284826","identity":"rs-7284826","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}