Climate-related urban migration: scope and gaps in the academic literature

Climate-related urban migration: scope and gaps in the academic literature | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Systematic Review Climate-related urban migration: scope and gaps in the academic literature Sandra Rodriguez Arregui, Eneko Garmendia Oleaga, Elisa Sainz De Murieta Zugadi This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-7982606/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Climate-related urban migration is emerging as one of the most pressing global challenges of our time, yet its drivers, patterns and consequences remain unevenly documented. In this study we present a PRISMA-guided systematic review of peer-reviewed research on climate-related migration into urban areas, complemented by key data from leading international organisations engaged in migration studies. Our review reveals that most climate-related migration is internal (i.e. within national borders rather than across them) and that it often results in precarious living conditions and predominantly informal livelihoods in urban destinations. Floods, droughts and changes in precipitation emerge as the most frequently analysed climate hazards. The type of hazard studied tends to reflect regional exposure patterns. Geographically, there is a clear imbalance between the regions that are the focus of academic research and those identified as critical by international organisations. While Asia – particularly Bangladesh – dominates the research landscape, other countries that are highly exposed to climate hazards – such as Ethiopia, Indonesia, Myanmar, Pakistan and the Philippines – remain underrepresented. Similarly, Europe and countries elsewhere in the Global North receive limited scholarly attention, despite facing increasingly frequent climate impacts. Our analysis also highlights persistent gaps in understanding gender dynamics and post-migration vulnerabilities. A more nuanced exploration of migrants’ profiles and the urban characteristics shaping their livelihoods is essential to inform socially responsive urban-planning and climate-adaptation policies. Without more comprehensive, balanced and context-sensitive research, policy responses risk overlooking vulnerable populations as climate-induced migration continues to reshape the trajectory of global urbanisation. Earth and environmental sciences/Climate sciences Social science/Environmental studies Scientific community and society/Geography Social science/Geography climate change environment urban migration vulnerability Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 Figure 6 1. INTRODUCTION Migration is increasingly recognised as part of the complex human response to climate change (Ionesco et al., 2017 ; Ghosh and Orchiston, 2022 ), as more frequent and intense extreme weather events take place worldwide (Calvin et al., 2023 ). While multiple factors interfere in people’s mobility, climatic factors are increasingly shaping these patterns (Rigaud et al., 2018). The number of people who have moved due to the effects of climate change is difficult to estimate because there is no internationally accepted legal definition (Ionesco et al., 2017 ) and because there are multiple factors behind the decision to migrate (Ghosh & Orchiston, 2022 ). However, according to the International Displacement Monitoring Centre (IDMC), the number of internally displaced people due to natural disasters – mainly associated with weather events such as storms, droughts and floods – increased from 32.6 million in 2022 to 48.5 million in 2024. 1 According to some authors the number of climate migrants could reach 216.1 million by 2050 in a worst-case scenario (Clement et al., 2021 ). This study focuses on climate-related urban migration. Even though less than 2% of the planet’s land is urban, the world’s urban population has now surpassed the rural population for the first time in history (Ritchie, 2018 ). Moreover, people living in urban areas are projected to constitute 68% of the global population by 2050, with the majority of this increase concentrated in Asia and Africa, which are both vulnerable to the impacts of climate change (UN-Habitat, 2022 ). Climate migrants generally have limited financial resources and often settle either in densely populated inner-city areas for easy access to jobs, or on the urban periphery to reduce rental costs (Ahsan et al., 2016 ), thereby exacerbating their vulnerability. At the same time, climate migrants can generate vulnerabilities for those already living in the urban areas where they arrive (Rosengärtner et al., 2023 ), as the concentration of people can exacerbate environmental degradation of land and water (Asadzadeh et al., 2022 ). Urban areas also experience many of the impacts of climate change, including the heat-island effect and coastal flooding caused by sea level rise (UN-Habitat, 2024 ). Therefore, cities can be both destinations and climate hotspots for these climate migrants (Hoffmann, 2022 ). In this sense, ongoing migration to urban areas is exposing millions of people to environmental risks and hazards in the areas where they arrive (Geddes et al., 2012 ), making necessary the study of climate-related migrations into urban areas. There have been significant advances in the study of migrations and climate change-related issues that have shaped the foundations of this research area. For example, the pioneering work of Obokata et al. ( 2014 ) examined the relationship between migration and environmental change, focusing particularly on international migration. Piguet et al. ( 2018 ) mapped environmentally induced migration through the lens of five major climate hazards: drought, floods, hurricanes, sea level rise and rainfall variability. More recently, Ghosh and Orchiston ( 2022 ) identified research gaps in the discourse on climate-induced migration from 1990 to 2019. Chung et al. ( 2022 ) extended previous research by systematically analysing climate mobility into urban areas, covering publications up to 2020 and conducting a thematic analysis of informality, labour migration and policy intervention. Despite this progress, the field remains in its early stages and the rapid proliferation of publications in recent years (see Fig. 2) poses a significant challenge in terms of mapping and integrating all the available knowledge. To address this gap we have conducted a PRISMA-based systematic literature review of up-to-date academic studies on climate-related urban migration (2004–2024), complemented by key data from leading international organisations that are studying human migrations. Such organisations include the International Organization for Migration (IOM), the Internal Displacement Monitoring Centre (IDMC) and the World Bank. This approach allows us to assess the scope of the academic research and to verify to what extent the literature is addressing the key patterns and phenomena revealed by global data. Our analysis also extends the previous work by addressing the geographical distribution of the academic research, examining climate and non-climate migration drivers, identifying migrant profiles and also looking at the post-migration phase. This triangulation of academic and policy-oriented evidence and data provides a broader and more nuanced perspective on the dynamics and impacts of climate-related urban migration, with the potential to guide future academic research and inform urban-planning and climate-adaptation strategies. 2. METHODOLOGY We followed the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) approach to carry out the systematic literature review. This methodology entails several steps, detailed below. Before starting the search, it was necessary to plan the review and specify the inclusion and exclusion criteria. Only articles in English were considered and, given the objective of our research, the search was extended to all peer-reviewed articles addressing climate-related migration in urban contexts published up to 2024. Studies that did not analyse these three topics specifically but mentioned them indirectly were included if they were considered relevant to the objective of the study. For instance, if a study did not specify that the destination of migration was urban but this could be reasonably inferred from the context, it was included, as in the case of Nawrotzki and DeWaard ( 2016 ). Three search engines were selected for this study. Firstly, we chose WoS (Web of Science) and Scopus, which are generally accepted as the two most comprehensive bibliographic databases (e.g., Pranckutė, 2021 ). Then, to complement this information, we also included CliMig, a major bibliographic database dedicated specifically to migration, the environment and climate change, which is widely used in this field (Piguet et al., 2018 ; Ionesco et al., 2017 ). Search process Due to the lack of consensus on the definitions of climate migrations, we used a large number of keywords in our search to ensure we identified all the studies relevant to our objective. For the search on WoS and Scopus, we first created a list of keywords related to climate change (climate change, environment and disasters) and migration (migration/migrant, refugee, displacement). We then cross-checked and completed the list with the work of Ghosh and Orchiston ( 2022 ) and Ionesco et al. ( 2017 ), producing a final list of 18 keywords (see Supplementary Figure S1 ). These keywords, together with “urban” OR “cit*” to represent the urban component, were searched for in both databases in December 2024, using the Boolean search operators (see Dinet et al., 2004 ). The total number of publications found was 509, including 326 in Scopus, and 183 in WoS. Regarding the Climig database, we used the latest available version (9 January 2025), which includes 3,121 references. Given that it is a database that compiles scientific papers and books on the topics of climate/environmental change and migration, we used the keywords “urban” OR “cit*” to filter our search, obtaining 549 references. Once we identified the potential articles in all the databases, we excluded duplicates, books and other publications that were not peer-reviewed scientific articles in English. Of the 1,058 publications retrieved in the search, 495 did not fulfil the initial criteria (183 were duplicates, 280 were not papers, 31 were not in English, and one was from 2025). This left 563 publications for the first screening. Screening process We conducted the screening in two steps. Firstly, we screened the titles and abstracts to exclude articles that were not relevant to our study, after which 249 remained for further evaluation. We then conducted a second screening by reading the full texts. Reasons for not considering papers included non-human migration, main topics other than migration, keywords in the abstract not being the central topic in the full text, and non-peer-reviewed articles. The number of papers excluded after the second screening was 74 and a further 22 could not be fully accessed, leaving 153 papers for analysis (Fig. 1). For the analysis of the articles, all the data (see Supplementary Information) was collected and organised into an Excel spreadsheet. As mentioned above, in addition to the peer-reviewed literature, we analysed key data from leading international organisations working on the study of human migrations and climate change, to enrich the discussion, provide a broader contextual understanding, contrast findings from the peer-reviewed literature and reduce publication bias. These data come from the databases of IOM, the IDMC and the World Bank. In addition, we checked the data on climate-change-related natural disasters from the Emergency Events Database (EM-DAT), the Climate Risk Index (CRI) and the World Risk Index (WRI). Publications from these sources were selected based on their relevance to climate-related urban migration and their contributions to contrasting or complementing the findings from the academic literature. 3. CLIMATE-RELATED URBAN MIGRATION AT A GLANCE The literature on climate-related urban migration has expanded over the last two decades, with a decrease in 2021 in the wake of the coronavirus pandemic period and a significant spike in 2022 (see Fig. 2). In the last five-year period (2020–2024) a total of 85 articles were published, constituting 56% of the total. Of the 153 publications on climate-related urban migration, 76 focus on Asia (50%), 37 on Africa, 25 on North America, 18 on South America, nine on Oceania and one on Europe. The number of counts exceeds the total number of studies because some papers cover more than one continent. Half of the studies focused on Asia, whereas Africa has only gained significant attention since 2020. Interest in North America as a research area declined after 2018 but was renewed in 2023. At the country level, significant differences were found. Bangladesh is by far the most studied country, with 41 papers (27%), followed by other countries such as Mexico (10 papers), India (9), the United States (8), Iran (6), Vietnam (5), and Kenya (5). Figure 3 shows the distribution of countries studied by continent. Although Asia accounts for half of the articles, the proportion of countries studied on this continent is relatively small, with 50% focusing on Bangladesh and a further 25% on India, Iran and Vietnam. The same is true for North America, where the focus is on Mexico and the United States. In contrast, studies in Africa, South America and Oceania are more evenly distributed, with no single country standing out. To check whether the academic literature covers areas identified as displacement or vulnerability hotspots, we compared these results with data from other sources, including the Internal Displacement Monitoring Centre (IDMC), the Climate Risk Index (CRI), the World Risk Index (WRI) and the Emergency Events Database (EM-DAT). Firstly, we examined the countries that experienced the highest numbers of displacements due to weather-related natural disasters between 2015 and 2024, using data from the IDMC. China, the Philippines, India, Bangladesh and the United States were consistently among the most affected countries during this period. Other countries, including Pakistan, Myanmar, Ethiopia, Indonesia and Brazil, have also experienced significant displacement during this time. Secondly, we checked the CRI, which measures economic losses and the human impact of climate-related extreme weather events in different countries, including fatalities, injuries, homelessness, and the number of people affected. The top 10 countries with the highest scores from 2000 to 2019 were: Puerto Rico, Myanmar, Haiti, the Philippines, Mozambique, the Bahamas, Bangladesh, Pakistan, Thailand and Nepal (Eckstein et al., 2021 ). Thirdly, we analysed the locations of natural disasters, noting which countries are most vulnerable to them. While these data are not directly related to migration, they provide a solid basis for a better understanding of the climate context that influences migration. EM-DAT compiles data on the type and number of natural disasters (e.g., floods, storms, extreme temperatures and droughts) per year in order to identify countries experiencing the highest number of disaster events (CRED, n. d.). Between 2015 and 2024, the United States, China, Indonesia, the Philippines and India were all in the top 10 every year. Other countries that have also ranked in the top 10 on multiple occasions include Vietnam, Mexico, Pakistan, Brazil and France. Finally, the World Risk Index evaluates the risk that countries will experience a humanitarian disaster due to extreme natural events or the adverse effects of climate change. It considers factors such as exposure, resilience, coping capacity and adaptive capacity. According to the index, the top 10 countries between 2022 2 and 2024 were the Philippines, Indonesia, India, Colombia, Mexico, Myanmar, Mozambique, Russia, Bangladesh and Pakistan (Bündnis Entwicklung Hilft, 2024). When we compare these data with our own analysis, we find that Bangladesh, India and the United States are well represented in the academic literature. However, countries including Ethiopia, Indonesia, Myanmar, Pakistan and the Philippines, which have high displacement figures and are also exposed to the impacts of extreme weather events related to climate change, are underrepresented. The Philippines, for instance, is one of the world’s top disaster-risk hotspots, with more typhoons passing through its territory than anywhere else. In 2024, a record nine million people were displaced by disasters across the country, most of which were triggered by typhoons (IDMC, 2025 ). Indonesia has also experienced several natural disasters in recent years, including floods, storms and earthquakes, which have displaced thousands of people. For example, heavy rains and flooding in January 2023 resulted in 115,000 people being displaced. A further 429,000 people were displaced by floods in 2024. In Pakistan, floods triggered around 647,000 displacements in 2023, primarily in the month of July. In Ethiopia, flooding caused around 550,000 people to be displaced in 2023. In Myanmar, in 2023, Cyclone Mocha alone displaced an estimated 912,000 people, while flooding and landslides in 2024 displaced a further 402,000 people (IDMC, 2024 , 2025 ). These examples illustrate the scale and frequency of climate- and weather-related displacements in these countries, highlighting the urgent need for a greater academic focus on their respective regions. In the Global North, the United States is well represented in the academic literature. However, other industrialised countries that are also experiencing population movements linked to climate impacts appear to be largely underrepresented. According to the IDMC ( 2024 ), New Zealand recorded 14,000 internally displaced people in 2023 due to heavy rainfall and subsequent flooding, as well as Cyclone Gabrielle – the highest number since records began in 2010. Meanwhile, Canada’s wildfires led to the displacement of 185,000 people in 2023, the highest figure since records began in 2013. In Italy, a storm in the north of the country caused 36,000 displacements in 2023, while wildfires displaced 24,000 people in Spain that same year. In October 2024, the Valencia region of Spain experienced the deadliest floods in Europe since 1967 (IDMC, 2025 ). These are just a few examples of recent events in the Global North. While the numbers are not as high as in other parts of the world, it is undeniable that industrialised countries are also significantly affected by climate change. Furthermore, as northern countries are increasingly the destination for climate migrants seeking a better future, the role and consequences of these migrants in the Global North require further attention. Recent studies examining migrant adaptation strategies in Europe may also help to shed light on this issue (Kotsila, 2023 ; Kotsila et al., 2025 ). 4. TRIGGERS OF CLIMATE-RELATED MIGRATION AND THE IMPORTANCE OF NON-CLIMATE FACTORS Regarding the climatic factors that drive migration, the publications highlight different triggers, both slow-onset (e.g., drought, sea level rise) and fast-onset events (e.g., cyclones, floods, storms). Figure 4 shows the triggers that were mentioned most often in our analysis, listed in order of frequency: floods (71 articles), droughts (68), changes in precipitation (43), cyclones (33), temperature changes (29), sea level rise (26), riverbank erosion (25) and climate change in general (23). Multiple counts were included as almost every paper mentioned more than one driver. It is also important to note that more than half of the studies (n = 91) mention non-climate factors, demonstrating that climate or the environment rarely acts as the sole trigger for migration. The literature shows that people migrate due to a mixture of push and pull factors. Mobility often results from the intersection of climate triggers with socio-economic ones, including social, economic, political and security factors. Even so-called ‘voluntary’ movements are usually motivated by external factors and pressures influencing individuals’ ability to migrate (IOM, 2021). In line with previous studies (e.g., Ionesco et al., 2017 ), our review suggests that climate hazards are only one of the reasons for migration. This underscores the need to consider climate-related migration in the context of broader socioeconomic vulnerability. Figure 5 shows the most frequently mentioned non-climate triggers identified in the reviewed articles, grouped into six main categories: economic and livelihood factors, human-driven degradation, social vulnerability, political instability and conflict, social and cultural factors and non-climate factors in general. Sudden-onset factors such as floods can cause economic disruption and loss of livelihoods (Sreekumar & Mandal, 2024 ). Following a climate shock and the subsequent decline in livelihood security, some individuals may choose to migrate to urban areas in search of better employment opportunities (Mounirou, 2022 ; Nawrotzki et al., 2017 ). In other cases, environmental degradation can lead to a decline in land productivity, eventually resulting in resource scarcity, associated social conflicts and unemployment (Twinomuhangi et al., 2023 ). In rural areas, insufficient non-agricultural employment opportunities may lead younger generations to seek work outside their community (Wiegel, 2023 ). Therefore, a lack of income-generating opportunities, the need to diversify livelihoods, or the absence of basic services may also explain why people leave their rural communities (Madzivhandila et al., 2024). This shows that migration often occurs for economic reasons, and that the role of climate change is often to exacerbate pre-existing problems (Ahmad et al., 2019 ; Fernández et al., 2024 ; Ngo et al., 2023 ). For instance, some migrants in Sub-Saharan Africa attribute their decision to migrate to economic reasons, such as loss of income, yet they often do not realise that these economic challenges may have been caused or intensified by droughts, land degradation, or other environmental changes linked to climate change (Grote & Warner, 2010 ). Hence, in order to address the driving forces behind climate migrations, beyond biophysical triggers, it is important to bear in mind other socio-economic, political and cultural factors that shape the vulnerabilities of diverse communities facing diverse climate shocks (Obokata et al., 2014 ). As might be expected, the triggers for migration vary by region. In Asia, fast-onset events are the most frequently cited climate triggers, with floods, cyclones and riverbank erosion the most prominent, followed by drought and excess salinity. In Africa, slow-onset events such as droughts, changes in precipitation or rainfall, land degradation and temperature changes, as well as floods, are more prominent. In Oceania, sea-level rises emerge as the main climatic trigger, followed by floods, storm surges, and general references to climate change. In North America the most frequently mentioned hazards are droughts, precipitation and temperature changes, followed by floods and hurricanes (the latter being specific to this region). In South America the most frequently cited climatic triggers are changes in precipitation and temperature, together with drought. The distribution of the most frequent triggers by region is presented in Fig. 6. The results of the literature review are consistent with the findings reported in the most recent IDMC reports (IDMC, 2023 , 2024 , 2025 ). Over the past few years Asia has mostly experienced fast-onset events such as floods, storms, typhoons and cyclones, whereas the Americas have experienced hurricanes, floods, droughts and wildfires. In Africa, severe droughts and heavy rainfall have been identified as triggers of migration, with a particular focus on floods. The results are similar again when we look at the EM-DAT data on the number of people affected by disaster type and economic losses from disasters. The most notable disasters are floods, storms and typhoons in Asia; droughts and floods in Africa; hurricanes in the United States; and droughts and other major storm events across the Americas (CRED, 2023 , 2024 , 2025 ). 5. TYPES OF MIGRATION: HOW ARE PEOPLE MIGRATING? Our analysis shows that most migration is internal, which is to say it usually takes place within rather than across national borders. Two-thirds of the articles mention only internal migration, 22% refer to internal and international, and only 5% refer only to international. An analysis of the direction of international migration flows reveals that more than half of the cases are from Mexico to the United States, and the rest are mainly from islands in Oceania (e.g., Tuvalu, Micronesia) to Hawaii, Australia or New Zealand. In addition to these two main routes, there is evidence of highly educated residents from Dhaka, Bangladesh, migrating to Toronto, Canada, through Canada’s permanent-residency programme for skilled workers (McLeman et al., 2018 ). In the studies that address both internal and international migration, two main international routes can be identified. Nearly half of these articles focus on Africa, where cross-border migration to neighbouring countries is common. Additionally, more than a quarter of the articles focus on migration from Central and South America (e.g., Mexico, the Bahamas, the so-called ‘Dry Corridor’ and Peru) to the United States. As for where migrants come from, most articles (80%) refer to them having rural origins. Only 9% of the articles describe migrants with urban origins, while 10% refer to migrants from both rural and urban areas. As for the climate migrants’ destinations, two-thirds of the articles (67%) refer only to urban locations while 16% describe both urban and rural destinations. Despite the prevalence of internal migration from rural to urban sites, it is important to note that migrants also move between urban areas, although little is known about urban mobility in response to climate change (Zander et al., 2019 ). In this regard we found that among the articles reporting urban-to-urban migration, many focus on migration aspirations rather than on actual migration events. This has been observed in countries such as Australia (Zander & Garnett, 2020 ), the Czech Republic (Balcar & Šulák, 2021 ), Morocco (Van Praag, 2022 ) the United States (Berlin Rubin & Wong-Parodi, 2022 ; Seeteram et al., 2023 ), Mozambique (Halliday et al., 2024 ), Nigeria (Ekoh et al., 2023 ) and Bangladesh (Buchori et al., 2018 ). Likewise, rural-to-rural migration still occurs. For example, migrants from cotton-producing households in Benin have relocated to neighbouring countries, or even to other villages within the same area (Mounirou, 2022 ). In coastal rural Nigeria, migration flows to other rural areas were also observed, despite migration primarily occurring to urban and semi-urban areas (Akinbami, 2021 ). In Peru, rural seasonal migration was observed (Milan & Ho, 2014 ). A study covering Kenya and Uganda explains that because both countries remain predominantly rural, rural-to-rural migration is common. However, the same study makes clear that both countries are urbanising rapidly, meaning there are more opportunities for urban migration (Gray, 2011 ). 6. GENDER AND LIVELIHOODS IN THE SPOTLIGHT When we examined the gender characteristics of the migrants, we found a significant lack of information, as only 24% of the articles included any gender-related aspect. Ayeb-Karlsson, 2020 , observed that surprisingly little empirical research on climate change takes a gendered approach. Chindarkar ( 2012 ), meanwhile, noted that although research on climate migration is scarce, its impact on women is under-researched. However, women are identified as being more vulnerable than men before, during and after migration (IOM, 2019). This greater vulnerability to natural and climatic hazards (Alam, 2019 ) is linked to higher poverty rates, lower levels of education, poorer health and persistent structural inequalities in access to natural resources (IOM, 2024; Rigaud et al., 2018). Most of the reviewed studies simply state that men are more likely to migrate than women (Mianabadi et al., 2021 ; Mounirou, 2022 ) and often describe women as associated or dependent migrants (Patel & Giri, 2019 ), but without exploring the underlying structural, social, or cultural reasons for these gendered patterns. Likewise, little is known about the vulnerabilities women face when they are left behind, although there is some evidence that those unable to accompany their husbands in migrating to urban areas face many problems (Mallick & Vogt, 2012 , 2014 ). They are left to live in hazard-prone villages (Penning-Rowsell et al., 2013 ), while remaining responsible for household chores and childcare (Chowdhury & Masud, 2020 ) and often facing social judgement (Hutton & Haque, 2004 ). In some cases they depend on relatives for their subsistence (Penning-Rowsell et al., 2013 ), and some even resort to begging as a means of survival (Mallick & Vogt, 2014 ). Evidence also shows that women are particularly vulnerable in the aftermath of natural disasters, due to their exposure to violence, sexual harassment and heavy care burdens, among other factors (Rigaud et al., 2018). In addition to overlooking gender, this literature also largely ignores other demographic characteristics, such as age and educational level. This leaves a significant gap in our understanding of the socioeconomic profile of climate migrants, which is essential for designing effective policies. Notably, a recent study demonstrates that migration responses to weather effects are highly dependent on demographic characteristics (Benveniste et al., 2025 ). As with demographic characteristics, the post-migration phase remains largely unexplored in the academic literature. Only 34% of the articles (n = 52) provide any information about migrants’ living conditions at their destinations. Of these 52 articles, 27 focus on Bangladesh and five on India, indicating that most of the available evidence on post-migration experiences originates from South Asia. Households typically attempt in-situ adaptation to changing conditions but resort to migration when these strategies fail to produce the desired outcomes (Nawrotzki & DeWaard, 2016 ). However, migration does not always lead to successful adaptation, and sometimes it creates new vulnerabilities when migrants enter irregular livelihoods (Surie & Sharma, 2019 ), when working and living conditions at their destinations fall below optimal standards (Thongchaithanawut et al., 2024 ), or when expected opportunities in urban areas fail to materialise (Madzivhandila et al., 2024). Many studies discuss the precarious conditions in informal settlements, such as closely packed houses, insufficient ventilation and the lack of basic services (e.g., safe water, electricity, gas, sanitation, and health care), as well as water scarcity and environmental pollution (Huq & Shafique, 2023 ; Rana & Ilina, 2021 ; Uddin, 2023 ). Additionally, these settlements are frequently illegal (Ahsan et al., 2016 ) and subject to continuous cycles of demolition and eviction by civil authorities (Revi, 2008 ), meaning there is no guarantee of residential security (Serraglio et al., 2019 ). Slums are often in vulnerable locations, such as near drainage systems or waste-disposal sites, or in areas prone to flooding (Mallick & Vogt, 2014 ). Overall, these locations are typically exposed to multiple hazards (Hoffmann, 2022 ; Karutz & Kabisch, 2023 ; Tribak et al., 2019 ), placing migrants in a vulnerable predicament in their new environments. For example, Hutton and Haque ( 2004 ) found that displacee-squatter settlements in the city of Serajganj were located in highly exposed areas — next to a railway line, in an abandoned brickyard, and along the city’s flood embankments. Another vulnerability faced by migrants is the informality of work opportunities. A study in Bangladesh found that slum dwellers generally did not have sustainable livelihoods, with most relying on casual labour, rickshaw pulling and working as domestic staff (Khan, 2022 ). In Eastern India, many migrants were illiterate farmers, and upon arrival they were often employed as unskilled labourers in cotton mills or factories, or on construction sites (Debnath & Kumar Nayak, 2022 ). These changes in lifestyle are associated with a sense of not belonging in their new urban environments (Mianabadi et al., 2021 ), feeling trapped (Nayna Schwerdtle et al., 2021 ), or feeling out of place after losing their long-established community ties (A. Alam & Khalil, 2022 ). Migration also has significant impacts on host towns and their citizens, due to changes in urban land use, heat emissions (Přívara & Přívarová, 2019 ), pressure on available infrastructure and services (El Vilaly et al., 2022 ), increasing urban poverty, higher demand for basic services including housing, sanitation, water and healthcare (Ahsan et al., 2011 ; Rana & Ilina, 2021 ), and the tensions that competition for resources can exacerbate (Malji et al., 2022 ). Many densely populated urban areas are exposed to climate events such as heatwaves, coastal erosion, droughts, or sea level rise (IOM, 2021), meaning that they can become risk hotspots. All these factors make it necessary to conduct further research into migrants’ urban destinations (IOM, 2019). Such research should incorporate the knowledge and experiences of immigrants, as they can offer valuable insights into developing urban climate solutions that address their specific concerns about life and livelihood. This approach can help to identify and mitigate the vulnerabilities faced by immigrant communities, while also highlighting their everyday practices and experiences (Kotsila, 2023 ). CONCLUSIONS One of our objectives in this study was to identify the geographical hotspots in terms of research into climate-related urban migration. Although climate change can affect all parts of the world, the countries that have done least to cause the phenomenon tend to be the most vulnerable and to suffer most from its consequences (Calvin et al., 2023 ). While an in-depth analysis of the academic literature revealed that the Global South is well represented in the academic literature, we found that some countries receive more attention than others. Of all the continents covered by the literature on climate-related urban migration, Asia is the most widely researched, with Bangladesh being by far the most frequently studied country. While this is consistent with the ‘hotspots’ for climate migration identified through the analysis of data from leading international organisations, it only provides a partial picture of the situation, as many other affected countries remain largely unstudied. Countries that require further attention due to their exposure to climate hazards include Ethiopia, Indonesia, Myanmar, Pakistan and the Philippines, to name just a few. Likewise, European and other countries in the Global North are also largely absent from the literature, despite the increasing impact of climate events in these regions. Despite the availability of data confirming that climate-related migration is taking place in these regions, the academic research on this issue remains limited, constituting a significant gap in the literature. Floods, droughts and changes in precipitation emerge as the most frequently analysed climate hazards. Their uneven geographical distribution is reflected in the literature: fast-onset events dominate the studies focusing on Asia, slow-onset events and floods are more common in Africa, drought and temperature changes come up most often in the Americas, hurricanes are specific to North America, and sea level rise are the primary focus in Oceania. The review also shows that climate change and natural disasters are rarely the sole causes of migration, with more than half of the papers highlighting the role of other socio-economic and environmental factors. To understand climate-related migration into urban areas, it is therefore necessary to consider broader socio-economic contexts and pre-existing vulnerabilities - particularly among women and children, who remain largely absent from the literature. Apart from with regard to South Asia, the research into the post-migration phase is limited, and this gap needs to be addressed in order to reduce migrant vulnerabilities and design adaptation strategies that reflect migrants’ realities. Most migrants settle on urban peripheries, where they have to contend with inadequate housing, poor living conditions, informal employment and social exclusion. The social dimensions, particularly those relating to gender, are also under-explored. Women have specific vulnerabilities before, during and after migration, and those left behind also experience additional pressures. However, gender and intersecting inequalities are rarely incorporated into analytical frameworks. Again, these gaps need to be filled in order to develop inclusive adaptation and migration policies that account for diverse vulnerabilities both prior to and following displacement. Future research should move beyond case studies confined to specific regions and instead develop comparative perspectives that integrate social, economic, and environmental dimensions. Furthermore, additional investigation is needed to assess the effectiveness of migration as an adaptation strategy in the context of climate change. Finally, given that urbanisation is one of the most significant consequences of migration and often entails negative externalities such as unemployment and environmental degradation, it is essential for studies on climate change and migration to explicitly address these challenges. Declarations ETHICS DECLARATIONS Competing interests: The authors declare no competing interests. Ethical approval: This article does not present the results of any studies involving human participants conducted by any of the authors. Informed consent: This article does not contain any studies involving human participants conducted by any of the authors. FUNDING This research was supported by a Pre-Doctoral Grant from the University of the Basque Country (EHU, PIF23/132); by the Basque Government (IT1567-22; IT1777-22); and by the Spanish Ministry of Economy, Industry and Competitiveness (Grant No. PID2024-160087NB-I00). Author Contribution S.R. led the systematic literature review, developed the database, and drafted the initial version of the manuscript. E.G. and E.S.M. contributed to the conceptual design of the study and provided supervision, critically reviewing and revising the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final version for submission. Acknowledgement S.R. acknowledges the support of the pre-doctoral grant from the University of the Basque Country (EHU). The authors also thank the EKOPOL and GIROAZ Research Groups and the Spanish Ministry of Economy, Industry and Competitiveness for their support and collaboration during this research. 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05:36:54","extension":"xml","order_by":21,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":158318,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"0c3a533c220a457ca43f687de42b1ab41structuring.xml","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7982606/v1/4dab10e301b67724ae1c72ea.xml"},{"id":100943393,"identity":"ec71596f-f9bc-4269-8ed3-2d5926f12146","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-01-23 05:36:54","extension":"html","order_by":22,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"acdc-reference","size":168605,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"earlyproof.html","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7982606/v1/a2ac98ff9ca43ac0b1bfb06b.html"},{"id":100943369,"identity":"84e94c05-56d2-4b2f-81e6-deffdfa3c70a","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-01-23 05:36:53","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":28205,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eIdentification of articles for the analysis, using PRISMA flowchart\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Fig1prismaflowchart.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7982606/v1/52e3cfbc43971325507c5b2c.png"},{"id":100943380,"identity":"70a16b5f-f71a-4901-9ad8-05eff98aa345","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-01-23 05:36:53","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":180750,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eNumber of publications by region, 2004–2024. The study is global when more than three continents are represented\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Fig2numpubli.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7982606/v1/cbb1581aeb389e9debbbd3d0.png"},{"id":100943371,"identity":"c1647f35-6a1f-4509-9961-6337470afb92","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-01-23 05:36:53","extension":"png","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":173139,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eCountries studied in the climate-related urban-migration literature, by number of publications\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Fig3countries.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7982606/v1/21ec831c60a5a156f95b5e40.png"},{"id":100951951,"identity":"88545a46-8ec9-4eb9-8fd7-8ab28692ede5","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-01-23 07:11:35","extension":"png","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":267156,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eClimate and environmental factors mentioned in our analysis as driving migration, in order of frequency\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Fig4clifactors.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7982606/v1/be00c1b999611bd341b1d9dd.png"},{"id":100943376,"identity":"34091240-8217-4858-97a3-b1bc5f204791","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-01-23 05:36:53","extension":"png","order_by":5,"title":"Figure 5","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":597516,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eNon-climate factors identified in our analysis as drivers of migration\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Fig5nonclifactors.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7982606/v1/1a86411e57516823d0e497fb.png"},{"id":100951515,"identity":"a38f5271-0d66-402b-998b-6cea0c64d4df","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-01-23 07:10:44","extension":"png","order_by":6,"title":"Figure 6","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":213474,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eDistribution of the most frequently mentioned triggers in the literature, grouped by region\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Fig6distribution.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7982606/v1/46004bdb6418575ac9cb4299.png"},{"id":101398899,"identity":"3a3e3af8-0e28-4124-8491-0e2981e44b92","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-01-29 09:50:00","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":1760712,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7982606/v1/b273aa0b-ab68-44fb-89e4-1e9ad1a6aca6.pdf"},{"id":100943370,"identity":"8ae179c5-6496-4acf-8a81-fe7e9a983d8b","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-01-23 05:36:53","extension":"docx","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":19533,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"SupplementaryInformation.docx","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7982606/v1/60b61fd96e7fa5ca1954a516.docx"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Climate-related urban migration: scope and gaps in the academic literature","fulltext":[{"header":"1. INTRODUCTION","content":"\u003cp\u003eMigration is increasingly recognised as part of the complex human response to climate change (Ionesco et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e; Ghosh and Orchiston, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e), as more frequent and intense extreme weather events take place worldwide (Calvin et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). While multiple factors interfere in people\u0026rsquo;s mobility, climatic factors are increasingly shaping these patterns (Rigaud et al., 2018). The number of people who have moved due to the effects of climate change is difficult to estimate because there is no internationally accepted legal definition (Ionesco et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e) and because there are multiple factors behind the decision to migrate (Ghosh \u0026amp; Orchiston, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). However, according to the International Displacement Monitoring Centre (IDMC), the number of internally displaced people due to natural disasters \u0026ndash; mainly associated with weather events such as storms, droughts and floods \u0026ndash; increased from 32.6\u0026nbsp;million in 2022 to 48.5\u0026nbsp;million in 2024.\u003csup\u003e1\u003c/sup\u003e According to some authors the number of climate migrants could reach 216.1\u0026nbsp;million by 2050 in a worst-case scenario (Clement et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study focuses on climate-related urban migration. Even though less than 2% of the planet\u0026rsquo;s land is urban, the world\u0026rsquo;s urban population has now surpassed the rural population for the first time in history (Ritchie, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR70\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). Moreover, people living in urban areas are projected to constitute 68% of the global population by 2050, with the majority of this increase concentrated in Asia and Africa, which are both vulnerable to the impacts of climate change (UN-Habitat, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR80\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Climate migrants generally have limited financial resources and often settle either in densely populated inner-city areas for easy access to jobs, or on the urban periphery to reduce rental costs (Ahsan et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e), thereby exacerbating their vulnerability. At the same time, climate migrants can generate vulnerabilities for those already living in the urban areas where they arrive (Roseng\u0026auml;rtner et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR71\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e), as the concentration of people can exacerbate environmental degradation of land and water (Asadzadeh et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Urban areas also experience many of the impacts of climate change, including the heat-island effect and coastal flooding caused by sea level rise (UN-Habitat, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR81\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). Therefore, cities can be both destinations and climate hotspots for these climate migrants (Hoffmann, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). In this sense, ongoing migration to urban areas is exposing millions of people to environmental risks and hazards in the areas where they arrive (Geddes et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e), making necessary the study of climate-related migrations into urban areas.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThere have been significant advances in the study of migrations and climate change-related issues that have shaped the foundations of this research area. For example, the pioneering work of Obokata et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR61\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e) examined the relationship between migration and environmental change, focusing particularly on international migration. Piguet et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR64\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e) mapped environmentally induced migration through the lens of five major climate hazards: drought, floods, hurricanes, sea level rise and rainfall variability. More recently, Ghosh and Orchiston (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e) identified research gaps in the discourse on climate-induced migration from 1990 to 2019. Chung et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e) extended previous research by systematically analysing climate mobility into urban areas, covering publications up to 2020 and conducting a thematic analysis of informality, labour migration and policy intervention. Despite this progress, the field remains in its early stages and the rapid proliferation of publications in recent years (see Fig.\u0026nbsp;2) poses a significant challenge in terms of mapping and integrating all the available knowledge. To address this gap we have conducted a PRISMA-based systematic literature review of up-to-date academic studies on climate-related urban migration (2004\u0026ndash;2024), complemented by key data from leading international organisations that are studying human migrations. Such organisations include the International Organization for Migration (IOM), the Internal Displacement Monitoring Centre (IDMC) and the World Bank. This approach allows us to assess the scope of the academic research and to verify to what extent the literature is addressing the key patterns and phenomena revealed by global data. Our analysis also extends the previous work by addressing the geographical distribution of the academic research, examining climate and non-climate migration drivers, identifying migrant profiles and also looking at the post-migration phase. This triangulation of academic and policy-oriented evidence and data provides a broader and more nuanced perspective on the dynamics and impacts of climate-related urban migration, with the potential to guide future academic research and inform urban-planning and climate-adaptation strategies.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"2. METHODOLOGY","content":"\u003cp\u003eWe followed the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) approach to carry out the systematic literature review. This methodology entails several steps, detailed below. Before starting the search, it was necessary to plan the review and specify the inclusion and exclusion criteria. Only articles in English were considered and, given the objective of our research, the search was extended to all peer-reviewed articles addressing climate-related migration in urban contexts published up to 2024. Studies that did not analyse these three topics specifically but mentioned them indirectly were included if they were considered relevant to the objective of the study. For instance, if a study did not specify that the destination of migration was urban but this could be reasonably inferred from the context, it was included, as in the case of Nawrotzki and DeWaard (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR57\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThree search engines were selected for this study. Firstly, we chose WoS (Web of Science) and Scopus, which are generally accepted as the two most comprehensive bibliographic databases (e.g., Pranckutė, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR65\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). Then, to complement this information, we also included CliMig, a major bibliographic database dedicated specifically to migration, the environment and climate change, which is widely used in this field (Piguet et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR64\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; Ionesco et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cspan type=\"Underline\" class=\"Underline\" name=\"Emphasis\"\u003eSearch process\u003c/span\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDue to the lack of consensus on the definitions of climate migrations, we used a large number of keywords in our search to ensure we identified all the studies relevant to our objective. For the search on WoS and Scopus, we first created a list of keywords related to climate change (climate change, environment and disasters) and migration (migration/migrant, refugee, displacement). We then cross-checked and completed the list with the work of Ghosh and Orchiston (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e) and Ionesco et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e), producing a final list of 18 keywords (see Supplementary Figure \u003cspan refid=\"MOESM1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003eS1\u003c/span\u003e). These keywords, together with \u0026ldquo;urban\u0026rdquo; OR \u0026ldquo;cit*\u0026rdquo; to represent the urban component, were searched for in both databases in December 2024, using the Boolean search operators (see Dinet et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2004\u003c/span\u003e). The total number of publications found was 509, including 326 in Scopus, and 183 in WoS.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eRegarding the Climig database, we used the latest available version (9 January 2025), which includes 3,121 references. Given that it is a database that compiles scientific papers and books on the topics of climate/environmental change and migration, we used the keywords \u0026ldquo;urban\u0026rdquo; OR \u0026ldquo;cit*\u0026rdquo; to filter our search, obtaining 549 references.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOnce we identified the potential articles in all the databases, we excluded duplicates, books and other publications that were not peer-reviewed scientific articles in English. Of the 1,058 publications retrieved in the search, 495 did not fulfil the initial criteria (183 were duplicates, 280 were not papers, 31 were not in English, and one was from 2025). This left 563 publications for the first screening.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cspan type=\"Underline\" class=\"Underline\" name=\"Emphasis\"\u003eScreening process\u003c/span\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWe conducted the screening in two steps. Firstly, we screened the titles and abstracts to exclude articles that were not relevant to our study, after which 249 remained for further evaluation. We then conducted a second screening by reading the full texts. Reasons for not considering papers included non-human migration, main topics other than migration, keywords in the abstract not being the central topic in the full text, and non-peer-reviewed articles. The number of papers excluded after the second screening was 74 and a further 22 could not be fully accessed, leaving 153 papers for analysis (Fig.\u0026nbsp;1).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFor the analysis of the articles, all the data (see Supplementary Information) was collected and organised into an Excel spreadsheet.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAs mentioned above, in addition to the peer-reviewed literature, we analysed key data from leading international organisations working on the study of human migrations and climate change, to enrich the discussion, provide a broader contextual understanding, contrast findings from the peer-reviewed literature and reduce publication bias. These data come from the databases of IOM, the IDMC and the World Bank. In addition, we checked the data on climate-change-related natural disasters from the Emergency Events Database (EM-DAT), the Climate Risk Index (CRI) and the World Risk Index (WRI). Publications from these sources were selected based on their relevance to climate-related urban migration and their contributions to contrasting or complementing the findings from the academic literature.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"3. CLIMATE-RELATED URBAN MIGRATION AT A GLANCE","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe literature on climate-related urban migration has expanded over the last two decades, with a decrease in 2021 in the wake of the coronavirus pandemic period and a significant spike in 2022 (see Fig.\u0026nbsp;2). In the last five-year period (2020\u0026ndash;2024) a total of 85 articles were published, constituting 56% of the total.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOf the 153 publications on climate-related urban migration, 76 focus on Asia (50%), 37 on Africa, 25 on North America, 18 on South America, nine on Oceania and one on Europe. The number of counts exceeds the total number of studies because some papers cover more than one continent. Half of the studies focused on Asia, whereas Africa has only gained significant attention since 2020. Interest in North America as a research area declined after 2018 but was renewed in 2023.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAt the country level, significant differences were found. Bangladesh is by far the most studied country, with 41 papers (27%), followed by other countries such as Mexico (10 papers), India (9), the United States (8), Iran (6), Vietnam (5), and Kenya (5). Figure\u0026nbsp;3 shows the distribution of countries studied by continent. Although Asia accounts for half of the articles, the proportion of countries studied on this continent is relatively small, with 50% focusing on Bangladesh and a further 25% on India, Iran and Vietnam. The same is true for North America, where the focus is on Mexico and the United States. In contrast, studies in Africa, South America and Oceania are more evenly distributed, with no single country standing out.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo check whether the academic literature covers areas identified as displacement or vulnerability hotspots, we compared these results with data from other sources, including the Internal Displacement Monitoring Centre (IDMC), the Climate Risk Index (CRI), the World Risk Index (WRI) and the Emergency Events Database (EM-DAT).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFirstly, we examined the countries that experienced the highest numbers of displacements due to weather-related natural disasters between 2015 and 2024, using data from the IDMC. China, the Philippines, India, Bangladesh and the United States were consistently among the most affected countries during this period. Other countries, including Pakistan, Myanmar, Ethiopia, Indonesia and Brazil, have also experienced significant displacement during this time.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSecondly, we checked the CRI, which measures economic losses and the human impact of climate-related extreme weather events in different countries, including fatalities, injuries, homelessness, and the number of people affected. The top 10 countries with the highest scores from 2000 to 2019 were: Puerto Rico, Myanmar, Haiti, the Philippines, Mozambique, the Bahamas, Bangladesh, Pakistan, Thailand and Nepal (Eckstein et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThirdly, we analysed the locations of natural disasters, noting which countries are most vulnerable to them. While these data are not directly related to migration, they provide a solid basis for a better understanding of the climate context that influences migration. EM-DAT compiles data on the type and number of natural disasters (e.g., floods, storms, extreme temperatures and droughts) per year in order to identify countries experiencing the highest number of disaster events (CRED, n. d.). Between 2015 and 2024, the United States, China, Indonesia, the Philippines and India were all in the top 10 every year. Other countries that have also ranked in the top 10 on multiple occasions include Vietnam, Mexico, Pakistan, Brazil and France.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFinally, the World Risk Index evaluates the risk that countries will experience a humanitarian disaster due to extreme natural events or the adverse effects of climate change. It considers factors such as exposure, resilience, coping capacity and adaptive capacity. According to the index, the top 10 countries between 2022\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e and 2024 were the Philippines, Indonesia, India, Colombia, Mexico, Myanmar, Mozambique, Russia, Bangladesh and Pakistan (B\u0026uuml;ndnis Entwicklung Hilft, 2024).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWhen we compare these data with our own analysis, we find that Bangladesh, India and the United States are well represented in the academic literature. However, countries including Ethiopia, Indonesia, Myanmar, Pakistan and the Philippines, which have high displacement figures and are also exposed to the impacts of extreme weather events related to climate change, are underrepresented. The Philippines, for instance, is one of the world\u0026rsquo;s top disaster-risk hotspots, with more typhoons passing through its territory than anywhere else. In 2024, a record nine million people were displaced by disasters across the country, most of which were triggered by typhoons (IDMC, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e). Indonesia has also experienced several natural disasters in recent years, including floods, storms and earthquakes, which have displaced thousands of people. For example, heavy rains and flooding in January 2023 resulted in 115,000 people being displaced. A further 429,000 people were displaced by floods in 2024. In Pakistan, floods triggered around 647,000 displacements in 2023, primarily in the month of July. In Ethiopia, flooding caused around 550,000 people to be displaced in 2023. In Myanmar, in 2023, Cyclone Mocha alone displaced an estimated 912,000 people, while flooding and landslides in 2024 displaced a further 402,000 people (IDMC, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e). These examples illustrate the scale and frequency of climate- and weather-related displacements in these countries, highlighting the urgent need for a greater academic focus on their respective regions.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn the Global North, the United States is well represented in the academic literature. However, other industrialised countries that are also experiencing population movements linked to climate impacts appear to be largely underrepresented. According to the IDMC (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e), New Zealand recorded 14,000 internally displaced people in 2023 due to heavy rainfall and subsequent flooding, as well as Cyclone Gabrielle \u0026ndash; the highest number since records began in 2010. Meanwhile, Canada\u0026rsquo;s wildfires led to the displacement of 185,000 people in 2023, the highest figure since records began in 2013. In Italy, a storm in the north of the country caused 36,000 displacements in 2023, while wildfires displaced 24,000 people in Spain that same year. In October 2024, the Valencia region of Spain experienced the deadliest floods in Europe since 1967 (IDMC, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e). These are just a few examples of recent events in the Global North. While the numbers are not as high as in other parts of the world, it is undeniable that industrialised countries are also significantly affected by climate change. Furthermore, as northern countries are increasingly the destination for climate migrants seeking a better future, the role and consequences of these migrants in the Global North require further attention. Recent studies examining migrant adaptation strategies in Europe may also help to shed light on this issue (Kotsila, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR47\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Kotsila et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR48\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"4. TRIGGERS OF CLIMATE-RELATED MIGRATION AND THE IMPORTANCE OF NON-CLIMATE FACTORS","content":"\u003cp\u003eRegarding the climatic factors that drive migration, the publications highlight different triggers, both slow-onset (e.g., drought, sea level rise) and fast-onset events (e.g., cyclones, floods, storms). Figure\u0026nbsp;4 shows the triggers that were mentioned most often in our analysis, listed in order of frequency: floods (71 articles), droughts (68), changes in precipitation (43), cyclones (33), temperature changes (29), sea level rise (26), riverbank erosion (25) and climate change in general (23). Multiple counts were included as almost every paper mentioned more than one driver.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIt is also important to note that more than half of the studies (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;91) mention non-climate factors, demonstrating that climate or the environment rarely acts as the sole trigger for migration. The literature shows that people migrate due to a mixture of push and pull factors. Mobility often results from the intersection of climate triggers with socio-economic ones, including social, economic, political and security factors. Even so-called \u0026lsquo;voluntary\u0026rsquo; movements are usually motivated by external factors and pressures influencing individuals\u0026rsquo; ability to migrate (IOM, 2021). In line with previous studies (e.g., Ionesco et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e), our review suggests that climate hazards are only one of the reasons for migration. This underscores the need to consider climate-related migration in the context of broader socioeconomic vulnerability. Figure\u0026nbsp;5 shows the most frequently mentioned non-climate triggers identified in the reviewed articles, grouped into six main categories: economic and livelihood factors, human-driven degradation, social vulnerability, political instability and conflict, social and cultural factors and non-climate factors in general.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSudden-onset factors such as floods can cause economic disruption and loss of livelihoods (Sreekumar \u0026amp; Mandal, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR74\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). Following a climate shock and the subsequent decline in livelihood security, some individuals may choose to migrate to urban areas in search of better employment opportunities (Mounirou, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR56\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Nawrotzki et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR58\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). In other cases, environmental degradation can lead to a decline in land productivity, eventually resulting in resource scarcity, associated social conflicts and unemployment (Twinomuhangi et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR78\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). In rural areas, insufficient non-agricultural employment opportunities may lead younger generations to seek work outside their community (Wiegel, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR83\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). Therefore, a lack of income-generating opportunities, the need to diversify livelihoods, or the absence of basic services may also explain why people leave their rural communities (Madzivhandila et al., 2024). This shows that migration often occurs for economic reasons, and that the role of climate change is often to exacerbate pre-existing problems (Ahmad et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; Fern\u0026aacute;ndez et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e; Ngo et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR60\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). For instance, some migrants in Sub-Saharan Africa attribute their decision to migrate to economic reasons, such as loss of income, yet they often do not realise that these economic challenges may have been caused or intensified by droughts, land degradation, or other environmental changes linked to climate change (Grote \u0026amp; Warner, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e). Hence, in order to address the driving forces behind climate migrations, beyond biophysical triggers, it is important to bear in mind other socio-economic, political and cultural factors that shape the vulnerabilities of diverse communities facing diverse climate shocks (Obokata et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR61\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAs might be expected, the triggers for migration vary by region. In Asia, fast-onset events are the most frequently cited climate triggers, with floods, cyclones and riverbank erosion the most prominent, followed by drought and excess salinity. In Africa, slow-onset events such as droughts, changes in precipitation or rainfall, land degradation and temperature changes, as well as floods, are more prominent. In Oceania, sea-level rises emerge as the main climatic trigger, followed by floods, storm surges, and general references to climate change. In North America the most frequently mentioned hazards are droughts, precipitation and temperature changes, followed by floods and hurricanes (the latter being specific to this region). In South America the most frequently cited climatic triggers are changes in precipitation and temperature, together with drought. The distribution of the most frequent triggers by region is presented in Fig.\u0026nbsp;6.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe results of the literature review are consistent with the findings reported in the most recent IDMC reports (IDMC, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e). Over the past few years Asia has mostly experienced fast-onset events such as floods, storms, typhoons and cyclones, whereas the Americas have experienced hurricanes, floods, droughts and wildfires. In Africa, severe droughts and heavy rainfall have been identified as triggers of migration, with a particular focus on floods. The results are similar again when we look at the EM-DAT data on the number of people affected by disaster type and economic losses from disasters. The most notable disasters are floods, storms and typhoons in Asia; droughts and floods in Africa; hurricanes in the United States; and droughts and other major storm events across the Americas (CRED, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"5. TYPES OF MIGRATION: HOW ARE PEOPLE MIGRATING?","content":"\u003cp\u003eOur analysis shows that most migration is internal, which is to say it usually takes place within rather than across national borders. Two-thirds of the articles mention only internal migration, 22% refer to internal and international, and only 5% refer only to international. An analysis of the direction of international migration flows reveals that more than half of the cases are from Mexico to the United States, and the rest are mainly from islands in Oceania (e.g., Tuvalu, Micronesia) to Hawaii, Australia or New Zealand. In addition to these two main routes, there is evidence of highly educated residents from Dhaka, Bangladesh, migrating to Toronto, Canada, through Canada\u0026rsquo;s permanent-residency programme for skilled workers (McLeman et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR53\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn the studies that address both internal and international migration, two main international routes can be identified. Nearly half of these articles focus on Africa, where cross-border migration to neighbouring countries is common. Additionally, more than a quarter of the articles focus on migration from Central and South America (e.g., Mexico, the Bahamas, the so-called \u0026lsquo;Dry Corridor\u0026rsquo; and Peru) to the United States.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAs for where migrants come from, most articles (80%) refer to them having rural origins. Only 9% of the articles describe migrants with urban origins, while 10% refer to migrants from both rural and urban areas. As for the climate migrants\u0026rsquo; destinations, two-thirds of the articles (67%) refer only to urban locations while 16% describe both urban and rural destinations.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDespite the prevalence of internal migration from rural to urban sites, it is important to note that migrants also move between urban areas, although little is known about urban mobility in response to climate change (Zander et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR85\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). In this regard we found that among the articles reporting urban-to-urban migration, many focus on migration aspirations rather than on actual migration events. This has been observed in countries such as Australia (Zander \u0026amp; Garnett, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR84\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e), the Czech Republic (Balcar \u0026amp; Šul\u0026aacute;k, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e), Morocco (Van Praag, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR82\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e) the United States (Berlin Rubin \u0026amp; Wong-Parodi, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Seeteram et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR72\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e), Mozambique (Halliday et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e), Nigeria (Ekoh et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e) and Bangladesh (Buchori et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eLikewise, rural-to-rural migration still occurs. For example, migrants from cotton-producing households in Benin have relocated to neighbouring countries, or even to other villages within the same area (Mounirou, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR56\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). In coastal rural Nigeria, migration flows to other rural areas were also observed, despite migration primarily occurring to urban and semi-urban areas (Akinbami, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). In Peru, rural seasonal migration was observed (Milan \u0026amp; Ho, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR55\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e). A study covering Kenya and Uganda explains that because both countries remain predominantly rural, rural-to-rural migration is common. However, the same study makes clear that both countries are urbanising rapidly, meaning there are more opportunities for urban migration (Gray, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"6. GENDER AND LIVELIHOODS IN THE SPOTLIGHT","content":"\u003cp\u003eWhen we examined the gender characteristics of the migrants, we found a significant lack of information, as only 24% of the articles included any gender-related aspect. Ayeb-Karlsson, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e, observed that surprisingly little empirical research on climate change takes a gendered approach. Chindarkar (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e), meanwhile, noted that although research on climate migration is scarce, its impact on women is under-researched. However, women are identified as being more vulnerable than men before, during and after migration (IOM, 2019). This greater vulnerability to natural and climatic hazards (Alam, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e) is linked to higher poverty rates, lower levels of education, poorer health and persistent structural inequalities in access to natural resources (IOM, 2024; Rigaud et al., 2018). Most of the reviewed studies simply state that men are more likely to migrate than women (Mianabadi et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR54\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Mounirou, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR56\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e) and often describe women as associated or dependent migrants (Patel \u0026amp; Giri, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR62\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e), but without exploring the underlying structural, social, or cultural reasons for these gendered patterns.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eLikewise, little is known about the vulnerabilities women face when they are left behind, although there is some evidence that those unable to accompany their husbands in migrating to urban areas face many problems (Mallick \u0026amp; Vogt, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR51\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR52\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e). They are left to live in hazard-prone villages (Penning-Rowsell et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR63\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e), while remaining responsible for household chores and childcare (Chowdhury \u0026amp; Masud, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e) and often facing social judgement (Hutton \u0026amp; Haque, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2004\u003c/span\u003e). In some cases they depend on relatives for their subsistence (Penning-Rowsell et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR63\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e), and some even resort to begging as a means of survival (Mallick \u0026amp; Vogt, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR52\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e). Evidence also shows that women are particularly vulnerable in the aftermath of natural disasters, due to their exposure to violence, sexual harassment and heavy care burdens, among other factors (Rigaud et al., 2018).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn addition to overlooking gender, this literature also largely ignores other demographic characteristics, such as age and educational level. This leaves a significant gap in our understanding of the socioeconomic profile of climate migrants, which is essential for designing effective policies. Notably, a recent study demonstrates that migration responses to weather effects are highly dependent on demographic characteristics (Benveniste et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAs with demographic characteristics, the post-migration phase remains largely unexplored in the academic literature. Only 34% of the articles (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;52) provide any information about migrants\u0026rsquo; living conditions at their destinations. Of these 52 articles, 27 focus on Bangladesh and five on India, indicating that most of the available evidence on post-migration experiences originates from South Asia.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eHouseholds typically attempt in-situ adaptation to changing conditions but resort to migration when these strategies fail to produce the desired outcomes (Nawrotzki \u0026amp; DeWaard, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR57\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). However, migration does not always lead to successful adaptation, and sometimes it creates new vulnerabilities when migrants enter irregular livelihoods (Surie \u0026amp; Sharma, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR75\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e), when working and living conditions at their destinations fall below optimal standards (Thongchaithanawut et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR76\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e), or when expected opportunities in urban areas fail to materialise (Madzivhandila et al., 2024).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMany studies discuss the precarious conditions in informal settlements, such as closely packed houses, insufficient ventilation and the lack of basic services (e.g., safe water, electricity, gas, sanitation, and health care), as well as water scarcity and environmental pollution (Huq \u0026amp; Shafique, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Rana \u0026amp; Ilina, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR67\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Uddin, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR79\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). Additionally, these settlements are frequently illegal (Ahsan et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e) and subject to continuous cycles of demolition and eviction by civil authorities (Revi, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR68\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e), meaning there is no guarantee of residential security (Serraglio et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR73\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). Slums are often in vulnerable locations, such as near drainage systems or waste-disposal sites, or in areas prone to flooding (Mallick \u0026amp; Vogt, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR52\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e). Overall, these locations are typically exposed to multiple hazards (Hoffmann, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Karutz \u0026amp; Kabisch, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Tribak et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR77\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e), placing migrants in a vulnerable predicament in their new environments. For example, Hutton and Haque (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2004\u003c/span\u003e) found that displacee-squatter settlements in the city of Serajganj were located in highly exposed areas \u0026mdash; next to a railway line, in an abandoned brickyard, and along the city\u0026rsquo;s flood embankments.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAnother vulnerability faced by migrants is the informality of work opportunities. A study in Bangladesh found that slum dwellers generally did not have sustainable livelihoods, with most relying on casual labour, rickshaw pulling and working as domestic staff (Khan, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). In Eastern India, many migrants were illiterate farmers, and upon arrival they were often employed as unskilled labourers in cotton mills or factories, or on construction sites (Debnath \u0026amp; Kumar Nayak, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). These changes in lifestyle are associated with a sense of not belonging in their new urban environments (Mianabadi et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR54\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e), feeling trapped (Nayna Schwerdtle et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR59\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e), or feeling out of place after losing their long-established community ties (A. Alam \u0026amp; Khalil, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMigration also has significant impacts on host towns and their citizens, due to changes in urban land use, heat emissions (Př\u0026iacute;vara \u0026amp; Př\u0026iacute;varov\u0026aacute;, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR66\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e), pressure on available infrastructure and services (El Vilaly et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e), increasing urban poverty, higher demand for basic services including housing, sanitation, water and healthcare (Ahsan et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e; Rana \u0026amp; Ilina, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR67\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e), and the tensions that competition for resources can exacerbate (Malji et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Many densely populated urban areas are exposed to climate events such as heatwaves, coastal erosion, droughts, or sea level rise (IOM, 2021), meaning that they can become risk hotspots. All these factors make it necessary to conduct further research into migrants\u0026rsquo; urban destinations (IOM, 2019). Such research should incorporate the knowledge and experiences of immigrants, as they can offer valuable insights into developing urban climate solutions that address their specific concerns about life and livelihood. This approach can help to identify and mitigate the vulnerabilities faced by immigrant communities, while also highlighting their everyday practices and experiences (Kotsila, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR47\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"CONCLUSIONS","content":"\u003cp\u003eOne of our objectives in this study was to identify the geographical hotspots in terms of research into climate-related urban migration. Although climate change can affect all parts of the world, the countries that have done least to cause the phenomenon tend to be the most vulnerable and to suffer most from its consequences (Calvin et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). While an in-depth analysis of the academic literature revealed that the Global South is well represented in the academic literature, we found that some countries receive more attention than others. Of all the continents covered by the literature on climate-related urban migration, Asia is the most widely researched, with Bangladesh being by far the most frequently studied country. While this is consistent with the \u0026lsquo;hotspots\u0026rsquo; for climate migration identified through the analysis of data from leading international organisations, it only provides a partial picture of the situation, as many other affected countries remain largely unstudied. Countries that require further attention due to their exposure to climate hazards include Ethiopia, Indonesia, Myanmar, Pakistan and the Philippines, to name just a few. Likewise, European and other countries in the Global North are also largely absent from the literature, despite the increasing impact of climate events in these regions. Despite the availability of data confirming that climate-related migration is taking place in these regions, the academic research on this issue remains limited, constituting a significant gap in the literature.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFloods, droughts and changes in precipitation emerge as the most frequently analysed climate hazards. Their uneven geographical distribution is reflected in the literature: fast-onset events dominate the studies focusing on Asia, slow-onset events and floods are more common in Africa, drought and temperature changes come up most often in the Americas, hurricanes are specific to North America, and sea level rise are the primary focus in Oceania. The review also shows that climate change and natural disasters are rarely the sole causes of migration, with more than half of the papers highlighting the role of other socio-economic and environmental factors. To understand climate-related migration into urban areas, it is therefore necessary to consider broader socio-economic contexts and pre-existing vulnerabilities - particularly among women and children, who remain largely absent from the literature.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eApart from with regard to South Asia, the research into the post-migration phase is limited, and this gap needs to be addressed in order to reduce migrant vulnerabilities and design adaptation strategies that reflect migrants\u0026rsquo; realities. Most migrants settle on urban peripheries, where they have to contend with inadequate housing, poor living conditions, informal employment and social exclusion.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe social dimensions, particularly those relating to gender, are also under-explored. Women have specific vulnerabilities before, during and after migration, and those left behind also experience additional pressures. However, gender and intersecting inequalities are rarely incorporated into analytical frameworks. Again, these gaps need to be filled in order to develop inclusive adaptation and migration policies that account for diverse vulnerabilities both prior to and following displacement.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFuture research should move beyond case studies confined to specific regions and instead develop comparative perspectives that integrate social, economic, and environmental dimensions. Furthermore, additional investigation is needed to assess the effectiveness of migration as an adaptation strategy in the context of climate change. Finally, given that urbanisation is one of the most significant consequences of migration and often entails negative externalities such as unemployment and environmental degradation, it is essential for studies on climate change and migration to explicitly address these challenges.\u003c/p\u003e "},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003ch2\u003e \u003cb\u003eETHICS DECLARATIONS\u003c/b\u003e \u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cstrong\u003eCompeting interests:\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe authors declare no competing interests.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cstrong\u003eEthical approval:\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis article does not present the results of any studies involving human participants conducted by any of the authors.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cstrong\u003eInformed consent:\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis article does not contain any studies involving human participants conducted by any of the authors.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eFUNDING\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis research was supported by a Pre-Doctoral Grant from the University of the Basque Country (EHU, PIF23/132); by the Basque Government (IT1567-22; IT1777-22); and by the Spanish Ministry of Economy, Industry and Competitiveness (Grant No. PID2024-160087NB-I00).\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAuthor Contribution\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eS.R. led the systematic literature review, developed the database, and drafted the initial version of the manuscript. E.G. and E.S.M. contributed to the conceptual design of the study and provided supervision, critically reviewing and revising the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final version for submission.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAcknowledgement\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eS.R. acknowledges the support of the pre-doctoral grant from the University of the Basque Country (EHU). The authors also thank the EKOPOL and GIROAZ Research Groups and the Spanish Ministry of Economy, Industry and Competitiveness for their support and collaboration during this research.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eData Availability\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe study is based on data extracted from peer-reviewed academic publications and reports from international organisations, all of which are publicly available. However, the database compiled during the current study is not publicly available due to its ongoing use in research, although it can be obtained from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAhmad I, Alam S, Jimmy AN, Fatema K, Islam T, Ahsan GU, Khan NA (2019) Climate Change Induced Migration: Empirical Evidences from the Southwest Coastal Region of Bangladesh. Int J Energy Sustainable Dev 3(4):116\u0026ndash;126\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAhsan R, Karuppannan S, Kellett J (2011) Climate Migration and Urban Planning System: A Study of Bangladesh. 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Glob Environ Change 56:18\u0026ndash;28. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2019.03.004\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2019.03.004\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"},{"header":"Footnotes","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003e The highest figure since IDMC started to monitor the phenomenon in 2008.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003e From 2022 onwards the index was published with a completely new, revised model.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":true,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"climate change, environment, urban, migration, vulnerability","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7982606/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-7982606/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eClimate-related urban migration is emerging as one of the most pressing global challenges of our time, yet its drivers, patterns and consequences remain unevenly documented. In this study we present a PRISMA-guided systematic review of peer-reviewed research on climate-related migration into urban areas, complemented by key data from leading international organisations engaged in migration studies. Our review reveals that most climate-related migration is internal (i.e. within national borders rather than across them) and that it often results in precarious living conditions and predominantly informal livelihoods in urban destinations. Floods, droughts and changes in precipitation emerge as the most frequently analysed climate hazards. The type of hazard studied tends to reflect regional exposure patterns. Geographically, there is a clear imbalance between the regions that are the focus of academic research and those identified as critical by international organisations. While Asia \u0026ndash; particularly Bangladesh \u0026ndash; dominates the research landscape, other countries that are highly exposed to climate hazards \u0026ndash; such as Ethiopia, Indonesia, Myanmar, Pakistan and the Philippines \u0026ndash; remain underrepresented. Similarly, Europe and countries elsewhere in the Global North receive limited scholarly attention, despite facing increasingly frequent climate impacts. Our analysis also highlights persistent gaps in understanding gender dynamics and post-migration vulnerabilities. A more nuanced exploration of migrants\u0026rsquo; profiles and the urban characteristics shaping their livelihoods is essential to inform socially responsive urban-planning and climate-adaptation policies. Without more comprehensive, balanced and context-sensitive research, policy responses risk overlooking vulnerable populations as climate-induced migration continues to reshape the trajectory of global urbanisation.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Climate-related urban migration: scope and gaps in the academic literature","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2026-01-23 05:36:48","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7982606/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"d9a7b429-19cf-4d61-980a-0faf44e4fa6f","owner":[],"postedDate":"January 23rd, 2026","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[{"id":59819407,"name":"Earth and environmental sciences/Climate sciences"},{"id":59819408,"name":"Social science/Environmental studies"},{"id":59819409,"name":"Scientific community and society/Geography"},{"id":59819410,"name":"Social science/Geography"}],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-01-23T05:36:48+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2026-01-23 05:36:48","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-7982606","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-7982606","identity":"rs-7982606","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"XKTyCvWXoU3ODBz1xrDgd","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}