Does Positive Meaning-Making in Self-Defining Narratives Mediate Emotion Regulation?

Does Positive Meaning-Making in Self-Defining Narratives Mediate Emotion Regulation? | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Article Does Positive Meaning-Making in Self-Defining Narratives Mediate Emotion Regulation? Kayla F. Slomeana This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-7256619/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Positive emotion regulation skills, such as positive refocusing, positive meaning-making, and acceptance have been shown to predict well-being. The current study hypothesized that one of these mechanisms, positive meaning-making, would mediate the relationship between positive emotion regulation and well-being. Undergraduate students recruited from Dickinson College reported a self-defining memory and answered questionnaires related to emotion regulation and well-being. Results indicated that positive emotion regulation predicted well-being, but mediation was not supported. The findings contradict previous research that reported positive meaning-making as a significant predictor of well-being. However, the current study provides evidence that positive coping mechanisms in the wake of adversity may lead to higher levels of well-being. Biological sciences/Neuroscience Biological sciences/Psychology Social science/Psychology meaning-making young adult emotion regulation well-being autobiographical memory self-defining narrative Introduction Narrative storytelling allows an individual to unite their unique past, present, and future to construct a cohesive identity. Autobiographical memory that takes the form of a self-defining narrative informs who one is, how one’s personal identity came about, and one’s goals based on the individual’s experiences (Fivush, 2019). As a result, this story provides one with a sense of “unity and purpose” within the adult world while simultaneously specifying a sense of continuity across experiences in time (McAdams, 1985). Likewise, Eakin asserts the importance of telling personal narratives is highly valued according to cultural norms and is emphasized from childhood (Eakin, 2008). Children are taught, mainly through conversations with their parents, how to properly tell a narrative and what kinds of experiences are “tellable” within their specific environment and audience (Eakin, 2008). For instance, a thematically valued narrative is one that employs positive meaning-making. In this narrative structure, the individual takes on a form of autobiographical reasoning in which they construct a positive meaning out of an important life experience. Therefore, finding the good in one’s self-defining memories is highly valued in narrative storytelling due to the benefits that the method offers in terms of improving one’s overall quality of life (Liao et al., 2017). Liao et al., (2017) note that across adulthood, employing positive meaning-making from a negative (or positive) experience when narrating has been associated with well-being and higher levels of self-esteem. Lilgendahl and McAdams (2011) highlight that positive meaning-making of life experiences aids in self-growth by increasing clarity of identity, self-insight, and well-being, while negative interpretations of events are associated with lower levels of well-being. Therefore, it has been posited by multiple researchers studying narrative identity that positive meaning-making holds explanatory power for well-being measurements. It was concluded in another study that positive processing or meaning-making of a stressful event was associated with higher well-being, namely, lower levels of anxiety (Graci et al., 2018). Several studies have determined that providing more positive and complex meaning-making in narratives is associated with favorable self-development and a mature identity status (Liao et al., 2017). It is this maturation that psychologist Erik Erikson claimed was pivotal in the stages of late adolescence and emerging adulthood in shaping identity (McAdams, 2001). At this stage of life, people begin to preoccupy themselves with forming a coherent life story that integrates the self both synchronically and diachronically (McAdams, 2001). Adolescents and young adults utilize new cognitive abilities, such as Piaget’s formal operational thinking, to explore their identity and solidify their place in the cultural environment (McAdams, 2001). Those who are successful in forming a coherent narrative identity with unity and purpose tend to have greater narrative complexity and thus may also be able to employ higher levels of meaning-making (McAdams, 2001). According to McAdams and McLean (2013), people who scored higher on measures of psychological maturity tended to construct narratives with themes of “learning, growth, and positive personal transformation”. Given that the period of late adolescence and emerging adulthood are critical periods in which individuals are more able to hypothetically reason with their life stories by utilizing mature cognitive processes, it is an ideal stage of life to examine meaning in personal narratives. Having positive emotion regulation skills is one such indicator of maturity and involves the ability to adapt to emotionally charged experiences through positive meaning-making (Cox & McAdams, 2014). Negative emotion regulation skills amplify or prolong negative emotions and experiences through rumination and catastrophizing (Cox & McAdams, 2014). For instance, one study focusing on rumination and well-being found that ruminators had low resilience and were less able to cope with unfavorable situations (van Seggelen-Damen et al., 2023). In examining emotion regulation and well-being in low and high point memories among adults, Cox and McAdams (2014) concluded that those who found positive meaning in a low-point event utilized positive emotion regulation skills, which include positive refocusing, planning, positive reappraisal, positive meaning-making, and acceptance and thus more readily adapted to adversity in the future. Likewise, Tavernier and Willoughby (2012) found that adolescents who reported meaning-making in their turning point narratives had higher well-being scores, highlighting the association between the two variables. Many studies have focused largely on either emotion regulation or meaning-making holistically or as separate measures in examining personal narratives, but few studies have isolated the two factors in a singular study. The current study, formulated based on Erikson’s theory of identity formation and previous literature, aims to investigate the use of positive emotion regulation skills, specifically positive meaning-making, in self-defining narratives and its association with well-being among college students. It is hypothesized that positive meaning-making will mediate the relationship between overall positive emotion regulation and well-being. That is, it is predicted that interpreting an event as positive will predict higher levels of well-being. Methods Participants U.S. American students were recruited from the Dickinson College Department of Psychology participant pool through Sona Systems. All methods were carried out in accordance with the relevant guidelines and regulations to protect the privacy of the participants. Additionally, the experimental protocol was approved by the Dickinson College Department of Psychology and the Institutional Review Board for the Protection of Human Subjects. A total of 101 participants were included in the data, with 29 male-identifying, 69 female-identifying, 2 who preferred to self-describe, and 1 who preferred not to say. The ages of the participants ranged from 18 to 22 years old ( M = 19.19, SD = 1.24) Most of the participants were racially white (69%), followed by Black or African American (9%), Asian or Asian American (10%), Hispanic or Latinx (7%), and Biracial or multiracial (5%). 87% were of Spanish, Hispanic, or Latino origin. The most frequently reported class year was first-year (66%), followed by sophomore (18%), senior (14%), junior (1%), and “other” (1%). All participants who successfully completed the study received one research participation pool credit for their time. Participants for whom AI was detected in their narratives were disqualified from the study, as well as those who failed one or both attention checks that were unrelated to the hypothesis being tested. Materials The Ryff Scales of Psychological Well-Being (PWB) The Ryff Scales of Psychological Well-Being (PWB) short-form questionnaire is an 18-item self-report scale that assesses general levels of psychological well-being (Ryff & Keyes, 1955). In the current sample, reliability of the scale was good, Cronbach’s α = 0.81. For instance, statements such as, “I am good at managing the responsibilities of daily life” were presented in the questionnaire. Participants rated the extent to which they agreed or disagreed with the 18 statements on a 7-point scale from 1 (strongly agree) to 7 (strongly disagree). The scores for each statement were added together to get an overall well-being score. Higher scores indicated higher levels of psychological well-being. Ten of the statements were reversed-scored items and were worded in the opposite direction of what the scale was measuring. For example, “Some people wander aimlessly through life, but I am not one of them”. The Emotion Regulation Questionnaire-Short Form (ERQ-S) The Emotion Regulation Questionnaire- Short Form (ERQ-S) is a 6-item self-report scale adapted from the Emotion Regulation Questionnaire (ERQ) (Preece, Petrova, Mehta, & Gross, 2023 ). The ERQ-S assessed the habitual use of two common emotion regulation strategies, that is, cognitive reappraisal (i.e. changing the way one is thinking about a situation to change its emotional impact) and expressive suppression (i.e. suppressing behavioral expression of emotion) (Preece, Petrova, Mehta, & Gross, 2023 ). In the current sample, reliability of the scale was good, Cronbach’s α = 0.83 (for items 1,3, and 5) and Cronbach’s α = 0.79 (for items 2,4, and 6). Participants rated the extent to which they agreed or disagreed with the 6 statements on a 7-point scale from 1 (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree). For instance, statements measuring cognitive reappraisal such as, “When I want to feel more positive emotion (such as joy or amusement), I change the way I’m thinking about the situation” were rated by the participant based on how strongly they felt they displayed the trait described. Likewise, statements measuring expressive suppression such as, “I control my emotions by not expressing them” were rated by participants in the same manner. Separate scale scores were derived from the ERQ-S for both emotion regulation strategies tested. Higher scores for each respective strategy indicated higher usage of that strategy. Procedure Participants shared a self-defining memory (SDM) in the format of a written narrative. All narratives and questionnaire answers were collected from those who consented to have their narratives shared for the purpose of the study. The narrative prompt and questionnaires were entered into a Qualtrics survey in a random order. Upon providing informed consent, the participants were given the following description to guide the retrieval of a self-defining memory: A self-defining memory is a memory from your life that you remember very clearly and still feels important to you. Self-defining memories help you define not only how you see yourself but also help you explain yourself to others. This memory is about an important enduring theme, issue, or event that feels central to who you are as a person. The memory may be neutral, positive, or negative. Upon reading the preceding description, participants were asked to report a self-defining memory about themselves. The instructions and an example of a self-defining narrative are presented in Table 1 . Table 1 Self-Narrative Instructions and Example Self-Defining Memory Type Instructions Example Self-narrative Think about an important moment involving yourself. What is a self-defining memory that you believe plays a significant role in who you are today? Remember to include details that are specific about the memory, it should be an event that is very vivid and memorable. Please include details of why this event is important to you and try to reflect on the themes in this memory that feel central to who you are. This memory may be neutral, positive, or negative. A defining memory for me was when I got recruited to play football in college. I was very happy in that moment because the recruiting process for me was an extremely stressful and frustrating experience so even though I was happy I felt more relieved than happy because I was just glad it was over. Narrative Coding Each self-defining narrative was coded for positive meaning-making on a 0–3 scale by adapting a prior coding system for meaning-making reported by McLean and Pratt (2006). The coding system was originally utilized to examine meaning -making in general, but the current study focused on positive meaning-making exclusively and thus the coding system was altered accordingly. A score of 0 was assigned to narratives with no positive meaning- making reported. A score of 1 was given to narratives with a positive lesson reported. Lessons contained positive meaning but were often behavioral, did not contain positive meaning beyond the original event, and often lacked complex reasoning. For instance, a participant who indicated in his or her narrative that there was positive thought and a behavioral action but no complex reasoning of the event, scored a 1. A score of 2 was given to narratives with vague positive meaning. They contained slightly more complex meaning-making than lessons but were not as sophisticated as insights. A score of 3 was given to self-defining narratives with insights, which were those with positive meanings that extended beyond the event itself to explain and reason with an explicit transformation in one’s understanding of their identity, the world, or relationships. Two independent coders who were blind to all other information about the participants coded 20% of the narratives and achieved acceptable interrater reliability agreement, ICC = .77 (90% agreement). Disagreements were resolved through discussion, and the master coder, the author of the study, coded the remainder of the narratives. Results Means, standard deviations, and ranges for positive meaning-making, emotion regulation, and well-being scores are shown in Table 2 . Table 2 Means, Standard Deviations, and Ranges for All Variables Variable M SD Range Positive meaning-making 1.58 1.26 0.00–3.00 PWB ERQ-S Cognitive reappraisal Expressive suppression 3.77 3.48 3.04 0.50 0.88 1.02 2.44–4.83 1.00–5.00 1.00–5.00 Note. PWB = Psychological Well-Being; ERQ-S = Emotion Regulation Questionnaire- short form. To test the hypothesis that positive meaning-making mediated the relationship between positive emotion regulation and well-being, the following regressions were conducted. First, it was found that positive emotion regulation predicted well-being, R 2 = .32, p < .001. There was no significant association between negative emotion regulation and well-being, R 2 = .09, p = .365. Next, the relationship between positive emotion regulation and the proposed mediator, positive meaning-making, was not statistically significant, R 2 =-.02, p = .814. Finally, positive meaning-making was not a statistically significant predictor of well-being, R 2 = .13, p < .181. When all three variables were entered simultaneously into a regression analysis, it was found that including positive meaning-making, the mediator, did not substantially reduce the effect size of positive emotion regulation, as can be seen in Table 3 . Table 3 Hierarchical regression values for proposed mediation analysis, with well-being as the dependent variable Predictors B (SE) t Step 1 Positive Emotion Regulation .18 (.05) 3.41*** Step 2 Positive Emotion Regulation .18 (.05) 3.47*** Positive meaning-making .05 (.04) 1.50 Note. *** p < .001 Discussion This study examined the relationship between positive emotion regulation and well-being among U.S. undergraduate students with positive meaning-making in self-defining narratives as the proposed mediator. Using self-report questionnaires to measure well-being and emotion regulation skills, findings show that positive emotion regulation significantly predicted well-being. However, negative emotion regulation was not a predictor of well-being. Overall, the results partially supported the proposed hypothesis, as there was a significant association between positive emotion regulation and well-being, but positive meaning-making did not mediate the relationship. Therefore, the current results suggest that displaying positive emotion regulation predicts higher levels of well-being. The current study converges with existing research that demonstrates positive emotion regulation is associated with well-being. Van Seggelen-Damen et al. ( 2023 ) found that the ability to employ positive emotion regulation skills, such as positive reappraisal, is associated with resilience to challenges and thus higher well-being. Taken together, these findings suggest that altering the way in which one thinks about a negative situation to shift towards a more positive mindset appears to increase one’s overall well-being. In contrast to the literature, however, the results did not replicate the finding that positive meaning-making predicts higher levels of well-being among adults. Cox and McAdams ( 2014 ) reported that positive meaning-making in high and low point narratives predicted positive emotion regulation and an increased ability to handle emotional challenges in the future. In line with these findings, positive meaning-making and valuing positive aspects of a life event were found to be associated with positive mental health outcomes among adults (Liao et al., 2017 ; Lilgendahl & McAdams, 2011 ). One reason for the lack of consistency between the current findings and previous studies could have been that demonstrating positive meaning-making within narratives predicts positive emotion regulation, as proposed by Cox and McAdams ( 2014 ), rather than the originally proposed hypothesis. Because positive emotion regulation encompasses a range of coping mechanisms, such as positive refocusing, planning, and positive reappraisal, it is possible that participants who reported the use of these skills were drawing on a different mode of positive emotion regulation that was not positive meaning-making. For instance, someone who practices acceptance and reported a high ability to positively emotionally regulate may not have directly shown it in their self-defining narratives but instead employ it as a more internal process. Since positive meaning-making is one part of a larger skillset of emotion regulation, it is more plausible to speculate that overall positive emotion regulation is predicted by already displaying one of these skills. Furthermore, assigning meaning to personal experiences is crucial in developing a sense of temporal and thematic coherence to inform identity. Meaning-making in general allows people to make sense of significant events in their lives and thus explains the reason behind their future goals and values. Therefore, deriving meaning from a life event, whether positive or negative, may lead to higher levels of well-being because it allows self-growth and psychosocial adjustment throughout life. For instance, Tavernier and Willoughby (2011) reported that meaning-making in adolescents’ turning-point narratives was associated with higher levels of well-being. It is possible that focusing on positive meaning-making alone may have been too narrow of a metric to predict overall well-being. That is, some of the narratives did display meaning-making, but were coded lower due to the lack of positivity. This factor could have inaccurately represented participants who had higher levels of well-being but had only general meaning-making in their self-defining memories. Although it is unclear which is the most plausible explanation for the discrepancy between the current study’s findings and previous research, there are several implications that are applicable to the general well-being of emerging adults. Even though the results did not show mediation, positive emotion regulation was a significant predictor of well-being. Taken with the conclusions of previous literature, this study provides evidence suggesting that focusing on developing positive emotion regulation skills in a psychotherapy setting could be a method in which people can learn to more readily face challenges. Resilience is especially important for college students who are in a period of identity formation and transition between the adult world and adolescence. Therefore, adopting methods such as positive reappraisal and refocusing could be an avenue to help patients overcome emotionally challenging experiences during college, a time where they may feel isolated due to distance from family. The findings of this study also support the growth mindset model as opposed to a fixed mindset. That is, people with growth mindsets tend to display characteristics that are in line with positive emotion regulation, such as choosing to grow from adversity and viewing challenges as a positive opportunity to learn from experience (Hochanadel & Finamore, 2015 ). As a result, those who employ these strategies when integrating self-defining events into their autobiographical memories may lead to an increase in their overall well-being. Equally important to the theoretical implications of these findings are the limitations of the present study that could have contributed to the differences observed in the current findings and published works. Participants were undergraduate students and in a period of their lives in which they were still constructing their narrative identity. Stronger associations between emotion regulation and positive meaning-making may thus be found among those with more complete life stories, perhaps among elderly individuals. Older participants likely have more self-defining experiences and may have practiced positive emotion regulation over time. Also, they may be able to flesh out the meaning of their memories more readily, as they have a fuller view of their life and values than a young adult. Additionally, each participant wrote three narratives (i.e. self, friend, and parent). Since they were required to think of a different memory for each category, it could be that there were higher levels of positive meaning-making in one of their narratives that was not analyzed. Also, because multiple researchers were deriving data from the same pool of participants, the self-narrative instructions allowed participants to write about a neutral memory. Perhaps asking the participants for a turning point memory specifically, events that are regarded as a significant life experience to which individuals attribute changes in their behaviors or attitudes, could have helped elicit more responses with positive meaning-making. A future study that focuses on the narratives of adults beyond college may yield different or more robust results than the current sample. Moreover, this study provides evidence suggesting further work is necessary to understand which types of emotion regulation skills are utilized most often among young adults. Because positive emotion regulation was not a significant predictor of positive meaning-making in self-defining narratives, it is possible that there are more commonly used methods of coping with emotionally charged experiences compared to others, although there is no extensive literature that examining this. Overall, this study adds to the existing evidence that having the ability to emotionally regulate in a positive manner is associated with well-being among young adults. Although the results did not demonstrate the predicted mediation, previous literature does support the relationship between positive meaning-making and well-being. Nonetheless, college is a major transition period for young adults and this study suggests the way in which one copes with challenges can influence psychological health. Therefore, future research should continue to examine the role of self-defining narratives among young adults, especially during a time when assigning meaning to these experiences is imperative for healthy adjustment and emotional resilience. Declarations Acknowledgements This study was supported by the Psychology Department of Dickinson College. I would like to thank Professor Azriel Grysman for his guidance and work in autobiographical memory. Author contributions All authors contributed equally to this work Data Availability The datasets generated and/or analyzed during the current study are not publicly available to protect participant privacy but are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request. Author Note We have no known conflict of interest to disclose. Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Kayla F. Slomeana, Dept. of Psychology, 28 N. College St., Carlisle, PA, 17013 HUB #1831. Email: [email protected] References Adler, J. M. et al. Research methods for studying narrative identity: A Primer. Social Psychol. Personality Sci. 8 (5), 519–527. https://doi.org/10.31234/osf.io/cz3q3 (2017). Cox, K. & McAdams, D. P. Meaning making during high and low point life story episodes predicts emotion regulation two years later: How the past informs the future. J. Res. Pers. 50 , 66–70. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrp.2014.03.004 (2014). Eakin, P. J. Talking about ourselves: The rules of the game. In Living Autobiographically: How We Create Identity in Narrative (pp. 1–51). essay, Cornell University Press. (2008). Fivush, R. Family narratives and the development of an autobiographical self (Routledge, 2019a). Graci, M. E., Watts, A. L. & Fivush, R. Examining the factor structure of narrative meaning-making for stressful events and relations with psychological distress. Memory 26 (9), 1220–1232 (2018). Hochanadel, A. & Finamore, D. Fixed and growth mindset in education and how grit helps students persist in the face of adversity. J. Int. Educ. Res. (JIER) . 11 (1), 47–50. https://doi.org/10.19030/jier.v11i1.9099 (2015). Liao, H. W., Bluck, S. & Westerhof, G. J. Longitudinal relations between self-defining memories and self-esteem: Mediating roles of meaning-making and memory function. Imagination Cognition Personality: Conscious. Theory Res. Clin. Pract. 37 (3), 318–341 (2017). Lilgendahl, J. P. & McAdams, D. P. Constructing stories of self-growth: How individual differences in patterns of autobiographical reasoning relate to well-being in midlife. J. Pers. 79 (2). https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6494.2010.00688.x (2011). McAdams, D. P. The problem of identity. In power, intimacy, and the life story personological inquiries into identity (pp. 17–19). essay, The Guilford Press. (1988). McAdams, D. P. The psychology of life stories. Rev. Gen. Psychol. 2001 (5), 100–122 (2001). McAdams, D. P. & McLean, K. C. Narrative identity. Curr. Dir. Psychol. Sci. 22 (3), 233–238. https://doi.org/10.1177/0963721413475622 (2013). Preece, D. A., Petrova, K., Mehta, A. & Gross, J. J. The emotion regulation questionnaire-short form (ERQ-S): A 6-item measure of cognitive reappraisal and expressive suppression. J. Affect. Disord. 340 , 855–861 (2023). Ryff, C. D. & Keyes, C. L. M. The structure of psychological well-being revisited. J. Personal. Soc. Psychol. 69 (4), 719–727 (1995). Tavernier, R. & Willoughby, T. Adolescent turning points: The association between meaning-making and psychological well-being. Dev. Psychol. 48 (4), 1058–1068. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0026326 (2012). Van Seggelen-Damen, I. C., Peeters, S. C. & Jacobs, N. Being mindful and resilient: The role of self-reflection, rumination, and well-being. Psychol. Consciousness: Theory Res. Pract. 10 (2), 193–203. https://doi.org/10.1037/cns0000338 (2023). Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Cite Share Download PDF Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. Our growing team is made up of researchers and industry professionals working together to solve the most critical problems facing scientific publishing. Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-7256619","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":509859731,"identity":"7ae921da-5934-4333-ae78-15cfd9342410","order_by":0,"name":"Kayla F. Slomeana","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAA8ElEQVRIiWNgGAWjYDACdghlwM+Q2MDYYAAV5cGnhRmqRbKBZC0GBxIYGBtgovi0yDczH93woeaOsfHx5MaPMwru2PNLNzA+eNuGW4vBYba0mzOOPTMzO/OwWXKDwbPEmXMOMBvOxaeFmcfsNg/bYRuzG4ltjA8MDicY3Ehgk+bFo0W+Gajlz7/DNsYzIFrsgVrYf+PTwnAYqIWx7bCZgQRQywaDw4wbgLYw49MC9ktv32FjCZBfZhgcTpw5I7FZcs45PA5rbz5248e3w4b97ekPP/b8OWzPL5F88MObMjwOwwIQ0TMKRsEoGAWjgEwAAGO6WC4dxhrMAAAAAElFTkSuQmCC","orcid":"","institution":"Dickinson College","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Kayla","middleName":"F.","lastName":"Slomeana","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2025-07-30 23:08:10","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7256619/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-7256619/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":94490330,"identity":"0850afe8-e52a-48f4-94c5-a0a6617b051c","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-27 17:09:12","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":426154,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7256619/v1/0137fa11-4620-486a-82dd-ab3581819ec0.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Does Positive Meaning-Making in Self-Defining Narratives Mediate Emotion Regulation?","fulltext":[{"header":"Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eNarrative storytelling allows an individual to unite their unique past, present, and future to construct a cohesive identity. Autobiographical memory that takes the form of a self-defining narrative informs who one is, how one\u0026rsquo;s personal identity came about, and one\u0026rsquo;s goals based on the individual\u0026rsquo;s experiences (Fivush, 2019). As a result, this story provides one with a sense of \u0026ldquo;unity and purpose\u0026rdquo; within the adult world while simultaneously specifying a sense of continuity across experiences in time (McAdams, 1985). Likewise, Eakin asserts the importance of telling personal narratives is highly valued according to cultural norms and is emphasized from childhood (Eakin, 2008). Children are taught, mainly through conversations with their parents, how to properly tell a narrative and what kinds of experiences are \u0026ldquo;tellable\u0026rdquo; within their specific environment and audience (Eakin, 2008). For instance, a thematically valued narrative is one that employs positive meaning-making. In this narrative structure, the individual takes on a form of autobiographical reasoning in which they construct a positive meaning out of an important life experience. Therefore, finding the good in one\u0026rsquo;s self-defining memories is highly valued in narrative storytelling due to the benefits that the method offers in terms of improving one\u0026rsquo;s overall quality of life (Liao et al., 2017). Liao et al., (2017) note that across adulthood, employing positive meaning-making from a negative (or positive) experience when narrating has been associated with well-being and higher levels of self-esteem. Lilgendahl and McAdams (2011) highlight that positive meaning-making of life experiences aids in self-growth by increasing clarity of identity, self-insight, and well-being, while negative interpretations of events are associated with lower levels of well-being. Therefore, it has been posited by multiple researchers studying narrative identity that positive meaning-making holds explanatory power for well-being measurements. It was concluded in another study that positive processing or meaning-making of a stressful event was associated with higher well-being, namely, lower levels of anxiety (Graci et al., 2018).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSeveral studies have determined that providing more positive and complex meaning-making in narratives is associated with favorable self-development and a mature identity status (Liao et al., 2017). It is this maturation that psychologist Erik Erikson claimed was pivotal in the stages of late adolescence and emerging adulthood in shaping identity (McAdams, 2001). At this stage of life, people begin to preoccupy themselves with forming a coherent life story that integrates the self both synchronically and diachronically (McAdams, 2001). Adolescents and young adults utilize new cognitive abilities, such as Piaget\u0026rsquo;s formal operational thinking, to explore their identity and solidify their place in the cultural environment (McAdams, 2001). Those who are successful in forming a coherent narrative identity with unity and purpose tend to have greater narrative complexity and thus may also be able to employ higher levels of meaning-making (McAdams, 2001). According to McAdams and McLean (2013), people who scored higher on measures of psychological maturity tended to construct narratives with themes of \u0026ldquo;learning, growth, and positive personal transformation\u0026rdquo;. Given that the period of late adolescence and emerging adulthood are critical periods in which individuals are more able to hypothetically reason with their life stories by utilizing mature cognitive processes, it is an ideal stage of life to examine meaning in personal narratives.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHaving positive emotion regulation skills is one such indicator of maturity and involves the ability to adapt to emotionally charged experiences through positive meaning-making (Cox \u0026amp; McAdams, 2014). Negative emotion regulation skills amplify or prolong negative emotions and experiences through rumination and catastrophizing (Cox \u0026amp; McAdams, 2014). For instance, one study focusing on rumination and well-being found that ruminators had low resilience and were less able to cope with unfavorable situations (van Seggelen-Damen et al., 2023). In examining emotion regulation and well-being in low and high point memories among adults, Cox and McAdams (2014) concluded that those who found positive meaning in a low-point event utilized positive emotion regulation skills, which include positive refocusing, planning, positive reappraisal, positive meaning-making, and acceptance and thus more readily adapted to adversity in the future. Likewise, Tavernier and Willoughby (2012) found that adolescents who reported meaning-making in their turning point narratives had higher well-being scores, highlighting the association between the two variables. Many studies have focused largely on either emotion regulation or meaning-making holistically or as separate measures in examining personal narratives, but few studies have isolated the two factors in a singular study. \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe current study, formulated based on Erikson\u0026rsquo;s theory of identity formation and previous literature, aims to investigate the use of positive emotion regulation skills, specifically positive meaning-making, in self-defining narratives and its association with well-being among college students. It is hypothesized that positive meaning-making will mediate the relationship between overall positive emotion regulation and well-being. That is, it is predicted that interpreting an event as positive will predict higher levels of well-being.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Methods","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eParticipants\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eU.S. American students were recruited from the Dickinson College Department of Psychology participant pool through Sona Systems. All methods were carried out in accordance with the relevant guidelines and regulations to protect the privacy of the participants. Additionally, the experimental protocol was approved by the Dickinson College Department of Psychology and the Institutional Review Board for the Protection of Human Subjects. A total of 101 participants were included in the data, with 29 male-identifying, 69 female-identifying, 2 who preferred to self-describe, and 1 who preferred not to say. The ages of the participants ranged from 18 to 22 years old (\u003cem\u003eM\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;19.19, \u003cem\u003eSD\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1.24) Most of the participants were racially white (69%), followed by Black or African American (9%), Asian or Asian American (10%), Hispanic or Latinx (7%), and Biracial or multiracial (5%). 87% were of Spanish, Hispanic, or Latino origin. The most frequently reported class year was first-year (66%), followed by sophomore (18%), senior (14%), junior (1%), and \u0026ldquo;other\u0026rdquo; (1%). All participants who successfully completed the study received one research participation pool credit for their time. Participants for whom AI was detected in their narratives were disqualified from the study, as well as those who failed one or both attention checks that were unrelated to the hypothesis being tested.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eMaterials\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec5\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eThe Ryff Scales of Psychological Well-Being (PWB)\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe Ryff Scales of Psychological Well-Being (PWB) short-form questionnaire is an 18-item self-report scale that assesses general levels of psychological well-being (Ryff \u0026amp; Keyes, 1955). In the current sample, reliability of the scale was good, \u003cem\u003eCronbach\u0026rsquo;s α\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.81. For instance, statements such as, \u0026ldquo;I am good at managing the responsibilities of daily life\u0026rdquo; were presented in the questionnaire. Participants rated the extent to which they agreed or disagreed with the 18 statements on a 7-point scale from 1 (strongly agree) to 7 (strongly disagree). The scores for each statement were added together to get an overall well-being score. Higher scores indicated higher levels of psychological well-being. Ten of the statements were reversed-scored items and were worded in the opposite direction of what the scale was measuring. For example, \u0026ldquo;Some people wander aimlessly through life, but I am not one of them\u0026rdquo;.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eThe Emotion Regulation Questionnaire-Short Form (ERQ-S)\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe Emotion Regulation Questionnaire- Short Form (ERQ-S) is a 6-item self-report scale adapted from the Emotion Regulation Questionnaire (ERQ) (Preece, Petrova, Mehta, \u0026amp; Gross, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). The ERQ-S assessed the habitual use of two common emotion regulation strategies, that is, cognitive reappraisal (i.e. changing the way one is thinking about a situation to change its emotional impact) and expressive suppression (i.e. suppressing behavioral expression of emotion) (Preece, Petrova, Mehta, \u0026amp; Gross, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). In the current sample, reliability of the scale was good, \u003cem\u003eCronbach\u0026rsquo;s α\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.83 (for items 1,3, and 5) and \u003cem\u003eCronbach\u0026rsquo;s α\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.79 (for items 2,4, and 6). Participants rated the extent to which they agreed or disagreed with the 6 statements on a 7-point scale from 1 (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree). For instance, statements measuring cognitive reappraisal such as, \u0026ldquo;When I want to feel more positive emotion (such as joy or amusement), I change the way I\u0026rsquo;m thinking about the situation\u0026rdquo; were rated by the participant based on how strongly they felt they displayed the trait described. Likewise, statements measuring expressive suppression such as, \u0026ldquo;I control my emotions by not expressing them\u0026rdquo; were rated by participants in the same manner. Separate scale scores were derived from the ERQ-S for both emotion regulation strategies tested. Higher scores for each respective strategy indicated higher usage of that strategy.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eProcedure\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eParticipants shared a self-defining memory (SDM) in the format of a written narrative. All narratives and questionnaire answers were collected from those who consented to have their narratives shared for the purpose of the study. The narrative prompt and questionnaires were entered into a Qualtrics survey in a random order. Upon providing informed consent, the participants were given the following description to guide the retrieval of a self-defining memory:\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eA self-defining memory is a memory from your life that you remember very clearly and still feels important to you. Self-defining memories help you define not only how you see yourself but also help you explain yourself to others. This memory is about an important enduring theme, issue, or event that feels central to who you are as a person. The memory may be neutral, positive, or negative.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eUpon reading the preceding description, participants were asked to report a self-defining memory about themselves. The instructions and an example of a self-defining narrative are presented in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSelf-Narrative Instructions and Example\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"4\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSelf-Defining Memory Type\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c3\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eInstructions\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eExample\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSelf-narrative\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eThink about an important moment involving yourself. What is a self-defining memory that you believe plays a significant role in who you are today? Remember to include details that are specific about the memory, it should be an event that is very vivid and memorable. Please include details of why this event is important to you and try to reflect on the themes in this memory that feel central to who you are. This memory may be neutral, positive, or negative.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eA defining memory for me was when I got recruited to play football in college. I was very happy in that moment because the recruiting process for me was an extremely stressful and frustrating experience so even though I was happy I felt more relieved than happy because I was just glad it was over.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eNarrative Coding\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eEach self-defining narrative was coded for positive meaning-making on a 0\u0026ndash;3 scale by adapting a prior coding system for meaning-making reported by McLean and Pratt (2006). The coding system was originally utilized to examine meaning -making in general, but the current study focused on positive meaning-making exclusively and thus the coding system was altered accordingly. A score of 0 was assigned to narratives with no positive meaning- making reported. A score of 1 was given to narratives with a positive lesson reported. Lessons contained positive meaning but were often behavioral, did not contain positive meaning beyond the original event, and often lacked complex reasoning. For instance, a participant who indicated in his or her narrative that there was positive thought and a behavioral action but no complex reasoning of the event, scored a 1. A score of 2 was given to narratives with vague positive meaning. They contained slightly more complex meaning-making than lessons but were not as sophisticated as insights. A score of 3 was given to self-defining narratives with insights, which were those with positive meanings that extended beyond the event itself to explain and reason with an explicit transformation in one\u0026rsquo;s understanding of their identity, the world, or relationships.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eTwo independent coders who were blind to all other information about the participants coded 20% of the narratives and achieved acceptable interrater reliability agreement, \u003cem\u003eICC\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.77 (90% agreement). Disagreements were resolved through discussion, and the master coder, the author of the study, coded the remainder of the narratives.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Results","content":"\u003cp\u003eMeans, standard deviations, and ranges for positive meaning-making, emotion regulation, and well-being scores are shown in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eMeans, Standard Deviations, and Ranges for All Variables\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"5\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eVariable\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c3\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eM\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSD\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eRange\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePositive meaning-making\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.58\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.26\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.00\u0026ndash;3.00\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePWB\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eERQ-S\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eCognitive reappraisal\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eExpressive suppression\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.77\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.48\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.04\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.50\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.88\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.02\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.44\u0026ndash;4.83\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.00\u0026ndash;5.00\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.00\u0026ndash;5.00\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003ctfoot\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"5\"\u003e\u003cem\u003eNote.\u003c/em\u003e PWB\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Psychological Well-Being; ERQ-S\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Emotion Regulation Questionnaire- short form.\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tfoot\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eTo test the hypothesis that positive meaning-making mediated the relationship between positive emotion regulation and well-being, the following regressions were conducted. First, it was found that positive emotion regulation predicted well-being, \u003cem\u003eR\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u003cem\u003e2\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.32, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001. There was no significant association between negative emotion regulation and well-being, \u003cem\u003eR\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u003cem\u003e2\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.09, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.365. Next, the relationship between positive emotion regulation and the proposed mediator, positive meaning-making, was not statistically significant, \u003cem\u003eR\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e =-.02, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.814. Finally, positive meaning-making was not a statistically significant predictor of well-being, \u003cem\u003eR\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.13, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.181. When all three variables were entered simultaneously into a regression analysis, it was found that including positive meaning-making, the mediator, did not substantially reduce the effect size of positive emotion regulation, as can be seen in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eHierarchical regression values for proposed mediation analysis, with well-being as the dependent variable\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"5\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePredictors\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eB (SE)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003et\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eStep 1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePositive Emotion Regulation\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.18 (.05)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.41***\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eStep 2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePositive Emotion Regulation\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.18 (.05)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.47***\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePositive meaning-making\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.05 (.04)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.50\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003ctfoot\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"5\"\u003e\u003cem\u003eNote.\u003c/em\u003e ***\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tfoot\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis study examined the relationship between positive emotion regulation and well-being among U.S. undergraduate students with positive meaning-making in self-defining narratives as the proposed mediator. Using self-report questionnaires to measure well-being and emotion regulation skills, findings show that positive emotion regulation significantly predicted well-being. However, negative emotion regulation was not a predictor of well-being. Overall, the results partially supported the proposed hypothesis, as there was a significant association between positive emotion regulation and well-being, but positive meaning-making did not mediate the relationship. Therefore, the current results suggest that displaying positive emotion regulation predicts higher levels of well-being.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe current study converges with existing research that demonstrates positive emotion regulation is associated with well-being. Van Seggelen-Damen et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e) found that the ability to employ positive emotion regulation skills, such as positive reappraisal, is associated with resilience to challenges and thus higher well-being. Taken together, these findings suggest that altering the way in which one thinks about a negative situation to shift towards a more positive mindset appears to increase one\u0026rsquo;s overall well-being.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn contrast to the literature, however, the results did not replicate the finding that positive meaning-making predicts higher levels of well-being among adults. Cox and McAdams (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e) reported that positive meaning-making in high and low point narratives predicted positive emotion regulation and an increased ability to handle emotional challenges in the future. In line with these findings, positive meaning-making and valuing positive aspects of a life event were found to be associated with positive mental health outcomes among adults (Liao et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e; Lilgendahl \u0026amp; McAdams, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e). One reason for the lack of consistency between the current findings and previous studies could have been that demonstrating positive meaning-making within narratives predicts positive emotion regulation, as proposed by Cox and McAdams (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e), rather than the originally proposed hypothesis. Because positive emotion regulation encompasses a range of coping mechanisms, such as positive refocusing, planning, and positive reappraisal, it is possible that participants who reported the use of these skills were drawing on a different mode of positive emotion regulation that was not positive meaning-making. For instance, someone who practices acceptance and reported a high ability to positively emotionally regulate may not have directly shown it in their self-defining narratives but instead employ it as a more internal process. Since positive meaning-making is one part of a larger skillset of emotion regulation, it is more plausible to speculate that overall positive emotion regulation is predicted by already displaying one of these skills.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFurthermore, assigning meaning to personal experiences is crucial in developing a sense of temporal and thematic coherence to inform identity. Meaning-making in general allows people to make sense of significant events in their lives and thus explains the reason behind their future goals and values. Therefore, deriving meaning from a life event, whether positive or negative, may lead to higher levels of well-being because it allows self-growth and psychosocial adjustment throughout life. For instance, Tavernier and Willoughby (2011) reported that meaning-making in adolescents\u0026rsquo; turning-point narratives was associated with higher levels of well-being. It is possible that focusing on positive meaning-making alone may have been too narrow of a metric to predict overall well-being. That is, some of the narratives did display meaning-making, but were coded lower due to the lack of positivity. This factor could have inaccurately represented participants who had higher levels of well-being but had only general meaning-making in their self-defining memories.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAlthough it is unclear which is the most plausible explanation for the discrepancy between the current study\u0026rsquo;s findings and previous research, there are several implications that are applicable to the general well-being of emerging adults. Even though the results did not show mediation, positive emotion regulation was a significant predictor of well-being. Taken with the conclusions of previous literature, this study provides evidence suggesting that focusing on developing positive emotion regulation skills in a psychotherapy setting could be a method in which people can learn to more readily face challenges. Resilience is especially important for college students who are in a period of identity formation and transition between the adult world and adolescence. Therefore, adopting methods such as positive reappraisal and refocusing could be an avenue to help patients overcome emotionally challenging experiences during college, a time where they may feel isolated due to distance from family.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe findings of this study also support the growth mindset model as opposed to a fixed mindset. That is, people with growth mindsets tend to display characteristics that are in line with positive emotion regulation, such as choosing to grow from adversity and viewing challenges as a positive opportunity to learn from experience (Hochanadel \u0026amp; Finamore, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e). As a result, those who employ these strategies when integrating self-defining events into their autobiographical memories may lead to an increase in their overall well-being.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eEqually important to the theoretical implications of these findings are the limitations of the present study that could have contributed to the differences observed in the current findings and published works. Participants were undergraduate students and in a period of their lives in which they were still constructing their narrative identity. Stronger associations between emotion regulation and positive meaning-making may thus be found among those with more complete life stories, perhaps among elderly individuals. Older participants likely have more self-defining experiences and may have practiced positive emotion regulation over time. Also, they may be able to flesh out the meaning of their memories more readily, as they have a fuller view of their life and values than a young adult. Additionally, each participant wrote three narratives (i.e. self, friend, and parent). Since they were required to think of a different memory for each category, it could be that there were higher levels of positive meaning-making in one of their narratives that was not analyzed. Also, because multiple researchers were deriving data from the same pool of participants, the self-narrative instructions allowed participants to write about a neutral memory. Perhaps asking the participants for a turning point memory specifically, events that are regarded as a significant life experience to which individuals attribute changes in their behaviors or attitudes, could have helped elicit more responses with positive meaning-making.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eA future study that focuses on the narratives of adults beyond college may yield different or more robust results than the current sample. Moreover, this study provides evidence suggesting further work is necessary to understand which types of emotion regulation skills are utilized most often among young adults. Because positive emotion regulation was not a significant predictor of positive meaning-making in self-defining narratives, it is possible that there are more commonly used methods of coping with emotionally charged experiences compared to others, although there is no extensive literature that examining this.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eOverall, this study adds to the existing evidence that having the ability to emotionally regulate in a positive manner is associated with well-being among young adults. Although the results did not demonstrate the predicted mediation, previous literature does support the relationship between positive meaning-making and well-being. Nonetheless, college is a major transition period for young adults and this study suggests the way in which one copes with challenges can influence psychological health. Therefore, future research should continue to examine the role of self-defining narratives among young adults, especially during a time when assigning meaning to these experiences is imperative for healthy adjustment and emotional resilience.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAcknowledgements\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis study was supported by the Psychology Department of Dickinson College. I would like to thank Professor Azriel Grysman for his guidance and work in autobiographical memory.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAuthor contributions\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAll authors contributed equally to this work\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eData Availability\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe datasets generated and/or analyzed during the current study are not publicly available to protect participant privacy but are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAuthor Note\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWe have no known conflict of interest to disclose. Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Kayla F. Slomeana, Dept. of Psychology, 28 N. College St., Carlisle, PA, 17013 HUB #1831. Email: [email protected]\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAdler, J. M. et al. Research methods for studying narrative identity: A Primer. \u003cem\u003eSocial Psychol. Personality Sci.\u003c/em\u003e \u003cb\u003e8\u003c/b\u003e (5), 519\u0026ndash;527. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.31234/osf.io/cz3q3\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.31234/osf.io/cz3q3\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e (2017).\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eCox, K. \u0026amp; McAdams, D. P. Meaning making during high and low point life story episodes predicts emotion regulation two years later: How the past informs the future. \u003cem\u003eJ. Res. Pers.\u003c/em\u003e \u003cb\u003e50\u003c/b\u003e, 66\u0026ndash;70. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrp.2014.03.004\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1016/j.jrp.2014.03.004\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e (2014).\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eEakin, P. J. Talking about ourselves: The rules of the game. In \u003cem\u003eLiving Autobiographically: How We Create Identity in Narrative\u003c/em\u003e (pp. 1\u0026ndash;51). essay, Cornell University Press. (2008).\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eFivush, R. \u003cem\u003eFamily narratives and the development of an autobiographical self\u003c/em\u003e (Routledge, 2019a).\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eGraci, M. E., Watts, A. L. \u0026amp; Fivush, R. Examining the factor structure of narrative meaning-making for stressful events and relations with psychological distress. \u003cem\u003eMemory\u003c/em\u003e \u003cb\u003e26\u003c/b\u003e (9), 1220\u0026ndash;1232 (2018).\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eHochanadel, A. \u0026amp; Finamore, D. Fixed and growth mindset in education and how grit helps students persist in the face of adversity. \u003cem\u003eJ. Int. Educ. Res. (JIER)\u003c/em\u003e. \u003cb\u003e11\u003c/b\u003e (1), 47\u0026ndash;50. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.19030/jier.v11i1.9099\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.19030/jier.v11i1.9099\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e (2015).\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eLiao, H. W., Bluck, S. \u0026amp; Westerhof, G. J. Longitudinal relations between self-defining memories and self-esteem: Mediating roles of meaning-making and memory function. \u003cem\u003eImagination Cognition Personality: Conscious. Theory Res. Clin. Pract.\u003c/em\u003e \u003cb\u003e37\u003c/b\u003e (3), 318\u0026ndash;341 (2017).\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eLilgendahl, J. P. \u0026amp; McAdams, D. P. Constructing stories of self-growth: How individual differences in patterns of autobiographical reasoning relate to well-being in midlife. \u003cem\u003eJ. Pers.\u003c/em\u003e \u003cb\u003e79\u003c/b\u003e (2). \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6494.2010.00688.x\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1111/j.1467-6494.2010.00688.x\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e (2011).\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eMcAdams, D. P. The problem of identity. In \u003cem\u003epower, intimacy, and the life story personological inquiries into identity\u003c/em\u003e (pp. 17\u0026ndash;19). essay, The Guilford Press. (1988).\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eMcAdams, D. P. The psychology of life stories. \u003cem\u003eRev. Gen. Psychol.\u003c/em\u003e \u003cb\u003e2001\u003c/b\u003e (5), 100\u0026ndash;122 (2001).\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eMcAdams, D. P. \u0026amp; McLean, K. C. Narrative identity. \u003cem\u003eCurr. Dir. Psychol. Sci.\u003c/em\u003e \u003cb\u003e22\u003c/b\u003e (3), 233\u0026ndash;238. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1177/0963721413475622\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1177/0963721413475622\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e (2013).\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003ePreece, D. A., Petrova, K., Mehta, A. \u0026amp; Gross, J. J. The emotion regulation questionnaire-short form (ERQ-S): A 6-item measure of cognitive reappraisal and expressive suppression. \u003cem\u003eJ. Affect. Disord.\u003c/em\u003e \u003cb\u003e340\u003c/b\u003e, 855\u0026ndash;861 (2023).\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eRyff, C. D. \u0026amp; Keyes, C. L. M. The structure of psychological well-being revisited. \u003cem\u003eJ. Personal. Soc. Psychol.\u003c/em\u003e \u003cb\u003e69\u003c/b\u003e (4), 719\u0026ndash;727 (1995).\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eTavernier, R. \u0026amp; Willoughby, T. Adolescent turning points: The association between meaning-making and psychological well-being. \u003cem\u003eDev. Psychol.\u003c/em\u003e \u003cb\u003e48\u003c/b\u003e (4), 1058\u0026ndash;1068. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1037/a0026326\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1037/a0026326\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e (2012).\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eVan Seggelen-Damen, I. C., Peeters, S. C. \u0026amp; Jacobs, N. Being mindful and resilient: The role of self-reflection, rumination, and well-being. \u003cem\u003ePsychol. Consciousness: Theory Res. Pract.\u003c/em\u003e \u003cb\u003e10\u003c/b\u003e (2), 193\u0026ndash;203. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1037/cns0000338\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1037/cns0000338\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e (2023).\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"meaning-making, young adult, emotion regulation, well-being, autobiographical memory, self-defining narrative","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7256619/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-7256619/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003ePositive emotion regulation skills, such as positive refocusing, positive meaning-making, and acceptance have been shown to predict well-being. The current study hypothesized that one of these mechanisms, positive meaning-making, would mediate the relationship between positive emotion regulation and well-being. Undergraduate students recruited from Dickinson College reported a self-defining memory and answered questionnaires related to emotion regulation and well-being. Results indicated that positive emotion regulation predicted well-being, but mediation was not supported. The findings contradict previous research that reported positive meaning-making as a significant predictor of well-being. However, the current study provides evidence that positive coping mechanisms in the wake of adversity may lead to higher levels of well-being.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Does Positive Meaning-Making in Self-Defining Narratives Mediate Emotion Regulation?","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-09-04 08:16:19","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7256619/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"fd8c8b40-199d-499d-9902-e7783670cb57","owner":[],"postedDate":"September 4th, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[{"id":54155442,"name":"Biological sciences/Neuroscience"},{"id":54155443,"name":"Biological sciences/Psychology"},{"id":54155444,"name":"Social science/Psychology"}],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2025-10-27T16:02:03+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2025-09-04 08:16:19","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-7256619","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-7256619","identity":"rs-7256619","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}