Study of ethnoveterinary medicinal plants in Aseko District, Arsi Zone, southeastern Ethiopia

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This study documents medicinal plants and associated indigenous knowledge in Aseko District, Arsi Zone, southeastern Ethiopia. Data were collected from 182 informants across seven kebeles representing three agroecological zones using semi-structured interviews, focus group discussions, guided field walks, preference ranking, and market surveys. A total of 66 ethnoveterinary medicinal plant species belonging to 49 families were recorded. Herbs dominated (42.4%), and most remedies used fresh plant material harvested from wild habitats (66.7%). Leaves were the most frequently used plant part (46.5%), and oral administration was predominant (67.5%). Gastrointestinal disorders, ecto-/endoparasitic infections, and dermatological diseases accounted for 68.2% of use reports. Informant Consensus Factor values ranged from 0.25 to 0.67, with highest agreement for reproductive disorders. Hagenia abyssinica, Embelia schimperi, and Zingiber officinale were top-ranked for treating diarrhea. Agricultural expansion (22.0%) and biomass extraction (19.8%) were the primary threats. This study highlights the resilience and vulnerability of ethnoveterinary knowledge in a biodiverse but understudied region. Health sciences/Diseases Biological sciences/Ecology Earth and environmental sciences/Ecology Health sciences/Health care Biological sciences/Plant sciences Ethnoveterinary medicine Medicinal plants Indigenous knowledge Livestock health Aseko District Ethiopia Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 Introduction Ethiopia is widely recognized as one of the world’s centres of biological and cultural diversity, characterized by exceptionally rich flora and long-standing traditions of plant-based healthcare [ 1 , 2 ]. Indigenous knowledge systems developed over generations have enabled rural communities to manage both human and livestock health using locally available medicinal plants, particularly in areas where access to modern veterinary services remains limited [ 3 ]. Livestock production plays a central role in Ethiopia’s mixed farming and pastoral systems, contributing substantially to food security, household income, draught power, and sociocultural identity [ 4 ]. Ethnoveterinary medicine refers to the cumulative body of indigenous knowledge, practices, and beliefs used by local communities to maintain animal health through plant-based remedies, management strategies, and associated cultural practices. Across sub-Saharan Africa, including Ethiopia, ethnoveterinary systems remain a primary source of livestock healthcare in rural and pastoral areas where formal veterinary services are limited or economically inaccessible [ 5 , 6 ]. The continued importance of traditional animal healthcare in Ethiopia is reinforced by the central role of livestock in rural livelihoods and national agricultural systems [ 7 ]. Numerous ethnobotanical and ethnoveterinary studies conducted across Ethiopia have documented a wide diversity of medicinal plant species used to treat livestock ailments, underscoring the resilience and practical relevance of indigenous veterinary knowledge systems [ 8 – 10 ]. However, traditional medicinal plant resources and the associated knowledge systems are increasingly under pressure. Agricultural expansion, deforestation, infrastructure development, and population growth have contributed to the degradation and fragmentation of natural habitats supporting medicinal plant diversity [ 11 – 13 ]. Concurrently, sociocultural change, formal education systems, and declining reliance on traditional practices have weakened intergenerational transmission of ethnoveterinary knowledge, particularly among younger community members [ 14 , 15 ]. Despite extensive documentation efforts, important geographical gaps remain, and many studies emphasize species inventories without systematically evaluating cultural importance, informant agreement, or perceived efficacy of remedies [ 16 , 17 ]. Quantitative ethnobotanical indices such as the Informant Consensus Factor (ICF) and Fidelity Level (FL) have therefore been recommended as robust tools for identifying culturally salient species, prioritizing conservation actions, and guiding future phytochemical and pharmacological investigations [ 18 – 20 ]. In this context, systematic documentation of ethnoveterinary medicinal knowledge in Aseko District is both timely and necessary. Unlike many previous Ethiopian studies that rely solely on vernacular or clinical disease terminology [ 9 , 13 , 17 ], the present study applies a bilingual (English/Afaan Oromoo) disease classification system to reduce diagnostic ambiguity and strengthen alignment between indigenous knowledge and veterinary science. The study was designed to: (i) comprehensively document medicinal plant species used to treat livestock ailments in Aseko District; (ii) record associated knowledge on plant parts used, preparation methods, routes of administration, and dosage practices; (iii) quantitatively evaluate informant agreement and cultural importance using established ethnobotanical indices; and (iv) assess local perceptions regarding availability, threats, and conservation of ethnoveterinary medicinal plants. By generating detailed and locally grounded evidence, this study aims to contribute baseline information for biodiversity conservation, sustainable use of medicinal plants, and future ethnoveterinary research in Ethiopia. Results Informant demographics A total of 182 informants participated in the study, including 30 key informants (16.5%) and 152 household respondents (83.5%) selected from seven kebeles of Aseko District. Gender and age Most participants were male (80.2%, n = 146), while females comprised 19.8% (n = 36). Informant ages ranged from 28 to 96 years (mean 56.4 ± 14.8 years), with the largest proportion in the 51–65 year group (34.6%), followed by 36–50 years (29.7%), > 65 years (23.6%), and 20–35 years (12.1%). Education, religion, and ethnicity The majority of informants were unable to read and write (65.4%), whereas 20.9% had elementary education, 9.3% secondary education, and 4.4% college-level training. Most respondents were Muslim (72.0%) and Oromo (85.7%), with Christians (28.0%) and Amhara (14.3%) forming minority groups. Knowledge sources Ethnoveterinary knowledge was transmitted mainly through family lineage (61.0%), followed by traditional healers (18.1%), religious learning (11.0%), and friends or relatives (9.9%), indicating strong reliance on oral intergenerational knowledge transfer. Diversity of ethnoveterinary medicinal plants A total of 66 ethnoveterinary medicinal plant species belonging to 62 genera and 49 families were documented in Aseko District (Table 1 ). Euphorbiaceae and Solanaceae were the most represented families (five species each), followed by Poaceae (three species). Apiaceae, Brassicaceae, Fabaceae, Lamiaceae, Myrtaceae, and Rutaceae each contributed to two species, whereas the majority of families (40 of 49; 81.6%) were represented by a single species. Table 1 Diversity of ethnoveterinary medicinal plants documented in Aseko District Scientific name Family Local name GF Hb PU Achyranthes aspera L. Amaranthaceae Darguu H W L Aeonium leucoblepharum Webb ex A. Rich. Crassulaceae Harmaa gurraatti S W L Agave sisalana Perrine Agavaceae Algee H C R Aloe vera L. Asphodelaceae Hargiisa H C L Allium sativum L. Amaryllidaceae Qullubii-Adii H C Bu Anethum graveolens L. Apiaceae Koomana H C R Asparagus africanus Lam. Asparagaceae Sariitii C W L, R Brassica nigra (L.) Koch Brassicaceae Siinaficaa H C Se Brucea antidysenterica J.F.Mill. Simaroubaceae Jiloolaafaa T W R Calpurnia aurea (Ait.) Benth. Fabaceae Cekaa T W L, R, Ba Capsicum annuum L. Solanaceae Barberee H C Fu Carissa spinarum L. Apocynaceae Hagamsa S W R Capparis tomentosa Lam. Capparaceae Harangamaa S W R Catha edulis (Vahl) Endl. Celastraceae Jimaa T C L Cissampelos mucronata A.Rich. Menispermaceae Bishaan qal’ee C W L Clutia abyssinica Jaub. & Spach Euphorbiaceae Ulee foonii S W L, R Croton macrostachyus Del. Euphorbiaceae Makanisaa T W L, La Cucumis ficifolius A.Rich. Cucurbitaceae Araddoo gurraatti H W R, L Cucurbita pepo L. Cucurbitaceae Dubbaa / Dhobba H C R, L + Ba Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers. Poaceae Coqorsa H W Wp Dodonaea angustifolia L.f. Sapindaceae Iticha S W L, Se Discopodium eremanthum Chiov. Solanaceae Mararo S W L Dovyalis abyssinica A.Rich. Salicaceae Kooshimo T W L Embelia schimperi Vatke Primulaceae Gurraa / Qorqoro C W R Erythrina brucei Schweinf. Fabaceae Walleensu T W L, Ba Eucalyptus globulus Labill. Myrtaceae Bargamo adii T C L Euphorbia abyssinica J.F.Gmel. Euphorbiaceae Adaami T W L, Ba Hagenia abyssinica (Bruce) J.F.Gmel. Rosaceae Heexoo T W L Heteromorpha arborescens (Spreng.) Cham. & Schltdl. Apiaceae Aliyaanqaa T W R Hordeum vulgare L. Poaceae Garbuu H C Se Hypericum revolutum Vahl Hypericaceae Garambaa S W L + R Juniperus procera L. Cupressaceae Hindheessa T W R Justicia schimperiana (Hochst. ex Nees) T.Anders. Acanthaceae Dhumugaa / Sensel S W L + R Lepidium sativum L. Brassicaceae Fexo / Shuunfaa H C Se Linum usitatissimum L. Linaceae Talbaa H C Se Maesa lanceolata Forssk. Primulaceae Abbayyii S W L, R, Fu Melia azedarach L. Meliaceae Mim T C Ba Musa × paradisiaca L. Musaceae Muuzii H C Sa Myrsine africana L. Primulaceae Qacama S W R Nigella sativa L. Ranunculaceae Habsuda guracha H C Se Nicotiana tabacum L. Solanaceae Timbaho / Tamboo H C L, R Ocimum lamiifolium Hochst. Lamiaceae Damakasee H W L Olinia rochetiana A.Juss. Oliniaceae Gunaa T W L Phoenix reclinata Jacq. Arecaceae Meexxi T W L + St Phytolacca dodecandra L’Hér. Phytolaccaceae Handoodee C W Ba, L + R Plantago lanceolata L. Plantaginaceae — H W R Podocarpus falcatus (Thunb.) Mirb. Podocarpaceae Birbirsa T W Ba Plumbago zeylanica L. Plumbaginaceae Merxes H W L, R Premna schimperi Engl. Lamiaceae Urgessa T W L, R Rhamnus prinoides L’Hér. Rhamnaceae Geeshoo S W L Ricinus communis L. Euphorbiaceae Qobboo S W R, L, Fu Rubus steudnerii Schweinf. Rosaceae Dhukkoo S W L Rumex nepalensis Spreng. Polygonaceae Shaabbee H W R Ruta chalepensis L. Rutaceae Teenaadaama S C L + Ba Solanum anguivi L. Solanaceae Hidi-bude S W Se Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench Poaceae Bisingaa caabbi H C Se, R, L Syzygium guineense var. Myrtaceae Baddessa T W Ba Teclea nobilis Del. Rutaceae Hadheesa T W L, R Thymus schimperi Ronniger Lamiaceae Xooshine H W L Tragia cinerea (Pax) Euphorbiaceae Laalessaa H W L Trichocladus ellipticus Eckl. & Zeyh. Hamamelidaceae Dhadhaa T W L Urera hypselodendron (A.Rich.) Wedd. Urticaceae Haliilaa S W Wp Verbascum sinaiticum Benth. Scrophulariaceae Gurra Harree H W L Vernonia amygdalina Del. Asteraceae Ebicha S W L Withania somnifera (L.) Dunal Solanaceae Gizaawa / Uunjoo S W R Zingiber officinale Roscoe Zingiberaceae Zinjibila H C Rh Growth forms and habitat sources Herbs constituted the dominant growth form (28 species; 42.4%), followed by shrubs (22 species; 33.3%), trees (13 species; 19.7%), and climbers (3 species; 4.5%) (Fig. 2 ). Most ethnoveterinary medicinal plants were harvested from wild habitats (44 species; 66.7%) , while 22 species (33.3%) were obtained from home gardens or farm margins . Informants consistently reported a preference for preparing remedies from fresh plant materials . Livestock diseases and local terminology Informants identified 33 distinct livestock ailments described using both English and Afaan Oromoo terminology ( Supplementary Table S1 ). Reported conditions included gastrointestinal disorders (e.g., diarrhea, bloat, constipation), parasitic infections (e.g., helminthiasis, tick and lice infestation), dermatological diseases (e.g., ringworm, mange, wounds), respiratory illnesses (e.g., cough, avian cholera), reproductive complications (e.g., retained placenta), and traumatic or toxic conditions (e.g., snake bite and hyena bite). The most frequently cited ailments were blackleg, bloat, diarrhea, and parasitic infestations. Diagnosis was primarily based on visual assessment of observable clinical signs combined with livestock-owner symptom descriptions. Plant parts used for remedy preparation Across all reported remedies, 159 plant-part use citations were recorded from 151 preparation events , reflecting the use of multiple plant parts in some remedies. Leaves were the most frequently utilized plant part (73/159; 46.5%), followed by roots (30/159; 18.9%), bark (17/159; 10.7%), fruits (13/159; 8.2%), seeds (10/159; 6.3%), bulbs (8/159; 5.0%), whole plants (3/159; 1.9%), and other parts including rhizomes, latex, and stems (4/159; 2.5%) (Fig. 3 ). Modes of remedy preparation and material condition Crushing or pounding followed by drenching represented the most common preparation method (52/151; 34.4%), followed by decoction (30/151; 19.9%) and direct topical application (28/151; 18.5%) (Fig. 4 ). Infusion accounted for 10 preparations (6.6%), while concoction and crushing–pasting–tying each represented eight preparations (5.3%). Smoke inhalation or fumigation was rarely reported (3/151; 2.0%). Most remedies were prepared from fresh materials (104/151; 68.9%), whereas 35 preparations (23.2%) used dried materials and 12 (7.9%) combined fresh and dried components. Routes of administration and dosage determination Oral administration was the predominant route (102/151; 67.5%), followed by dermal or topical application (34/151; 22.5%), nasal administration (10/151; 6.6%), and ocular or auricular application (5/151; 3.3%) (Fig. 5 ). Dosage determination relied on healer experience and livestock characteristics such as species and body size. Local measurement units included cups, bottles, spoons, handfuls, and finger-sized quantities. No standardized dosage system was reported, and informants acknowledged variability in dose estimation. Major categories of livestock ailments treated. Grouping use reports by disease category indicated that gastrointestinal disorders accounted for the largest proportion (43/151; 28.5%), followed by ecto- and endoparasitic infections (37/151; 24.5%) and dermatological diseases (23/151; 15.2%) (Table 2 ). Wounds and musculoskeletal trauma represented 13.2% (20/151), respiratory infections 7.3% (11/151), reproductive disorders 4.6% (7/151), sensorial ailments 3.3% (5/151), and other conditions—including sudden sickness, evil eye, urine retention, and systemic weakness—3.3% (5/151). Table 2 Ethnoveterinary use reports across livestock ailment categories Ailment category Use reports Percentage (%) Key species (Fidelity Level, %) Gastrointestinal disorders 43 28.5 Embelia schimperi (92), Zingiber officinale (88) Ecto-/endoparasitic infections 37 24.5 Phytolacca dodecandra (85), Calpurnia aurea (80) Dermatological diseases 23 15.2 Croton macrostachyus (89), Allium sativum (85) Wounds and musculoskeletal trauma 20 13.2 Asparagus africanus (78), Ricinus communis (75) Respiratory infections 11 7.3 Ocimum lamiifolium (88), Cissampelos mucronata (73) Reproductive disorders 7 4.6 Aeonium leucoblepharum (68) Sensorial ailments 5 3.3 Trichocladus ellipticus (81) Other conditions (sudden sickness, evil eye, urine retention, weakness) 5 3.3 Withania somnifera (71) Total 151 100.0 Informant consensus factor (ICF) ICF values ranged from 0.25 to 0.67 , indicating variable but generally moderate to relatively high consensus among informants regarding plant use within specific disease categories. The highest consensus occurred for reproductive disorders (ICF = 0.67), followed by dermatological diseases (0.64), respiratory infections (0.60), and ecto-/endoparasitic infections (0.58). Gastrointestinal disorders and wounds/musculoskeletal trauma showed moderate agreement (0.55 and 0.58, respectively), whereas other conditions exhibited low consensus (0.25). Sensorial ailments were excluded from ICF analysis because the number of species cited exceeded the number of use reports. Preference ranking of anti-diarrheal medicinal plants Preference ranking of medicinal plants used to treat livestock diarrhea was conducted using 14 complete key-informant responses to ensure statistical consistency of the ranking matrix. The recalculated rank sums demonstrated clear variation in perceived therapeutic effectiveness among candidate species. Hagenia abyssinica retained the highest cumulative score and ranked first, followed by Zingiber officinale and Embelia schimperi , whereas Dodonaea angustifolia and Rubus steudnerii received the lowest overall scores (Table 3 ). Table 3 Preference ranking of medicinal plants used to treat livestock diarrhea. Medicinal plant A B C D E F G H I J K L M N Total Rank Hagenia abyssinica B. 7 6 7 5 6 7 6 7 4 6 7 7 6 5 86 1st Zingiber officinale Roscoe 7 4 3 2 5 6 4 2 7 3 7 5 6 7 68 2nd Embelia schimperi Vatke 4 5 7 5 6 3 3 6 5 4 6 3 3 5 65 3rd Clutia abyssinica Jaub. & Spach 5 2 6 6 4 3 5 6 6 5 4 2 3 4 61 4th Ocimum lamiifolium Hochst. 4 6 4 5 2 1 4 4 5 6 5 3 2 6 57 5th Rubus steudnerii Schweinf. 3 2 1 4 5 2 1 5 4 3 5 2 3 4 44 6th Dodonaea angustifolia L.f. 1 3 2 4 3 5 1 2 4 5 4 4 3 2 43 7th Fidelity level (FL) and frequently cited species Several medicinal plant species exhibited high fidelity level (FL) values, reflecting strong agreement among informants regarding their use for specific livestock ailments. Embelia schimperi showed the highest FL for gastrointestinal disorders (92.3%), followed by Ocimum lamiifolium for diarrheal conditions (88.2%) and Phytolacca dodecandra for ecto-/endoparasitic infections (85.2%). Additional species with high FL values included Croton macrostachyus , Rubus steudnerii , and Achyranthes aspera High fidelity levels were observed for Embelia schimperi (92%) in gastrointestinal disorders and Croton macrostachyus (89%) in dermatological conditions (Table 2 ). FL = (Number of informants citing the species for a specific ailment / Total informant citing the species for any ailment) × 100." Multipurpose use and conservation priority of medicinal plants Direct matrix ranking (DMR) was conducted with 12 key informants to assess multipurpose use pressure on eight widely used medicinal plant species across eight use categories (medicine, firewood, fodder, construction, food, fencing, tools, shade). Species were scored from 0 (not used) to 5 (highest utility), and composite use values were calculated as the sum of average scores across all categories (Table 4 ). Table 4 Direct matrix ranking of multipurpose ethnoveterinary medicinal plants in Aseko District Species Medicine Firewood Fodder Construction Food Fencing Tools Shade Total Use Value Hagenia abyssinica 4.8 3.2 2.1 4.5 1 3.7 2.9 4.3 26.5 Ruta chalepensis 4.5 2.8 1.9 4.2 0.8 3.5 2.7 4 24.4 Croton macrostachyus 4.3 3.9 2.6 3.8 1.2 3.4 2.5 3.1 24.8 Juniperus procera 4.1 4 1.5 4.7 0.5 2.8 3.6 2.9 24.1 Podocarpus falcatus 3.9 4.5 1.8 3.5 2 3 2.2 3.3 24.2 Ocimum lamiifolium 4.7 1.2 2.4 1 3.8 1.5 1 2.1 17.7 Phytolacca dodecandra 4.4 2 3.1 1.8 2.5 2.9 1.3 1.7 19.7 Withania somnifera 4.6 1.5 2.8 1.2 3 2 1.8 2 18.9 Marketability of medicinal plants Fifteen of the recorded medicinal plant species (22.7%) were reported to be sold in local markets. Among these, Embelia schimperi , Hagenia abyssinica , Thymus schimperi , and Withania somnifera were primarily purchased for medicinal purposes. Reported market prices were low, with a bundle of Withania somnifera roots costing approximately 30 Ethiopian Birr and a cup of dried Thymus schimperi leaves about 20 Ethiopian Birr. Knowledge transmission Ethnoveterinary knowledge was transmitted orally, predominantly within family lineages. Healers commonly reported learning from parents or grandparents, and knowledge transfer was often restricted to selected family members—frequently elder sons—and characterized by secrecy. No practitioners reported maintaining written ethnoveterinary records. Threats to medicinal plants Agricultural expansion was identified as the most significant threat to medicinal plants, accounting for 22.0% of the total responses. This was followed by firewood and charcoal collection ( 19.8% ) and climate-related factors, including drought and soil erosion ( 18.7% ). Additional pressures included construction activities and timber extraction ( 15.9% ), livestock grazing ( 14.8% ), and pesticide use ( 12.1% ) (Table 5 ). Table 5 Major threats to medicinal plants in the study area Factors R1 R2 R3 R4 R5 R6 R7 Total Percent Rank Agricultural expansion 7 3 6 7 6 7 4 40 22.0 1st Firewood & charcoal 5 7 6 5 2 5 6 36 19.8 2nd Climate change (drought & erosion) 4 5 5 4 7 4 5 34 18.7 3rd Construction & timber 6 3 5 3 4 2 6 29 15.9 4th Grazing 5 3 3 5 4 5 2 27 14.8 5th Pesticide 3 1 4 5 4 3 2 22 12.1 6th Conservation and management practices Remnant forest patches containing medicinal plants were commonly associated with religious and cultural sites, including churches, mosques, and traditional Oromo gathering areas. Some community members also reported cultivating selected medicinal species—particularly Hagenia abyssinica and Ruta chalepensis —within home gardens and along farm boundaries, indicating localized in situ and ex situ conservation practices . Discussion This study documents a high level of ethnoveterinary knowledge in Aseko District, evidenced by the identification of 66 medicinal plant species belonging to 62 genera and 49 families (Table 1 ). This level of plant diversity is comparable to, or higher than, that reported from many ethnoveterinary studies conducted elsewhere in Ethiopia, reflecting the continued reliance of rural communities on plant-based remedies for livestock healthcare in areas with limited access to formal veterinary services [ 22 , 24 , 31 ]. The dominance of families such as Euphorbiaceae and Solanaceae, followed by Poaceae, Apiaceae, Fabaceae, Lamiaceae, Myrtaceae, and Rutaceae, aligns with their broad ecological distribution and documented medicinal versatility in Ethiopian and East African ethnoveterinary systems [ 24 , 35 ]. Herbaceous species constituted the largest growth-form category, followed by shrubs, trees, and climbers (Fig. 2 ). This pattern has been consistently reported across Ethiopian ethnoveterinary studies and likely reflects the greater accessibility, abundance, and rapid regeneration of herbaceous plants in mixed farming landscapes [ 31 , 32 ]. Similar dominance of herbaceous taxa has also been documented in ethnoveterinary inventories from South Asia and sub-Saharan Africa, suggesting that growth-form selection is driven primarily by ecological availability and ease of harvesting rather than taxonomic preference alone [ 26 , 30 , 38 ]. Most ethnoveterinary medicinal plants documented in Aseko District were harvested from wild habitats ( 44 species; 66.7% ), while 22 species (33.3%) were obtained from home gardens or farm margins. This strong reliance on wild plant resources parallels findings from other Ethiopian regions, where ethnoveterinary practices depend predominantly on natural vegetation rather than cultivated sources [ 24 , 32 ]. Although this reliance reflects detailed ecological knowledge, it also exposes medicinal plant resources to increasing anthropogenic pressures. Informants identified agricultural expansion, fuelwood and charcoal collection, grazing pressure, construction activities, and climate-related stress as major threats to medicinal plant availability, consistent with reports from other parts of Ethiopia and broader African contexts [ 24 , 26 , 27 , 37 ]. Livestock ailments treated using traditional remedies in Aseko District were dominated by gastrointestinal disorders, ecto- and endoparasitic infections, and dermatological diseases (Supplementary Table S1 ). This distribution reflects common health challenges in smallholder livestock systems and closely mirrors ethnoveterinary findings from Ethiopia, East Africa, and South Asia [ 22 , 32 , 38 ]. Diagnosis was primarily based on observable clinical signs and livestock-owner experience, illustrating a structured indigenous diagnostic system developed through long-term interactions among humans, livestock, and their environment [ 26 ]. Leaves were the most frequently utilized plant part, followed by roots and bark (Fig. 3 ), a pattern widely documented in Ethiopian ethnoveterinary literature [ 31 , 32 ]. The preference for leaves is often interpreted as a relatively sustainable harvesting strategy, as leaf collection is generally less destructive than root or bark removal. Nevertheless, repeated harvesting without management may still negatively affect plant regeneration, particularly for slow-growing or habitat-restricted species. Remedy preparation methods were predominantly simple, involving crushing or pounding followed by drenching, decoction, and topical application (Fig. 4 ), consistent with ethnoveterinary practices reported both in Ethiopia and globally [ 31 , 36 ]. Informants consistently reported a preference for fresh plant materials, reflecting local perceptions that freshness enhances therapeutic efficacy. Oral administration was the predominant route of remedy application, followed by dermal, nasal, and ocular or auricular routes (Fig. 5 ). This pattern mirrors ethnoveterinary practices reported across Ethiopia and other regions, particularly for internal ailments such as gastrointestinal and parasitic diseases [ 30 , 32 , 36 ]. The consistency of administration routes across diverse cultural settings suggests convergence toward empirically effective practices rather than purely symbolic traditions. Quantitative analyses revealed moderate to relatively high informant consensus for major disease categories. Informant Consensus Factor (ICF) values were highest for reproductive disorders (ICF = 0.67), followed by dermatological (ICF = 0.58) and respiratory diseases (ICF = 0.52), indicating reliance on a limited number of culturally validated species for these ailments. High Fidelity Level (FL) values recorded for species such as Embelia schimperi (FL = 92.3%), Ocimum lamiifolium (FL = 88.2%), and Phytolacca dodecandra (FL = 85.2%) reflect strong agreement among informants regarding their therapeutic effectiveness. Preference ranking analysis further refined these findings by revealing differential perceived efficacy among antidiarrheal species: Hagenia abyssinica ranked first, followed by Zingiber officinale and Embelia schimperi . This divergence between FL (frequency-based) and preference ranking (efficacy-based) underscores the value of multi-metric validation in ethnoveterinary research. Collectively, these patterns are consistent with other Ethiopian and East African ethnoveterinary studies and highlight priority species that may warrant further phytochemical and pharmacological investigation [ 22 , 32 , 36 ]. Ethnoveterinary knowledge in Aseko District is transmitted predominantly through oral pathways within family lineages, often restricted to selected individuals. While this mode of transmission preserves cultural integrity, it also increases vulnerability to knowledge erosion under changing socio-economic conditions. Similar challenges have been reported across Ethiopia, Africa, and Asia, where modernization, formal education, and declining interest among younger generations threaten intergenerational knowledge transfer [ 26 , 27 , 38 ]. Although informants reported the presence of culturally protected forest patches and limited home-garden cultivation of medicinal plants, these practices remain insufficient to counterbalance the intensity of identified threats. Table 6 Methodological advances of this study compared to typical Ethiopian ethnoveterinary research Feature This study (Aseko District) Typical Ethiopian ethnoveterinary study Disease classification Bilingual: English + Afaan Oromo (33 ailments) Vernacular-only or clinical terms alone (20–25 ailments) Sampling design Stratified across 3 agroecological zones (highland, midland, lowland) Single agroecological zone Quantitative analysis ICF + Fidelity Level (FL) + preference ranking ICF only, or no quantitative indices Economic data Market prices reported for 15 species No market or economic valuation Threat assessment Expert-ranked pressures with scoring (n = 7 senior healers) General qualitative observations Overall, the findings confirm that ethnoveterinary medicine remains an integral and effective component of livestock healthcare in Aseko District. The documented plant diversity, preparation practices, routes of administration, and consensus patterns—together with the identified threats—underscore both the resilience and fragility of this indigenous knowledge system. Strengthening community-based conservation initiatives, promoting sustainable harvesting practices, and encouraging the cultivation of key ethnoveterinary species are essential to enhance the long-term viability of traditional livestock healthcare while contributing to biodiversity conservation. Similar integrative approaches have been widely advocated across Africa and globally to safeguard ethnoveterinary knowledge systems within sustainable development frameworks [ 26 , 38 , 40 ]. Methods Study area The study was conducted in Aseko District , Arsi Zone, Oromia Regional State, southeastern Ethiopia (Fig. 1 ). The district is located between 8°15′10″–8°41′00″ N latitude and 39°55′40″–40°16′20″ E longitude , approximately 160 km southeast of Addis Ababa [ 34 ]. Aseko District covers an estimated area of 600–610 km² and exhibits pronounced topographic heterogeneity, with elevations ranging from approximately 1,170 to 2,950 m above sea level [ 34 ]. Agroecologically, the district comprises three major zones: highland (> 2,500 m) , midland (1,800–2,500 m) , and lowland (< 1,800 m) . These zones differ markedly in climate, vegetation structure, and land-use patterns, factors known to influence medicinal plant availability and ethnoveterinary practices. Accordingly, sampling was stratified across all three agroecological zones to capture ecological variation in plant use. Vegetation in Aseko District includes dry evergreen Afromontane forest, shrublands, and grasslands , which collectively support high medicinal plant diversity [ 34 ]. Reconnaissance survey and study site selection A reconnaissance survey was conducted in June 2024 to assess vegetation types, accessibility, settlement patterns, and livestock production systems within the district. Preliminary consultations were held with district agricultural officers, development agents, and community elders to identify areas with active ethnoveterinary practice. Based on ecological variation, accessibility, and cultural representation, seven kebeles were purposively selected using a multi-stage cluster sampling approach , following established ethnobotanical fieldwork guidelines [ 49 , 50 ]. Informant selection Informants were selected using a combination of purposive and snowball sampling techniques , which are widely applied in ethnobiological research to identify individuals possessing specialized indigenous knowledge [ 49 , 50 ]. Traditional healers, elder livestock keepers, and community-recognized ethnoveterinary practitioners were identified with the assistance of local leaders and development agents. A total of 30 key informants were purposively selected across the seven kebeles. In addition, household respondents were selected using proportional sampling. Sample size was determined using the formula proposed by Krejcie and Morgan [ 48 ]: $$\:n=\frac{N{Z}^{2}p(1-p)}{{d}^{2}(N-1)+{Z}^{2}p(1-p)}$$ 1 where N is the total number of households (8,665), p is the estimated proportion of households using traditional medicine (0.80), d is the margin of error (0.08), and Z is the standard normal value at 95% confidence (1.96). Application of this formula yielded 152 household respondents , resulting in a total of 182 informants included in the study. Data collection Ethnoveterinary data were collected between July 2024 and February 2025 using semi-structured interviews, focus group discussions, guided field walks, and local market surveys , following established ethnobotanical research methodologies [ 40 , 50 ]. Semi-structured interviews captured detailed information on medicinal plant species, plant parts used, preparation methods, routes of administration, and treated livestock ailments. Focus group discussions were conducted in each of the seven kebeles to triangulate interview data and validate commonly reported ethnoveterinary practices [53]. Guided field walks with key informants enabled in situ observation, documentation, and preliminary identification of medicinal plant species occurring in natural vegetation, grazing lands, farmland margins, and home gardens, ensuring methodological consistency with comparable Ethiopian ethnobotanical studies [34,53]. All ethnoveterinary use reports are provided in Supplementary Table S1 , which includes scientific names, local Afaan Oromoo names, plant parts used, livestock ailments treated, preparation methods, routes of administration, and informant citations for 151 use reports derived from 66 medicinal plant species . Voucher specimen collection and taxonomic identification Voucher specimens of all reported medicinal plant species were collected during guided field walks, pressed, dried, labeled, and preserved following standard herbarium procedures [ 43 ]. Species identification was conducted using the Flora of Ethiopia and Eritrea [ 1 ] and formally authenticated by professional botanists at the Ethiopian Biodiversity Institute (EBI) National Herbarium , Addis Ababa, in collaboration with taxonomic specialists from the Wondo Genet College of Forestry and Natural Resources, Hawassa University . Authenticated voucher specimens were deposited in the publicly accessible EBI National Herbarium , Addis Ababa. Corresponding voucher accession numbers are provided in Supplementary Table S1 , in accordance with Index Herbariorum guidelines [ 52 ], ensuring traceability and long-term scientific verification. Ethical considerations Ethical clearance for this study was granted by the Aseko District Administration and Aseko District Agricultural and Natural Resources Office, Arsi Zone, Oromia Regional State, Ethiopia , in accordance with Ethiopian community-based research governance procedures applicable in areas where no formal institutional review board is established. The research adhered to the ethical principles of the International Society of Ethnobiology (ISE) Code of Ethics . Prior to data collection, the objectives of the study were explained to all participants in Afaan Oromo, and verbal informed consent was obtained from each informant. Participation was entirely voluntary, and no personally identifiable information is included in this publication. No experimental procedures involving live animals were conducted. Official written permission to collect medicinal plant specimens and conduct ethnobotanical field documentation was obtained from the Ethiopian Biodiversity Institute (Permit No. EBI/RES/057/2024) , the Aseko District Administration , and the Aseko District Environment, Forest and Climate Change Office prior to fieldwork. Plant collection complied with Ethiopian national biodiversity conservation regulations , institutional research governance requirements, and international best-practice standards. Sampling was restricted to the minimum quantity necessary for scientific identification and voucher preservation, and no plant material was collected for commercial or trade purposes. All field research involving wild plant species complied with relevant institutional, national, and international conservation legislation . The study followed the IUCN Policy Statement on Research Involving Species at Risk of Extinction and respected the principles of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) . No CITES-listed species were harvested for trade or destructive utilization. Quantitative ethnobotanical indices and analysis Ethnobotanical data were analyzed using descriptive and quantitative methods. Frequencies and percentages summarized plant growth forms, plant parts used, preparation methods, and administration routes. Informant Consensus Factor (ICF) Agreement among informants for medicinal plant use within livestock ailment categories was evaluated using the Informant Consensus Factor following Trotter and Logan [53]: $$\:\text{ICF}=\frac{{n}_{ur}-{n}_{t}}{{n}_{ur}-1}\:$$ 2 where n u ʳ is the number of use reports for a given ailment category and nₜ is the number of taxa used for that category. Equation ( 2 ) quantifies the degree of shared knowledge, with values approaching 1 indicating high consensus. Fidelity Level (FL) The specificity of medicinal plant use for particular ailments was determined using Fidelity Level [ 19 ]: $$\:\text{FL:(%)}=\left(\frac{{I}_{p}}{{I}_{u}}\right)\times\:100\:$$ 3 where Iₚ is the number of informants independently citing a species for a specific ailment and I u is the total number of informants mentioning the species for any ailment. Higher FL values from Eq. ( 3 ) indicate stronger ailment-specific cultural importance. Preference ranking Preference ranking was conducted with 14 key informants to identify the most effective medicinal plants used for treating diarrhea, following Cunningham [54]. Total preference scores were calculated as: $$\:\text{Total Score}=\sum\:_{i=1}^{14}{S}_{i}\:\:$$ 4 where S i represents the score (1–7) assigned by informant i . Species with higher totals in Eq. ( 4 ) were considered more therapeutically preferred. Direct matrix ranking (DMR) Direct matrix ranking assessed multipurpose use pressure on eight widely used species across eight use categories (medicine, firewood, fodder, construction, food, fencing, tools, and shade) [58]. Twelve key informants assigned scores from 0 (not used) to 5 (highest utility) . Composite cultural importance values were obtained by summing mean scores across categories to rank species according to overall use pressure. All statistical analyses were performed using Microsoft Excel 2019 and SPSS version 26 . Declarations Acknowledgements The authors thank the local communities of Aseko District for generously sharing their ethnoveterinary knowledge. We also acknowledge the support of local agricultural offices and development agents for facilitation during fieldwork. All figures were created by the authors using ArcMap 10.8 (Esri, Redlands, CA, USA) and Microsoft Excel 2019. Funding No external funding was received for this study. The research was conducted using the authors’ institutional and personal resources. Author contributions J.S.J conceived and designed the study, conducted field data collection, performed data analysis, and drafted the manuscript, M.M contributed to study design, data interpretation, and critically revised the manuscript, Z.G contributed to data analysis, methodological validation, and critical revision of the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript. Data availability All Data Availability Statement All data analyzed during this study are included in this published article and its Supplementary Information files. Ethnoveterinary use reports, species lists, and quantitative indices are provided in Supplementary Table S1 . Voucher specimen accession numbers are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request. LLM uses disclosure. A large language model (ChatGPT, OpenAI) was used solely to assist with language editing and structural refinement of the manuscript. The model was not used for data collection, analysis, or interpretation. All data verification, scientific interpretation, and conclusions are the sole responsibility of the authors. Competing interests The authors declare no competing interests. Ethics declarations Ethics approval and consent to participate. This study involved human participants through interviews and group discussions. Ethical approval was obtained from the relevant administrative authorities of Aseko District prior to data collection. All procedures were conducted in accordance with recognized ethical guidelines for ethnobiological research. Verbally informed consent was obtained from all participants before participation, and involvement in the study was entirely voluntary. Consent for publication No personally identifiable information of participants is included in this manuscript. Informed consent to participate and to publish anonymized information was obtained from all participants.. Approval of animal experiments Not applicable. This study did not involve experiments on live vertebrate or invertebrate animals. Supplementary information Supplementary Information accompanies this paper and includes detailed species lists, ethnoveterinary use reports, quantitative indices, and additional tables supporting the findings of this study. References Flora of Ethiopia and Eritrea. The National Herbarium, Addis Ababa University & Ethiopian Biodiversity Institute; Ministry of Agriculture (Addis Ababa, 1995–2009 ). Cotton, C. M. Ethnobotany: principles and applications (Wiley, 1996). McCorkle, C. M. An introduction to ethnoveterinary research and development. J. Ethnobiol. 6 , 129–149 (1986). FAO. Livestock and livelihoods in Ethiopia (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome, multiple editions). Mathias, E. Ethnoveterinary medicine: harnessing its potential. Vet. Bull. 74 , 27N–37N (2004). Behnke, R. & Metaferia, F. The contribution of livestock to the Ethiopian economy – Part II (IGAD Livestock Policy Initiative, 2011). Giday, M., Asfaw, Z., Elmqvist, T. & Woldu, Z. An ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants used by the Zay people in Ethiopia. J. Ethnopharmacol. 85 , 43–52 (2003). Yineger, H., Kelbessa, E., Bekele, T. & Lulekal, E. Ethnoveterinary medicinal plants at Bale Mountains National Park, Ethiopia. J. Ethnopharmacol. 112 , 55–70 (2007). Bekele, D. & Haile, Y. Ethnoveterinary practices of pastoralists in selected districts of southern Ethiopia. Ethiop. Vet. J. 15 , 1–17 (2011). Lulekal, E., Kelbessa, E., Bekele, T. & Yineger, H. An ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants in Mana Angetu District, southeastern Ethiopia. J. Ethnobiol. Ethnomed. 4 , 10 (2008). Teklehaymanot, T. & Giday, M. Ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants used by people in Zegie Peninsula, northwestern Ethiopia. J. Ethnobiol. Ethnomed. 3 , 12 (2007). Tolossa, K., Debela, E., Athanasiadou, S. & Tolera, A. Ethnoveterinary knowledge of medicinal plants used by smallholder farmers in central Ethiopia. J. Ethnobiol. Ethnomed. 9 , 19 (2013). Asfaw, Z. & Woldu, Z. Traditional medicinal plant knowledge and use by local healers in Sekoru District, southwestern Ethiopia. J. Ethnobiol. Ethnomed. 7 , 24 (2011). Yineger, H. & Yewhalaw, D. Traditional medicinal plant knowledge and use in the community of Ejaji area, West Shoa, Ethiopia. J. Ethnobiol. Ethnomed. 3 , 10 (2007). Giday, M., Teklehaymanot, T., Animut, A. & Mekonnen, Y. Medicinal plants of the Shinasha, Agew-awi and Amhara peoples in northwest Ethiopia. J. Ethnopharmacol. 110 , 516–525 (2007). Lulekal, E., Asfaw, Z., Kelbessa, E. & Van Damme, P. Ethnoveterinary plants of Ankober District, North Shewa Zone, Ethiopia. J. Ethnobiol. Ethnomed. 10 , 21 (2014). Heinrich, M., Ankli, A., Frei, B., Weimann, C. & Sticher, O. Medicinal plants in Mexico: healers’ consensus and cultural importance. Soc. Sci. Med. 47 , 1859–1871 (1998). Friedman, J., Yaniv, Z., Dafni, A. & Palewitch, D. A preliminary classification of the healing potential of medicinal plants. J. Ethnopharmacol. 16 , 275–287 (1986). Alexiades, M. N. Selected guidelines for ethnobotanical research: a field manual (New York Botanical Garden, 1996). Yineger, H., Kelbessa, E. & Bekele, T. Ethnoveterinary medicinal plants used by livestock owners in Bale Mountains National Park and its environs, Ethiopia. J. Ethnopharmacol. 109 , 141–149 (2008). Wendimu, A. & Tareke, M. Ethnoveterinary medicine practices among rural livestock keepers in Ethiopia. J. Ethnobiol. Ethnomed. 19 , 24 (2023). Oda, B. K. et al. Ethnoveterinary medicinal plants and their utilization in Ethiopia. J. Ethnobiol. Ethnomed. 20 , 65 (2024). Ayele, A., Seid, A., Mekonnen, A. B., Adnew, W. & Yemata, G. Ethnoveterinary practices of medicinal plants in Ethiopia. Ethnobot Res. Appl. 31 , 1–20 (2025). Tadesse, D. et al. Medicinal plants used in ethnoveterinary practices in Ethiopia. Sci. Rep. 15 , 21440 (2025). Uprety, Y. et al. Ethnoveterinary use of plants and its implication for animal health in Nepal. Front. Vet. Sci. 9 , 930533 (2022). Eiki, N., Anim, A. & Mensah, G. Ethnoveterinary practices in sub-Saharan Africa: plant use, threats and conservation. Vet. Sci. 8 , 99 (2021). Umair, M. et al. Diversity and use of ethnoveterinary medicinal plants in South Asia. PLoS ONE . 19 , e0287766 (2024). Ogbaji, O. U. et al. Ethnoveterinary medicinal plants used to treat livestock diseases in West Africa. Ethnobot Res. Appl. 24 , 1–23 (2020). Khan, M. et al. Ethnoveterinary medicinal plants in Pakistan. J. Ethnobiol. Ethnomed. 16 , 48 (2020). Feyisa, M. & Asfaw, Z. Medicinal plants used in ethnoveterinary practices in Adea Berga District, Ethiopia. Adv. Ethnobot. 5641479 (2021). (2021). Ahmed, H. et al. Ethnoveterinary medicinal plants used in the Omo-Gibe and Rift Valley basins, Ethiopia. BMC Vet. Res. 20 , 166 (2024). Bahir Dar Ethnoveterinary Study Group. Ethnoveterinary knowledge in Ethiopia. Ethnobot Res. Appl. 30 , 45–66 (2025). Chavula, P. et al. Ethnoveterinary practices for wild medicinal plants in eastern Africa. South. Asian Res. J. Agric. Fish. 6 , 1855 (2024). Jara, J. S., Girma, Z. & Selamo, M. M. Ethnobotanical study of medicinal plants used to treat human ailments in Aseko District, Ethiopia. Indian J. Tradit Knowl. 23 , 1073–1084 (2024). Njenga, B. et al. Inventory and consensus of medicinal plants used for livestock ailments in East African pastoral systems. J. Ethnopharmacol. 289 , 115234 (2023). Oladapo, O. et al. Ethnoveterinary plant use in semi-arid Africa. Afr. J. Ecol. 62 , e13045 (2024). Yap, M. K. et al. Global ethnoveterinary medicinal plants. Glob Ecol. Conserv. 45 , e02419 (2024). Reddy, N. R. et al. Ethnoveterinary medicinal plant knowledge in India. J. Ethnopharmacol. 298 , 115049 (2024). Olatunji, O. et al. Traditional remedies for livestock ailments in West Africa. Ethnobot Res. Appl. 28 , 90–112 (2022). Martin, G. J. Ethnobotany: a methods manual (Earthscan, 1995). Bernard, H. R. Research methods in anthropology: qualitative and quantitative approaches 5th edn (AltaMira, 2011). Bridson, D. & Forman, L. The herbarium handbook 3rd edn (Royal Botanic Gardens, 1998). Patton, M. Q. Qualitative research and evaluation methods 3rd edn (Sage, 2001). Krejcie, R. V. & Morgan, D. W. Determining sample size for research activities. Educ. Psychol. Meas. 30 , 607–610 (1970). International Society of Ethnobiology. ISE code of ethics. Ethnobiology 1 , 1–11 (2006). Guest, G., Namey, E. & Mitchell, M. Collecting and analyzing qualitative data. Field Methods . 23 , 3–24 (2011). Thiers, B. Index Herbariorum: a global directory of public herbaria and associated staff (New York Botanical Garden, 2023). Trotter, R. T. & Logan, M. H. Informant consensus: a new approach for identifying potentially effective medicinal plants. Med. Anthropol. 8 , 91–112 (1986). Cunningham, A. B. Applied ethnobotany: people, wild plant use and conservation (Earthscan, 2001). Albuquerque, U. P., Lucena, R. F. P. & Alencar, N. L. Methods and techniques in ethnobiology and ethnoecology. Hum. Ecol. 38 , 409–420 (2010). Etkin, N. L. Ethnopharmacology: biobehavioral approaches in the study of indigenous medicines. Annu. Rev. Anthropol. 13 , 533–557 (1984). Canales, M. et al. Informant consensus factor and antibacterial activity of medicinal plants used in Mexico. J. Ethnopharmacol. 97 , 429–439 (2005). Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-8834925","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":607545676,"identity":"d787cfc2-6a02-4573-bec5-1d38d6318f7a","order_by":0,"name":"Jewar Safeno 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Institute","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Melesse","middleName":"","lastName":"Maryo","suffix":""},{"id":607545678,"identity":"c01784ac-ff15-45b0-b807-27ff3c6c380e","order_by":2,"name":"Zerihun Girma","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Hawassa University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Zerihun","middleName":"","lastName":"Girma","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2026-02-10 00:08:18","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8834925/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-8834925/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":105143815,"identity":"8c17cbc2-3f6e-4766-af10-fe7653829128","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-03-22 12:21:22","extension":"jpg","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":139429,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eLocation map of Aseko District and study sites.\u003c/strong\u003e The map shows the geographical position of Aseko District within the Arsi Zone of Oromia Regional State, southeastern Ethiopia, and the locations of the seven kebeles surveyed.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"1.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8834925/v1/c3e331ee2590ca631a256d88.jpg"},{"id":105143812,"identity":"6f0eb0a5-ce1d-49fc-81d2-2db2187991f6","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-03-22 12:21:22","extension":"jpg","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":84767,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eGrowth forms of ethnoveterinary medicinal plants used in Aseko District.\u003c/strong\u003e Herbs constituted the dominant growth form (42.4%), followed by shrubs (33.3%), trees (19.7%), and climbers (4.5%).\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"2.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8834925/v1/20d65674f16de3181e63e671.jpg"},{"id":105563204,"identity":"9e5189f7-43f7-4670-93c6-7848f98fe1d2","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-03-27 12:46:19","extension":"jpg","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":78271,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ePercentage distribution of plant parts used for ethnoveterinary remedies in Aseko District.\u003c/strong\u003e Leaves were the most frequently utilized plant part (46.5%), followed by roots (18.9%), bark (10.7%), fruits (8.2%), seeds (6.3%), bulbs (5.0%), and other parts including rhizomes, latex, and stems (4.4%).\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"3.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8834925/v1/e52dcad6ff25304d31754b43.jpg"},{"id":105143813,"identity":"d3fdf1a4-4d36-4536-9e83-430f7a19dd13","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-03-22 12:21:22","extension":"jpg","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":85871,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCommon methods of remedy preparation used by traditional healers in Aseko District.\u003c/strong\u003e Crushing or pounding followed by drenching was the most common method (34.4%), followed by decoction (19.9%) and direct topical application (18.5%).\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"4.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8834925/v1/a52885864a12d9a387957307.jpg"},{"id":105143817,"identity":"27efa627-c3b7-47ed-80cd-a5bd646f642e","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-03-22 12:21:23","extension":"jpg","order_by":5,"title":"Figure 5","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":57856,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMajor routes of administration of ethnoveterinary remedies in Aseko District.\u003c/strong\u003e Oral administration was predominant (67.5%), followed by dermal/topical application (22.5%), nasal administration (6.6%), and ocular/auricular application (3.3%).\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"5.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8834925/v1/90cf931e5c71a60c53e32a51.jpg"},{"id":105568990,"identity":"88e63750-6f11-46ff-b17c-a80deb65bddf","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-03-27 13:11:00","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":3433048,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8834925/v1/5d50ee55-45c1-445b-aa87-781fbceb4edf.pdf"},{"id":105143816,"identity":"1c11e0bb-7db1-4a7a-8ea0-fed0a3a9d180","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-03-22 12:21:22","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":312435,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"SupplementaryS1.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8834925/v1/53c1abb6e949e950d716dd21.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Study of ethnoveterinary medicinal plants in Aseko District, Arsi Zone, southeastern Ethiopia","fulltext":[{"header":"Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eEthiopia is widely recognized as one of the world\u0026rsquo;s centres of biological and cultural diversity, characterized by exceptionally rich flora and long-standing traditions of plant-based healthcare [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e]. Indigenous knowledge systems developed over generations have enabled rural communities to manage both human and livestock health using locally available medicinal plants, particularly in areas where access to modern veterinary services remains limited [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e]. Livestock production plays a central role in Ethiopia\u0026rsquo;s mixed farming and pastoral systems, contributing substantially to food security, household income, draught power, and sociocultural identity [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eEthnoveterinary medicine refers to the cumulative body of indigenous knowledge, practices, and beliefs used by local communities to maintain animal health through plant-based remedies, management strategies, and associated cultural practices. Across sub-Saharan Africa, including Ethiopia, ethnoveterinary systems remain a primary source of livestock healthcare in rural and pastoral areas where formal veterinary services are limited or economically inaccessible [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e]. The continued importance of traditional animal healthcare in Ethiopia is reinforced by the central role of livestock in rural livelihoods and national agricultural systems [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eNumerous ethnobotanical and ethnoveterinary studies conducted across Ethiopia have documented a wide diversity of medicinal plant species used to treat livestock ailments, underscoring the resilience and practical relevance of indigenous veterinary knowledge systems [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR9\" citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e]. However, traditional medicinal plant resources and the associated knowledge systems are increasingly under pressure. Agricultural expansion, deforestation, infrastructure development, and population growth have contributed to the degradation and fragmentation of natural habitats supporting medicinal plant diversity [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR12\" citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e]. Concurrently, sociocultural change, formal education systems, and declining reliance on traditional practices have weakened intergenerational transmission of ethnoveterinary knowledge, particularly among younger community members [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e15\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDespite extensive documentation efforts, important geographical gaps remain, and many studies emphasize species inventories without systematically evaluating cultural importance, informant agreement, or perceived efficacy of remedies [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e]. Quantitative ethnobotanical indices such as the Informant Consensus Factor (ICF) and Fidelity Level (FL) have therefore been recommended as robust tools for identifying culturally salient species, prioritizing conservation actions, and guiding future phytochemical and pharmacological investigations [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR19\" citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn this context, systematic documentation of ethnoveterinary medicinal knowledge in Aseko District is both timely and necessary. Unlike many previous Ethiopian studies that rely solely on vernacular or clinical disease terminology [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e], the present study applies a bilingual (English/Afaan Oromoo) disease classification system to reduce diagnostic ambiguity and strengthen alignment between indigenous knowledge and veterinary science. The study was designed to: (i) comprehensively document medicinal plant species used to treat livestock ailments in Aseko District; (ii) record associated knowledge on plant parts used, preparation methods, routes of administration, and dosage practices; (iii) quantitatively evaluate informant agreement and cultural importance using established ethnobotanical indices; and (iv) assess local perceptions regarding availability, threats, and conservation of ethnoveterinary medicinal plants. By generating detailed and locally grounded evidence, this study aims to contribute baseline information for biodiversity conservation, sustainable use of medicinal plants, and future ethnoveterinary research in Ethiopia.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Results","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eInformant demographics\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eA total of 182 informants participated in the study, including 30 key informants (16.5%) and 152 household respondents (83.5%) selected from seven kebeles of Aseko District.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eGender and age\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMost participants were male (80.2%, n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;146), while females comprised 19.8% (n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;36).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eInformant ages ranged from 28 to 96 years (mean 56.4\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;14.8 years), with the largest proportion in the 51\u0026ndash;65 year group (34.6%), followed by 36\u0026ndash;50 years (29.7%), \u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;65 years (23.6%), and 20\u0026ndash;35 years (12.1%).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eEducation, religion, and ethnicity\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe majority of informants were unable to read and write (65.4%), whereas 20.9% had elementary education, 9.3% secondary education, and 4.4% college-level training.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMost respondents were Muslim (72.0%) and Oromo (85.7%), with Christians (28.0%) and Amhara (14.3%) forming minority groups.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eKnowledge sources\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eEthnoveterinary knowledge was transmitted mainly through family lineage (61.0%), followed by traditional healers (18.1%), religious learning (11.0%), and friends or relatives (9.9%), indicating strong reliance on oral intergenerational knowledge transfer.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eDiversity of ethnoveterinary medicinal plants\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eA total of 66 ethnoveterinary medicinal plant species belonging to \u003cb\u003e62 genera and 49 families\u003c/b\u003e were documented in Aseko District (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e). Euphorbiaceae and Solanaceae were the most represented families (five species each), followed by Poaceae (three species). Apiaceae, Brassicaceae, Fabaceae, Lamiaceae, Myrtaceae, and Rutaceae each contributed to two species, whereas the majority of families (40 of 49; 81.6%) were represented by a single species.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDiversity of ethnoveterinary medicinal plants documented in Aseko District\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"6\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eScientific name\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFamily\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLocal name\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGF\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHb\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePU\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAchyranthes aspera\u003c/em\u003e L.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAmaranthaceae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDarguu\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eH\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eW\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eL\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAeonium leucoblepharum\u003c/em\u003e Webb ex A. Rich.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCrassulaceae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHarmaa gurraatti\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eS\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eW\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eL\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAgave sisalana\u003c/em\u003e Perrine\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAgavaceae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAlgee\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eH\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eC\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eR\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAloe vera\u003c/em\u003e L.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAsphodelaceae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHargiisa\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eH\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eC\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eL\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAllium sativum\u003c/em\u003e L.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAmaryllidaceae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eQullubii-Adii\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eH\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eC\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBu\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAnethum graveolens\u003c/em\u003e L.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eApiaceae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eKoomana\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eH\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eC\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eR\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAsparagus africanus\u003c/em\u003e Lam.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAsparagaceae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSariitii\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eC\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eW\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eL, R\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eBrassica nigra\u003c/em\u003e (L.) Koch\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBrassicaceae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSiinaficaa\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eH\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eC\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSe\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eBrucea antidysenterica\u003c/em\u003e J.F.Mill.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSimaroubaceae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eJiloolaafaa\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eT\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eW\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eR\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eCalpurnia aurea\u003c/em\u003e (Ait.) Benth.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFabaceae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCekaa\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eT\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eW\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eL, R, Ba\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eCapsicum annuum\u003c/em\u003e L.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSolanaceae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBarberee\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eH\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eC\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFu\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eCarissa spinarum\u003c/em\u003e L.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eApocynaceae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHagamsa\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eS\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eW\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eR\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eCapparis tomentosa\u003c/em\u003e Lam.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCapparaceae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHarangamaa\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eS\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eW\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eR\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eCatha edulis\u003c/em\u003e (Vahl) Endl.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCelastraceae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eJimaa\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eT\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eC\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eL\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eCissampelos mucronata\u003c/em\u003e A.Rich.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMenispermaceae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBishaan qal\u0026rsquo;ee\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eC\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eW\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eL\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eClutia abyssinica\u003c/em\u003e Jaub. \u0026amp; Spach\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEuphorbiaceae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUlee foonii\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eS\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eW\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eL, R\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eCroton macrostachyus\u003c/em\u003e Del.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEuphorbiaceae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMakanisaa\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eT\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eW\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eL, La\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eCucumis ficifolius\u003c/em\u003e A.Rich.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCucurbitaceae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAraddoo gurraatti\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eH\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eW\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eR, L\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eCucurbita pepo\u003c/em\u003e L.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCucurbitaceae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDubbaa / Dhobba\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eH\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eC\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eR, L\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;Ba\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eCynodon dactylon\u003c/em\u003e (L.) Pers.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePoaceae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCoqorsa\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eH\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eW\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWp\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eDodonaea angustifolia\u003c/em\u003e L.f.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSapindaceae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIticha\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eS\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eW\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eL, Se\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eDiscopodium eremanthum\u003c/em\u003e Chiov.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSolanaceae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMararo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eS\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eW\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eL\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eDovyalis abyssinica\u003c/em\u003e A.Rich.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSalicaceae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eKooshimo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eT\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eW\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eL\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eEmbelia schimperi\u003c/em\u003e Vatke\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePrimulaceae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGurraa / Qorqoro\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eC\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eW\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eR\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eErythrina brucei\u003c/em\u003e Schweinf.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFabaceae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWalleensu\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eT\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eW\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eL, Ba\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eEucalyptus globulus\u003c/em\u003e Labill.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMyrtaceae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBargamo adii\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eT\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eC\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eL\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eEuphorbia abyssinica\u003c/em\u003e J.F.Gmel.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEuphorbiaceae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAdaami\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eT\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eW\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eL, Ba\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eHagenia abyssinica\u003c/em\u003e (Bruce) J.F.Gmel.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRosaceae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHeexoo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eT\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eW\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eL\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eHeteromorpha arborescens\u003c/em\u003e (Spreng.) Cham. \u0026amp; Schltdl.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eApiaceae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAliyaanqaa\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eT\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eW\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eR\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eHordeum vulgare\u003c/em\u003e L.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePoaceae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGarbuu\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eH\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eC\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSe\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eHypericum revolutum\u003c/em\u003e Vahl\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHypericaceae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGarambaa\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eS\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eW\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eL\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;R\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eJuniperus procera\u003c/em\u003e L.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCupressaceae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHindheessa\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eT\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eW\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eR\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eJusticia schimperiana\u003c/em\u003e (Hochst. ex Nees) T.Anders.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAcanthaceae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDhumugaa / Sensel\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eS\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eW\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eL\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;R\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eLepidium sativum\u003c/em\u003e L.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBrassicaceae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFexo / Shuunfaa\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eH\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eC\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSe\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eLinum usitatissimum\u003c/em\u003e L.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLinaceae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTalbaa\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eH\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eC\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSe\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eMaesa lanceolata\u003c/em\u003e Forssk.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePrimulaceae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAbbayyii\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eS\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eW\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eL, R, Fu\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eMelia azedarach\u003c/em\u003e L.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMeliaceae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMim\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eT\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eC\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBa\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eMusa \u0026times; paradisiaca\u003c/em\u003e L.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMusaceae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMuuzii\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eH\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eC\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSa\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eMyrsine africana\u003c/em\u003e L.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePrimulaceae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eQacama\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eS\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eW\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eR\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eNigella sativa\u003c/em\u003e L.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRanunculaceae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHabsuda guracha\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eH\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eC\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSe\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eNicotiana tabacum\u003c/em\u003e L.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSolanaceae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTimbaho / Tamboo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eH\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eC\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eL, R\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eOcimum lamiifolium\u003c/em\u003e Hochst.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLamiaceae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDamakasee\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eH\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eW\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eL\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eOlinia rochetiana\u003c/em\u003e A.Juss.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOliniaceae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGunaa\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eT\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eW\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eL\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ePhoenix reclinata\u003c/em\u003e Jacq.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eArecaceae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMeexxi\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eT\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eW\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eL\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;St\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ePhytolacca dodecandra\u003c/em\u003e L\u0026rsquo;H\u0026eacute;r.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePhytolaccaceae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHandoodee\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eC\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eW\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBa, L\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;R\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ePlantago lanceolata\u003c/em\u003e L.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePlantaginaceae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026mdash;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eH\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eW\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eR\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ePodocarpus falcatus\u003c/em\u003e (Thunb.) Mirb.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePodocarpaceae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBirbirsa\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eT\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eW\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBa\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ePlumbago zeylanica\u003c/em\u003e L.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePlumbaginaceae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMerxes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eH\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eW\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eL, R\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ePremna schimperi\u003c/em\u003e Engl.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLamiaceae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUrgessa\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eT\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eW\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eL, R\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eRhamnus prinoides\u003c/em\u003e L\u0026rsquo;H\u0026eacute;r.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRhamnaceae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGeeshoo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eS\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eW\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eL\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eRicinus communis\u003c/em\u003e L.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEuphorbiaceae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eQobboo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eS\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eW\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eR, L, Fu\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eRubus steudnerii\u003c/em\u003e Schweinf.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRosaceae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDhukkoo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eS\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eW\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eL\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eRumex nepalensis\u003c/em\u003e Spreng.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePolygonaceae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eShaabbee\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eH\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eW\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eR\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eRuta chalepensis\u003c/em\u003e L.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRutaceae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTeenaadaama\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eS\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eC\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eL\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;Ba\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSolanum anguivi\u003c/em\u003e L.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSolanaceae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHidi-bude\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eS\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eW\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSe\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSorghum bicolor\u003c/em\u003e (L.) Moench\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePoaceae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBisingaa caabbi\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eH\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eC\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSe, R, L\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSyzygium guineense\u003c/em\u003e var.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMyrtaceae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBaddessa\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eT\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eW\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBa\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eTeclea nobilis\u003c/em\u003e Del.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRutaceae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHadheesa\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eT\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eW\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eL, R\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eThymus schimperi\u003c/em\u003e Ronniger\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLamiaceae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eXooshine\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eH\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eW\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eL\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eTragia cinerea\u003c/em\u003e (Pax)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEuphorbiaceae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLaalessaa\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eH\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eW\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eL\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eTrichocladus ellipticus\u003c/em\u003e Eckl. \u0026amp; Zeyh.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHamamelidaceae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDhadhaa\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eT\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eW\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eL\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eUrera hypselodendron\u003c/em\u003e (A.Rich.) Wedd.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUrticaceae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHaliilaa\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eS\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eW\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWp\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eVerbascum sinaiticum\u003c/em\u003e Benth.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eScrophulariaceae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGurra Harree\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eH\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eW\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eL\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eVernonia amygdalina\u003c/em\u003e Del.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAsteraceae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEbicha\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eS\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eW\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eL\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eWithania somnifera\u003c/em\u003e (L.) Dunal\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSolanaceae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGizaawa / Uunjoo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eS\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eW\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eR\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eZingiber officinale\u003c/em\u003e Roscoe\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eZingiberaceae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eZinjibila\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eH\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eC\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRh\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eGrowth forms and habitat sources\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eHerbs constituted the dominant growth form (28 species; 42.4%), followed by shrubs (22 species; 33.3%), trees (13 species; 19.7%), and climbers (3 species; 4.5%) (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig7\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e). Most ethnoveterinary medicinal plants were harvested from \u003cb\u003ewild habitats (44 species; 66.7%)\u003c/b\u003e, while \u003cb\u003e22 species (33.3%)\u003c/b\u003e were obtained from \u003cb\u003ehome gardens or farm margins\u003c/b\u003e. Informants consistently reported a preference for preparing remedies from \u003cb\u003efresh plant materials\u003c/b\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eLivestock diseases and local terminology\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eInformants identified \u003cb\u003e33 distinct livestock ailments\u003c/b\u003e described using both English and Afaan Oromoo terminology (\u003cb\u003eSupplementary Table \u003cspan refid=\"MOESM1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003eS1\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/b\u003e). Reported conditions included gastrointestinal disorders (e.g., diarrhea, bloat, constipation), parasitic infections (e.g., helminthiasis, tick and lice infestation), dermatological diseases (e.g., ringworm, mange, wounds), respiratory illnesses (e.g., cough, avian cholera), reproductive complications (e.g., retained placenta), and traumatic or toxic conditions (e.g., snake bite and hyena bite). The most frequently cited ailments were blackleg, bloat, diarrhea, and parasitic infestations. Diagnosis was primarily based on visual assessment of observable clinical signs combined with livestock-owner symptom descriptions.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003ePlant parts used for remedy preparation\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAcross all reported remedies, \u003cb\u003e159 plant-part use citations\u003c/b\u003e were recorded from \u003cb\u003e151 preparation events\u003c/b\u003e, reflecting the use of multiple plant parts in some remedies. Leaves were the most frequently utilized plant part (73/159; 46.5%), followed by roots (30/159; 18.9%), bark (17/159; 10.7%), fruits (13/159; 8.2%), seeds (10/159; 6.3%), bulbs (8/159; 5.0%), whole plants (3/159; 1.9%), and other parts including rhizomes, latex, and stems (4/159; 2.5%) (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig8\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eModes of remedy preparation and material condition\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eCrushing or pounding followed by drenching represented the most common preparation method (52/151; 34.4%), followed by decoction (30/151; 19.9%) and direct topical application (28/151; 18.5%) (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig9\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e). Infusion accounted for 10 preparations (6.6%), while concoction and crushing\u0026ndash;pasting\u0026ndash;tying each represented eight preparations (5.3%). Smoke inhalation or fumigation was rarely reported (3/151; 2.0%). Most remedies were prepared from fresh materials (104/151; 68.9%), whereas 35 preparations (23.2%) used dried materials and 12 (7.9%) combined fresh and dried components.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eRoutes of administration and dosage determination\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003e Oral administration was the predominant route (102/151; 67.5%), followed by dermal or topical application (34/151; 22.5%), nasal administration (10/151; 6.6%), and ocular or auricular application (5/151; 3.3%) (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig10\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e). Dosage determination relied on healer experience and livestock characteristics such as species and body size. Local measurement units included cups, bottles, spoons, handfuls, and finger-sized quantities. No standardized dosage system was reported, and informants acknowledged variability in dose estimation.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eMajor categories of livestock ailments treated.\u003c/b\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eGrouping use reports by disease category indicated that gastrointestinal disorders accounted for the largest proportion (43/151; 28.5%), followed by ecto- and endoparasitic infections (37/151; 24.5%) and dermatological diseases (23/151; 15.2%) (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e). Wounds and musculoskeletal trauma represented 13.2% (20/151), respiratory infections 7.3% (11/151), reproductive disorders 4.6% (7/151), sensorial ailments 3.3% (5/151), and other conditions\u0026mdash;including sudden sickness, evil eye, urine retention, and systemic weakness\u0026mdash;3.3% (5/151).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEthnoveterinary use reports across livestock ailment categories\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"4\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAilment category\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUse reports\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePercentage (%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eKey species (Fidelity Level, %)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGastrointestinal disorders\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e43\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e28.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEmbelia schimperi (92), Zingiber officinale (88)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEcto-/endoparasitic infections\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e37\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e24.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePhytolacca dodecandra (85), Calpurnia aurea (80)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDermatological diseases\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e23\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCroton macrostachyus (89), Allium sativum (85)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWounds and musculoskeletal trauma\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAsparagus africanus (78), Ricinus communis (75)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRespiratory infections\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOcimum lamiifolium (88), Cissampelos mucronata (73)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eReproductive disorders\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAeonium leucoblepharum (68)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSensorial ailments\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTrichocladus ellipticus (81)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOther conditions (sudden sickness, evil eye, urine retention, weakness)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWithania somnifera (71)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTotal\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e151\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e100.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec13\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eInformant consensus factor (ICF)\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eICF values ranged from \u003cb\u003e0.25 to 0.67\u003c/b\u003e, indicating variable but generally \u003cb\u003emoderate to relatively high consensus\u003c/b\u003e among informants regarding plant use within specific disease categories. The highest consensus occurred for reproductive disorders (ICF\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.67), followed by dermatological diseases (0.64), respiratory infections (0.60), and ecto-/endoparasitic infections (0.58). Gastrointestinal disorders and wounds/musculoskeletal trauma showed moderate agreement (0.55 and 0.58, respectively), whereas other conditions exhibited low consensus (0.25). Sensorial ailments were excluded from ICF analysis because the number of species cited exceeded the number of use reports.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec14\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003ePreference ranking of anti-diarrheal medicinal plants\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003ePreference ranking of medicinal plants used to treat livestock diarrhea was conducted using \u003cb\u003e14 complete key-informant responses\u003c/b\u003e to ensure statistical consistency of the ranking matrix. The recalculated rank sums demonstrated clear variation in perceived therapeutic effectiveness among candidate species. \u003cem\u003eHagenia abyssinica\u003c/em\u003e retained the highest cumulative score and ranked first, followed by \u003cem\u003eZingiber officinale\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eEmbelia schimperi\u003c/em\u003e, whereas \u003cem\u003eDodonaea angustifolia\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eRubus steudnerii\u003c/em\u003e received the lowest overall scores (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePreference ranking of medicinal plants used to treat livestock diarrhea.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"17\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c9\" colnum=\"9\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c10\" colnum=\"10\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c11\" colnum=\"11\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c12\" colnum=\"12\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c13\" colnum=\"13\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c14\" colnum=\"14\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c15\" colnum=\"15\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c16\" colnum=\"16\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c17\" colnum=\"17\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMedicinal plant\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eB\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eC\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eD\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eE\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eF\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eG\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eH\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eI\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eJ\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eK\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eL\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eM\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eN\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c16\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTotal\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c17\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRank\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eHagenia abyssinica\u003c/em\u003e B.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c16\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e86\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c17\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1st\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eZingiber officinale\u003c/em\u003e Roscoe\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c16\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e68\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c17\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2nd\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eEmbelia schimperi\u003c/em\u003e Vatke\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c16\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e65\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c17\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3rd\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eClutia abyssinica\u003c/em\u003e Jaub. \u0026amp; Spach\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c16\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e61\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c17\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4th\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eOcimum lamiifolium\u003c/em\u003e Hochst.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c16\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e57\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c17\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5th\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eRubus steudnerii\u003c/em\u003e Schweinf.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c16\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e44\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c17\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6th\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eDodonaea angustifolia\u003c/em\u003e L.f.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c16\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e43\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c17\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7th\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec15\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eFidelity level (FL) and frequently cited species\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eSeveral medicinal plant species exhibited high fidelity level (FL) values, reflecting strong agreement among informants regarding their use for specific livestock ailments. \u003cem\u003eEmbelia schimperi\u003c/em\u003e showed the highest FL for gastrointestinal disorders (92.3%), followed by \u003cem\u003eOcimum lamiifolium\u003c/em\u003e for diarrheal conditions (88.2%) and \u003cem\u003ePhytolacca dodecandra\u003c/em\u003e for ecto-/endoparasitic infections (85.2%). Additional species with high FL values included \u003cem\u003eCroton macrostachyus\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eRubus steudnerii\u003c/em\u003e, and \u003cem\u003eAchyranthes aspera\u003c/em\u003e High fidelity levels were observed for \u003cem\u003eEmbelia schimperi\u003c/em\u003e (92%) in gastrointestinal disorders and \u003cem\u003eCroton macrostachyus\u003c/em\u003e (89%) in dermatological conditions (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e). \u003cem\u003eFL = (Number of informants citing the species for a specific ailment / Total informant citing the species for any ailment) \u0026times; 100.\"\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec16\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eMultipurpose use and conservation priority of medicinal plants\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eDirect matrix ranking (DMR) was conducted with 12 key informants to assess multipurpose use pressure on eight widely used medicinal plant species across eight use categories (medicine, firewood, fodder, construction, food, fencing, tools, shade). Species were scored from 0 (not used) to 5 (highest utility), and composite use values were calculated as the sum of average scores across all categories (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab4\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 4\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDirect matrix ranking of multipurpose ethnoveterinary medicinal plants in Aseko District\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"10\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c9\" colnum=\"9\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c10\" colnum=\"10\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSpecies\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMedicine\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFirewood\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFodder\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eConstruction\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFood\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFencing\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTools\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eShade\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTotal Use Value\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eHagenia abyssinica\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e26.5\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eRuta chalepensis\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e24.4\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eCroton macrostachyus\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e24.8\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eJuniperus procera\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e24.1\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ePodocarpus falcatus\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e24.2\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eOcimum lamiifolium\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e17.7\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ePhytolacca dodecandra\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e19.7\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eWithania somnifera\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e18.9\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec17\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eMarketability of medicinal plants\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eFifteen of the recorded medicinal plant species (22.7%) were reported to be sold in local markets. Among these, \u003cem\u003eEmbelia schimperi\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eHagenia abyssinica\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eThymus schimperi\u003c/em\u003e, and \u003cem\u003eWithania somnifera\u003c/em\u003e were primarily purchased for medicinal purposes. Reported market prices were low, with a bundle of \u003cem\u003eWithania somnifera\u003c/em\u003e roots costing approximately 30 Ethiopian Birr and a cup of dried \u003cem\u003eThymus schimperi\u003c/em\u003e leaves about 20 Ethiopian Birr.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec18\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eKnowledge transmission\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eEthnoveterinary knowledge was transmitted orally, predominantly within family lineages. Healers commonly reported learning from parents or grandparents, and knowledge transfer was often restricted to selected family members\u0026mdash;frequently elder sons\u0026mdash;and characterized by secrecy. No practitioners reported maintaining written ethnoveterinary records.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec19\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eThreats to medicinal plants\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eAgricultural expansion was identified as the most significant threat to medicinal plants, accounting for \u003cb\u003e22.0%\u003c/b\u003e of the total responses. This was followed by firewood and charcoal collection (\u003cb\u003e19.8%\u003c/b\u003e) and climate-related factors, including drought and soil erosion (\u003cb\u003e18.7%\u003c/b\u003e). Additional pressures included construction activities and timber extraction (\u003cb\u003e15.9%\u003c/b\u003e), livestock grazing (\u003cb\u003e14.8%\u003c/b\u003e), and pesticide use (\u003cb\u003e12.1%\u003c/b\u003e) (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab5\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 5\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMajor threats to medicinal plants in the study area\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"11\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c9\" colnum=\"9\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c10\" colnum=\"10\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c11\" colnum=\"11\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFactors\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eR1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eR2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eR3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eR4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eR5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eR6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eR7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTotal\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePercent\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRank\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAgricultural expansion\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e40\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e22.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1st\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFirewood \u0026amp; charcoal\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e36\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e19.8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2nd\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eClimate change (drought \u0026amp; erosion)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e34\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e18.7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3rd\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eConstruction \u0026amp; timber\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e29\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4th\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGrazing\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e27\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e14.8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5th\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePesticide\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e22\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6th\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec20\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eConservation and management practices\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eRemnant forest patches containing medicinal plants were commonly associated with religious and cultural sites, including churches, mosques, and traditional Oromo gathering areas. Some community members also reported cultivating selected medicinal species\u0026mdash;particularly \u003cem\u003eHagenia abyssinica\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eRuta chalepensis\u003c/em\u003e\u0026mdash;within home gardens and along farm boundaries, indicating localized \u003cb\u003ein situ and ex situ conservation practices\u003c/b\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis study documents a high level of ethnoveterinary knowledge in Aseko District, evidenced by the identification of \u003cb\u003e66 medicinal plant species belonging to 62 genera and 49 families\u003c/b\u003e (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e). This level of plant diversity is comparable to, or higher than, that reported from many ethnoveterinary studies conducted elsewhere in Ethiopia, reflecting the continued reliance of rural communities on plant-based remedies for livestock healthcare in areas with limited access to formal veterinary services [\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e22\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e24\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e31\u003c/span\u003e]. The dominance of families such as Euphorbiaceae and Solanaceae, followed by Poaceae, Apiaceae, Fabaceae, Lamiaceae, Myrtaceae, and Rutaceae, aligns with their broad ecological distribution and documented medicinal versatility in Ethiopian and East African ethnoveterinary systems [\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e24\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e35\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eHerbaceous species constituted the largest growth-form category, followed by shrubs, trees, and climbers (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e). This pattern has been consistently reported across Ethiopian ethnoveterinary studies and likely reflects the greater accessibility, abundance, and rapid regeneration of herbaceous plants in mixed farming landscapes [\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e31\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e32\u003c/span\u003e]. Similar dominance of herbaceous taxa has also been documented in ethnoveterinary inventories from South Asia and sub-Saharan Africa, suggesting that growth-form selection is driven primarily by ecological availability and ease of harvesting rather than taxonomic preference alone [\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e26\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e30\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e38\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMost ethnoveterinary medicinal plants documented in Aseko District were harvested from wild habitats (\u003cb\u003e44 species; 66.7%\u003c/b\u003e), while \u003cb\u003e22 species (33.3%)\u003c/b\u003e were obtained from home gardens or farm margins. This strong reliance on wild plant resources parallels findings from other Ethiopian regions, where ethnoveterinary practices depend predominantly on natural vegetation rather than cultivated sources [\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e24\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e32\u003c/span\u003e]. Although this reliance reflects detailed ecological knowledge, it also exposes medicinal plant resources to increasing anthropogenic pressures. Informants identified agricultural expansion, fuelwood and charcoal collection, grazing pressure, construction activities, and climate-related stress as major threats to medicinal plant availability, consistent with reports from other parts of Ethiopia and broader African contexts [\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e24\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e26\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e27\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e37\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eLivestock ailments treated using traditional remedies in Aseko District were dominated by gastrointestinal disorders, ecto- and endoparasitic infections, and dermatological diseases (Supplementary Table \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003eS1\u003c/span\u003e). This distribution reflects common health challenges in smallholder livestock systems and closely mirrors ethnoveterinary findings from Ethiopia, East Africa, and South Asia [\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e22\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e32\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e38\u003c/span\u003e]. Diagnosis was primarily based on observable clinical signs and livestock-owner experience, illustrating a structured indigenous diagnostic system developed through long-term interactions among humans, livestock, and their environment [\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e26\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eLeaves were the most frequently utilized plant part, followed by roots and bark (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e), a pattern widely documented in Ethiopian ethnoveterinary literature [\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e31\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e32\u003c/span\u003e]. The preference for leaves is often interpreted as a relatively sustainable harvesting strategy, as leaf collection is generally less destructive than root or bark removal. Nevertheless, repeated harvesting without management may still negatively affect plant regeneration, particularly for slow-growing or habitat-restricted species. Remedy preparation methods were predominantly simple, involving crushing or pounding followed by drenching, decoction, and topical application (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e), consistent with ethnoveterinary practices reported both in Ethiopia and globally [\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e31\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e36\u003c/span\u003e]. Informants consistently reported a preference for fresh plant materials, reflecting local perceptions that freshness enhances therapeutic efficacy.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e Oral administration was the predominant route of remedy application, followed by dermal, nasal, and ocular or auricular routes (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e). This pattern mirrors ethnoveterinary practices reported across Ethiopia and other regions, particularly for internal ailments such as gastrointestinal and parasitic diseases [\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e30\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e32\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e36\u003c/span\u003e]. The consistency of administration routes across diverse cultural settings suggests convergence toward empirically effective practices rather than purely symbolic traditions.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eQuantitative analyses revealed moderate to relatively high informant consensus for major disease categories. Informant Consensus Factor (ICF) values were highest for reproductive disorders (ICF = 0.67), followed by dermatological (ICF = 0.58) and respiratory diseases (ICF = 0.52), indicating reliance on a limited number of culturally validated species for these ailments. High Fidelity Level (FL) values recorded for species such as \u003cem\u003eEmbelia schimperi\u003c/em\u003e (FL = 92.3%), \u003cem\u003eOcimum lamiifolium\u003c/em\u003e (FL = 88.2%), and \u003cem\u003ePhytolacca dodecandra\u003c/em\u003e (FL = 85.2%) reflect strong agreement among informants regarding their therapeutic effectiveness. Preference ranking analysis further refined these findings by revealing differential perceived efficacy among antidiarrheal species: \u003cem\u003eHagenia abyssinica\u003c/em\u003e ranked first, followed by \u003cem\u003eZingiber officinale\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eEmbelia schimperi\u003c/em\u003e. This divergence between FL (frequency-based) and preference ranking (efficacy-based) underscores the value of multi-metric validation in ethnoveterinary research. Collectively, these patterns are consistent with other Ethiopian and East African ethnoveterinary studies and highlight priority species that may warrant further phytochemical and pharmacological investigation [\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e22\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e32\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e36\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eEthnoveterinary knowledge in Aseko District is transmitted predominantly through oral pathways within family lineages, often restricted to selected individuals. While this mode of transmission preserves cultural integrity, it also increases vulnerability to knowledge erosion under changing socio-economic conditions. Similar challenges have been reported across Ethiopia, Africa, and Asia, where modernization, formal education, and declining interest among younger generations threaten intergenerational knowledge transfer [\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e26\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e27\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e38\u003c/span\u003e]. Although informants reported the presence of culturally protected forest patches and limited home-garden cultivation of medicinal plants, these practices remain insufficient to counterbalance the intensity of identified threats.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003ctable id=\"Tab6\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 6\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMethodological advances of this study compared to typical Ethiopian ethnoveterinary research\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"3\"\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFeature\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study (Aseko District)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTypical Ethiopian ethnoveterinary study\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eDisease classification\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBilingual: English + Afaan Oromo (33 ailments)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVernacular-only or clinical terms alone (20–25 ailments)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eSampling design\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eStratified across 3 agroecological zones (highland, midland, lowland)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSingle agroecological zone\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eQuantitative analysis\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eICF + Fidelity Level (FL) + preference ranking\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eICF only, or no quantitative indices\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eEconomic data\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMarket prices reported for 15 species\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo market or economic valuation\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eThreat assessment\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eExpert-ranked pressures with scoring (n = 7 senior healers)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGeneral qualitative observations\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOverall, the findings confirm that ethnoveterinary medicine remains an integral and effective component of livestock healthcare in Aseko District. The documented plant diversity, preparation practices, routes of administration, and consensus patterns—together with the identified threats—underscore both the resilience and fragility of this indigenous knowledge system. Strengthening community-based conservation initiatives, promoting sustainable harvesting practices, and encouraging the cultivation of key ethnoveterinary species are essential to enhance the long-term viability of traditional livestock healthcare while contributing to biodiversity conservation. Similar integrative approaches have been widely advocated across Africa and globally to safeguard ethnoveterinary knowledge systems within sustainable development frameworks [\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e26\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e38\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e40\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e "},{"header":"Methods","content":"\u003ch2\u003eStudy area\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe study was conducted in \u003cb\u003eAseko District\u003c/b\u003e, Arsi Zone, Oromia Regional State, southeastern Ethiopia (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e). The district is located between \u003cb\u003e8°15′10″–8°41′00″ N latitude\u003c/b\u003e and \u003cb\u003e39°55′40″–40°16′20″ E longitude\u003c/b\u003e, approximately \u003cb\u003e160 km southeast of Addis Ababa\u003c/b\u003e [\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e34\u003c/span\u003e]. Aseko District covers an estimated area of \u003cb\u003e600–610 km²\u003c/b\u003e and exhibits pronounced topographic heterogeneity, with elevations ranging from approximately \u003cb\u003e1,170 to 2,950 m above sea level\u003c/b\u003e [\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e34\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAgroecologically, the district comprises three major zones: \u003cb\u003ehighland (\u0026gt; 2,500 m)\u003c/b\u003e, \u003cb\u003emidland (1,800–2,500 m)\u003c/b\u003e, and \u003cb\u003elowland (\u0026lt; 1,800 m)\u003c/b\u003e. These zones differ markedly in climate, vegetation structure, and land-use patterns, factors known to influence medicinal plant availability and ethnoveterinary practices. Accordingly, sampling was stratified across all three agroecological zones to capture ecological variation in plant use. Vegetation in Aseko District includes \u003cb\u003edry evergreen Afromontane forest, shrublands, and grasslands\u003c/b\u003e, which collectively support high medicinal plant diversity [\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e34\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eReconnaissance survey and study site selection\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eA reconnaissance survey was conducted in \u003cb\u003eJune 2024\u003c/b\u003e to assess vegetation types, accessibility, settlement patterns, and livestock production systems within the district. Preliminary consultations were held with \u003cb\u003edistrict agricultural officers, development agents, and community elders\u003c/b\u003e to identify areas with active ethnoveterinary practice. Based on ecological variation, accessibility, and cultural representation, \u003cb\u003eseven kebeles\u003c/b\u003e were purposively selected using a \u003cb\u003emulti-stage cluster sampling approach\u003c/b\u003e, following established ethnobotanical fieldwork guidelines [\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e49\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e50\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eInformant selection\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eInformants were selected using a combination of \u003cb\u003epurposive and snowball sampling techniques\u003c/b\u003e, which are widely applied in ethnobiological research to identify individuals possessing specialized indigenous knowledge [\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e49\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e50\u003c/span\u003e]. Traditional healers, elder livestock keepers, and community-recognized ethnoveterinary practitioners were identified with the assistance of local leaders and development agents.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eA total of \u003cb\u003e30 key informants\u003c/b\u003e were purposively selected across the seven kebeles. In addition, household respondents were selected using proportional sampling. Sample size was determined using the formula proposed by \u003cb\u003eKrejcie and Morgan\u003c/b\u003e [\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e48\u003c/span\u003e]:\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Equ1\" class=\"Equation\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"mathdisplay\" id=\"FileID_Equ1\" name=\"EquationSource\"\u003e\n$$\\:n=\\frac{N{Z}^{2}p(1-p)}{{d}^{2}(N-1)+{Z}^{2}p(1-p)}$$\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"EquationNumber\"\u003e1\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cp\u003ewhere \u003cem\u003eN\u003c/em\u003e is the total number of households (8,665), \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e is the estimated proportion of households using traditional medicine (0.80), \u003cem\u003ed\u003c/em\u003e is the margin of error (0.08), and \u003cem\u003eZ\u003c/em\u003e is the standard normal value at 95% confidence (1.96). Application of this formula yielded \u003cb\u003e152 household respondents\u003c/b\u003e, resulting in a total of \u003cb\u003e182 informants\u003c/b\u003e included in the study.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eData collection\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eEthnoveterinary data were collected between \u003cb\u003eJuly 2024 and February 2025\u003c/b\u003e using \u003cb\u003esemi-structured interviews, focus group discussions, guided field walks, and local market surveys\u003c/b\u003e, following established ethnobotanical research methodologies [\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e40\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e50\u003c/span\u003e]. Semi-structured interviews captured detailed information on medicinal plant species, plant parts used, preparation methods, routes of administration, and treated livestock ailments.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFocus group discussions were conducted in each of the seven kebeles to triangulate interview data and validate commonly reported ethnoveterinary practices [53]. Guided field walks with key informants enabled \u003cb\u003ein situ observation, documentation, and preliminary identification\u003c/b\u003e of medicinal plant species occurring in natural vegetation, grazing lands, farmland margins, and home gardens, ensuring methodological consistency with comparable Ethiopian ethnobotanical studies [34,53].\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAll ethnoveterinary use reports are provided in \u003cb\u003eSupplementary Table \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003eS1\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/b\u003e, which includes scientific names, local Afaan Oromoo names, plant parts used, livestock ailments treated, preparation methods, routes of administration, and informant citations for \u003cb\u003e151 use reports derived from 66 medicinal plant species\u003c/b\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eVoucher specimen collection and taxonomic identification\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eVoucher specimens of all reported medicinal plant species were collected during guided field walks, pressed, dried, labeled, and preserved following standard herbarium procedures [\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e43\u003c/span\u003e]. Species identification was conducted using the \u003cem\u003eFlora of Ethiopia and Eritrea\u003c/em\u003e [\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e] and formally authenticated by \u003cb\u003eprofessional botanists at the Ethiopian Biodiversity Institute (EBI) National Herbarium\u003c/b\u003e, Addis Ababa, in collaboration with taxonomic specialists from the \u003cb\u003eWondo Genet College of Forestry and Natural Resources, Hawassa University\u003c/b\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAuthenticated voucher specimens were deposited in the \u003cb\u003epublicly accessible EBI National Herbarium\u003c/b\u003e, Addis Ababa. Corresponding voucher accession numbers are provided in \u003cb\u003eSupplementary Table \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003eS1\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/b\u003e, in accordance with \u003cb\u003eIndex Herbariorum\u003c/b\u003e guidelines [\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e52\u003c/span\u003e], ensuring traceability and long-term scientific verification.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eEthical considerations\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eEthical clearance for this study was granted by the \u003cb\u003eAseko District Administration and Aseko District Agricultural and Natural Resources Office, Arsi Zone, Oromia Regional State, Ethiopia\u003c/b\u003e, in accordance with Ethiopian community-based research governance procedures applicable in areas where no formal institutional review board is established.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe research adhered to the ethical principles of the \u003cb\u003eInternational Society of Ethnobiology (ISE) Code of Ethics\u003c/b\u003e. Prior to data collection, the objectives of the study were explained to all participants in Afaan Oromo, and \u003cb\u003everbal informed consent\u003c/b\u003e was obtained from each informant. Participation was entirely voluntary, and no personally identifiable information is included in this publication. No experimental procedures involving live animals were conducted.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eOfficial written permission to collect medicinal plant specimens and conduct ethnobotanical field documentation was obtained from the \u003cb\u003eEthiopian Biodiversity Institute (Permit No. EBI/RES/057/2024)\u003c/b\u003e, the \u003cb\u003eAseko District Administration\u003c/b\u003e, and the \u003cb\u003eAseko District Environment, Forest and Climate Change Office\u003c/b\u003e prior to fieldwork. Plant collection complied with \u003cb\u003eEthiopian national biodiversity conservation regulations\u003c/b\u003e, institutional research governance requirements, and international best-practice standards. Sampling was restricted to the minimum quantity necessary for scientific identification and voucher preservation, and no plant material was collected for commercial or trade purposes.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAll field research involving wild plant species complied with relevant \u003cb\u003einstitutional, national, and international conservation legislation\u003c/b\u003e. The study followed the \u003cb\u003eIUCN Policy Statement on Research Involving Species at Risk of Extinction\u003c/b\u003e and respected the principles of the \u003cb\u003eConvention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES)\u003c/b\u003e. No CITES-listed species were harvested for trade or destructive utilization.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eQuantitative ethnobotanical indices and analysis\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eEthnobotanical data were analyzed using descriptive and quantitative methods. Frequencies and percentages summarized plant growth forms, plant parts used, preparation methods, and administration routes.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch3\u003eInformant Consensus Factor (ICF)\u003c/h3\u003e\u003cp\u003eAgreement among informants for medicinal plant use within livestock ailment categories was evaluated using the Informant Consensus Factor following Trotter and Logan [53]:\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Equ2\" class=\"Equation\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"mathdisplay\" id=\"FileID_Equ2\" name=\"EquationSource\"\u003e\n$$\\:\\text{ICF}=\\frac{{n}_{ur}-{n}_{t}}{{n}_{ur}-1}\\:$$\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"EquationNumber\"\u003e2\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cp\u003ewhere \u003cb\u003en\u003csub\u003eu\u003c/sub\u003eʳ\u003c/b\u003e is the number of use reports for a given ailment category and \u003cb\u003enₜ\u003c/b\u003e is the number of taxa used for that category.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eEquation (\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e) quantifies the degree of shared knowledge, with values approaching \u003cb\u003e1\u003c/b\u003e indicating high consensus.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eFidelity Level (FL)\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe specificity of medicinal plant use for particular ailments was determined using Fidelity Level [\u003cspan class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e]:\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Equ3\" class=\"Equation\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"mathdisplay\" id=\"FileID_Equ3\" name=\"EquationSource\"\u003e\n$$\\:\\text{FL:(%)}=\\left(\\frac{{I}_{p}}{{I}_{u}}\\right)\\times\\:100\\:$$\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"EquationNumber\"\u003e3\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cp\u003ewhere \u003cb\u003eIₚ\u003c/b\u003e is the number of informants independently citing a species for a specific ailment and \u003cb\u003eI\u003csub\u003eu\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/b\u003e is the total number of informants mentioning the species for any ailment.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eHigher FL values from Eq.\u0026nbsp;(\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e) indicate stronger ailment-specific cultural importance.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003ePreference ranking\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003ePreference ranking was conducted with \u003cb\u003e14 key informants\u003c/b\u003e to identify the most effective medicinal plants used for treating diarrhea, following Cunningham [54]. Total preference scores were calculated as:\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Equ4\" class=\"Equation\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"mathdisplay\" id=\"FileID_Equ4\" name=\"EquationSource\"\u003e\n$$\\:\\text{Total Score}=\\sum\\:_{i=1}^{14}{S}_{i}\\:\\:$$\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"EquationNumber\"\u003e4\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cp\u003ewhere \u003cb\u003eS\u003csub\u003ei\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/b\u003e represents the score (1–7) assigned by informant \u003cem\u003ei\u003c/em\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eSpecies with higher totals in Eq.\u0026nbsp;(\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e) were considered more therapeutically preferred.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eDirect matrix ranking (DMR)\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eDirect matrix ranking assessed multipurpose use pressure on \u003cb\u003eeight widely used species\u003c/b\u003e across \u003cb\u003eeight use categories\u003c/b\u003e (medicine, firewood, fodder, construction, food, fencing, tools, and shade) [58].\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eTwelve key informants assigned scores from \u003cb\u003e0 (not used)\u003c/b\u003e to \u003cb\u003e5 (highest utility)\u003c/b\u003e. Composite cultural importance values were obtained by summing mean scores across categories to rank species according to overall use pressure.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAll statistical analyses were performed using \u003cb\u003eMicrosoft Excel 2019\u003c/b\u003e and \u003cb\u003eSPSS version 26\u003c/b\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003ch2\u003eAcknowledgements\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors thank the local communities of Aseko District for generously sharing their ethnoveterinary knowledge. We also acknowledge the support of local agricultural offices and development agents for facilitation during fieldwork. \u003cstrong\u003eAll figures were created by the authors using ArcMap 10.8 (Esri, Redlands, CA, USA) and Microsoft Excel 2019.\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eFunding\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNo external funding was received for this study. The research was conducted using the authors\u0026rsquo; institutional and personal resources.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eAuthor contributions\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eJ.S.J \u0026nbsp;conceived and designed the study, conducted field data collection, performed data analysis, and drafted the manuscript, M.M contributed to study design, data interpretation, and critically revised the manuscript, Z.G contributed to data analysis, methodological validation, and critical revision of the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eData availability\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAll\u0026nbsp;\u003cstrong\u003eData Availability Statement\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAll data analyzed during this study are included in this published article and its Supplementary Information files. Ethnoveterinary use reports, species lists, and quantitative indices are provided in \u003cstrong\u003eSupplementary Table S1\u003c/strong\u003e. Voucher specimen accession numbers are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eLLM uses disclosure.\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eA large language model (ChatGPT, OpenAI) was used solely to assist with language editing and structural refinement of the manuscript. The model was not used for data collection, analysis, or interpretation. All data verification, scientific interpretation, and conclusions are the sole responsibility of the authors.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eCompeting interests\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors declare no competing interests.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eEthics declarations\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEthics approval and consent to participate.\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis study involved human participants through interviews and group discussions. Ethical approval was obtained from the relevant administrative authorities of Aseko District prior to data collection. All procedures were conducted in accordance with recognized ethical guidelines for ethnobiological research. Verbally informed consent was obtained from all participants before participation, and involvement in the study was entirely voluntary.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConsent for publication\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNo \u0026nbsp;personally identifiable information of participants is included in this manuscript. Informed consent to participate and to publish anonymized information was obtained from all participants..\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eApproval of animal experiments\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNot applicable. This study did not involve experiments on live vertebrate or invertebrate animals.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eSupplementary information\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSupplementary Information accompanies this paper and includes detailed species lists, ethnoveterinary use reports, quantitative indices, and additional tables supporting the findings of this study.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eFlora of Ethiopia and Eritrea. \u003cem\u003eThe National Herbarium, Addis Ababa University \u0026amp; Ethiopian Biodiversity Institute; Ministry of Agriculture\u003c/em\u003e (Addis Ababa, 1995\u0026ndash;2009 ).\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eCotton, C. M. \u003cem\u003eEthnobotany: principles and applications\u003c/em\u003e (Wiley, 1996).\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eMcCorkle, C. M. An introduction to ethnoveterinary research and development. \u003cem\u003eJ. 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Ethnopharmacol.\u003c/em\u003e \u003cb\u003e97\u003c/b\u003e, 429\u0026ndash;439 (2005).\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":true,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":true,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"scientific-reports","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"scirep","sideBox":"Learn more about [Scientific Reports](http://www.nature.com/srep/)","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"","title":"Scientific Reports","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"stoa","reportingPortfolio":"Scientific Reports","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Ethnoveterinary medicine, Medicinal plants, Indigenous knowledge, Livestock health, Aseko District, Ethiopia","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8834925/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-8834925/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eEthnoveterinary medicine remains a vital component of livestock healthcare in rural Ethiopia. This study documents medicinal plants and associated indigenous knowledge in Aseko District, Arsi Zone, southeastern Ethiopia. Data were collected from 182 informants across seven kebeles representing three agroecological zones using semi-structured interviews, focus group discussions, guided field walks, preference ranking, and market surveys. A total of 66 ethnoveterinary medicinal plant species belonging to 49 families were recorded. Herbs dominated (42.4%), and most remedies used fresh plant material harvested from wild habitats (66.7%). Leaves were the most frequently used plant part (46.5%), and oral administration was predominant (67.5%). Gastrointestinal disorders, ecto-/endoparasitic infections, and dermatological diseases accounted for 68.2% of use reports. Informant Consensus Factor values ranged from 0.25 to 0.67, with highest agreement for reproductive disorders. Hagenia abyssinica, Embelia schimperi, and Zingiber officinale were top-ranked for treating diarrhea. Agricultural expansion (22.0%) and biomass extraction (19.8%) were the primary threats. This study highlights the resilience and vulnerability of ethnoveterinary knowledge in a biodiverse but understudied region.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Study of ethnoveterinary medicinal plants in Aseko District, Arsi Zone, southeastern Ethiopia","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2026-03-22 12:21:17","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8834925/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"decision","content":"Revision requested","date":"2026-04-23T04:34:23+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2026-03-17T11:06:30+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2026-03-14T13:36:50+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"274127019951297065083221261728031399921","date":"2026-03-03T10:19:48+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"248535509550748957252457664332254659206","date":"2026-03-02T15:09:33+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"258693159945508086237554248056165524530","date":"2026-03-02T15:02:57+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"69780887797841277114727615996114920224","date":"2026-02-28T16:38:25+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2026-02-28T14:49:32+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2026-02-28T14:37:29+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvited","content":"","date":"2026-02-13T09:04:36+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"checksComplete","content":"","date":"2026-02-12T21:30:36+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"Scientific Reports","date":"2026-02-12T21:27:08+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"scientific-reports","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"scirep","sideBox":"Learn more about [Scientific Reports](http://www.nature.com/srep/)","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"","title":"Scientific Reports","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"stoa","reportingPortfolio":"Scientific Reports","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"96005a11-3b5f-4131-acb2-265dacfc4cc5","owner":[],"postedDate":"March 22nd, 2026","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"under-review","subjectAreas":[{"id":64647503,"name":"Health sciences/Diseases"},{"id":64647504,"name":"Biological sciences/Ecology"},{"id":64647505,"name":"Earth and environmental sciences/Ecology"},{"id":64647506,"name":"Health sciences/Health care"},{"id":64647507,"name":"Biological sciences/Plant sciences"}],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-05-11T09:44:23+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2026-03-22 12:21:17","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-8834925","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-8834925","identity":"rs-8834925","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"XKTyCvWXoU3ODBz1xrDgd","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}