Chemical composition, toxicity and sublethal effects of Melia azedarach extract on some demographic and biochemical characteristics of the cabbage aphid, Brevicoryne brassicae L. (Hemiptera: Aphididae)

Chemical composition, toxicity and sublethal effects of Melia azedarach extract on some demographic and biochemical characteristics of the cabbage aphid, Brevicoryne brassicae L. 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(Hemiptera: Aphididae) Zahra Forouhar, Habib Abbasipour, Jaber Karimi This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-4186913/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract One of the most important pests of cabbage and other cruciferous vegetables is the cabbage aphid, Brevicoryne Brassicae L. (Hemiptera: Aphidae). This aphid produces multiple generations per year, each generation producing large numbers of nymphs that are resistant to a variety of chemical insecticides. In this study, sublethal effects of Melia azedarach extract was investigated on some demographic and biochemical parameters of B. brassicae . The bioassay results showed that the LC 10 , LC 20 , and LC 50 values ​​were 0.68, 1.16, and 3.42 µg/ml, respectively. Compared to controls, the sublethal doses caused significantly reduced gross reproductive rate ( GRR ), net reproductive rate ( R 0 ), intrinsic rate of increase ( r m ), finite rate of increase ( λ ), intrinsic rate of birth ( b ), intrinsic rate of death ( d ), weekly growth rate ( r w ), reproductive rate and adult longevity. Meanwhile, the mean generation time ( T ) and population doubling time ( DT ) of this aphid increased significantly. Additionally, sublethal doses reduced the energy reserves of this pest compared to controls. Our results help evaluate the overall impact of M. azedarach extract on B. brassicae and have important implications for the judicious use of botanical insecticides cabbage aphid control. Brevicoryne brassicae Chinaberry extract sublethal doses demographic and biochemical parameter Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Introduction Cabbage aphid, Brevicoryne Brassicae L. (Hemiptera: Aphididae), is one of the most destructive pests of cruciferous vegetables (Aslam et al. 2011 ). This aphid is native to Europe but is now found in most parts of the world, including Iran (Opfer and McGrath 2013 ). A variety of Various plants in the cruciferous family (Brassicaceae), are affected by cabbage aphid, including Brussels sprouts, cauliflower, broccoli, canola, black and white mustard, Chinese cabbage, kale, and even Brassica weeds, are attacked by cabbage aphids (Opfer and McGrath 2013 ; Kessing and Mau 1991 ). Cabbage aphids are highly aggressive, highly evolutionary adaptable to changing environmental conditions, and abundant fecundity, and are considered a serious threat to vegetables of the cabbage family. Aphids cause two types of damage to infested plants. On the one hand, there is direct damage caused by plant feeding, and on the other hand, there is indirect damage caused by viral diseases being transmitted to plants (Gupta 1978 ). This aphid feeds by penetrating the tissue of stems, leaves, and flowers with their needles and sucking out the sap of the host plant. Continuous uptake and secretion of honeydew into plant organs reduces product yield and marketability (Natwick 2009 ; Hines and Hutchison 2013 ). Infested plants covered with tiny sticky aphid masses (due to honeydew secretion) eventually die due to lack of photosynthesis and growth (Griffin and Williamson 2012 ). Pesticides are widely used, and their reuse leads to environmental pollution, development of pest resistance, harmful effects on non-target organisms and toxic effects on consumers (Lozowicka et al. 2012 , 2015 ; Lu et al. 2018 ). Cabbage aphid has shown resistance to various insecticides such as methomyl, emamectin, lambdacyhalothrin, cypermethrin, bifenthrin, deltamethrin, imidacloprid, thiamethoxam, and acetamiprid (Ahmed and Akhtar 2013). One alternative to chemical pesticides is the use of botanical medicines (Arnason 2017 ). In recent years, herbal preparations have been used to control plant pests with satisfactory results (Tang et al. 2002 ; Samy et al. 2020 ; Arnason 2017 ). The effects of five medicinal plant extracts, including Psiadia penninervia , Salvia officinalis , Ochradenus baccatus , Pulicaria crispa , and Euryops arabicus , on aphids (Hemiptera: Aphididae) were investigated. All of them have been proven to have a negative effect on these insects. However, among them, O. baccatus extract showed better efficacy than other extracts in controlling aphids and was the safest against Chrysoperla carnea , a predator of aphids (Samy et al. 2020 ). The study also identified six known insecticidal plants, including Bidens pilosa , Lantana camara , Lippiia javanica , Tephrosia forgeli , Tithonia diversifolia and Vernonia amygdalina , as well as a synthetic insecticides (lambdacyhalothrin) against pests and natural enemies of legumes. The results showed that botanical pesticides had a better effect on crop yield and natural enemies were more effective than synthetic pesticides (Tembo et al. 2018 ). Likewise, the insecticidal properties of plants such as Tephrosia vogelii , Allium sativa , Cupscum frutensces , Annona squamosa and Azadirachta indica may make them promising alternatives to chemical pesticides (Koona and Dorn 2005 ; Amoabeng et al. 2014 ). Plant insecticides generally cause various stages of insect death, reduced growth rate, reduced viability of insect eggs and adult sterility insects (Da silva et al. 2017 ; Isman 2006 ). Additionally, due to the molecular complexity of plant compounds (extracts and essential oils), the potential for pest resistance to these compounds is very low (Bedini et al. 2020 ). Compared to chemical pesticides, plant-drived pesticides decompose faster, making them safer for the environment and consumers (Isman 2006 ; Amoabeng et al. 2014 ). Additionally, plant materials are compatible with nature and do not pose a risk to non-target organisms (Tang et al. 2002 ). The aim of this study is to investigate the possible effects of sublethal doses of chinaberry extract on some biological and biochemical properties of cabbage aphids. Additionally, this study may help to better understand the effectiveness of plant extracts as an alternative to chemical insecticides in cabbage aphid control. Materials and methods Cabbage aphid rearing All studies were conducted from 2016 using aphid samples collected from cauliflower ( Brassica oleracea var. capitata L.) fields at Shahed University, Tehran, Iran. These samples were later transported to the laboratory along with pieces of the host plant. Aphids were reared on cauliflower leaves for three generations under controlled conditions (25 ± 2°C, 65 ± 5% relative humidity, and photoperiod 16L: 8D h). Leaves were placed individually in clear plastic containers (5 × 13 × 15 cm) and covered with mesh lids to allow air circulation (Jahan et al. 2014 ). Preparation of plant extract Fresh fruit extracts of Chinaberry ( Melia azedarach L.) were collected from different locations around on the Shahed University campus in Tehran, Iran. This plant is not treated with pesticides throughout the growing season. A team of experts from the Department of Horticultural Sciences, Faculty of Agriculture, Shahed University recognized this plant as Chinaberry. Fresh fruit was washed with clean water, air-dried in a dark laboratory for three weeks, and then pureed using an electric blender. The Erlenmeyer flask contained 50 g of a sample of ground plant powder suspended in 100 ml of distilled water and ethanol. The bottle was wrapped in aluminum foil and left at room temperature for 10 days. The mixture was stirred vigorously at 12-h intervals to ensure sufficient incorporation of the plant material. After 10 days, the extract was filtered and evaporated to dryness. The resulting mixture was filtered twice with Whatman No. 1 filter paper, and the liquid was then evaporated in a rotary evaporator at 30–40°C, 3–6 rpm for 8 hours, and the final material was air dried in air to removal residual solvent. The crude solution of the plant material extract was prepared by re-dissolving the extracted solids in hot distilled water (0.5 g/500 ml) (Kalia et al. 2008 ). Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry analysis Phytochemicals contained in the hexane extract of Chinaberry tree fruit extract were identified by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. GC-MS analysis was performed using a Shimadzu GC-9A with helium as carrier gas on a DB-5 column (30 m × 0.25 mm internal diameter, 0.25 µm film thickness) at a linear velocity of 30 cm/s. The oven was programmed to ramp isothermally to 60°C (3 min) and then ramp to 210°C at a rate of 3°C/min. The injector and detector temperatures were 300°C and 270°C, respectively. GC-mass spectrometry was performed on a Varian 3400 instrument equipped with a DB-5 column with identical properties to GC. The temperature of the transfer line was 260°C. Ionization energy was 70 eV, the scan time was 1 s, and the mass range was 40–300 amu. Unknown extracts were identified by comparing their GC retention times to those of known compounds and comparing their mass spectra with either known compounds or published spectra. Bioassay experiments To evaluate the insecticidal effect, we placed 20 aphids in a small container (50 × 50 mm) and covered it with a parafilm lid using liquid accessible through an artificial membrane of stretched parafilm (Febvay et al. 1988 ; Sabeghi Khosroshahi et al. 2021 ). Then, 20% sucrose was added to each of the different concentrations of Chinaberry extract. The control treatment was also received only 20% sucrose without extract. The aphids were then re-coated with Parafilm and returned to the container for a few minutes to allow them to attach to the Parafilm and artificial diet. Trays were then placed in a germination apparatus at 25 ± 2°C, 65 ± 5% relative humidity, and 16L: 8D h photoperiod, and dead and live insects were counted every 12, 24, 48, 72, and 96 h. Six concentrations and one control were used, with 20 insects each treated three replicates of this experiment. Adult parthenogenesis was also used in this study. Sublethal effect of Chinaberry extract on biological parameters of aphid Sublethal doses of Chinaberry extract were used to generate life table parameters. Each sublethal concentration (LC 10 = 0.68 and LC 20 = 1.16 µg/ml) of Chinaberry extract was mixed with sucrose (20%). The control treatment also received only 20% sucrose without extract. Using a sampler, 150 µl of the extract of each concentration mixed with artificial diet was added to the Parafilm layer on the tube, and the Parafilm layer was placed on top of it. After 24 h, surviving aphids (at least 50 aphids per treatment) were individually transferred to untreated cabbage leaf disks in individual Petri dishes and incubated at 25 ± 2°C, 65 ± 5% relative humidity, and 16L:8D h photoperiod to continue their development. The following biological characteristics of the cabbage aphid, B. brassicae , were evaluated using a techniques slightly modified method of that used by Moharramipour et al. ( 2003 ). Weight : The weight of cabbage aphid, B. brassicae was measured using a digital scale (accuracy: 0.0001 g). Population parameters Consistent with Maia Ade et al. ( 2000 ), fecundity (mean number of nymph production/female/generation), longevity, the intrinsic rate of increase ( r m ), gross reproduction rate ( GRR ), net reproduction rate ( R 0 ), mean generation time ( T ), doubling time ( DT ), finite rate of increase ( λ ), intrinsic birth rate ( b ), intrinsic death rate ( d ), b + d , b / d rate, and the weekly growth rate ( r w ) were calculated. Standard errors of life table parameters were estimated using the jackknife method used for comparison of means (Meyer et al. 1986 ). Biochemistry experiment Protein analysis . Total protein concentration was measured by the method of Bradford ( 1976 ). Bovine serum albumin (BSA) was used as a standard. The homogenized solution of each aphid was dissolved in 20 µl. Absorbance values ​​were measured at 595 nm and a standard curve was generated using Microsoft Office Excel software. The protein concentration (mg/mL) of the samples was determined using the standard curve equation. Carbohydrate and lipid analysis . Aphids were homogenized in sodium sulfate solution (2%). Then, 469 µl of chloroform:methanol (1:2 v/v) was added and centrifuged at 4°C and 8000 rpm for 10 min. Carbohydrate and lipid tests were performed according to Singh and Sinha ( 1977 ) and Yuval et al. ( 1998 ). Hemolymph analysis for sodium and potassium. Sodium (Na + ) and potassium (K + ) ions were measured using a flame photometric radiometer as described by Amin and El-Halafawy (2001/2002). Samples for ion analysis were prepared by diluting the plasma with deionized water at a ratio of 1:10. pH measurement . pH was measured using a microflat tip electrode connected to a Metrohm/Brinkmann pH-102 pH meter. The pH of hemolymph plasma (10 µl) was measured immediately on a Teflon plates. Data analyses LC 10 , LC 20 , and LC 50 values ​​were calculated using the log probit model using Polo Plus 2.0 software (LeOra Software, Petaluma, CA). The association between concentration and mortality (data adjusted for baseline mortality) was considered real if there was no significant difference between observed and predicted data (P < 0.05). Mortality rates between treatment and control groups were compared with χ 2 using SPSS 19.0. Mean values were compared using Duncan's test (P < 0.05). Results Chemical composition of plant extract As shown in Table 1 , gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) analysis of Chinaberry tree extracts revealed that the plant contains 13 different compounds. The largest proportion (69.375%) is explained by the 9,12-octadecadienoic acid (Z, Z)-, methyl ester composition. Afterwards, 9-octadecenoic acid (Z) methyl ester (17.231%), hexadecanoic acid methyl ester (7.231%) and octadecenoic acid methyl ester (3.189%) were detected. Therefore, 97.026% of the total compounds in this plant are composed of the above four compounds, while the remaining nine compounds account for only 2.974%. Table 1 Phytochemical compounds in the hexane extract of the fresh fruits from the chinaberry tree, Melia azedarach identified by gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC-MS) Sr.no. Retention Time (min) Molecular Formula Name of the compound Composition % 1 3.773 C 9 H 20 Hexane, 2,3,4-trimethyl- 0.102% 2 6.933 C₁₀H₂₂ Decane 0.460% 3 14.337 C 12 H 26 Dodecane 0.741% 4 16.435 C 10 H 16 3-Octen-5-yne, 2,7-dimethyl-, (Z)- 0.083% 5 22.677 C 11 H 24 Undecane 0.299% 6 30.549 C 6 H 14 Butane, 2,2-dimethyl- 0.095% 7 42.002 C 17 H 34 O 2 Hexadecanoic acid, methyl ester 7.361% 8 47.378 C 19 H 34 O 2 9,12-Octadecadienoic acid (Z, Z)-, methyl ester 69.375% 9 47.503 C 19 H 36 O 2 9-Octadecenoic acid (Z)-, methyl ester 17.231% 10 47.589 C 19 H 36 O 2 11-Octadecenoic acid, methyl ester 0.603% 11 48.205 C 19 H 34 O 2 Octadecenoic acid, methyl ester 3.189% 12 53.151 C 14 H 26 O 2 E-9-Tetradecenoic acid 0.356% 13 53.9 C 8 H 16 O 2,2-Dimethyl-5-hexen-3-ol 0.107% [Table 1 ] Determination of the lethal and sublethal concentrations The results of lethal and sublethal concentrations of M. azedarach extract against B. brassicae are presented in Table 2 . The lethal concentration value (LC 50 ) was 3.42 µg/ml, and the sublethal concentrations (LC 10 and LC 20 ) were 0.68 and 1.16 µg/ml, respectively. Table 2 Probit analysis for the concentration-mortality response of M. azedarach plant extract on the adult insects of B. brassicae Plant extract n a df LC 10 (µg/ml) 95% CL b LC 20 (µg/ml) 95% CL LC 50 (µg/ml) 95% CL Slope ± SE χ 2 p-value M. azedarach 600 5 0.68 (0.17–2.31) 1.16 (0.59–3.75) 3.42 (2.15–9.89) 1.60 ± 0.18 12.91 0.12 a 20 individuals per replicate, five replicates per concentration, six concentrations in total. b Confidence Limited [Table 2 ] Sublethal effects of M . azedarach on biological parameters of aphid The results of the effect of sublethal doses of M. azedarach extract on the biological parameters of B. brassicae are presented in Table 3. Gross reproductive rate ( GRR ) is the total number of females that produce in one generation. According to the obtained results, the highest value of this parameter was 55.45±0.32 females/females/day, and the lowest value was 20.02±0.05 females/females/day belonging to the control group and LC 20 , respectively. The net reproductive rate ( R 0 ) is the average number of offspring produced by each female insect during one generation. The R o peak (59.42±0.42 offspring/female) was observed in the control treatment, while the lowest value was observed in LC 20 (16.55±0.07 offspring/female). The most important parameter of population growth is the intrinsic rate of natural increase ( r m ). This parameter is a standard indicator of population growth rate and depends on birth rate, life cycle length and growth rate. Additionally, the intrinsic population growth rate ( r m ) is one of the parameters suitable for describing population growth rate and predicting the growth potential of organisms in the environment. The highest value of this parameter was 0.29±0.01 day −1 , and the lowest value was 0.20±0.02 day −1 in the control treatment group and the LC 20 , respectively . The finite rate of increase ( λ ) represents the amount by which a stable population increases each day compared to the previous day. The maximum value (1.41±0.01 day −1 ) of this variable was observed in the control group, and the minimum value (1.05±0.02 day −1 ) was observed in LC 20 . The intrinsic birth rate ( b ) is the per capita. This parameter represents the daily birth rate per capita. The highest value of this indictor was 4.23±0.01 death/individual, and the lowest value was 1.75±0.01 death/individual. The intrinsic death rate ( d ) is the inverse of the natural birth rate and represents the per capita mortality rate. This parameter represents the daily mortality rate per capita. The maximum value of this indicator was 3.18±0.01 death/individual, and the minimum value was 1.54±0.01 death/individual. Results showed that intrinsic birth rate ( b ) and intrinsic death rate ( d ) were highest in the control treatment and lowest in LC 20 . In LC 20 , the birth-death ratio was highest at 1.13 per female, and in in the control group it was lowest at 1.07 per female. The highest number of lifetime events (birth and death=7.72 day -1 per female) was observed in the control treatment group and the lowest in the LC 20 group (3.30 day -1 per female). The longest duration for this parameter was 15.32 days for the LC 20 treatment, and the shortest duration was 13.81 days for the control treatment. Population doubling time was shortest for the control treatment ( DT = 2.97 days) and longest for the LC 20 treatment ( DT = 3.35 days). Birth rate of B. brassicae was significantly reduced when treated with the extract compared to untreated aphids. The highest average weekly growth rate ( r w = 6.74±0.29 females/day) was observed in the control treatment and the lowest ( r w =4.25±0.01 females/day) in the LC 20 treatment. The mean generation time ( T ) is the time required for a young female to establish population R 0 . The longest duration for this parameter was 15.32 days for the LC20 treatment and the shortest duration was 13.81 days for the control treatment. Population doubling time was shortest for the control treatment ( DT = 2.97 day) and longest for the LC 20 treatment ( DT =3.35 day). The birth rate of B. brassicae was significantly reduced when treated with the extract compared to untreated aphids. The highest reproductive rate (55.82±0.36 nymph/female) was observed in untreated aphids, while the lowest reproductive rate (17.34 ± 0.11) was observed in LC 20 -treated aphids. The longevity of treated aphid adults with M. azedarach extract were also significantly shorter compared to untreated aphids. Adult longevity was longest in the control group (17.33±0.45) and shortest in LC 20 (10.89±0.53). The development time of B. brassicae was longer in LC 20 (10.34 ±0.45 day) and shorter in control treatment (8.82 ±0.18 day). Table 3 Comparison (mean ± SE) of the biological parameters of the cabbage aphid, B. brassicae in sublethal concentrations of M. azedarach plant extract and control treatments Life table parameters Control LC 10 (µg/ml) LC 20 (µg/ml) gross reproduction rate ( GRR ) 55.45 ± 0.32a 30.55 ± 0.05b 20.02 ± 0.05c net reproduction rate ( R 0 ) 59.42 ± 0.42a 26.20 ± 0.08b 16.65 ± 0.07c intrinsic rate of increase ( r m ) 0.29 ± 0.01a 0.24 ± 0.01b 0.20 ± 0.02c finite rate of increase ( λ ) 1.41 ± 0.01a 1.29 ± 0.0 a 1.05 ± 0.02b intrinsic birth rate ( b ) 4.23 ± 0.01a 2.37 ± 0.01b 1.75 ± 0.01c intrinsic death rate ( d ) 3.18 ± 0.01c 2.14 ± 0.01b 1.54 ± 0.01a b + d 7.41 ± 0.03a 4.51 ± 0.02b 3.29 ± 0.02c b / d 1.33 ± 0.02a 1.11 ± 0.01b 1.14 ± 0.02b weekly growth rate ( r w ) 6.74 ± 0.29a 6.07 ± 0.01b 4.25 ± 0.01c mean generation time ( T ) 13.81 ± 0.01b 13.98 ± 0.01b 15.32 ± 0.01a Fertility (nymph/female) 55.82 ± 0.36a 30.42 ± 0.21b 17.34 ± 0.11c Population doubling time ( DT ) 2.97 ± 0.02c 3.28 ± 0.11b 3.35 ± 0.21a Adult longevity(days) 17.33 ± 0.45a 14.77 ± 0.37b 10.89 ± 0.53c Total development time (days) 8.82 ± 0.18b 9.32 ± 0.65b 10.34 ± 0.45a Means followed by different letters in each raw are significantly different (Jackknife method test, P < 0.05) [Table 3 ] Effect of sublethal doses on pH changes Figure 1 shows pH changes in the hemolymph of B. brassicae aphids treated with sublethal concentrations of M. azedarach extract. The results of this study showed that sublethal doses of extract affected the pH of aphid hemolymph. The highest pH (pH = 7) was observed in the control treatment group, and the lowest pH (pH < 5) was observed in the LC 20 treatment. Therefore, increasing the concentration of the extract changes the pH of the hemolymph from neutral to acidic. [Fig. 1 ] Sublethal effects of extracts on energy reserves Figure 2 shows the effect of sublethal doses of M. azedalach extract on the energy reserves of the aphid B. brassicae . The results showed that the energy reserves of treated aphids were significantly reduced compared to untreated aphids. Additionally, there was an inverse relationship between increasing extract concentration and energy accumulation in aphids. [Fig. 2 ] Effect of sublethal doses of extract on sodium and potassium levels Figure 3 shows the effect of a lethal dose of M. azedarach extract on the sodium and potassium contents of the aphid B. brassicae . Sodium content was highest at 20.3 mmol/L in the control group and lowest at 12.5 mmol/L in the LC 20 group. Additionally, the amount of potassium was highest in the control group at 27.2 mmol/L, and the lowest in the LC 20 treatment group at 18.6 mmol/L. Results showed that the amounts of sodium and potassium were significantly reduced in treated aphids compared to untreated aphids. The results also showed that the amount of sodium and potassium decreased significantly with increasing extract concentration. [Fig. 3 ] Discussion Due to the harmful effects of chemical insecticides on the environment and non-target organisms, natural products, especially products derived from plant derivatives, are being considered as alternatives to chemical insecticides (Chermenskaya et al. 2012 ). Plant extracts have recently been shown to play an important role in pest control due to their low cost, lack of residual environmental friendliness, wide availability and high toxicity to some pests such as aphids (Bedini et al. 2020 ). In this study, we used an artificial diet (20% sucrose) containing sublethal concentrations of M. azedarach extract (LC 10 = 0.68 and LC 20 = 1.16 µg/ml) to determine potential negative effects on developmental, reproductive and demographic traits of B. brassicae aphid. Significant changes in mortality, development time, nymph production and demographic characteristics were observed depending on the concentration of extract in the artificial diet. Toxicity results showed that M. azedarach extract was toxic to B. brassicae with an LC 50 value of 3.42 µg/ml. Additionally, sublethal doses (LC 10 and LC 20 ) of the extract affect essential functions of this aphid, such as lifespan, slow growth, fertility and survival. Kibrom et al. ( 2012 ) reported that direct application of 5% aqueous seed extract of M. azedarach under field conditions resulted in mortality of B. brassicae reaching 86.5% but had no significant effect on the predator, Coccinella septempunctata . Additionally, according to the results of Ulusoy and Olmez ( 2006 ), B. brassicae grown on cauliflower was 9.8 days, and the longest period was 21.8 days. In this study, the longevity of B. brassicae adults fed artificial diet without extract (control group) was 17. 33 days, which is almost the same as the longevity of aphids fed cauliflower in the experiment by Ulusoy and Olmez ( 2006 ). However, in our experiments, the longevity of aphids fed artificial diet containing sublethal doses (LC 10 and LC 20 ) of Chinaberry extract was 14.77 and 10.89 days, respectively. These results indicate that the longevity of aphids is affected by concentration, and that as the extract concentration increases, the lifespan of aphid’s decreases significantly. As a result, the longevity of this aphid is shortened, reducing their opportunities to feed and produce offspring. Additionally, the total development time of B. brassicae in the control treatment (8.82 ± 0.18 days) was consistent with the data of Ulusoy and Olmez (9.8 days). However, LC 20 treatment resulted in a significant increase in total development time (10.34 ± 0.45 days). Our findings also showed that the biological parameters of B. brassicae , including, gross reproductive rate ( GRR ), net reproductive rate ( R 0 ), intrinsic rate of population growth ( r m ), finite rate of increase ( λ ) were significantly reduced in treated aphids compared to untreated aphids. Compared to controls, adult fertility and longevity as well as the intrinsic birth rate ( b ), intrinsic death rate ( d ), b + d , b/d and weekly growth rate ( r w ) were significantly reduced. Meanwhile, the mean generation time ( T ), population doubling time ( DT ), and total development time ( TDT ) increased significantly. Ulusoy and Olmez ( 2006 ) reported that the net reproduction rate ( R 0 ) and the intrinsic rate of increase ( r m ) of B. brassicae fed on cauliflower significantly decreased compared to the control group. Three parameters are very important for the growth rate of pest population, including net reproductive rate ( R 0 ), intrinsic rate of population growth ( r m ) and finite rate of increase ( λ ). Therefore, any factor that causes changes in these parameters may affect the demographic population of insects (Ma et al. 2019 ). Additionally, life tables are a reliable tool for predicting population growth that can provide a comprehensive representation of insect population dynamics (Akca et al. 2015 ). Demographic vary depending on a variety of factors such as trail conditions, insect genus, host plant type, compound concentration, and test duration. Therefore, the demographic population of insects treated with insecticidal compounds (plants and chemicals) may vary depending on the conditions mentioned (Forbes and Calow 1999 ; Huang et al. 2018 ). These differences are due to variety factors, including the regional insensitivity, changes in the receptor structure, and differences in metabolism of insecticidal compounds (Polatoğlu et al. 2017 ; Tundis et al. 2020 ). Our findings showed that populations of B. brassicae treated with M. azedarach extract at sublethal concentrations were significantly reduced compared to untreated aphids (control). Results obtained by exposing different insect species to specific insecticidal compounds (plants and chemicals) also show that several demographic parameters of treated insect populations were significantly affected and reduced by insecticidal compounds (Pereira et al. 2018 ; Isman 2006 ; Debaraj et al. 1995 ; Ma et al. 2019 ). Therefore, all these results were consistent with our findings on the use of Chinaberry extract against B. brassicae . Phytochemical compounds contained in hexane extracts of fresh fruits of Chinaberry, M. azedarach was identified by gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC-MS). This identified 13 different combinations that made up 99.99% of the plant extract. Additionally, the extract contained two major components: 9,12-Octadecadienoic acid (Z, Z)-, methyl ester (69.375%) and 9-Octadecenoic acid (Z)-, methyl ester (17.231%). Next, it contained hexadecanoic acid, methyl ester (7.361%) and Octadecenoic acid, methyl ester (3.189%) were confirmed as minor ingredients. In general, phytochemical evaluation of the ethanolic extract of all elements of Chinaberry plant ( M. azedarach ) has proven the presence of terpenoids, steroids, limonoids, hydrocarbons, saponins, alkaloids and tannins (Bahuguna et al. 2009 ; Suresh et al. 2008 ). Of course, the fruit of this plant has greater triterpenoid compounds, specifically limonoids and numerous acids (Sharma and Paul 2013 ). These compounds have insecticidal properties and are able to prevent the growth, metamorphosis and feeding of insects (Corpinella et al. 2007 ). All life activities of all living organisms, including insects, are carried out at a specific pH. Insects also require normal amounts of proteins, lipids, and carbohydrates to carry out their daily activities. As a result, the lack of even one of the mentioned factors leads to a violation of the physiological activity of the insects, which consequently has a negative impact on all life activities, such as longevity and reproduction (Chown and Nicolson 2004 ; Nation 2002 ; Rockstein 1978 ). In our study, treatment with sublethal concentrations of Chinaberry extract significantly reduced the energy reserves and hemolymph pH of the aphid B. brassicae . Therefore, considering the important role of proteins, lipids and carbohydrates in aphid life, one of the reasons for the increased mortality of treated aphids compared to untreated aphids may be related to reduce energy reserves in the hemolymph. Additionally, reduction of many aphid performance indicators, such as fertility and adult lifespan, may be due to deficiencies in these factors, but the validity of this requires further research. Sodium and potassium ions play a fundamental roles in many important functions in insects. Therefore, if natural ratios are reduced or altered, vital functions may be disrupted. Normal amounts of sodium in the hemolymph improve nerve and muscle function (Chown and Nicolson 2004 ). Potassium also plays an important role in regulating muscle contraction, regulating body fluids, and transmitting nerve signals (Nation 2002 ; Rockstein 1978 ). In our study, the amounts of sodium and potassium were significantly reduced in aphids treated with the sublethal doses of extract compared to controls. Therefore, the results of this study are consistent with reports by Nation (2000), Rockstein ( 1978 ), Chown and Nicolson ( 2004 ). Additionally, these results indicate that sublethal concentrations of the extract affected two important minerals in these aphids and brought their levels above normal limits. Therefore, another reason for the decline in this insect’s own fitness could be a decrease in the insect’s normal limits of essential minerals. Our findings provide useful information about the effects of sublethal doses of Chinaberry extract on various aspects of B. brassicae , such as mortality, lifespan of different stages, fertility and demographics of this pest. However, we need further information about the location of the effect and the mechanism of action of the various compounds of this plant on these parameters, as well as their effect on this pest. Conclusion The results of this study showed that M. azedarach extract caused significant mortality of this pest. Additionally, sublethal doses of the extract affect various stages of pest growth, fertility and survival and significantly reduce0 pest numbers below the level of economic damage. Therefore, one promising way to achieve harmony with nature is to replace plant compounds with chemical insecticides. Declarations Acknowledgements This study received financial support from the Graduate Education Bureau of Shahed University, Iran, for which we are very grateful. Author contributions HA and JK conceived of the idea. Lab work was carried out by ZF, JK and HA. HA and JK wrote the manuscript. All authors revised and edited the MS. Funding Research funding was granted by Deputy of Research and Technology of Shahed University of Iran. This work is part of a MSc research project of ZF. English review of the MS was funded by English Edit (www.NativeEnglish.com) Compliance with ethical standards Conflict of interest The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest. Ethics approval None References Ahmad M, Akhtar S (2013) Development of insecticide resistance in field populations of Brevicoryne brassicae (Hemiptera: Aphididae) in Pakistan. J Econ Entomol 106(2):954-8. https://doi.10.1603/ec12233 Akca I, Ayvaz T, Yazici E, Smith CL, Chi H (2015) Demography and population projection of Aphis fabae (Hemiptera: Aphididae): with additional comments on life table research criteria. J Econ Entomol 108(4):1466–1478. https://doi.org/10.1093/jee/tov187 Amin TR, El- Halafawy NA (2001/2002) Sodium and potassium ions content of haemolymph in the normal and starved cotton leafworm, Spodoptera littoralis Boisd. 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J Agric Sci 13:79–86. [In Persian with English summary] Nation J (2002) Insect Physiology and Biochemistry. CRC Press, Boca Raton, Florida. Natwick ET (2009) Cole crops: cabbage aphid UC Pest Management Guidelines. University of California Agriculture & Natural Resources. Opfer P, McGrath D (2013) Oregon Vegetables, Cabbage Aphid and Green Peach Aphid. Department of Horticulture. Oregon State University, Corvallis. Pereira AJ, Cardoso IM, Araújo HD, Santana FC, Carneiro APS, Coelho SP, Pereira FJ (2018) Control of Brevicoryne brassicae (Hemiptera: Aphididae) with extracts of Agave americana var. Marginata Trel. in Brassica oleracea crops. Ann Appl Biol. 174(1):14–19. https://doi.org/10.1111/aab.12471 Polatoğlu K, Karakoç ÖM, Yücel YY, Gücel S, Demirci B, Demirci F, Başer KHC (2017) Insecticidal activity of Salvia veneris Hedge. Essential oil against coleopteran stored product insects and Spodoptera exigua (Lepidoptera). 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Ecol Entomol 23:211–215. https://www.jstor.org/stable/3496834 Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Cite Share Download PDF Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. Our growing team is made up of researchers and industry professionals working together to solve the most critical problems facing scientific publishing. Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-4186913","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":285794608,"identity":"823196cf-9dcd-4484-a6ef-cf0c688818be","order_by":0,"name":"Zahra Forouhar","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Shahed University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Zahra","middleName":"","lastName":"Forouhar","suffix":""},{"id":285794610,"identity":"4bb3832f-3d26-439c-b60e-96a373cfd5ab","order_by":1,"name":"Habib Abbasipour","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Shahed University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Habib","middleName":"","lastName":"Abbasipour","suffix":""},{"id":285794611,"identity":"e44ec1d6-6f18-467b-a371-47caaa71cf37","order_by":2,"name":"Jaber Karimi","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAA0UlEQVRIiWNgGAWjYBACCSA+wGBgw2DAwMMAQgwMzMRpSSNRCxAcRtJCCEi2n3146EbBeXtz9rMHH7xhsJNnYOd9gFeLNE+6weEcg9uJO3vykg3nMCQbNjCzG+DVIseQxgDSkmBwIMdMmoeBOYGBmQ2/w+T4n4G0nLM3OP/G/DcPQz1hLdISYFsOMG64kWPGzMNwmLAWyRlgW5ITN9x4Yyw5x+C4YRshLRLn05g/5/yxAzosx/DDm4pqeX7+Y/i1oAFgWBGwYxSMglEwCkYBMQAA/6A7zxALXHwAAAAASUVORK5CYII=","orcid":"","institution":"Shahed University","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Jaber","middleName":"","lastName":"Karimi","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2024-03-29 09:09:52","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-4186913/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-4186913/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":54028735,"identity":"6ecc98f2-735d-411a-9b0a-5c831c2f6f71","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-04-03 15:28:19","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":12259,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eShows pH changes in the hemolymph of \u003cem\u003eB. brassicae\u003c/em\u003e aphids treated with sublethal concentrations of \u003cem\u003eM. azedarach\u003c/em\u003e extract. The results of this study showed that sublethal doses of extract affected the pH of aphid hemolymph. The highest pH (pH=7) was observed in the control treatment group, and the lowest pH (pH\u0026lt;5) was observed in the LC\u003csub\u003e20\u003c/sub\u003e treatment. Therefore, increasing the concentration of the extract changes the pH of the\u0026nbsp;hemolymph\u0026nbsp;from neutral to acidic.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4186913/v1/92b92e83f2d953e9d09e51fb.png"},{"id":54028733,"identity":"00933737-3cfa-4ffe-8dd6-14e0a2c1122f","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-04-03 15:28:19","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":17990,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eShows the effect of sublethal doses of \u003cem\u003eM. azedalach\u003c/em\u003e extract on the energy reserves of the aphid \u003cem\u003eB. brassicae\u003c/em\u003e. The results showed that the energy reserves of treated aphids were significantly reduced compared to untreated aphids. Additionally, there was an inverse relationship between increasing extract concentration and energy accumulation in aphids.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4186913/v1/93f37cd91e29c570badd8fa3.png"},{"id":54028734,"identity":"2077c276-e755-45b3-80ea-75f7da3b1714","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-04-03 15:28:19","extension":"png","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":17914,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eShows the effect of a lethal dose of \u003cem\u003eM. azedarach\u003c/em\u003e extract on the sodium and potassium contents of the aphid \u003cem\u003eB. brassicae\u003c/em\u003e. Sodium content was highest at 20.3 mmol/L in the control group and lowest at 12.5 mmol/L in the LC\u003csub\u003e20\u003c/sub\u003e group. Additionally, the amount of potassium was highest in the control group at 27.2 mmol/L, and the lowest in the LC\u003csub\u003e20\u003c/sub\u003e treatment group at 18.6 mmol/L. Results showed that the amounts of sodium and potassium were significantly reduced in treated aphids compared to untreated aphids. The results also showed that the amount of sodium and potassium decreased significantly with increasing extract concentration.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage3.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4186913/v1/1a845220997f3004054b1b81.png"},{"id":54672166,"identity":"07efae91-8550-40ad-a2e7-ec78e9bd5609","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-04-15 05:24:39","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":501507,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4186913/v1/72265121-fd2e-46f9-87f7-b50d63585b15.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Chemical composition, toxicity and sublethal effects of Melia azedarach extract on some demographic and biochemical characteristics of the cabbage aphid, Brevicoryne brassicae L. (Hemiptera: Aphididae)","fulltext":[{"header":"Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eCabbage aphid, \u003cem\u003eBrevicoryne Brassicae\u003c/em\u003e L. (Hemiptera: Aphididae), is one of the most destructive pests of cruciferous vegetables (Aslam et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e). This aphid is native to Europe but is now found in most parts of the world, including Iran (Opfer and McGrath \u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e). A variety of Various plants in the cruciferous family (Brassicaceae), are affected by cabbage aphid, including Brussels sprouts, cauliflower, broccoli, canola, black and white mustard, Chinese cabbage, kale, and even \u003cem\u003eBrassica\u003c/em\u003e weeds, are attacked by cabbage aphids (Opfer and McGrath \u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e; Kessing and Mau \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1991\u003c/span\u003e). Cabbage aphids are highly aggressive, highly evolutionary adaptable to changing environmental conditions, and abundant fecundity, and are considered a serious threat to vegetables of the cabbage family. Aphids cause two types of damage to infested plants. On the one hand, there is direct damage caused by plant feeding, and on the other hand, there is indirect damage caused by viral diseases being transmitted to plants (Gupta \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1978\u003c/span\u003e). This aphid feeds by penetrating the tissue of stems, leaves, and flowers with their needles and sucking out the sap of the host plant. Continuous uptake and secretion of honeydew into plant organs reduces product yield and marketability (Natwick \u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e; Hines and Hutchison \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e). Infested plants covered with tiny sticky aphid masses (due to honeydew secretion) eventually die due to lack of photosynthesis and growth (Griffin and Williamson \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePesticides are widely used, and their reuse leads to environmental pollution, development of pest resistance, harmful effects on non-target organisms and toxic effects on consumers (Lozowicka et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e; Lu et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). Cabbage aphid has shown resistance to various insecticides such as methomyl, emamectin, lambdacyhalothrin, cypermethrin, bifenthrin, deltamethrin, imidacloprid, thiamethoxam, and acetamiprid (Ahmed and Akhtar 2013). One alternative to chemical pesticides is the use of botanical medicines (Arnason \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). In recent years, herbal preparations have been used to control plant pests with satisfactory results (Tang et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2002\u003c/span\u003e; Samy et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Arnason \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). The effects of five medicinal plant extracts, including \u003cem\u003ePsiadia penninervia\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eSalvia officinalis\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eOchradenus baccatus\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003ePulicaria crispa\u003c/em\u003e, and \u003cem\u003eEuryops arabicus\u003c/em\u003e, on aphids (Hemiptera: Aphididae) were investigated. All of them have been proven to have a negative effect on these insects. However, among them, \u003cem\u003eO. baccatus\u003c/em\u003e extract showed better efficacy than other extracts in controlling aphids and was the safest against \u003cem\u003eChrysoperla carnea\u003c/em\u003e, a predator of aphids (Samy et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). The study also identified six known insecticidal plants, including \u003cem\u003eBidens pilosa\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eLantana camara\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eLippiia javanica\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eTephrosia forgeli\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eTithonia diversifolia\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eVernonia amygdalina\u003c/em\u003e, as well as a synthetic insecticides (lambdacyhalothrin) against pests and natural enemies of legumes. The results showed that botanical pesticides had a better effect on crop yield and natural enemies were more effective than synthetic pesticides (Tembo et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). Likewise, the insecticidal properties of plants such as \u003cem\u003eTephrosia vogelii\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eAllium sativa\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eCupscum frutensces\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eAnnona squamosa\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eAzadirachta indica\u003c/em\u003e may make them promising alternatives to chemical pesticides (Koona and Dorn \u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e; Amoabeng et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e). Plant insecticides generally cause various stages of insect death, reduced growth rate, reduced viability of insect eggs and adult sterility insects (Da silva et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e; Isman \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e). Additionally, due to the molecular complexity of plant compounds (extracts and essential oils), the potential for pest resistance to these compounds is very low (Bedini et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). Compared to chemical pesticides, plant-drived pesticides decompose faster, making them safer for the environment and consumers (Isman \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e; Amoabeng et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e). Additionally, plant materials are compatible with nature and do not pose a risk to non-target organisms (Tang et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2002\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe aim of this study is to investigate the possible effects of sublethal doses of chinaberry extract on some biological and biochemical properties of cabbage aphids. Additionally, this study may help to better understand the effectiveness of plant extracts as an alternative to chemical insecticides in cabbage aphid control.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Materials and methods","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eCabbage aphid rearing\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eAll studies were conducted from 2016 using aphid samples collected from cauliflower (\u003cem\u003eBrassica oleracea\u003c/em\u003e var. \u003cem\u003ecapitata\u003c/em\u003e L.) fields at Shahed University, Tehran, Iran. These samples were later transported to the laboratory along with pieces of the host plant. Aphids were reared on cauliflower leaves for three generations under controlled conditions (25\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2\u0026deg;C, 65\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;5% relative humidity, and photoperiod 16L: 8D h). Leaves were placed individually in clear plastic containers (5 \u0026times; 13 \u0026times; 15 cm) and covered with mesh lids to allow air circulation (Jahan et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec4\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003ePreparation of plant extract\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eFresh fruit extracts of Chinaberry (\u003cem\u003eMelia azedarach\u003c/em\u003e L.) were collected from different locations around on the Shahed University campus in Tehran, Iran. This plant is not treated with pesticides throughout the growing season. A team of experts from the Department of Horticultural Sciences, Faculty of Agriculture, Shahed University recognized this plant as Chinaberry. Fresh fruit was washed with clean water, air-dried in a dark laboratory for three weeks, and then pureed using an electric blender. The Erlenmeyer flask contained 50 g of a sample of ground plant powder suspended in 100 ml of distilled water and ethanol. The bottle was wrapped in aluminum foil and left at room temperature for 10 days. The mixture was stirred vigorously at 12-h intervals to ensure sufficient incorporation of the plant material. After 10 days, the extract was filtered and evaporated to dryness. The resulting mixture was filtered twice with Whatman No. 1 filter paper, and the liquid was then evaporated in a rotary evaporator at 30\u0026ndash;40\u0026deg;C, 3\u0026ndash;6 rpm for 8 hours, and the final material was air dried in air to removal residual solvent. The crude solution of the plant material extract was prepared by re-dissolving the extracted solids in hot distilled water (0.5 g/500 ml) (Kalia et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec5\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eChromatography-Mass Spectrometry analysis\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003ePhytochemicals contained in the hexane extract of Chinaberry tree fruit extract were identified by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. GC-MS analysis was performed using a Shimadzu GC-9A with helium as carrier gas on a DB-5 column (30 m \u0026times; 0.25 mm internal diameter, 0.25 \u0026micro;m film thickness) at a linear velocity of 30 cm/s. The oven was programmed to ramp isothermally to 60\u0026deg;C (3 min) and then ramp to 210\u0026deg;C at a rate of 3\u0026deg;C/min. The injector and detector temperatures were 300\u0026deg;C and 270\u0026deg;C, respectively. GC-mass spectrometry was performed on a Varian 3400 instrument equipped with a DB-5 column with identical properties to GC. The temperature of the transfer line was 260\u0026deg;C. Ionization energy was 70 eV, the scan time was 1 s, and the mass range was 40\u0026ndash;300 amu. Unknown extracts were identified by comparing their GC retention times to those of known compounds and comparing their mass spectra with either known compounds or published spectra.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec6\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eBioassay experiments\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo evaluate the insecticidal effect, we placed 20 aphids in a small container (50 \u0026times; 50 mm) and covered it with a parafilm lid using liquid accessible through an artificial membrane of stretched parafilm (Febvay et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1988\u003c/span\u003e; Sabeghi Khosroshahi et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). Then, 20% sucrose was added to each of the different concentrations of Chinaberry extract. The control treatment was also received only 20% sucrose without extract. The aphids were then re-coated with Parafilm and returned to the container for a few minutes to allow them to attach to the Parafilm and artificial diet. Trays were then placed in a germination apparatus at 25\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2\u0026deg;C, 65\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;5% relative humidity, and 16L: 8D h photoperiod, and dead and live insects were counted every 12, 24, 48, 72, and 96 h. Six concentrations and one control were used, with 20 insects each treated three replicates of this experiment. Adult parthenogenesis was also used in this study.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec7\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eSublethal effect of Chinaberry extract on biological parameters of aphid\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eSublethal doses of Chinaberry extract were used to generate life table parameters. Each sublethal concentration (LC\u003csub\u003e10\u003c/sub\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.68 and LC\u003csub\u003e20\u003c/sub\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1.16 \u0026micro;g/ml) of Chinaberry extract was mixed with sucrose (20%). The control treatment also received only 20% sucrose without extract. Using a sampler, 150 \u0026micro;l of the extract of each concentration mixed with artificial diet was added to the Parafilm layer on the tube, and the Parafilm layer was placed on top of it. After 24 h, surviving aphids (at least 50 aphids per treatment) were individually transferred to untreated cabbage leaf disks in individual Petri dishes and incubated at 25\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2\u0026deg;C, 65\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;5% relative humidity, and 16L:8D h photoperiod to continue their development.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe following biological characteristics of the cabbage aphid, \u003cem\u003eB. brassicae\u003c/em\u003e, were evaluated using a techniques slightly modified method of that used by Moharramipour et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2003\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eWeight\u003c/b\u003e: The weight of cabbage aphid, \u003cem\u003eB. brassicae\u003c/em\u003e was measured using a digital scale (accuracy: 0.0001 g).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cstrong\u003ePopulation parameters\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cp\u003eConsistent with Maia Ade et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2000\u003c/span\u003e), fecundity (mean number of nymph production/female/generation), longevity, the intrinsic rate of increase (\u003cem\u003er\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cem\u003em\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e), gross reproduction rate (\u003cem\u003eGRR\u003c/em\u003e), net reproduction rate (\u003cem\u003eR\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cem\u003e0\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e), mean generation time (\u003cem\u003eT\u003c/em\u003e), doubling time (\u003cem\u003eDT\u003c/em\u003e), finite rate of increase (\u003cem\u003eλ\u003c/em\u003e), intrinsic birth rate (\u003cem\u003eb\u003c/em\u003e), intrinsic death rate (\u003cem\u003ed\u003c/em\u003e), \u003cem\u003eb\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;\u003cem\u003ed\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eb\u003c/em\u003e/\u003cem\u003ed\u003c/em\u003e rate, and the weekly growth rate (\u003cem\u003er\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cem\u003ew\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e) were calculated. Standard errors of life table parameters were estimated using the jackknife method used for comparison of means (Meyer et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1986\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eBiochemistry experiment\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eProtein analysis\u003c/b\u003e. Total protein concentration was measured by the method of Bradford (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1976\u003c/span\u003e). Bovine serum albumin (BSA) was used as a standard. The homogenized solution of each aphid was dissolved in 20 \u0026micro;l. Absorbance values ​​were measured at 595 nm and a standard curve was generated using Microsoft Office Excel software. The protein concentration (mg/mL) of the samples was determined using the standard curve equation.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eCarbohydrate and lipid analysis\u003c/b\u003e. Aphids were homogenized in sodium sulfate solution (2%). Then, 469 \u0026micro;l of chloroform:methanol (1:2 v/v) was added and centrifuged at 4\u0026deg;C and 8000 rpm for 10 min. Carbohydrate and lipid tests were performed according to Singh and Sinha (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1977\u003c/span\u003e) and Yuval et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR49\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1998\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eHemolymph analysis for sodium and potassium.\u003c/b\u003e Sodium (Na\u003csup\u003e+\u003c/sup\u003e) and potassium (K\u003csup\u003e+\u003c/sup\u003e) ions were measured using a flame photometric radiometer as described by Amin and El-Halafawy (2001/2002). Samples for ion analysis were prepared by diluting the plasma with deionized water at a ratio of 1:10.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003epH measurement\u003c/b\u003e. pH was measured using a microflat tip electrode connected to a Metrohm/Brinkmann pH-102 pH meter. The pH of hemolymph plasma (10 \u0026micro;l) was measured immediately on a Teflon plates.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec9\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eData analyses\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eLC\u003csub\u003e10\u003c/sub\u003e, LC\u003csub\u003e20\u003c/sub\u003e, and LC\u003csub\u003e50\u003c/sub\u003e values ​​were calculated using the log probit model using Polo Plus 2.0 software (LeOra Software, Petaluma, CA). The association between concentration and mortality (data adjusted for baseline mortality) was considered real if there was no significant difference between observed and predicted data (P\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05). Mortality rates between treatment and control groups were compared with \u003cem\u003eχ\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e using SPSS 19.0. Mean values were compared using Duncan's test (P\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Results","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eChemical composition of plant extract\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eAs shown in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e, gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) analysis of Chinaberry tree extracts revealed that the plant contains 13 different compounds. The largest proportion (69.375%) is explained by the 9,12-octadecadienoic acid (Z, Z)-, methyl ester composition. Afterwards, 9-octadecenoic acid (Z) methyl ester (17.231%), hexadecanoic acid methyl ester (7.231%) and octadecenoic acid methyl ester (3.189%) were detected. Therefore, 97.026% of the total compounds in this plant are composed of the above four compounds, while the remaining nine compounds account for only 2.974%.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePhytochemical compounds in the hexane extract of the fresh fruits from the chinaberry tree, \u003cem\u003eMelia azedarach\u003c/em\u003e identified by gas chromatography\u0026ndash;mass spectrometry (GC-MS)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"5\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSr.no.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRetention Time (min)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMolecular Formula\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eName of the compound\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eComposition %\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.773\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eC\u003csub\u003e9\u003c/sub\u003eH\u003csub\u003e20\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHexane, 2,3,4-trimethyl-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.102%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.933\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eC₁₀H₂₂\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDecane\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.460%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e14.337\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eC\u003csub\u003e12\u003c/sub\u003eH\u003csub\u003e26\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDodecane\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.741%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e16.435\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eC\u003csub\u003e10\u003c/sub\u003eH\u003csub\u003e16\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3-Octen-5-yne, 2,7-dimethyl-, (Z)-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.083%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e22.677\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eC\u003csub\u003e11\u003c/sub\u003eH\u003csub\u003e24\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUndecane\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.299%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e30.549\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eC\u003csub\u003e6\u003c/sub\u003eH\u003csub\u003e14\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eButane, 2,2-dimethyl-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.095%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e42.002\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eC\u003csub\u003e17\u003c/sub\u003eH\u003csub\u003e34\u003c/sub\u003eO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHexadecanoic acid, methyl ester\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.361%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e47.378\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eC\u003csub\u003e19\u003c/sub\u003eH\u003csub\u003e34\u003c/sub\u003eO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9,12-Octadecadienoic acid (Z, Z)-, methyl ester\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e69.375%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e47.503\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eC\u003csub\u003e19\u003c/sub\u003eH\u003csub\u003e36\u003c/sub\u003eO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9-Octadecenoic acid (Z)-, methyl ester\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e17.231%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e47.589\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eC\u003csub\u003e19\u003c/sub\u003eH\u003csub\u003e36\u003c/sub\u003eO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11-Octadecenoic acid, methyl ester\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.603%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e48.205\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eC\u003csub\u003e19\u003c/sub\u003eH\u003csub\u003e34\u003c/sub\u003eO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOctadecenoic acid, methyl ester\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.189%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e53.151\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eC\u003csub\u003e14\u003c/sub\u003eH\u003csub\u003e26\u003c/sub\u003eO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eE-9-Tetradecenoic acid\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.356%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e53.9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eC\u003csub\u003e8\u003c/sub\u003eH\u003csub\u003e16\u003c/sub\u003eO\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2,2-Dimethyl-5-hexen-3-ol\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.107%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e[Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eDetermination of the lethal and sublethal concentrations\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe results of lethal and sublethal concentrations of \u003cem\u003eM. azedarach\u003c/em\u003e extract against \u003cem\u003eB. brassicae\u003c/em\u003e are presented in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e. The lethal concentration value (LC\u003csub\u003e50\u003c/sub\u003e) was 3.42 \u0026micro;g/ml, and the sublethal concentrations (LC\u003csub\u003e10\u003c/sub\u003e and LC\u003csub\u003e20\u003c/sub\u003e) were 0.68 and 1.16 \u0026micro;g/ml, respectively.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eProbit analysis for the concentration-mortality response of \u003cem\u003eM. azedarach\u003c/em\u003e plant extract on the adult insects of \u003cem\u003eB. brassicae\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"9\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c9\" colnum=\"9\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePlant extract\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003en\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003edf\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLC\u003csub\u003e10\u003c/sub\u003e (\u0026micro;g/ml)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e95% CL\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLC\u003csub\u003e20\u003c/sub\u003e (\u0026micro;g/ml)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e95% CL\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLC\u003csub\u003e50\u003c/sub\u003e (\u0026micro;g/ml)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e95% CL\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSlope\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;SE\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eχ\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ep-value\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eM. azedarach\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e600\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.68\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(0.17\u0026ndash;2.31)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.16\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(0.59\u0026ndash;3.75)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.42\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(2.15\u0026ndash;9.89)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.60\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.18\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.91\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.12\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003ctfoot\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"9\"\u003e\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e 20 individuals per replicate, five replicates per concentration, six concentrations in total.\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"9\"\u003e\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e Confidence Limited\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tfoot\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e[Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSublethal effects of M\u003cspan dir=\"RTL\"\u003e.\u003c/span\u003e azedarach on biological parameters of aphid\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe results of the effect of sublethal doses of \u003cem\u003eM. azedarach\u003c/em\u003e extract on the biological parameters of \u003cem\u003eB. brassicae\u003c/em\u003e are presented in Table 3. Gross reproductive rate (\u003cem\u003eGRR\u003c/em\u003e) is the total number of females that produce in one generation.\u0026nbsp;According to the obtained results, the highest value of this parameter was 55.45\u0026plusmn;0.32\u0026nbsp;females/females/day, and the lowest\u0026nbsp;value\u0026nbsp;was 20.02\u0026plusmn;0.05\u0026nbsp;females/females/day belonging to the control group and LC\u003csub\u003e20\u003c/sub\u003e, respectively.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe net reproductive rate (\u003cem\u003eR\u003csub\u003e0\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/em\u003e) is the average number of offspring produced by each female insect during one generation. The \u003cem\u003eR\u003csub\u003eo\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/em\u003e peak (59.42\u0026plusmn;0.42 offspring/female) was observed in the control treatment, while the lowest value was observed in LC\u003csub\u003e20\u003c/sub\u003e (16.55\u0026plusmn;0.07 offspring/female). The most important parameter of population growth is the intrinsic rate of natural increase (\u003cem\u003er\u003csub\u003em\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/em\u003e). This parameter is a standard indicator of population growth rate and depends on birth rate, life cycle length and growth rate.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAdditionally, the intrinsic population growth rate (\u003cem\u003er\u003csub\u003em\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/em\u003e) is one of the parameters suitable for describing population growth rate and predicting the growth potential of organisms in the environment. The highest value of this parameter was 0.29\u0026plusmn;0.01\u0026nbsp;day\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;1\u003c/sup\u003e, and the lowest\u0026nbsp;value was\u0026nbsp;0.20\u0026plusmn;0.02\u0026nbsp;day\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;1\u003c/sup\u003e in the control treatment group and the LC\u003csub\u003e20\u003c/sub\u003e, respectively\u003cspan dir=\"RTL\"\u003e.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe finite rate of increase (\u003cem\u003e\u0026lambda;\u003c/em\u003e) represents the amount by which a stable population increases each day compared to the previous day. The maximum\u0026nbsp;value\u0026nbsp;(1.41\u0026plusmn;0.01\u0026nbsp;day\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;1\u003c/sup\u003e) of this variable was observed in the control group, and the minimum\u0026nbsp;value\u0026nbsp;(1.05\u0026plusmn;0.02\u0026nbsp;day\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;1\u003c/sup\u003e) was observed in LC\u003csub\u003e20\u003c/sub\u003e. The\u0026nbsp;intrinsic birth rate (\u003cem\u003eb\u003c/em\u003e) is the per capita. This parameter represents the daily birth rate per capita. The highest value of this indictor was 4.23\u0026plusmn;0.01 death/individual, and the lowest value was 1.75\u0026plusmn;0.01 death/individual.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe intrinsic death rate (\u003cem\u003ed\u003c/em\u003e) is the inverse of the natural birth rate and represents the per capita mortality rate. This parameter represents the daily mortality rate per capita. The maximum value of this indicator was 3.18\u0026plusmn;0.01 death/individual, and the minimum value was 1.54\u0026plusmn;0.01 death/individual.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eResults showed that intrinsic birth rate (\u003cem\u003eb\u003c/em\u003e)\u0026nbsp;and\u0026nbsp;intrinsic death rate (\u003cem\u003ed\u003c/em\u003e)\u0026nbsp;were highest in the control treatment\u0026nbsp;and lowest in LC\u003csub\u003e20\u003c/sub\u003e. In LC\u003csub\u003e20\u003c/sub\u003e, the birth-death ratio was highest at 1.13 per female, and in in the control group it was lowest at 1.07 per female.\u0026nbsp;The highest number of lifetime events (birth and death=7.72 day\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e per female) was observed in the control treatment group and the lowest in the LC\u003csub\u003e20\u003c/sub\u003e group (3.30 day\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e per female).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe longest duration for this parameter was 15.32 days for the LC\u003csub\u003e20\u003c/sub\u003e treatment, and the shortest duration was 13.81 days for the control treatment. Population doubling time was shortest for the control treatment (\u003cem\u003eDT\u003c/em\u003e = 2.97 days) and longest for the LC\u003csub\u003e20\u003c/sub\u003e treatment (\u003cem\u003eDT\u003c/em\u003e = 3.35 days). Birth rate of \u003cem\u003eB. brassicae\u003c/em\u003e was significantly reduced when treated with the extract compared to untreated aphids.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;The highest average weekly growth rate (\u003cem\u003er\u003csub\u003ew\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/em\u003e= 6.74\u0026plusmn;0.29\u0026nbsp;females/day) was observed in the control treatment and the lowest (\u003cem\u003er\u003csub\u003ew\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/em\u003e=4.25\u0026plusmn;0.01\u0026nbsp;females/day) in the LC\u003csub\u003e20\u003c/sub\u003e treatment. The mean generation time (\u003cem\u003eT\u003c/em\u003e) is the time required for a young female to establish population \u003cem\u003eR\u003csub\u003e0\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/em\u003e.\u0026nbsp;The longest duration for this parameter was 15.32 days for the LC20 treatment and the shortest duration was 13.81 days for the control treatment.\u0026nbsp;Population doubling time was shortest for the control treatment (\u003cem\u003eDT\u003c/em\u003e= 2.97 day) and longest for the LC\u003csub\u003e20\u003c/sub\u003e treatment (\u003cem\u003eDT\u003c/em\u003e=3.35 day).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe birth rate of \u003cem\u003eB. brassicae\u003c/em\u003e was significantly reduced when treated with the extract compared to untreated aphids. The highest reproductive rate (55.82\u0026plusmn;0.36 nymph/female) was observed in untreated aphids, while the lowest reproductive rate (17.34 \u0026plusmn; 0.11) was observed in LC\u003csub\u003e20\u003c/sub\u003e-treated aphids. The longevity of treated aphid adults with \u003cem\u003eM. azedarach\u003c/em\u003e extract were also significantly shorter compared to untreated aphids. Adult longevity was longest in the control group (17.33\u0026plusmn;0.45) and shortest in LC\u003csub\u003e20\u003c/sub\u003e (10.89\u0026plusmn;0.53). The development time of \u003cem\u003eB. brassicae\u003c/em\u003e was longer in LC\u003csub\u003e20\u003c/sub\u003e (10.34 \u0026plusmn;0.45 day) and shorter in control treatment (8.82 \u0026plusmn;0.18 day).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eComparison (mean\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;SE) of the biological parameters of the cabbage aphid, \u003cem\u003eB. brassicae\u003c/em\u003e in sublethal concentrations of \u003cem\u003eM. azedarach\u003c/em\u003e plant extract and control treatments\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"5\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLife table parameters\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eControl\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLC\u003csub\u003e10\u003c/sub\u003e (\u0026micro;g/ml)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLC\u003csub\u003e20\u003c/sub\u003e (\u0026micro;g/ml)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003egross reproduction rate (\u003cem\u003eGRR\u003c/em\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e55.45\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.32a\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e30.55\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.05b\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20.02\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.05c\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003enet reproduction rate (\u003cem\u003eR\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cem\u003e0\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e59.42\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.42a\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e26.20\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.08b\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e16.65\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.07c\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eintrinsic rate of increase (\u003cem\u003er\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cem\u003em\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.29\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01a\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.24\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01b\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.20\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.02c\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003efinite rate of increase (\u003cem\u003eλ\u003c/em\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.41\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01a\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.29\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.0 a\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.05\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.02b\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eintrinsic birth rate (\u003cem\u003eb\u003c/em\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.23\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01a\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.37\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01b\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.75\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01c\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eintrinsic death rate (\u003cem\u003ed\u003c/em\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.18\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01c\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.14\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01b\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.54\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01a\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eb\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;\u003cem\u003ed\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.41\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.03a\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.51\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.02b\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.29\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.02c\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eb\u003c/em\u003e/\u003cem\u003ed\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.33\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.02a\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.11\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01b\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.14\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.02b\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eweekly growth rate (\u003cem\u003er\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cem\u003ew\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.74\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.29a\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.07\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01b\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.25\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01c\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003emean generation time (\u003cem\u003eT\u003c/em\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.81\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01b\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.98\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01b\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.32\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.01a\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFertility (nymph/female)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e55.82\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.36a\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e30.42\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.21b\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e17.34\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.11c\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePopulation doubling time (\u003cem\u003eDT\u003c/em\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.97\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.02c\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.28\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.11b\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.35\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.21a\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAdult longevity(days)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e17.33\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.45a\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e14.77\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.37b\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.89\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.53c\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTotal development time (days)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.82\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.18b\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.32\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.65b\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.34\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.45a\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"4\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMeans followed by different letters in each raw are significantly different (Jackknife method test, P\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"1\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e[Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec14\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eEffect of sublethal doses on pH changes\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eFigure \u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e shows pH changes in the hemolymph of \u003cem\u003eB. brassicae\u003c/em\u003e aphids treated with sublethal concentrations of \u003cem\u003eM. azedarach\u003c/em\u003e extract. The results of this study showed that sublethal doses of extract affected the pH of aphid hemolymph. The highest pH (pH\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;7) was observed in the control treatment group, and the lowest pH (pH\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;5) was observed in the LC\u003csub\u003e20\u003c/sub\u003e treatment. Therefore, increasing the concentration of the extract changes the pH of the hemolymph from neutral to acidic.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e[Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec15\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eSublethal effects of extracts on energy reserves\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eFigure \u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e shows the effect of sublethal doses of \u003cem\u003eM. azedalach\u003c/em\u003e extract on the energy reserves of the aphid \u003cem\u003eB. brassicae\u003c/em\u003e. The results showed that the energy reserves of treated aphids were significantly reduced compared to untreated aphids. Additionally, there was an inverse relationship between increasing extract concentration and energy accumulation in aphids.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e[Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec16\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eEffect of sublethal doses of extract on sodium and potassium levels\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eFigure \u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e shows the effect of a lethal dose of \u003cem\u003eM. azedarach\u003c/em\u003e extract on the sodium and potassium contents of the aphid \u003cem\u003eB. brassicae\u003c/em\u003e. Sodium content was highest at 20.3 mmol/L in the control group and lowest at 12.5 mmol/L in the LC\u003csub\u003e20\u003c/sub\u003e group. Additionally, the amount of potassium was highest in the control group at 27.2 mmol/L, and the lowest in the LC\u003csub\u003e20\u003c/sub\u003e treatment group at 18.6 mmol/L. Results showed that the amounts of sodium and potassium were significantly reduced in treated aphids compared to untreated aphids. The results also showed that the amount of sodium and potassium decreased significantly with increasing extract concentration.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e[Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eDue to the harmful effects of chemical insecticides on the environment and non-target organisms, natural products, especially products derived from plant derivatives, are being considered as alternatives to chemical insecticides (Chermenskaya et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e). Plant extracts have recently been shown to play an important role in pest control due to their low cost, lack of residual environmental friendliness, wide availability and high toxicity to some pests such as aphids (Bedini et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). In this study, we used an artificial diet (20% sucrose) containing sublethal concentrations of \u003cem\u003eM. azedarach\u003c/em\u003e extract (LC\u003csub\u003e10\u003c/sub\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.68 and LC\u003csub\u003e20\u003c/sub\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1.16 \u0026micro;g/ml) to determine potential negative effects on developmental, reproductive and demographic traits of \u003cem\u003eB. brassicae\u003c/em\u003e aphid. Significant changes in mortality, development time, nymph production and demographic characteristics were observed depending on the concentration of extract in the artificial diet. Toxicity results showed that \u003cem\u003eM. azedarach\u003c/em\u003e extract was toxic to \u003cem\u003eB. brassicae\u003c/em\u003e with an LC\u003csub\u003e50\u003c/sub\u003e value of 3.42 \u0026micro;g/ml. Additionally, sublethal doses (LC\u003csub\u003e10\u003c/sub\u003e and LC\u003csub\u003e20\u003c/sub\u003e) of the extract affect essential functions of this aphid, such as lifespan, slow growth, fertility and survival. Kibrom et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e) reported that direct application of 5% aqueous seed extract of \u003cem\u003eM. azedarach\u003c/em\u003e under field conditions resulted in mortality of \u003cem\u003eB. brassicae\u003c/em\u003e reaching 86.5% but had no significant effect on the predator, \u003cem\u003eCoccinella septempunctata\u003c/em\u003e. Additionally, according to the results of Ulusoy and Olmez (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR48\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e), \u003cem\u003eB. brassicae\u003c/em\u003e grown on cauliflower was 9.8 days, and the longest period was 21.8 days. In this study, the longevity of \u003cem\u003eB. brassicae\u003c/em\u003e adults fed artificial diet without extract (control group) was 17. 33 days, which is almost the same as the longevity of aphids fed cauliflower in the experiment by Ulusoy and Olmez (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR48\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e). However, in our experiments, the longevity of aphids fed artificial diet containing sublethal doses (LC\u003csub\u003e10\u003c/sub\u003e and LC\u003csub\u003e20\u003c/sub\u003e) of Chinaberry extract was 14.77 and 10.89 days, respectively. These results indicate that the longevity of aphids is affected by concentration, and that as the extract concentration increases, the lifespan of aphid\u0026rsquo;s decreases significantly. As a result, the longevity of this aphid is shortened, reducing their opportunities to feed and produce offspring. Additionally, the total development time of \u003cem\u003eB. brassicae\u003c/em\u003e in the control treatment (8.82\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.18 days) was consistent with the data of Ulusoy and Olmez (9.8 days). However, LC\u003csub\u003e20\u003c/sub\u003e treatment resulted in a significant increase in total development time (10.34\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.45 days).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOur findings also showed that the biological parameters of \u003cem\u003eB. brassicae\u003c/em\u003e, including, gross reproductive rate (\u003cem\u003eGRR\u003c/em\u003e), net reproductive rate (\u003cem\u003eR\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cem\u003e0\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e), intrinsic rate of population growth (\u003cem\u003er\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cem\u003em\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e), finite rate of increase (\u003cem\u003eλ\u003c/em\u003e) were significantly reduced in treated aphids compared to untreated aphids. Compared to controls, adult fertility and longevity as well as the intrinsic birth rate (\u003cem\u003eb\u003c/em\u003e), intrinsic death rate (\u003cem\u003ed\u003c/em\u003e), \u003cem\u003eb\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;d\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eb/d\u003c/em\u003e and weekly growth rate (\u003cem\u003er\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cem\u003ew\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e) were significantly reduced. Meanwhile, the mean generation time (\u003cem\u003eT\u003c/em\u003e), population doubling time (\u003cem\u003eDT\u003c/em\u003e), and total development time (\u003cem\u003eTDT\u003c/em\u003e) increased significantly. Ulusoy and Olmez (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR48\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e) reported that the net reproduction rate (\u003cem\u003eR\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cem\u003e0\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e) and the intrinsic rate of increase (\u003cem\u003er\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cem\u003em\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e) of \u003cem\u003eB. brassicae\u003c/em\u003e fed on cauliflower significantly decreased compared to the control group.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThree parameters are very important for the growth rate of pest population, including net reproductive rate (\u003cem\u003eR\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cem\u003e0\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e), intrinsic rate of population growth (\u003cem\u003er\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cem\u003em\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e) and finite rate of increase (\u003cem\u003eλ\u003c/em\u003e). Therefore, any factor that causes changes in these parameters may affect the demographic population of insects (Ma et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). Additionally, life tables are a reliable tool for predicting population growth that can provide a comprehensive representation of insect population dynamics (Akca et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e). Demographic vary depending on a variety of factors such as trail conditions, insect genus, host plant type, compound concentration, and test duration. Therefore, the demographic population of insects treated with insecticidal compounds (plants and chemicals) may vary depending on the conditions mentioned (Forbes and Calow \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1999\u003c/span\u003e; Huang et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). These differences are due to variety factors, including the regional insensitivity, changes in the receptor structure, and differences in metabolism of insecticidal compounds (Polatoğlu et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e; Tundis et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR47\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). Our findings showed that populations of \u003cem\u003eB. brassicae\u003c/em\u003e treated with \u003cem\u003eM. azedarach\u003c/em\u003e extract at sublethal concentrations were significantly reduced compared to untreated aphids (control). Results obtained by exposing different insect species to specific insecticidal compounds (plants and chemicals) also show that several demographic parameters of treated insect populations were significantly affected and reduced by insecticidal compounds (Pereira et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; Isman \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e; Debaraj et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1995\u003c/span\u003e; Ma et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). Therefore, all these results were consistent with our findings on the use of Chinaberry extract against \u003cem\u003eB. brassicae\u003c/em\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePhytochemical compounds contained in hexane extracts of fresh fruits of Chinaberry, \u003cem\u003eM. azedarach\u003c/em\u003e was identified by gas chromatography\u0026ndash;mass spectrometry (GC-MS). This identified 13 different combinations that made up 99.99% of the plant extract. Additionally, the extract contained two major components: 9,12-Octadecadienoic acid (Z, Z)-, methyl ester (69.375%) and 9-Octadecenoic acid (Z)-, methyl ester (17.231%). Next, it contained hexadecanoic acid, methyl ester (7.361%) and Octadecenoic acid, methyl ester (3.189%) were confirmed as minor ingredients.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn general, phytochemical evaluation of the ethanolic extract of all elements of Chinaberry plant (\u003cem\u003eM. azedarach\u003c/em\u003e) has proven the presence of terpenoids, steroids, limonoids, hydrocarbons, saponins, alkaloids and tannins (Bahuguna et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e; Suresh et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e). Of course, the fruit of this plant has greater triterpenoid compounds, specifically limonoids and numerous acids (Sharma and Paul \u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e). These compounds have insecticidal properties and are able to prevent the growth, metamorphosis and feeding of insects (Corpinella et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2007\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAll life activities of all living organisms, including insects, are carried out at a specific pH. Insects also require normal amounts of proteins, lipids, and carbohydrates to carry out their daily activities. As a result, the lack of even one of the mentioned factors leads to a violation of the physiological activity of the insects, which consequently has a negative impact on all life activities, such as longevity and reproduction (Chown and Nicolson \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2004\u003c/span\u003e; Nation \u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2002\u003c/span\u003e; Rockstein \u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1978\u003c/span\u003e). In our study, treatment with sublethal concentrations of Chinaberry extract significantly reduced the energy reserves and hemolymph pH of the aphid \u003cem\u003eB. brassicae\u003c/em\u003e. Therefore, considering the important role of proteins, lipids and carbohydrates in aphid life, one of the reasons for the increased mortality of treated aphids compared to untreated aphids may be related to reduce energy reserves in the hemolymph.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAdditionally, reduction of many aphid performance indicators, such as fertility and adult lifespan, may be due to deficiencies in these factors, but the validity of this requires further research.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSodium and potassium ions play a fundamental roles in many important functions in insects. Therefore, if natural ratios are reduced or altered, vital functions may be disrupted. Normal amounts of sodium in the hemolymph improve nerve and muscle function (Chown and Nicolson \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2004\u003c/span\u003e). Potassium also plays an important role in regulating muscle contraction, regulating body fluids, and transmitting nerve signals (Nation \u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2002\u003c/span\u003e; Rockstein \u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1978\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn our study, the amounts of sodium and potassium were significantly reduced in aphids treated with the sublethal doses of extract compared to controls. Therefore, the results of this study are consistent with reports by Nation (2000), Rockstein (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1978\u003c/span\u003e), Chown and Nicolson (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2004\u003c/span\u003e). Additionally, these results indicate that sublethal concentrations of the extract affected two important minerals in these aphids and brought their levels above normal limits. Therefore, another reason for the decline in this insect\u0026rsquo;s own fitness could be a decrease in the insect\u0026rsquo;s normal limits of essential minerals.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOur findings provide useful information about the effects of sublethal doses of Chinaberry extract on various aspects of \u003cem\u003eB. brassicae\u003c/em\u003e, such as mortality, lifespan of different stages, fertility and demographics of this pest. However, we need further information about the location of the effect and the mechanism of action of the various compounds of this plant on these parameters, as well as their effect on this pest.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe results of this study showed that \u003cem\u003eM. azedarach\u003c/em\u003e extract caused significant mortality of this pest. Additionally, sublethal doses of the extract affect various stages of pest growth, fertility and survival and significantly reduce0 pest numbers below the level of economic damage. Therefore, one promising way to achieve harmony with nature is to replace plant compounds with chemical insecticides.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAcknowledgements\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis study received financial support from the Graduate Education Bureau of Shahed University, Iran, for which we are very grateful.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAuthor contributions\u003c/strong\u003e HA and JK conceived of the idea. Lab work was carried out by ZF, JK and HA. HA and JK wrote the manuscript. All authors revised and edited the MS.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFunding\u003c/strong\u003e Research funding was granted by Deputy of Research and Technology of Shahed University of Iran. This work is part of a MSc research project of ZF. English review of the MS was funded by English Edit (www.NativeEnglish.com)\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCompliance with ethical standards\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConflict of interest\u003c/strong\u003e The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEthics approval\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eNone\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAhmad M, Akhtar S (2013) Development of insecticide resistance in field populations of Brevicoryne brassicae (Hemiptera: Aphididae) in Pakistan. J Econ Entomol 106(2):954-8. https://doi.10.1603/ec12233\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAkca I, Ayvaz T, Yazici E, Smith CL, Chi H (2015) Demography and population projection of \u003cem\u003eAphis fabae\u003c/em\u003e (Hemiptera: Aphididae): with additional comments on life table research criteria. 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Ecol Entomol 23:211\u0026ndash;215. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://www.jstor.org/stable/3496834\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"https://www.jstor.org/stable/3496834\" targettype=\"URL\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Brevicoryne brassicae, Chinaberry extract, sublethal doses, demographic and biochemical parameter","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-4186913/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-4186913/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eOne of the most important pests of cabbage and other cruciferous vegetables is the cabbage aphid, \u003cem\u003eBrevicoryne Brassicae\u003c/em\u003e L. (Hemiptera: Aphidae). This aphid produces multiple generations per year, each generation producing large numbers of nymphs that are resistant to a variety of chemical insecticides. In this study, sublethal effects of \u003cem\u003eMelia azedarach\u003c/em\u003e extract was investigated on some demographic and biochemical parameters of \u003cem\u003eB. brassicae\u003c/em\u003e. The bioassay results showed that the LC\u003csub\u003e10\u003c/sub\u003e, LC\u003csub\u003e20\u003c/sub\u003e, and LC\u003csub\u003e50\u003c/sub\u003e values ​​were 0.68, 1.16, and 3.42 \u0026micro;g/ml, respectively. Compared to controls, the sublethal doses caused significantly reduced gross reproductive rate (\u003cem\u003eGRR\u003c/em\u003e), net reproductive rate (\u003cem\u003eR\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cem\u003e0\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e), intrinsic rate of increase (\u003cem\u003er\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cem\u003em\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e), finite rate of increase (\u003cem\u003eλ\u003c/em\u003e), intrinsic rate of birth (\u003cem\u003eb\u003c/em\u003e), intrinsic rate of death (\u003cem\u003ed\u003c/em\u003e), weekly growth rate (\u003cem\u003er\u003c/em\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cem\u003ew\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e), reproductive rate and adult longevity. Meanwhile, the mean generation time (\u003cem\u003eT\u003c/em\u003e) and population doubling time (\u003cem\u003eDT\u003c/em\u003e) of this aphid increased significantly. Additionally, sublethal doses reduced the energy reserves of this pest compared to controls. Our results help evaluate the overall impact of \u003cem\u003eM. azedarach\u003c/em\u003e extract on \u003cem\u003eB. brassicae\u003c/em\u003e and have important implications for the judicious use of botanical insecticides cabbage aphid control.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Chemical composition, toxicity and sublethal effects of Melia azedarach extract on some demographic and biochemical characteristics of the cabbage aphid, Brevicoryne brassicae L. (Hemiptera: Aphididae)","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2024-04-03 15:28:14","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-4186913/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"7aed8f2a-7d4b-4119-866b-cfb022ee771a","owner":[],"postedDate":"April 3rd, 2024","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2024-04-15T05:16:31+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2024-04-03 15:28:14","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-4186913","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-4186913","identity":"rs-4186913","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"qtupq5eGEP_6zYnWcrvyt","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}