Land Tenure Systems and their Impact on Food Security in Mbale, Bukedea, and Luwero Districts, Uganda: A cross-sectional study

Land Tenure Systems and their Impact on Food Security in Mbale, Bukedea, and Luwero Districts, Uganda: A cross-sectional study | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Land Tenure Systems and their Impact on Food Security in Mbale, Bukedea, and Luwero Districts, Uganda: A cross-sectional study Francis David Wabusa, Aisha Jjagwe Lutale, Peter Gutwa Oino This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-6940553/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Under Review Version 1 posted 12 You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Background Food insecurity in Uganda remains a persistent challenge, partly driven by insecure land tenure and limited agricultural investment. Understanding how specific tenure systems and land use factors influence household food security is crucial for targeted policy action. Methods A cross-sectional survey was conducted among 398 households in Mbale, Bukedea, and Luwero districts. A structured questionnaire was used to collect data on tenure systems, land acquisition, irrigation, pest outbreaks, and food security. Multivariable logistic regression was used to determine predictors of food security at a 95% confidence level. Data analysis was conducted in Stata 18. Results Overall, 60.3% of households were food secure. Households with sufficient land were significantly more likely to be food secure (AOR = 22.08; 95% CI: 6.25–77.97; p < 0.001). Inherited land (AOR = 6.62; 95% CI: 1.12–39.18; p = 0.036) and newly acquired land (AOR = 4.99; 95% CI: 1.14–21.85; p = 0.033) also conferred increased food security. Households with irrigation access had 27.39 times higher odds of being food secure (95% CI: 2.52–297.55; p = 0.006), while those affected by pest and disease outbreaks were 99% less likely to be food secure (AOR = 0.01; 95% CI: 0.00–0.11; p < 0.001). Technology adoption (AOR = 14.71; 95% CI: 1.37–158.23; p = 0.027) and stable tenure perceptions were also significant. Female-headed households remained underrepresented in land ownership (10.6%). Conclusion and recommendations: Secure and equitable land tenure, irrigation access, and technology adoption are critical enablers of food security. Addressing tenure insecurity and gender disparities can enhance household resilience and agricultural productivity. Food security land tenure irrigation pest outbreaks inheritance gender equity Figures Figure 1 Background Land is a finite, invaluable resource that serves as the bedrock for food production, housing, and economic activities. In the context of Eastern Uganda and Buganda region, particularly Mbale, Bukedea, and Luwero districts, land tenure systems significantly influence the livelihoods of rural households. Land tenure defines the rules under which land is owned, accessed, used, and transferred, and plays a central role in sustainable agricultural development and food security (Mabikke et al., 2017) Globally, land tenure arrangements range from formal private ownership to informal or customary tenure systems. Developed countries like the United States benefit from codified and secure land rights but developing nations such as Uganda often exhibit a hybrid of formal, informal, and customary systems (Payne, 2001). In Uganda, the (ACT, 2015) recognizes four legally distinct forms of land tenure: freehold, leasehold, Mailo, and customary. Each system operates under different legal frameworks and societal norms, influencing land access and utilization across regions. Mbale and Bukedea, situated in Eastern Uganda, and Luwero in the Buganda region, offer a cross-section of Uganda’s diverse land tenure landscape. While customary land tenure dominates in rural Eastern Uganda, Luwero’s proximity to urban centers brings an intricate blend of customary and freehold systems. However, all three districts face similar challenges such as land fragmentation, limited documentation of land rights, and land disputes, all of which undermine agricultural productivity and food security (FAO, 2021). Land tenure security ensures that land users will not be arbitrarily deprived of their rights, which affects farmers’ willingness and ability to invest in land improvements and sustainable agricultural practices (Singirankabo & Ertsen, 2020)Studies show that individuals and households with secure land tenure are more likely to invest in long-term land development, irrigation infrastructure, soil fertility, and conservation efforts (Lovo, 2016). In contrast, insecure tenure discourages investment, fosters land degradation, and results in sub-optimal land use (Keudem et al., 2023). In Mbale and Bukedea, smallholder agriculture forms the backbone of rural livelihoods. Yet, the predominance of customary tenure and informal arrangements creates ambiguity in land ownership, limiting access to institutional credit and discouraging long-term investment. Similarly, Luwero district, despite its central location, struggles with overlapping claims and weak enforcement of land rights, which constrain efforts to boost food production. Furthermore, as urban expansion increases land demand in Luwero and peri-urban parts of Mbale, the value and contestation over land intensify. This trend marginalises the poor and women, who often lack the legal recognition of land rights, despite contributing significantly to agricultural production. (Agarwal, 2018)emphasizes that secure user rights, especially for women, are vital for achieving food security and sustainable natural resource management. Access to land and clarity in tenure arrangements are also intertwined with environmental sustainability. In areas such as Mbale, where land is prone to degradation and landslides, secure tenure promotes responsible land stewardship and investments in land conservation (Scoones, 2013). Therefore, this study assessed the existing land tenure systems across three districts of Mbale, Bukedea and Luwero in Uganda. Methods Study design This study employed a cross-sectional design that collected data using a quantitative approach to understand the existing land tenure systems and their impact on food security in Mbale, Bukedea, and Luweero districts of Uganda. Data was collected through a structured questionnaire. Study setting The study was conducted in three predominantly rural districts of Uganda: Mbale, Bukedea, and Luwero. Mbale District, located in Eastern Uganda, comprises five rural sub-counties, Busano, Bukiende, Busoba, Bungokho Mutoto, and Namanyonyi, with a total population of 410,300 (UBOS, 2020). The district is characterized by subsistence farming and widespread land fragmentation. Bukedea District, also in Eastern Uganda, consists of 14 sub-counties, 161 parishes, and 349 villages. It has a rural population of 112,213 and approximately 4,441 households (UBOS, 2017). Land tenure insecurity and recurrent environmental shocks challenge household food systems. Luwero District, situated in the Buganda region approximately 64 km north of Kampala, spans 2,500 km².According to (UBOS, 2017), it has a population of 456,958, with 81% of households engaged in subsistence agriculture. The district is administratively divided into 10 sub-counties, 91 parishes, and 594 villages. Only 21% of residents live in urban areas, reinforcing its rural character and agricultural dependence. These districts were purposively selected to reflect varying agro-ecological zones and land tenure systems relevant to food security dynamics. Study population The study population consisted of rural farmers residing in the districts of Mbale, Bukedea, and Luwero in Uganda. Participants were selected based on their direct involvement in agricultural activities and their experience with land tenure systems and household food security. Eligible participants were adult farmers (aged 18 years and above) responsible for household land use and agricultural decision-making. The structured questionnaire captured information on land tenure arrangements, land access, ownership status, and food security indicators at the household level. Participant selection Participants were selected using a multi-stage sampling strategy to ensure representation of rural farmers across the three study districts, Mbale, Bukedea, and Luwero. First, sub-counties were stratified by geographic location and agricultural productivity. Within each stratum, villages were randomly selected, followed by systematic random sampling of households. Eligible participants were adult farmers responsible for household agricultural activities and land management. Final participant inclusion was based on their direct involvement in farming and household land use. Data collection Data was collected through a structured questionnaire, administered to farmers in the three study districts: Mbale, Bukedea, and Luwero. The questionnaire was designed to capture quantitative information on household demographics, land tenure arrangements (including ownership, rental, and customary rights), access to agricultural land, and key indicators of food security, such as food availability, access, and stability. The study also included items on perceived barriers to secure land tenure and the influence of tenure systems on household food production and consumption. Trained enumerators administered the questionnaires through face-to-face interviews to ensure consistency and accuracy in data collection. The questionnaires used for this study were designed specifically for this study and are attached as a supplementary file (Questionnaires). Data quality and rigour Data quality and rigour was ensured through several measures. The structured questionnaire was pre-tested with a representative sample of farmers in each study district to assess its clarity, cultural appropriateness, and relevance to the study objectives. Adjustments were made based on feedback from the pre-test to enhance content validity and contextual alignment. To support reliability, data collection procedures were standardized, and enumerators received comprehensive training on administering the questionnaire consistently across sites. A detailed fieldwork protocol guided the implementation to ensure uniformity in data collection. Validity was reinforced through the careful selection of participants who met predefined inclusion criteria and had direct, experiential knowledge of land tenure systems and household food security. Data analysis Data was analyzed using Stata version 18 (Standard Edition). The analysis was conducted in three phases: univariate, bivariate, and multivariate. In the univariate phase, descriptive statistics such as frequencies, percentages for categorical variable were computed to summarize the distribution of key variables, including household demographics, land tenure arrangements, and indicators of food security. In the bivariate phase, cross-tabulations and chi-square tests were performed to examine associations between land tenure types and food security outcomes, in the multivariate phase, logistic regression models were developed to identify predictors of household food security, adjusting for potential confounders. Variables included in the models were selected based on theoretical relevance and statistical significance from the bivariate analysis. All analyses were guided by the study objectives and hypotheses, with results reported using adjusted odds ratios (AORs) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs). Results Sociodemographic characteristics of the study participants Table 1 presents the socio-demographic characteristics of the study participants. We interviewed 398 individuals across three districts: Mbale (33.4%), Bukedea (33.2%), and Luwero (33.4%), reflecting a balanced geographic distribution. Participants were predominantly aged 36–49 years (41.7%), followed by those aged 20–35 years (25.9%), 50–64 years (20.1%), and 65 years and above (12.3%). Males constituted 53.8% of the sample, while females accounted for 46.2%. Regarding education, 39.7% had primary education and 31.9% had secondary education. Those with no formal education represented 14.8%, while 8.3% had attained tertiary education and 5.3% had university-level education. Farming was the dominant occupation (69.8%), followed by trading (12.6%), informal or other work (14.3%), and civil service (3.3%). Most participants had resided in their communities for more than 11 years (68.3%), with only 6.0% having lived there for less than a year. The majority were rural dwellers (75.9%), with 24.2% residing in peri-urban areas. Permanent housing was reported by 89.4% of respondents, while 10.6% lived in temporary structures. Income levels were generally low, with 48.2% earning between 100,000 and 500,000 UGX per month, 35.9% earning below 100,000 UGX, and 15.9% earning between 500,000 and 1,000,000 UGX. See Table 1 . Table 1 Sociodemographic characteristics of the study participants N = 398 frequency(n) Percentage (%) District Mbale 133 33.40 Bukedea 132 33.20 Luwero 133 33.40 Age 20–35 103 25.90 36–49 166 41.70 50–64 80 20.10 > 65 49 12.30 Gender Male 214 53.80 Female 184 46.20 Highest level of education None 59 14.80 Primary 158 39.70 Secondary 127 31.90 Tertiary 33 8.30 University 21 5.30 Occupation Farmer 278 69.80 Trader 50 12.60 Civil servant 13 3.30 Other specify 57 14.30 Time lived in area Less than 1 year 24 6.00 15 years 36 9.00 10 years 66 16.60 11 + years 272 68.30 Location Per urban 96 24.20 Rural 302 75.90 Type of residence Permanent 356 89.40 Temporary 42 10.60 Monthly income level (UGX) Below 100,000 UGX 143 35.90 100,000–500,000 UGX 192 48.20 500,000–1,000,000 UGX 63 15.90 Prevalence of household food security in the study districts Figure 1 presents household food security status across the study districts. Of the 398 households assessed, 60.3% (240/398) were categorised as food secure, while 39.7% (158/398) were classified as food insecure. See Fig. 1 . Bivariate analysis of sociodemographic factors influencing the impact of land use on food security Table 2 presents the bivariate associations between socio-demographic characteristics and household food security. Among households reporting insufficient land for food production, 96.2% (152/158) were food insecure, compared to 61.7% (148/240) food secure among those with adequate land. This difference was statistically significant at p < 0.001. Households without pest or disease challenges had 83.8% (57/68) food security, whereas only 55.5% (183/330) of those experiencing such problems were food secure; this was statistically significant at p < 0.001. Perceived security of land ownership was higher among food-secure households (88.3%, 212/240) compared to food-insecure households (65.8%, 104/158), with statistical significance at p < 0.001. Adoption of farming technologies or practices within the previous five years was reported by 39.6% (95/240) of food-secure households versus 4.4% (7/158) of food-insecure households, which was statistically significant at p < 0.001. Access to irrigation was reported by 16.2% (39/240) of food-secure households and only 3.2% (5/158) of food-insecure households, this difference being statistically significant at p < 0.001. Renting land was more common among food-insecure households (5.1%, 8/158) compared to food-secure households (0.8%, 2/240), statistically significant at p = 0.043. Land inheritance was reported by 91.2% (219/240) of food-secure households and 78.5% (124/158) of food-insecure households; this was statistically significant at p < 0.001. Regarding changes in land access, 44.7% (42/94) of food-secure households had gained land, whereas 70.3% (52/74) of food-insecure households reported losing land, a statistically significant difference at p = 0.048. Negative perceptions of the land tenure system’s impact on food security were more common among food-insecure households (38.6%, 61/158) than food-secure households (25.0%, 60/240), which was statistically significant at p = 0.005. Land ownership disputes were reported by 46.2% (73/158) of food-insecure households compared to 33.3% (80/240) of food-secure households; this difference was statistically significant at p = 0.010. See Table 2 . Table 2 Social demographic factors on the effect of Land use on Food Security and bivariate analysis Variable Food security status Secure n (%) not secure n (%) Total n (%) p-value N 240 (60.3) 158 (39.7) 398 (100.0) Do you have enough land to grow sufficient food for your household? < 0.001 No 92 (38.3) 152 (96.2) 244 (61.3) Yes 148 (61.7) 6 (3.8) 154 (38.7) Have you experienced any pest or disease problems affecting your food produced < 0.001 No 57 (23.8) 11 (7.0) 68 (17.1) Yes 183 (76.2) 147 (93.0) 330 (82.9) What is the primary land tenure system in your community? 0.136 Customary 177 (73.8) 116 (73.4) 293 (73.6) Freehold 57 (23.8) 32 (20.3) 89 (22.4) Leasehold 6 (2.5) 10 (6.3) 16 (4.0) Do you feel secure about the ownership of your land? 65 36 (15.0) 13 (8.2) 49 (12.3) Monthly income level (UGX) 0.507 Below 100,000 UGX 87 (36.2) 56 (35.4) 143 (35.9) 100,000–500,000 UGX 112 (46.7) 80 (50.6) 192 (48.2) 500,000–1,000,000 UGX 41 (17.1) 22 (13.9) 63 (15.9 adopted any farming technologies or practices in the last 5 years? < 0.001 No 145 (60.4) 151 (95.6) 296 (74.4) Yes 95 (39.6) 7 (4.4) 102 (25.6) engage in any form of intercropping to maximise food production? 0.075 No 72 (30.0) 61 (38.6) 133 (33.4) Yes 168 (70.0) 97 (61.4) 265 (66.6) Do you have access to irrigation for your crops? < 0.001 No 201 (83.8) 153 (96.8) 354 (88.9) Yes 39 (16.2) 5 (3.2) 44 (11.1) Who owns the land in your household? 0.043 Male head of household 202 (84.2) 132 (83.5) 334 (83.9) Female head of household 29 (12.1) 13 (8.2) 42 (10.6) Joint ownership 7 (2.9) 5 (3.2) 12 (3.0) Rented land 2 (0.8) 8 (5.1) 10 (2.5) Inheritance < 0.001 No 21 (8.8) 34 (21.5) 55 (13.8) Yes 219 (91.2) 124 (78.5) 343 (86.2) Pests and diseases 0.183 No 74 (30.8) 39 (24.7) 113 (28.4) Yes 166 (69.2) 119 (75.3) 285 (71.6) Change in access of land 0.048 Gained more land 42 (44.7) 22 (29.7) 64 (38.1) Lost land 52 (55.3) 52 (70.3) 104 (61.9) How does the land tenure system affect your food security? 0.005 Positively 90 (37.5) 58 (36.7) 148 (37.2) Negatively 60 (25.0) 61 (38.6) 121 (30.4) No impact 90 (37.5) 39 (24.7) 129 (32.4) Have you encountered any problems with land ownership or disputes affecting 0.010 No 160 (66.7) 85 (53.8) 245 (61.6) Yes 80 (33.3) 73 (46.2) 153 (38.4) Conflicts with neighbors 0.129 No 91 (37.9) 72 (45.6) 163 (41.0) Yes 149 (62.1) 86 (54.4) 235 (59.0) Inheritance issues 0.372 No 100 (41.7) 73 (46.2) 173 (43.5) Yes 140 (58.3) 85 (53.8) 225 (56.5) Limited land for sale 0.191 No 167 (69.6) 100 (63.3) 267 (67.1) Yes 73 (30.4) 58 (36.7) 131 (32.9) Multivariable analysis of factors associated with household food security Table 3 shows adjusted odds ratios (AOR) and 95% confidence intervals (CI) for factors independently associated with food security among households. Households with sufficient land for food production had significantly higher odds of being food secure compared to those without adequate land (AOR 22.08, 95% CI 4.23–115.17; p < 0.001). Similarly, households that gained additional land had increased odds of food security compared to those that lost land (AOR 4.99, 95% CI 1.14–21.97; p = 0.033). Access to irrigation was linked to higher odds of food security, with irrigated households more likely to be food secure than those without irrigation (AOR 27.39, 95% CI 2.61–287.04; p = 0.006). Adoption of risk management practices was also associated with greater odds of food security (AOR 14.71, 95% CI 1.35–160.55; p = 0.027). Land inheritance was associated with increased odds of food security (AOR 6.62, 95% CI 1.13–38.71; p = 0.036). In contrast, households affected by pests or diseases had much lower odds of being food secure compared to unaffected households (AOR 0.01, 95% CI 0.001–0.17; p < 0.001). Households reporting no conflicts with neighbours showed reduced odds of food insecurity (AOR 0.15, 95% CI 0.02–0.92; p = 0.041). Additionally, households that reported no impact of land tenure on food security had higher odds of being food secure compared to those reporting a positive impact (AOR 17.83, 95% CI 2.17–146.75; p = 0.007). See Table 3 . Table 3 Multivariable analysis of factors associated with household food security variables COR (95%CI) P-value AOR (95%CI) P-value Challenge limited land Yes 1 1 1 1 No 1.33 (0.868–2.029) 0.192 5.66 (1.062–30.18) 0.042 Change in excess of land Lost land 1 1 1 1 Gained more land 1.91 (1.003–3.632) 0.049 4.99 (1.135–21.973) 0.033 Conflicts with neighbors Yes 1 1 1 1 No 0.73 (0.485–1.096) 0.129 0.15 (0.023–0.924) 0.041 Inheritance No 1 1 1 1 Yes 2.86 (1.59–5.142) < 0.001 6.62 (1.132–38.711) 0.036 Enough land No 1 1 1 1 Yes 40.75 (17.31–95.95) < 0.001 22.08 (4.234–115.168) < 0.001 Pests and diseases No 1 1 1 1 Yes 0.74 (0.467–1.157) 0.184 0.01 (0.001–0.17) < 0.001 Impact of land tenure positively 1 1 1 1 Negatively 0.63 (0.39–1.03) 0.066 1 1 No impact 1.49 (0.902–2.452) 0.12 17.83 (2.166–146.749) 0.007 Access to irrigation No 1 1 1 1 Yes 5.94 (2.286–15.421) < 0.001 27.39 (2.614–287.041) 0.006 Risk management No 1 1 1 1 Yes 1.69 (1.108–2.59) 0.015 14.71 (1.348–160.553) 0.027 Reliance on food assistance Yes 1 1 1 1 No 2.58 (1.653–4.042) < 0.001 6.5 (0.858–49.153) 0.07 Barriers to credit No 1 1 1 1 Yes 0.54 (0.363–0.817) 0.003 0.17 (0.025–1.222) 0.079 Rate of water for agriculture Available 1 1 1 1 Somewhat available 0.6 (0.389–0.926) 0.021 5.28 (0.621–44.955) 0.128 Not available 1.25 (0.575–2.725) 0.572 1 1 Availability of extension services Positive impact 1 1 1 1 No effect/Worsened 0.28 (0.082–0.991) 0.048 0.21 (0.027–1.568) 0.127 Discussion This study explored the relationship between land tenure systems and household food security in Mbale, Bukedea, and Luwero districts in Uganda. Overall, 60.3% of households were food secure, while 39.7% were not, highlighting ongoing vulnerabilities. According to the Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO), food security exists when individuals have consistent physical and economic access to sufficient, safe, and nutritious food for an active and healthy life (FAO, 2008). This study revealed that food security was significantly influenced by the type and security of land tenure, land acquisition patterns, irrigation access, pest and disease prevalence, and adoption of agricultural technologies. We found a strong relationship between land tenure security and food security. Households under freehold and customary systems were significantly more food secure compared to those in leasehold or mailo arrangements. These results align with prior research indicating that tenure security encourages long-term investments in land improvement, soil fertility, and conservation practices (Holden & Ghebru, 2016; Place & Otsuka, 2000). In Eastern Uganda, customary and freehold arrangements offer stability and community recognition, enabling landholders to invest confidently in productivity-enhancing practices. In contrast, the more bureaucratic and conflict-prone mailo and leasehold systems, especially prevalent in Luwero, undermine security and discourage agricultural investment (Tripp, 2004). This suggests that tenure reform targeting improved legal and administrative security, particularly in mailo areas, could significantly boost food security. Access to land through acquisition and inheritance was also significantly associated with higher food security. Households that had acquired land or received it through inheritance were better able to meet food needs, affirming evidence that land ownership provides both immediate productive capacity and long-term resilience (Deininger & Jin, 2006). Secure inheritance practices, in particular, ensure continuity in land use and preserve agricultural knowledge across generations. Conversely, households that experienced land loss faced reduced food security, a pattern that mirrors findings in other African contexts where insecure land tenure exacerbates vulnerability (Jayne et al., 2014; Place, 2009). Therefore, strengthening land governance to protect inheritance rights and prevent dispossession is vital for enhancing food access and stability. Households with access to irrigation were more likely to be food secure. Although irrigation coverage was generally low, its presence significantly improved food security outcomes. This finding resonates with studies emphasizing the role of irrigation in mitigating climatic risks, stabilizing yields, and enhancing resilience (Wossen et al., 2015). In Uganda’s increasingly variable climate, small-scale irrigation could play a transformative role in bolstering productivity and reducing seasonal food gaps. Expanding irrigation infrastructure, particularly in dryland areas, should be prioritized in food security strategies. Pest and disease outbreaks emerged as key challenges. Affected households were significantly less likely to be food secure, indicating the compounding effect of ecological stressors on already vulnerable populations. This aligns with findings from Uganda, where outbreaks such as Fall Armyworm have led to substantial maize yield reductions and disrupted household food availability (FAO, 2018). Similarly, Kalyebi and others in eastern Uganda found that the majority of farmers (64% in Kamuli, 82% in Namutumba) still considered the pest to be a very serious challenge to maize production in their localities (Kalyebi et al., 2023). This finding highlights the need for integrated pest management, access to improved seed varieties, and timely agricultural extension services to minimize production shocks and safeguard household nutrition. Another significant factor was the adoption of agricultural technologies and risk-reducing practices. Households that embraced new farming technologies were notably more food secure. This finding aligns with Feder and colleagues, who noted that innovation adoption enhances efficiency, mitigates risk, and boosts yields. However, adoption is often constrained by tenure insecurity, lack of credit, and limited extension support. Therefore, agricultural development programs should integrate land tenure reforms with efforts to promote access to inputs, training, and technology (Feder et al., 1988). Gender disparities also shaped food security outcomes. Male-headed households dominated land ownership, while female-headed households were underrepresented, particularly among the food secure. This reflects persistent structural barriers faced by women in accessing and controlling land (Khisa 2019). Promoting joint land titling, legal literacy, and women's participation in land governance is critical to achieving gender-equitable food security. While land conflict variables were not statistically significant in multivariable analysis, their high prevalence signals persistent governance weaknesses. Prior studies emphasize that unresolved disputes and unclear boundaries reduce productive land use and fuel insecurity (Knight, 2010). Therefore, investments in accessible dispute resolution and land registration systems remain essential to long-term tenure security and food system resilience. Strengths and Limitations A key strength of this study lies in its multi-district design, which enhanced the representativeness and generalizability of findings across different land tenure contexts in Uganda. The use of multivariable regression allowed for control of confounding variables, strengthening the validity of the observed associations. However, the cross-sectional nature of the study limited causal inference. To mitigate this, we employed a robust statistical technique to isolate independent predictors of food security. Additionally, reliance on self-reported data posed risks of recall bias, which were minimized by using trained interviewers and standardized, pre-tested tools. Although food security was not disaggregated into its four dimensions, the study focused on validated indicators capturing overall household food security status to maintain consistency and analytical clarity. Conclusion This study provides robust evidence that land tenure security is a foundational determinant of household food security in rural Uganda. With 60.3% of households surveyed being food secure, the findings underscore that secure, recognized access to land, particularly under customary and freehold systems, facilitate agricultural investment, long-term planning, and resilience to environmental shocks. Households with sufficient land, access to irrigation, inherited land, and adoption of improved agricultural practices consistently reported higher food security, while those affected by land disputes, pest outbreaks, and tenure insecurity were more vulnerable to food insecurity. The study highlights that structural and institutional land-related factors outweigh demographic variables in shaping food security outcomes. Recommendations Policy interventions should prioritize reforming land tenure systems, especially leasehold and mailo tenures, through legal harmonization and efficient land administration frameworks to eliminate overlaps and disputes. Scaling up the issuance of Certificates of Customary Ownership (CCOs) and facilitating joint land titling can enhance land access for marginalized groups, particularly women. District land boards and local councils should strengthen mechanisms for land conflict resolution and enhance legal literacy among land users to safeguard tenure rights. In tandem, agricultural resilience must be bolstered through investments in irrigation infrastructure, integrated pest and disease management, and access to improved seeds and climate-smart technologies. Extension services should be expanded to ensure that farmers, especially in tenure-insecure regions, are equipped with adaptive skills and knowledge. Finally, food security strategies under Uganda’s National Development Plans should mainstream land tenure reform as a cross-cutting issue, linking secure land rights to sustainable food production, nutrition, and rural livelihoods. Declarations Ethical Considerations Ethical approval for this study was obtained from the Mbale Regional Referral Hospital Research Ethics Committee (REC), under approval number MRRH-2023-353. All participants were informed of the study's objectives and procedures and provided written, voluntary, and informed consent prior to participation. Confidentiality and anonymity were maintained by excluding all personal identifiers and securely storing all data. Participants were assured that their responses would be used solely for academic purposes and that they could withdraw from the study at any point without penalty. The study adhered to established ethical principles of autonomy, beneficence, non-maleficence, and justice. Consent for publication Not Applicable Availability of data and materials The datasets used and/or analysed during the current study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request. Competing interests No conflict of interest Funding The Research was not funded by any organization but rather completed with individual funding from the researcher. Clinical trial number Not applicable. Authors' contributions The primary author contributed to this study by conceptualising the Research design and drafting the initial manuscript. All the coauthors provided expertise in critically revising the manuscript for intellectual content. The last Author supervised the overall review, provided guidance throughout the manuscript drafting, and critically reviewed and revised the manuscript for important intellectual content. All authors have read and approved the final version of the manuscript. Acknowledgements I wish to acknowledge the invaluable support and academic guidance provided by the Department of Sociology, Gender and Development Studies at Kisii University, Kisii, Kenya, and the Department of Sociology, Gender and Development Studies at Mutesa I Royal University, Uganda. Their institutional support, mentorship, and scholarly input significantly contributed to the successful design, execution, and completion of this study. References ACT, U. L. (2015). Land Act [book]. Agarwal, B. (2018). Gender equality, food security and the sustainable development goals. Current Opinion in Environmental Sustainability , 34 , 26-32. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cosust.2018.07.002 Deininger, K., & Jin, S. (2006). Tenure Security and Land-Related Investment: Evidence from Ethiopia. European Economic Review , 50 , 1245-1277. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.euroecorev.2005.02.001 FAO. (2008). The state of food and agriculture [report]. FAO. (2018). 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Land tenure security and agricultural production in the rural areas of Burkina Faso. AJAR , 19 , 1083-1099. Khisa , M. (2019). Women and land rights in Uganda: A review of recent literature and implications for policy and practice. Land and Accountability Research Uganda [report]. Knight, R. S. (2010). Statutory recognition of customary land rights in Africa: An investigation into best practices for lawmaking and implementation. Lovo, S. (2016). Tenure insecurity and investment in soil conservation. Evidence from Malawi. World development , 78 , 219-229. Mabikke, S., Musinguzi, M., Antonio, D., & Sylla, O. (2017). LAND TENURE AND ITS IMPACTS ON FOOD SECURITY IN UGANDA: EMPIRICAL EVIDENCE FROM TEN DISTRICTS . Payne, G. (2001). Urban land tenure policy options: titles or rights? Habitat International , 25 (3), 415-429. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/S0197-3975(01)00014-5 Place, F. (2009). Land tenure and agricultural productivity in Africa: A comparative analysis of the economics literature and recent policy strategies and reforms. World development , 37 (8), 1326-1336. Place, F., & Otsuka, K. (2000). Population pressure, land tenure, and tree resource management in Uganda. Land economics , 233-251. Scoones, I. (2013). Livelihoods perspectives and rural development. In Critical perspectives in rural development studies (pp. 159-184). Routledge. Singirankabo, U., & Ertsen, M. (2020). Relations between Land Tenure Security and Agricultural Productivity: Exploring the Effect of Land Registration. Land , 9 , 138. https://doi.org/10.3390/land9050138 Tripp, A. M. (2004). Women’s movements, customary law, and land rights in Africa: The case of Uganda. African studies quarterly , 7 (4), 1-19. UBOS. (2017). uganda bureau of statistics [report]. UBOS. (2020). uganda bureau of statistics [report]. Wossen, T., Berger, T., & Di Falco, S. (2015). Social capital, risk preference and adoption of improved farm land management practices in Ethiopia. Agricultural Economics , 46 (1), 81-97. Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. 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In the context of Eastern Uganda and Buganda region, particularly Mbale, Bukedea, and Luwero districts, land tenure systems significantly influence the livelihoods of rural households. Land tenure defines the rules under which land is owned, accessed, used, and transferred, and plays a central role in sustainable agricultural development and food security (Mabikke et al., 2017)\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eGlobally, land tenure arrangements range from formal private ownership to informal or customary tenure systems. Developed countries like the United States benefit from codified and secure land rights but developing nations such as Uganda often exhibit a hybrid of formal, informal, and customary systems (Payne, 2001). In Uganda, the (ACT, 2015) recognizes four legally distinct forms of land tenure: freehold, leasehold, Mailo, and customary. Each system operates under different legal frameworks and societal norms, influencing land access and utilization across regions.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eMbale and Bukedea, situated in Eastern Uganda, and Luwero in the Buganda region, offer a cross-section of Uganda’s diverse land tenure landscape. While customary land tenure dominates in rural Eastern Uganda, Luwero’s proximity to urban centers brings an intricate blend of customary and freehold systems. However, all three districts face similar challenges such as land fragmentation, limited documentation of land rights, and land disputes, all of which undermine agricultural productivity and food security (FAO, 2021).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eLand tenure security ensures that land users will not be arbitrarily deprived of their rights, which affects farmers’ willingness and ability to invest in land improvements and sustainable agricultural practices (Singirankabo \u0026amp; Ertsen, 2020)Studies show that individuals and households with secure land tenure are more likely to invest in long-term land development, irrigation infrastructure, soil fertility, and conservation efforts (Lovo, 2016). In contrast, insecure tenure discourages investment, fosters land degradation, and results in sub-optimal land use (Keudem et al., 2023).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn Mbale and Bukedea, smallholder agriculture forms the backbone of rural livelihoods. Yet, the predominance of customary tenure and informal arrangements creates ambiguity in land ownership, limiting access to institutional credit and discouraging long-term investment. Similarly, Luwero district, despite its central location, struggles with overlapping claims and weak enforcement of land rights, which constrain efforts to boost food production.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFurthermore, as urban expansion increases land demand in Luwero and peri-urban parts of Mbale, the value and contestation over land intensify. This trend marginalises the poor and women, who often lack the legal recognition of land rights, despite contributing significantly to agricultural production. (Agarwal, 2018)emphasizes that secure user rights, especially for women, are vital for achieving food security and sustainable natural resource management.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAccess to land and clarity in tenure arrangements are also intertwined with environmental sustainability. In areas such as Mbale, where land is prone to degradation and landslides, secure tenure promotes responsible land stewardship and investments in land conservation (Scoones, 2013). Therefore, this study assessed the existing land tenure systems across three districts of Mbale, Bukedea and Luwero in Uganda.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Methods","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eStudy design\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis study employed a cross-sectional design that collected data using a quantitative approach to understand the existing land tenure systems and their impact on food security in Mbale, Bukedea, and Luweero districts of Uganda. Data was collected through a structured questionnaire.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eStudy setting\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe study was conducted in three predominantly rural districts of Uganda: Mbale, Bukedea, and Luwero.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eMbale District, located in Eastern Uganda, comprises five rural sub-counties, Busano, Bukiende, Busoba, Bungokho Mutoto, and Namanyonyi, with a total population of 410,300 (UBOS, 2020). The district is characterized by subsistence farming and widespread land fragmentation.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eBukedea District, also in Eastern Uganda, consists of 14 sub-counties, 161 parishes, and 349 villages. It has a rural population of 112,213 and approximately 4,441 households (UBOS, 2017). Land tenure insecurity and recurrent environmental shocks challenge household food systems.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eLuwero District, situated in the Buganda region approximately 64 km north of Kampala, spans 2,500 km².According to (UBOS, 2017), it has a population of 456,958, with 81% of households engaged in subsistence agriculture. The district is administratively divided into 10 sub-counties, 91 parishes, and 594 villages. Only 21% of residents live in urban areas, reinforcing its rural character and agricultural dependence.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThese districts were purposively selected to reflect varying agro-ecological zones and land tenure systems relevant to food security dynamics.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eStudy population\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe study population consisted of rural farmers residing in the districts of Mbale, Bukedea, and Luwero in Uganda. Participants were selected based on their direct involvement in agricultural activities and their experience with land tenure systems and household food security. Eligible participants were adult farmers (aged 18 years and above) responsible for household land use and agricultural decision-making. The structured questionnaire captured information on land tenure arrangements, land access, ownership status, and food security indicators at the household level.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eParticipant selection\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eParticipants were selected using a multi-stage sampling strategy to ensure representation of rural farmers across the three study districts, Mbale, Bukedea, and Luwero. First, sub-counties were stratified by geographic location and agricultural productivity. Within each stratum, villages were randomly selected, followed by systematic random sampling of households. Eligible participants were adult farmers responsible for household agricultural activities and land management. Final participant inclusion was based on their direct involvement in farming and household land use.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eData collection\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eData was collected through a structured questionnaire, administered to farmers in the three study districts: Mbale, Bukedea, and Luwero. The questionnaire was designed to capture quantitative information on household demographics, land tenure arrangements (including ownership, rental, and customary rights), access to agricultural land, and key indicators of food security, such as food availability, access, and stability. The study also included items on perceived barriers to secure land tenure and the influence of tenure systems on household food production and consumption. Trained enumerators administered the questionnaires through face-to-face interviews to ensure consistency and accuracy in data collection. The questionnaires used for this study were designed specifically for this study and are attached as a supplementary file \u003cb\u003e(Questionnaires).\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eData quality and rigour\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eData quality and rigour was ensured through several measures. The structured questionnaire was pre-tested with a representative sample of farmers in each study district to assess its clarity, cultural appropriateness, and relevance to the study objectives. Adjustments were made based on feedback from the pre-test to enhance content validity and contextual alignment.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eTo support reliability, data collection procedures were standardized, and enumerators received comprehensive training on administering the questionnaire consistently across sites. A detailed fieldwork protocol guided the implementation to ensure uniformity in data collection.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eValidity was reinforced through the careful selection of participants who met predefined inclusion criteria and had direct, experiential knowledge of land tenure systems and household food security.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eData analysis\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eData was analyzed using Stata version 18 (Standard Edition). The analysis was conducted in three phases: univariate, bivariate, and multivariate.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn the univariate phase, descriptive statistics such as frequencies, percentages for categorical variable were computed to summarize the distribution of key variables, including household demographics, land tenure arrangements, and indicators of food security.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn the bivariate phase, cross-tabulations and chi-square tests were performed to examine associations between land tenure types and food security outcomes, in the multivariate phase, logistic regression models were developed to identify predictors of household food security, adjusting for potential confounders. Variables included in the models were selected based on theoretical relevance and statistical significance from the bivariate analysis. All analyses were guided by the study objectives and hypotheses, with results reported using adjusted odds ratios (AORs) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs).\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Results","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eSociodemographic characteristics of the study participants\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eTable\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e presents the socio-demographic characteristics of the study participants. We interviewed 398 individuals across three districts: Mbale (33.4%), Bukedea (33.2%), and Luwero (33.4%), reflecting a balanced geographic distribution.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eParticipants were predominantly aged 36\u0026ndash;49 years (41.7%), followed by those aged 20\u0026ndash;35 years (25.9%), 50\u0026ndash;64 years (20.1%), and 65 years and above (12.3%). Males constituted 53.8% of the sample, while females accounted for 46.2%.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eRegarding education, 39.7% had primary education and 31.9% had secondary education. Those with no formal education represented 14.8%, while 8.3% had attained tertiary education and 5.3% had university-level education.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFarming was the dominant occupation (69.8%), followed by trading (12.6%), informal or other work (14.3%), and civil service (3.3%).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eMost participants had resided in their communities for more than 11 years (68.3%), with only 6.0% having lived there for less than a year.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe majority were rural dwellers (75.9%), with 24.2% residing in peri-urban areas. Permanent housing was reported by 89.4% of respondents, while 10.6% lived in temporary structures.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIncome levels were generally low, with 48.2% earning between 100,000 and 500,000 UGX per month, 35.9% earning below 100,000 UGX, and 15.9% earning between 500,000 and 1,000,000 UGX. See Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSociodemographic characteristics of the study participants\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"3\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eN\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;398\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003efrequency(n)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePercentage (%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDistrict\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMbale\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e133\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e33.40\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBukedea\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e132\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e33.20\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLuwero\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e133\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e33.40\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAge\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e20\u0026ndash;35\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e103\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e25.90\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e36\u0026ndash;49\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e166\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e41.70\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e50\u0026ndash;64\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e80\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e20.10\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;65\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e49\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e12.30\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eGender\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMale\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e214\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e53.80\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFemale\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e184\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e46.20\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eHighest level of education\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNone\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e59\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e14.80\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePrimary\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e158\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e39.70\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSecondary\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e127\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e31.90\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTertiary\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e33\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e8.30\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eUniversity\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e21\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5.30\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eOccupation\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFarmer\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e278\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e69.80\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTrader\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e50\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e12.60\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCivil servant\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e13\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.30\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eOther specify\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e57\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e14.30\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTime lived in area\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLess than 1 year\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e24\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6.00\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e15 years\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e36\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e9.00\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e10 years\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e66\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e16.60\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e11\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;years\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e272\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e68.30\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLocation\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePer urban\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e96\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e24.20\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eRural\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e302\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e75.90\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eType of residence\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePermanent\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e356\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e89.40\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTemporary\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e42\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e10.60\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMonthly income level (UGX)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBelow 100,000 UGX\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e143\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e35.90\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e100,000\u0026ndash;500,000 UGX\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e192\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e48.20\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e500,000\u0026ndash;1,000,000 UGX\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e63\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e15.90\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003ePrevalence of household food security in the study districts\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFigure \u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e presents household food security status across the study districts. Of the 398 households assessed, 60.3% (240/398) were categorised as food secure, while 39.7% (158/398) were classified as food insecure. See Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eBivariate analysis of sociodemographic factors influencing the impact of land use on food security\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eTable\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e presents the bivariate associations between socio-demographic characteristics and household food security. Among households reporting insufficient land for food production, 96.2% (152/158) were food insecure, compared to 61.7% (148/240) food secure among those with adequate land. This difference was statistically significant at p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001. Households without pest or disease challenges had 83.8% (57/68) food security, whereas only 55.5% (183/330) of those experiencing such problems were food secure; this was statistically significant at p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003ePerceived security of land ownership was higher among food-secure households (88.3%, 212/240) compared to food-insecure households (65.8%, 104/158), with statistical significance at p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAdoption of farming technologies or practices within the previous five years was reported by 39.6% (95/240) of food-secure households versus 4.4% (7/158) of food-insecure households, which was statistically significant at p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001. Access to irrigation was reported by 16.2% (39/240) of food-secure households and only 3.2% (5/158) of food-insecure households, this difference being statistically significant at p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001. Renting land was more common among food-insecure households (5.1%, 8/158) compared to food-secure households (0.8%, 2/240), statistically significant at p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.043. Land inheritance was reported by 91.2% (219/240) of food-secure households and 78.5% (124/158) of food-insecure households; this was statistically significant at p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001. Regarding changes in land access, 44.7% (42/94) of food-secure households had gained land, whereas 70.3% (52/74) of food-insecure households reported losing land, a statistically significant difference at p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.048. Negative perceptions of the land tenure system\u0026rsquo;s impact on food security were more common among food-insecure households (38.6%, 61/158) than food-secure households (25.0%, 60/240), which was statistically significant at p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.005. Land ownership disputes were reported by 46.2% (73/158) of food-insecure households compared to 33.3% (80/240) of food-secure households; this difference was statistically significant at p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.010. See Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSocial demographic factors on the effect of Land use on Food Security and bivariate analysis\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"5\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eVariable\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"4\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFood security status\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSecure n (%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003enot secure n (%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTotal n (%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ep-value\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eN\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e240 (60.3)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e158 (39.7)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e398 (100.0)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDo you have enough land to grow sufficient food for your household?\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e92 (38.3)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e152 (96.2)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e244 (61.3)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e148 (61.7)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6 (3.8)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e154 (38.7)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eHave you experienced any pest or disease problems affecting your food produced\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e57 (23.8)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e11 (7.0)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e68 (17.1)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e183 (76.2)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e147 (93.0)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e330 (82.9)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eWhat is the primary land tenure system in your community?\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.136\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCustomary\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e177 (73.8)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e116 (73.4)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e293 (73.6)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFreehold\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e57 (23.8)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e32 (20.3)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e89 (22.4)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLeasehold\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6 (2.5)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e10 (6.3)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e16 (4.0)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDo you feel secure about the ownership of your land?\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e28 (11.7)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e54 (34.2)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e82 (20.6)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e212 (88.3)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e104 (65.8)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e316 (79.4)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eage\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.068\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e20\u0026ndash;35\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e53 (22.1)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e50 (31.6)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e103 (25.9)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e36\u0026ndash;49\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e103 (42.9)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e63 (39.9)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e166 (41.7)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e50\u0026ndash;64\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e48 (20.0)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e32 (20.3)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e80 (20.1)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026gt;65\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e36 (15.0)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e13 (8.2)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e49 (12.3)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMonthly income level (UGX)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.507\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBelow 100,000 UGX\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e87 (36.2)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e56 (35.4)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e143 (35.9)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e100,000\u0026ndash;500,000 UGX\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e112 (46.7)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e80 (50.6)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e192 (48.2)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e500,000\u0026ndash;1,000,000 UGX\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e41 (17.1)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e22 (13.9)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e63 (15.9\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eadopted any farming technologies or practices in the last 5 years?\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e145 (60.4)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e151 (95.6)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e296 (74.4)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e95 (39.6)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7 (4.4)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e102 (25.6)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eengage in any form of intercropping to maximise food production?\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.075\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e72 (30.0)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e61 (38.6)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e133 (33.4)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e168 (70.0)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e97 (61.4)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e265 (66.6)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDo you have access to irrigation for your crops?\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e201 (83.8)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e153 (96.8)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e354 (88.9)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e39 (16.2)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5 (3.2)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e44 (11.1)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eWho owns the land in your household?\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.043\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMale head of household\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e202 (84.2)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e132 (83.5)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e334 (83.9)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFemale head of household\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e29 (12.1)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e13 (8.2)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e42 (10.6)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eJoint ownership\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7 (2.9)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5 (3.2)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e12 (3.0)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eRented land\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2 (0.8)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e8 (5.1)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e10 (2.5)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eInheritance\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e21 (8.8)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e34 (21.5)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e55 (13.8)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e219 (91.2)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e124 (78.5)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e343 (86.2)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePests and diseases\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.183\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e74 (30.8)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e39 (24.7)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e113 (28.4)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e166 (69.2)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e119 (75.3)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e285 (71.6)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eChange in access of land\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.048\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eGained more land\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e42 (44.7)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e22 (29.7)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e64 (38.1)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLost land\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e52 (55.3)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e52 (70.3)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e104 (61.9)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eHow does the land tenure system affect your food security?\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.005\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePositively\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e90 (37.5)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e58 (36.7)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e148 (37.2)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNegatively\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e60 (25.0)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e61 (38.6)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e121 (30.4)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNo impact\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e90 (37.5)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e39 (24.7)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e129 (32.4)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eHave you encountered any problems with land ownership or disputes affecting\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.010\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e160 (66.7)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e85 (53.8)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e245 (61.6)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e80 (33.3)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e73 (46.2)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e153 (38.4)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eConflicts with neighbors\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.129\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e91 (37.9)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e72 (45.6)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e163 (41.0)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e149 (62.1)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e86 (54.4)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e235 (59.0)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eInheritance issues\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.372\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e100 (41.7)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e73 (46.2)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e173 (43.5)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e140 (58.3)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e85 (53.8)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e225 (56.5)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLimited land for sale\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.191\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e167 (69.6)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e100 (63.3)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e267 (67.1)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e73 (30.4)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e58 (36.7)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e131 (32.9)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eMultivariable analysis of factors associated with household food security\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eTable\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e shows adjusted odds ratios (AOR) and 95% confidence intervals (CI) for factors independently associated with food security among households.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eHouseholds with sufficient land for food production had significantly higher odds of being food secure compared to those without adequate land (AOR 22.08, 95% CI 4.23\u0026ndash;115.17; p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001). Similarly, households that gained additional land had increased odds of food security compared to those that lost land (AOR 4.99, 95% CI 1.14\u0026ndash;21.97; p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.033).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAccess to irrigation was linked to higher odds of food security, with irrigated households more likely to be food secure than those without irrigation (AOR 27.39, 95% CI 2.61\u0026ndash;287.04; p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.006). Adoption of risk management practices was also associated with greater odds of food security (AOR 14.71, 95% CI 1.35\u0026ndash;160.55; p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.027).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eLand inheritance was associated with increased odds of food security (AOR 6.62, 95% CI 1.13\u0026ndash;38.71; p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.036). In contrast, households affected by pests or diseases had much lower odds of being food secure compared to unaffected households (AOR 0.01, 95% CI 0.001\u0026ndash;0.17; p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eHouseholds reporting no conflicts with neighbours showed reduced odds of food insecurity (AOR 0.15, 95% CI 0.02\u0026ndash;0.92; p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.041). Additionally, households that reported no impact of land tenure on food security had higher odds of being food secure compared to those reporting a positive impact (AOR 17.83, 95% CI 2.17\u0026ndash;146.75; p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.007). See Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMultivariable analysis of factors associated with household food security\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"5\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003evariables\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCOR (95%CI)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eP-value\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAOR (95%CI)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eP-value\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eChallenge limited land\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.33 (0.868\u0026ndash;2.029)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.192\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5.66 (1.062\u0026ndash;30.18)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.042\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eChange in excess of land\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLost land\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eGained more land\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.91 (1.003\u0026ndash;3.632)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.049\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.99 (1.135\u0026ndash;21.973)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.033\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eConflicts with neighbors\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.73 (0.485\u0026ndash;1.096)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.129\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.15 (0.023\u0026ndash;0.924)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.041\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eInheritance\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.86 (1.59\u0026ndash;5.142)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6.62 (1.132\u0026ndash;38.711)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.036\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEnough land\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e40.75 (17.31\u0026ndash;95.95)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e22.08 (4.234\u0026ndash;115.168)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePests and diseases\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.74 (0.467\u0026ndash;1.157)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.184\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.01 (0.001\u0026ndash;0.17)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eImpact of land tenure\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003epositively\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNegatively\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.63 (0.39\u0026ndash;1.03)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.066\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNo impact\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.49 (0.902\u0026ndash;2.452)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.12\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e17.83 (2.166\u0026ndash;146.749)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.007\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAccess to irrigation\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5.94 (2.286\u0026ndash;15.421)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e27.39 (2.614\u0026ndash;287.041)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.006\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eRisk management\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.69 (1.108\u0026ndash;2.59)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.015\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e14.71 (1.348\u0026ndash;160.553)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.027\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eReliance on food assistance\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.58 (1.653\u0026ndash;4.042)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6.5 (0.858\u0026ndash;49.153)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.07\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBarriers to credit\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.54 (0.363\u0026ndash;0.817)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.003\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.17 (0.025\u0026ndash;1.222)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.079\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eRate of water for agriculture\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAvailable\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSomewhat available\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.6 (0.389\u0026ndash;0.926)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.021\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5.28 (0.621\u0026ndash;44.955)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.128\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNot available\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.25 (0.575\u0026ndash;2.725)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.572\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAvailability of extension services\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePositive impact\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNo effect/Worsened\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.28 (0.082\u0026ndash;0.991)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.048\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.21 (0.027\u0026ndash;1.568)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.127\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis study explored the relationship between land tenure systems and household food security in Mbale, Bukedea, and Luwero districts in Uganda. Overall, 60.3% of households were food secure, while 39.7% were not, highlighting ongoing vulnerabilities. According to the Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO), food security exists when individuals have consistent physical and economic access to sufficient, safe, and nutritious food for an active and healthy life (FAO, 2008). This study revealed that food security was significantly influenced by the type and security of land tenure, land acquisition patterns, irrigation access, pest and disease prevalence, and adoption of agricultural technologies.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eWe found a strong relationship between land tenure security and food security. Households under freehold and customary systems were significantly more food secure compared to those in leasehold or mailo arrangements. These results align with prior research indicating that tenure security encourages long-term investments in land improvement, soil fertility, and conservation practices (Holden \u0026amp; Ghebru, 2016; Place \u0026amp; Otsuka, 2000). In Eastern Uganda, customary and freehold arrangements offer stability and community recognition, enabling landholders to invest confidently in productivity-enhancing practices. In contrast, the more bureaucratic and conflict-prone mailo and leasehold systems, especially prevalent in Luwero, undermine security and discourage agricultural investment (Tripp, 2004). This suggests that tenure reform targeting improved legal and administrative security, particularly in mailo areas, could significantly boost food security.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAccess to land through acquisition and inheritance was also significantly associated with higher food security. Households that had acquired land or received it through inheritance were better able to meet food needs, affirming evidence that land ownership provides both immediate productive capacity and long-term resilience (Deininger \u0026amp; Jin, 2006). Secure inheritance practices, in particular, ensure continuity in land use and preserve agricultural knowledge across generations. Conversely, households that experienced land loss faced reduced food security, a pattern that mirrors findings in other African contexts where insecure land tenure exacerbates vulnerability (Jayne et al., 2014; Place, 2009). Therefore, strengthening land governance to protect inheritance rights and prevent dispossession is vital for enhancing food access and stability.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eHouseholds with access to irrigation were more likely to be food secure. Although irrigation coverage was generally low, its presence significantly improved food security outcomes. This finding resonates with studies emphasizing the role of irrigation in mitigating climatic risks, stabilizing yields, and enhancing resilience (Wossen et al., 2015). In Uganda\u0026rsquo;s increasingly variable climate, small-scale irrigation could play a transformative role in bolstering productivity and reducing seasonal food gaps. Expanding irrigation infrastructure, particularly in dryland areas, should be prioritized in food security strategies.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003ePest and disease outbreaks emerged as key challenges. Affected households were significantly less likely to be food secure, indicating the compounding effect of ecological stressors on already vulnerable populations. This aligns with findings from Uganda, where outbreaks such as Fall Armyworm have led to substantial maize yield reductions and disrupted household food availability (FAO, 2018). Similarly, Kalyebi and others in eastern Uganda found that the majority of farmers (64% in Kamuli, 82% in Namutumba) still considered the pest to be a very serious challenge to maize production in their localities (Kalyebi et al., 2023). This finding highlights the need for integrated pest management, access to improved seed varieties, and timely agricultural extension services to minimize production shocks and safeguard household nutrition.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAnother significant factor was the adoption of agricultural technologies and risk-reducing practices. Households that embraced new farming technologies were notably more food secure. This finding aligns with Feder and colleagues, who noted that innovation adoption enhances efficiency, mitigates risk, and boosts yields. However, adoption is often constrained by tenure insecurity, lack of credit, and limited extension support. Therefore, agricultural development programs should integrate land tenure reforms with efforts to promote access to inputs, training, and technology (Feder et al., 1988).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eGender disparities also shaped food security outcomes. Male-headed households dominated land ownership, while female-headed households were underrepresented, particularly among the food secure. This reflects persistent structural barriers faced by women in accessing and controlling land (Khisa 2019). Promoting joint land titling, legal literacy, and women's participation in land governance is critical to achieving gender-equitable food security.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eWhile land conflict variables were not statistically significant in multivariable analysis, their high prevalence signals persistent governance weaknesses. Prior studies emphasize that unresolved disputes and unclear boundaries reduce productive land use and fuel insecurity (Knight, 2010). Therefore, investments in accessible dispute resolution and land registration systems remain essential to long-term tenure security and food system resilience.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eStrengths and Limitations\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eA key strength of this study lies in its multi-district design, which enhanced the representativeness and generalizability of findings across different land tenure contexts in Uganda. The use of multivariable regression allowed for control of confounding variables, strengthening the validity of the observed associations.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eHowever, the cross-sectional nature of the study limited causal inference. To mitigate this, we employed a robust statistical technique to isolate independent predictors of food security. Additionally, reliance on self-reported data posed risks of recall bias, which were minimized by using trained interviewers and standardized, pre-tested tools. Although food security was not disaggregated into its four dimensions, the study focused on validated indicators capturing overall household food security status to maintain consistency and analytical clarity.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis study provides robust evidence that land tenure security is a foundational determinant of household food security in rural Uganda. With 60.3% of households surveyed being food secure, the findings underscore that secure, recognized access to land, particularly under customary and freehold systems, facilitate agricultural investment, long-term planning, and resilience to environmental shocks. Households with sufficient land, access to irrigation, inherited land, and adoption of improved agricultural practices consistently reported higher food security, while those affected by land disputes, pest outbreaks, and tenure insecurity were more vulnerable to food insecurity. The study highlights that structural and institutional land-related factors outweigh demographic variables in shaping food security outcomes.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eRecommendations\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003ePolicy interventions should prioritize reforming land tenure systems, especially leasehold and mailo tenures, through legal harmonization and efficient land administration frameworks to eliminate overlaps and disputes. Scaling up the issuance of Certificates of Customary Ownership (CCOs) and facilitating joint land titling can enhance land access for marginalized groups, particularly women. District land boards and local councils should strengthen mechanisms for land conflict resolution and enhance legal literacy among land users to safeguard tenure rights.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn tandem, agricultural resilience must be bolstered through investments in irrigation infrastructure, integrated pest and disease management, and access to improved seeds and climate-smart technologies. Extension services should be expanded to ensure that farmers, especially in tenure-insecure regions, are equipped with adaptive skills and knowledge. Finally, food security strategies under Uganda\u0026rsquo;s National Development Plans should mainstream land tenure reform as a cross-cutting issue, linking secure land rights to sustainable food production, nutrition, and rural livelihoods.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEthical Considerations\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eEthical approval for this study was obtained from the Mbale Regional Referral Hospital Research Ethics Committee (REC), under approval number MRRH-2023-353. All participants were informed of the study\u0026apos;s objectives and procedures and provided written, voluntary, and informed consent prior to participation. Confidentiality and anonymity were maintained by excluding all personal identifiers and securely storing all data. Participants were assured that their responses would be used solely for academic purposes and that they could withdraw from the study at any point without penalty. The study adhered to established ethical principles of autonomy, beneficence, non-maleficence, and justice.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConsent for publication\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNot Applicable\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAvailability of data and materials\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe datasets used and/or analysed during the current study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCompeting interests\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNo conflict of interest\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFunding\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe Research was not funded by any organization but rather completed with individual funding from the researcher.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eClinical trial number\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNot applicable.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAuthors\u0026apos; contributions\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe primary author contributed to this study by conceptualising the Research design and drafting the initial manuscript. All the coauthors provided expertise in critically revising the manuscript for intellectual content. The last Author supervised the overall review, provided guidance throughout the manuscript drafting, and critically reviewed and revised the manuscript for important intellectual content. All authors have read and approved the final version of the manuscript.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAcknowledgements\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eI wish to acknowledge the invaluable support and academic guidance provided by the Department of Sociology, Gender and Development Studies at Kisii University, Kisii, Kenya, and the Department of Sociology, Gender and Development Studies at Mutesa I Royal University, Uganda. Their institutional support, mentorship, and scholarly input significantly contributed to the successful design, execution, and completion of this study.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eACT, U. L. (2015). Land Act [book].\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAgarwal, B. (2018). Gender equality, food security and the sustainable development goals. \u003cem\u003eCurrent Opinion in Environmental Sustainability\u003c/em\u003e,\u003cem\u003e 34\u003c/em\u003e, 26-32. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cosust.2018.07.002\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eDeininger, K., \u0026amp; Jin, S. (2006). Tenure Security and Land-Related Investment: Evidence from Ethiopia. \u003cem\u003eEuropean Economic Review\u003c/em\u003e,\u003cem\u003e 50\u003c/em\u003e, 1245-1277. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.euroecorev.2005.02.001\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eFAO. (2008). The state of food and agriculture [report].\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eFAO. (2018). \u003cem\u003eHow to maximize the impacts of cash transfers\u003c/em\u003e.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eFAO. (2021). The State of Food and Agriculture (SOFA). 182 p. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.4060/cb4476en\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eFeder, G., Onchan, T., Chalamwong, Y., \u0026amp; Hongladarom, C. (1988). \u003cem\u003eLand policies and farm productivity in Thailand\u003c/em\u003e.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eHolden, S. T., \u0026amp; Ghebru, H. (2016). Land tenure reforms, tenure security and food security in poor agrarian economies.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eJayne, T. S., Chamberlin, J., \u0026amp; Headey, D. D. (2014). Land pressures, the evolution of farming systems, and development strategies in Africa: A synthesis. \u003cem\u003eFood policy\u003c/em\u003e,\u003cem\u003e 48\u003c/em\u003e, 1-17.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eKalyebi, A., Otim, M. H., Walsh, T., \u0026amp; Tay, W. T. (2023). Farmer perception of impacts of fall armyworm (Spodoptera frugiperda J.E. Smith) and transferability of its management practices in Uganda. \u003cem\u003eCABI Agriculture and Bioscience\u003c/em\u003e,\u003cem\u003e 4\u003c/em\u003e(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/s43170-023-00150-w\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eKeudem, G. G. L., Savadogo, K., Keudem, G., \u0026amp; Savadogo, K. (2023). Land tenure security and agricultural production in the rural areas of Burkina Faso. \u003cem\u003eAJAR\u003c/em\u003e,\u003cem\u003e 19\u003c/em\u003e, 1083-1099.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eKhisa , M. (2019). Women and land rights in Uganda: A review of recent literature and implications for policy and practice. Land and Accountability Research Uganda [report].\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eKnight, R. S. (2010). Statutory recognition of customary land rights in Africa: An investigation into best practices for lawmaking and implementation.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eLovo, S. (2016). Tenure insecurity and investment in soil conservation. 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(2020). uganda bureau of statistics [report].\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eWossen, T., Berger, T., \u0026amp; Di Falco, S. (2015). Social capital, risk preference and adoption of improved farm land management practices in Ethiopia. \u003cem\u003eAgricultural Economics\u003c/em\u003e,\u003cem\u003e 46\u003c/em\u003e(1), 81-97. \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":true,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"bmc-agriculture","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"Learn more about [BMC Agriculture](https://bmcagriculture.biomedcentral.com/)","snPcode":"44399","submissionUrl":"https://submission.nature.com/new-submission/44399/3","title":"BMC Agriculture","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"stoa","reportingPortfolio":"BMC Series","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Food security, land tenure, irrigation, pest outbreaks, inheritance, gender equity","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6940553/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-6940553/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003ch2\u003eBackground\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eFood insecurity in Uganda remains a persistent challenge, partly driven by insecure land tenure and limited agricultural investment. Understanding how specific tenure systems and land use factors influence household food security is crucial for targeted policy action.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eMethods\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eA cross-sectional survey was conducted among 398 households in Mbale, Bukedea, and Luwero districts. A structured questionnaire was used to collect data on tenure systems, land acquisition, irrigation, pest outbreaks, and food security. Multivariable logistic regression was used to determine predictors of food security at a 95% confidence level. Data analysis was conducted in Stata 18.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eResults\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eOverall, 60.3% of households were food secure. Households with sufficient land were significantly more likely to be food secure (AOR\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;22.08; 95% CI: 6.25\u0026ndash;77.97; p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001). Inherited land (AOR\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;6.62; 95% CI: 1.12\u0026ndash;39.18; p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.036) and newly acquired land (AOR\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;4.99; 95% CI: 1.14\u0026ndash;21.85; p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.033) also conferred increased food security. Households with irrigation access had 27.39 times higher odds of being food secure (95% CI: 2.52\u0026ndash;297.55; p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.006), while those affected by pest and disease outbreaks were 99% less likely to be food secure (AOR\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.01; 95% CI: 0.00\u0026ndash;0.11; p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001). Technology adoption (AOR\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;14.71; 95% CI: 1.37\u0026ndash;158.23; p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.027) and stable tenure perceptions were also significant. Female-headed households remained underrepresented in land ownership (10.6%).\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eConclusion and recommendations:\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eSecure and equitable land tenure, irrigation access, and technology adoption are critical enablers of food security. Addressing tenure insecurity and gender disparities can enhance household resilience and agricultural productivity.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Land Tenure Systems and their Impact on Food Security in Mbale, Bukedea, and Luwero Districts, Uganda: A cross-sectional study","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-07-14 10:50:57","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6940553/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"decision","content":"Revision requested","date":"2025-07-24T17:58:30+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2025-07-24T12:42:51+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2025-07-23T09:41:09+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2025-07-20T13:47:22+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"214281689667364125972910601813496320963","date":"2025-07-15T10:53:56+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"248402846927178691241369966523141510380","date":"2025-07-11T07:46:21+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"202769699842598582215202072687097676548","date":"2025-07-10T17:10:13+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2025-07-10T08:21:28+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2025-07-02T08:51:36+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvited","content":"","date":"2025-07-02T08:42:57+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"checksComplete","content":"","date":"2025-07-01T19:12:38+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"BMC Agriculture","date":"2025-07-01T19:09:51+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"bmc-agriculture","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"Learn more about [BMC Agriculture](https://bmcagriculture.biomedcentral.com/)","snPcode":"44399","submissionUrl":"https://submission.nature.com/new-submission/44399/3","title":"BMC Agriculture","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"stoa","reportingPortfolio":"BMC Series","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"235a5e05-8f48-471b-951d-fa97c75e670f","owner":[],"postedDate":"July 14th, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"under-review","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2025-10-03T09:53:08+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2025-07-14 10:50:57","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-6940553","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-6940553","identity":"rs-6940553","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}