Incidence and Integrated Management of Meloidogyne graminicola in Maize Fields of Central Punjab, Pakistan

Incidence and Integrated Management of Meloidogyne graminicola in Maize Fields of Central Punjab, Pakistan | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Incidence and Integrated Management of Meloidogyne graminicola in Maize Fields of Central Punjab, Pakistan Saqib Ali This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-7597635/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Meloidogyne graminicola constrains maize production in Central Punjab, Pakistan. This study surveyed M. graminicola incidence and evaluated an integrated management (IDM) strategy. Field surveys revealed incidence up to 9.4% in hotspots. 'Sahiwal-Gold' was highly susceptible (122 females/root); 'VH-1898' showed resistance (47 females/root). The IDM approach, combining biocontrol agents ( Trichoderma harzianum, Bacillus megaterium, Purpureocillium lilacinum ) with nematicides (fluopyram, cadusafos, cartap), reduced root juvenile nematodes by 85% compared to inoculated controls (p < 0.05). IDM significantly improved plant height (15% increase), biomass (19% increase), and 100-grain weight (25% increase) over inoculated controls, achieving yields approaching healthy control levels (e.g., 100-grain weight: 34.2 g vs. 36.2 g). Findings demonstrate IDM offers a highly effective strategy for managing M. graminicola and improving maize yields in infested regions. Meloidogyne graminicola Integrated Disease Management (IDM) Maize nematology Crop resistance Biological and chemical nematode control Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 Figure 6 Figure 7 Introduction Maize ( Zea mays L.) ranks among the top three cereal crops globally, alongside wheat and rice, serving as a crucial source of food, livestock feed, and industrial raw materials (Begam et al., 2018 ). In Pakistan, agriculture remains a vital sector, and maize cultivation is heavily concentrated in Central Punjab and Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (KP), which together contribute nearly 90% of the national production. The cultivated area for maize has recently expanded to 1,720 thousand hectares, highlighting its increasing importance (Economic Survey of Pakistan 2022–23). However, this production is challenged by numerous biotic stresses, with plant-parasitic nematodes recognized as a significant threat to agricultural productivity in Pakistan, including in Central Punjab. Among these pests, the rice root-knot nematode, Meloidogyne graminicola , poses a serious risk, particularly in tropical and subtropical agricultural systems. While primarily studied in rice, where it can cause severe yield reductions ranging from 17% to 87% depending on conditions (Dutta et al., 2012 ; Ravindra et al., 2017 ), M. graminicola has a broad host range, including other cereals like wheat, and its potential impact on maize is a growing concern. The nematode impairs plant growth by forming root galls that disrupt water and nutrient uptake. Although specific yield loss data for M. graminicola in maize is limited, the severe damage observed in rice and its known prevalence in Central Punjab—reportedly up to 27.5% in rice fields (Anwar et al., 2021 )—underscore the potential threat to the region's intensifying maize cultivation. Understanding its impact in the non-flooded conditions typical of maize fields in Punjab, which differ from traditional flooded rice systems, is therefore crucial. Despite extensive research on M. graminicola in rice, its specific impact and management in maize remain under-documented, representing a significant knowledge gap. Given maize's increasing role in food security, investigating the nematode's incidence, identifying resistant maize varieties, and developing effective control strategies for Central Punjab's maize systems are essential. Integrated Disease Management (IDM) provides a holistic framework for nematode control by combining chemical, biological, and cultural practices (Pathak and Kumar, 2003 ; Goswami et al., 2008 ). Biological agents like Trichoderma harzianum , Bacillus megaterium , and Purpureocillium lilacinum offer antagonistic effects against root-knot nematodes, while selective nematicides can reduce populations. Cultural methods such as crop rotation and fallow periods also contribute to disrupting nematode life cycles (Hajihassani et al., 2020 ; Sacchi et al., 2021 ). We hypothesize that an IDM approach combining effective biocontrol agents with selected chemical nematicides will significantly reduce M. graminicola infestation in maize, leading to improved plant growth and yield. Accordingly, this study aimed to: (i) determine the incidence and distribution of M. graminicola in major maize-growing areas of Central Punjab, (ii) evaluate the susceptibility of locally relevant maize varieties to M. graminicola infection, and (iii) develop and validate an IDM strategy integrating biological and chemical control agents. By comparing integrated methods with individual tactics, this research seeks to establish a robust management framework to minimize nematode damage and support sustainable maize production in Central Punjab. Materials & Methods Study Area and Nematode Incidence Survey This study was conducted in Central Punjab, a major maize production region in Pakistan. Field surveys were carried out during the primary maize growing season across 13 diverse maize-growing locations (Table 1 ) within Central Punjab. These sites were selected to represent a range of farming practices and included areas with suspected high nematode incidence (e.g., Jaranwala, 74 JB) and historically lower pressure (e.g., 223 JB I), allowing for a broad assessment of Meloidogyne graminicola incidence and severity. However, detailed soil characteristics (texture, pH, moisture) were not systematically recorded across all survey locations as part of this study. Table 1 Survey Locations and Geographical Coordinates (Central Punjab) Location Latitude Longitude Chak Jhumra 31.5672° 73.2733° Khurrianwala 31.6418° 73.3948° Jaranwala 31.3642° 73.4318° Bhawana 31.5689° 72.6508° UAF (PP EA) 31.4381° 73.0733° 74 JB 31.3560° 72.8916° 273 JB 31.3891° 72.8055° 223 JB I 31.4553° 72.6795° 210 JB 31.4427° 72.7487° 227 JB 31.4428° 72.6284° Aminpur 31.4910° 72.8566° 91 RB 31.5260° 73.4485° 275 JB 31.3432° 72.8280° Sample Collection During the maize growing season, soil and root samples were randomly collected from each surveyed field. From each field, a composite sample consisting of approximately 1 kg of soil and several root systems was gathered from 5–10 random spots around maize plants at a depth of 0–30 cm. Samples were bagged, labeled, and immediately transported to the laboratory for nematode analysis, providing a representative overview of M. graminicola prevalence and severity under field conditions. Nematodes were extracted from soil using a modified Baermann funnel method. A 100 cm³ subsample of soil from each composite sample was processed for 24–72 hours. Nematodes were collected and concentrated by centrifugation. Second-stage juveniles (J2s) were also extracted from approximately 20 g of chopped maize roots per sample using the same Baermann method. Nematode Identification and Symptom Assessment: Symptomatological Observations : During initial field surveys and the subsequent field trial, visual symptoms indicative of Meloidogyne graminicola infection were meticulously observed on both the root systems and above-ground parts of maize plants. Infected roots consistently exhibited various degrees of galling, the most characteristic symptom of root-knot nematode infection. These galls ranged from small, discrete swellings on feeder roots at lower severity levels to large, coalescing, and sometimes necrotic galls that severely distorted the entire root system at higher infection intensities. The root architecture was often visibly impaired, leading to a reduced and inefficient root mass. This galling disrupts the plant's normal water and nutrient uptake. Beyond the roots, above-ground symptoms were also noted, particularly in heavily infested plots (e.g., the inoculated control in the field trial). These symptoms included significant stunting of plant height, generalized chlorosis (yellowing of leaves) indicating nutrient deficiency, reduced plant vigor, and premature wilting, especially during periods of water stress. These above-ground manifestations are direct consequences of the impaired water and nutrient uptake caused by the root galling, which disrupts the vascular system of the host plant. The severity of these symptoms was quantitatively assessed using a 1–10 rating scale, adapted from Bridge & Page ( 1982 ), correlating directly with nematode population densities in roots and soil. Morphological Identification: Extracted nematodes were identified to the genus and species level using diagnostic morphological features under a compound microscope. For initial identification, second-stage juveniles (J2s) were characterized by their vermiform body shape, a distinct conical tail with a pointed tip, and a prominent stylet. Mature females were isolated from galled maize roots and were typically pear-shaped to globular, white, and sedentary within the root tissue. Crucially, the perineal patterns of mature females were prepared and examined for species-specific identification. These patterns consistently exhibited a high dorsal arch with wavy striae in the anal-vulval region, gradually becoming more circular towards the lateral fields. The lateral lines were generally indistinct or absent, a characteristic feature of M. graminicola . These morphological observations, particularly the distinct perineal patterns, were consistent with published descriptions for Meloidogyne graminicola from cereal hosts. Molecular Confirmation: Species confirmation for M. graminicola was performed via PCR amplification of the internal transcribed spacer (ITS) region. Genomic DNA was extracted from individual or pooled second-stage juveniles (J2s) or excised female nematodes using a standardized protocol. The ITS region was amplified using the species-specific primers rDNA2 (5′-TTGATTACGTCCCTGCCCTTT-3′) and rDNA1.58s (5′-ACGAGCCCGAGTGATCCACCG-3′). PCR reactions were carried out in a 25 µL reaction volume containing 1× PCR buffer, 1.5 mM MgCl₂, 0.2 mM dNTPs, 0.5 µM of each primer, 1 U Taq DNA polymerase, and approximately 50 ng of template DNA. The thermal cycling conditions included an initial denaturation at 94°C for 5 minutes, followed by 35 cycles of denaturation at 94°C for 30 seconds, annealing at 58°C for 30 seconds, and extension at 72°C for 1 minute, with a final extension at 72°C for 7 minutes. PCR products were analyzed by electrophoresis on a 1.5% agarose gel stained with ethidium bromide and visualized under UV light, confirming the presence of an amplicon of the expected size (approximately 700 bp). Representative PCR products were then purified using a commercial PCR purification kit and sent for Sanger sequencing (e.g., to a reputable commercial sequencing facility). The resulting sequences were compared with known sequences in the GenBank database using NCBI's BLAST tool. All analyzed sequences showed high (99–100%) nucleotide identity with previously deposited Meloidogyne graminicola ITS sequences, unequivocally confirming the identity of the nematode populations. Incidence and Prevalence Calculation : Incidence was calculated as the percentage of sampled plants infected with M. graminicola . Prevalence was calculated as the percentage of surveyed fields found positive for M. graminicola . 4. Root Galling Severity Scoring The severity of root galling on infected maize root systems was assessed using a 1–10 rating scale, adapted from Bridge & Page ( 1982 ). On this scale, 1 indicates no visible galls (healthy roots), while 10 represents extremely severe galling covering almost the entire root system. 5. Field Trial Design and Setup A field trial was conducted at the University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF) Plant Pathology Experimental Site, known to be naturally infested with M. graminicola , to evaluate nematode management strategies. Maize Varieties : Eight maize varieties were used: FH-2047, FH-255, FH-988, Malka-16, P-1429, Sahiwal-Gold, VH-1898, and VH-5427. Experimental Design : The trial used a randomized complete block design (RCBD) with three replications, although a formal a priori power analysis was not conducted to determine this specific sample size. Plot Layout : Each plot measured 5 m × 5 m (25 m²). Plots were separated by a 1-meter buffer zone. Maize was sown with standard spacing (75 cm rows, 25 cm between plants) resulting in approximately 100–120 plants per plot. Agronomic practices were kept uniform across plots. 6. Treatments and Application The trial evaluated chemical nematicides, biological control agents (BCAs), and integrated combinations. These specific agents were selected based on their reported efficacy against Meloidogyne spp. in previous literature, their known modes of action suggesting potential for integrated use, and their availability for use in the region. Chemical Nematicides : Fluopyram (seed treatment, 10 ml/kg seed), Rugby (Cadusafos) (soil application before planting, 10 ml/kg equivalent), and Cartap (soil drench, 2 g/L) were sourced from UAF labs. Biological Control Agents : Trichoderma harzianum (1×10⁶ spores/mL), Bacillus megaterium (1×10⁸ CFU/mL), and Purpureocillium lilacinum (1×10⁷ spores/mL) were sourced from UAF culture collections and verified. Treatment Groups : Included sole chemical applications, sole BCA applications, selected chemical + BCA combinations, a full combination of all three chemicals + all three BCAs, an inoculated control (untreated, infested), and a healthy control (using soil confirmed free of M. graminicola , untreated). Application Timing and Methods : All treatments were applied once at the early maize growth stage (V1). Fluopyram was applied as a seed treatment. Cadusafos was applied to the soil before ridging/planting. Cartap was applied as a soil drench at planting. BCAs were applied at planting via seed coating, seedling root dip, or soil inoculum around the seed/seedling. No further applications were made. 7. Disease Assessments and Data Collection (Field Trial) At harvest, nematode populations and plant health were assessed. Nematode Assessment : Final J2 density per 100 cm³ soil was determined from root-zone soil samples using the Baermann method. Root galling severity (1–10 scale) and the number of mature females per root system were assessed by uprooting and examining 5 randomly selected plants per plot. Gall Index (GI) and Reproduction Factor (Rf), sometimes suggested for nematode studies, were not determined in this study. Plant Health Metrics : Plant height, biomass (dry weight), cob length, and 100-grain weight were recorded from the sampled plants. 8. Statistical Analysis Data were checked for normality (Shapiro–Wilk test) and homogeneity of variance (Levene’s test). Analysis of variance (ANOVA) was performed for each variable using R software (version 2023.12.1). Significant differences among treatment means (p < 0.05) were identified using Tukey’s Honestly Significant Difference (HSD) post hoc test. Results are presented as means, with letters indicating statistical groupings. Graphs were generated using the ggplot2 package. RESULTS 1. Geographic Incidence and Distribution of Meloidogyne graminicola The incidence of Meloidogyne graminicola varied significantly across the surveyed maize-growing locations in Central Punjab, Pakistan (Table 1; Figure 1). Incidence ranged from 1.6% to 9.4%. The highest incidence rates were observed in Jaranwala (9.0%) and 74 JB (9.4%), indicating substantial nematode pressure in these fields, associated with juvenile nematode counts exceeding 3000 J2s per root system. In these areas, more pronounced above-ground symptoms such as stunting and generalized chlorosis were also commonly observed, consistent with the severity of root galling. In contrast, the 223 JB I location recorded the lowest incidence rate (1.6%), suggesting potential influences of local environmental or agronomic factors. Table 1 summarizes the incidence, prevalence, severity scores, and nematode counts for each location, with statistical groupings indicating significant differences among locations (p ≤ 0.05). Figure 1 visually represents the mean incidence percentages, highlighting these significant differences. These findings underscore the spatial variability in M. graminicola prevalence and the need for location-specific management. Table 1. Incidence, Prevalence, and Severity of Meloidogyne graminicola in Different Maize-Growing Locations in Central Punjab, Pakistan. Location Incidence (%) Prevalence (%) Severity (1–10) No. of Females No. of J2s/Root System No. of J2s/100ml Soil Khurrianwala 7.4 ab 15 5 89 1888 345 UAF (PP EA) 7.4 ab 20 5 92 1905 365 91 RB 4.2 cd 25 4 51 1513 205 Bhawana 4.2 cd 12 4 63 1731 252 74 JB 9.4 a 18 7 118 3175 470 273 JB 3.4 de 22 3 58 1493 223 Aminpur 4.4 cd 10 3 73 1733 293 Jaranwala 9.0 a 8 6 114 3040 456 223 JB I 1.6 e 20 3 48 1453 172 275 JB 6.6 b 23 4 78 2076 311 227 JB 6.8 b 15 4 88 2884 354 Chak Jhumra 5.6 bc 12 4 84 2140 336 210 JB 5.6 bc 10 5 88 2680 352 2. Varietal Response to Meloidogyne graminicola Infestation The eight evaluated maize varieties exhibited significant differences in susceptibility to M. graminicola (Table 2; Figure 2). 'Sahiwal-Gold' was the most susceptible, showing a high mean root-knot severity score (7 on a 1-10 scale) and the highest average number of females per root system (122). Conversely, 'VH-1898' demonstrated substantial resistance, with the lowest mean severity score (2) and the fewest females per root system (47). Correspondingly, above-ground symptoms such as stunting and chlorosis were visually more severe in 'Sahiwal-Gold' compared to the less affected 'VH-1898' during the trial, further supporting its resistant nature . Table 2 presents comparative data on severity and nematode counts (females, J2s in roots, J2s in soil) for all varieties, with statistical groupings indicating significant differences (p ≤ 0.05). Figure 2 visually compares the mean J2 counts per root system and per 100 ml of soil across varieties. These results highlight the potential of host plant resistance, exemplified by VH-1898, in managing M. graminicola . Table 2. Comparative Disease Severity and Nematode Infestation Across Maize Varieties. Variety Severity No. of Females No. of J2s/Root System No. of J2s/100ml Soil FH-2047 6 b 98 bc 3040 a 613 ab FH-255 6 b 103 b 3004 a 648 ab FH-988 3 c 82 cd 1622 b 446 bc Malka-16 6 b 109 ab 2988 b 673 a P-1429 3 c 72 d 1560 b 307 d Sahiwal-Gold 7 a 122 a 3172 a 682 a VH-1898 2 d 47 e 1125 b 328 d VH-5427 3 c 68 d 1598 b 551 bc 3. Efficacy of Individual Management Strategies 3.1. Efficacy of Chemical Treatments Individual and combined chemical nematicides were evaluated against M. graminicola (Table 3; Figure 3). Single applications of Cartap, Cadusafos ("Rugby"), and Fluopyram reduced nematode populations and severity compared to the inoculated control, though effects were modest. Combinations significantly enhanced efficacy. The three-way combination (Fluopyram + Cadusafos + Cartap) provided the most pronounced suppression, reducing the severity score to 0 and J2 populations to minimal levels (average 37 J2s/root system; 15 J2s/100ml soil), representing substantial reductions compared to the inoculated control. Table 3 details the effectiveness of each chemical treatment regarding severity, female counts, and J2 levels, indicating significant differences (p ≤ 0.05). Figure 3 compares the mean J2 counts per 100 ml of soil for each chemical treatment. These findings demonstrate that chemical control, particularly using combined modes of action, can be highly effective. Table 3. Effectiveness of Different Chemical Treatments on Meloidogyne graminicola in Maize. Chemical Severity Females J2s/Root System J2s/100ml Soil Cartap 2 b + 1.24 55 b + 7.6 613 c + 39.5 45 b + 2.9 Rugby 2 b + 1.24 25 c + 4.9 657 bc + 42.3 40 bc + 2.6 Fluopyram 2 b + 1.24 12 de + 3.7 714 b + 46.0 50 b + 3.2 Fluopyram + Rugby 1 bc + 1.3 18 cd + 4.2 517 d + 33.3 30 cd + 1.9 Fluopyram + Cartap 1 bc + 1.3 12 de + 3.7 463 de + 29.8 25 de + 1.6 Rugby + Cartap 1 bc + 1.3 8 e + 5.2 398 e + 25.7 20 de + 1.3 Fluopyram + Rugby + Cartap 0 c 5 e + 1.9 37 f + 2.4 15 e + 0.9 Inoculated Control 7 a + 2.77 200 a + 13.5 3114 a + 200.7 457 a + 29.5 3.2. Biological Control Agents Efficacy of Biological Control Agents Biological control agents (BCAs) Trichoderma harzianum , Bacillus megaterium , and Purpureocillium lilacinum were tested individually and in combination (Table 4; Figure 4). Individual BCAs provided moderate reductions in nematode populations and severity compared to the inoculated control. Two-way combinations showed slight improvements, but the triple combination of T. harzianum + B. megaterium + P. lilacinum was most effective among BCA treatments, significantly reducing the severity score to 1 and lowering J2 populations substantially (average 656 J2s/root system; 95 J2s/100ml soil) compared to the inoculated control. Table 4 presents the results for each BCA treatment, showing significant differences in efficacy (p ≤ 0.05). Figure 4 compares the mean J2 counts per 100 ml of soil for the BCA treatments. This indicates that combined BCAs can significantly suppress M. graminicola . Table 4. Effectiveness of Different Biological Control Agents on Meloidogyne graminicola in Maize. BCA Severity Females J2s/Root System J2s/100ml Soil T. harzianum 2 d 43 de + 4.2 1128 e + 124.3 169 d + 17 B. megaterium 2 d 42 e + 3.5 1268 de + 124.5 186 cd + 20.6 P. lilacinum 3 b 69 b + 6.0 1558 bc + 119.2 236 b + 25.7 T. harzianum + B. megaterium 3 b 65 bc + 7.1 1334 d + 161.4 193 cd + 20.9 T. harzianum + P. lilacinum 2 d 51 d + 3.9 1379 cd + 142.0 178 cd + 18.7 B. megaterium + P. lilacinum 3 b 59 c + 7 1581 b + 155.5 201 c + 16.4 T. harzianum + B. megaterium + P. lilacinum 1 e 27 f + 2.7 656 f + 79.6 95 e + 7.5 Inoculated Control 8 a 144 a + 13.5 2752 a + 320.8 551 a + 53.5 4. Integrated Disease Management (IDM) An Integrated Disease Management (IDM) strategy, combining selected chemical nematicides and BCAs, was evaluated (Table 5; Figure 5). All tested IDM combinations significantly reduced nematode populations and root galling compared to the inoculated control, although efficacy varied among combinations. The most robust suppression was achieved with the full-spectrum IDM approach combining all three chemical nematicides and all three BCAs (T7), which reduced severity to 1 and lowered J2 populations significantly (average 481 J2s/root system; 11 J2s/100ml soil). This represented an 85% reduction in root J2s and a 98% reduction in soil J2s compared to the inoculated control, performing similarly to the triple-chemical treatment (T6). Table 5 details the effectiveness of the different IDM strategies (p ≤ 0.05). Figure 5 compares J2 counts per root system across IDM treatments. These results highlight the potential for robust nematode control through integrated approaches. Table 5. Effectiveness of Different Integrated Management Strategies on Meloidogyne graminicola . Integrated Management Severity No. of Females No. of J2s/Root System No. of J2s/100ml Soil Fluopyram + P. lilacinum 1 b 10 bc 624 a 29 ab Rugby + P. lilacinum 1 c 8 cd 611 b 24 bc Cartap + T. harzianum 2 a 13 a 563 c 34 a Cartap + B. megaterium 2 a 11 ab 546 d 31 ab Cartap + P. lilacinum 1 bc 7 de 534 e 21 c Fluopyram + Rugby + Cartap 1 bc 5 e 487 f 13 d Fluopyrum + Rugby + Cartap + T. Harzianum + B. Megaterium + P. Lilacinum 1 bc 8 cd 481 f 11 d 5. Comparative Analysis of Yield Metrics The impact of management strategies on maize yield parameters was assessed (Table 6; Figures 6, 7). The IDM approach consistently resulted in the highest yield metrics among the nematode-infested treatments. Compared to the Inoculated Control, IDM-treated plants showed significant improvements: 15% increase in height (158.0 cm vs 137.7 cm), 19% increase in biomass (258.3 g vs 217.5 g), and 25% increase in 100-grain weight (34.2 g vs 27.4 g). These IDM yield values approached, but were slightly lower than, those of the Healthy Control (e.g., 100-grain weight 34.2 g vs 36.2 g). Chemical-only and biological-only treatments also showed yield improvements over the inoculated control, though generally less than the full IDM approach. The significantly lower yields in the Inoculated Control highlight the detrimental impact of unchecked M. graminicola . Table 6 provides a detailed comparison of yield metrics across treatments (p ≤ 0.05). Figures 6 and 7 visually compare plant height and 100-grain weight, respectively, across the management strategies. Table 6. Comparative Yield Metrics Across Different Management Strategies. Treatment Plant Height (cm) Biomass (g) Cob Length (cm) Cob Diameter (cm) Kernel Weight (g) 100 Grain Weight (g) Chemical 152.6 ab + 5.8 243 abc + 14.8 17.1 ab + 0.6 4.2 c + 0.1 317.9 abc + 15.6 32.3 abc + 2.6 Biological 146.2 bc + 5.6 229.8 bc + 14 16.2 bc + 0.5 4.0 d + 0.1 310.9 bc + 15.3 29.3 bc + 2.4 Integrated (IDM) 158 ab + 6 258.3 ab + 15.8 17.7 a + 0.6 4.5 b + 0.1 338.1 ab + 16.6 34.2 ab + 2.8 Healthy Control 162.2 a + 6.2 270.6 a + 16.5 18.3 a + 0.6 4.7 a + 0.1 350.2 a + 17.2 36.2 a + 2.9 Inoculated Control 137.7 c + 5.3 217.5 c + 13.3 15.6 c + 0.5 3.8 e + 0 295.7 c + 14.6 27.4 c + 2.2 Discussion This study confirms that the rice root-knot nematode, Meloidogyne graminicola , poses a significant threat to maize production in Central Punjab, Pakistan, mirroring concerns previously focused mainly on rice crops where yield losses have reached 11–80% under serious infestation (Pankaj et al., 2010 ; Mantelin et al., 2017). The observed high incidence rates (up to 9.4%) and large juvenile populations (> 3000 J2s/root system) in surveyed fields, coupled with significant yield reductions in untreated controls, underscore the damaging potential of M. graminicola in the region's maize systems. The variability in incidence across locations, with some fields showing much lower incidence (e.g., 1.6% in 223 JB I), suggests that local environmental factors, soil properties (though not systematically measured across survey sites in this study), and cropping history likely influence nematode pressure, consistent with observations in other systems where certain environments experience minimal galling (Padgham et al., 2004 ). Potential variation in host suitability between regional M. graminicola populations may also play a role, highlighting an area for further investigation. The evaluation of maize varieties revealed significant differences in host suitability. 'Sahiwal-Gold' proved highly susceptible, whereas 'VH-1898' exhibited strong resistance. This highlights host plant resistance as a crucial, foundational component of sustainable nematode management, paralleling findings in resistant rice lines where certain genotypes deter nematode entry or reproduction (Pankaj et al., 2010 ). While the specific resistance mechanisms in VH-1898 were not investigated here, studies on other resistant maize lines against Meloidogyne suggest mechanisms may involve slowed nematode development rather than complete exclusion. Identifying and deploying resistant cultivars like VH-1898 is paramount, as it can significantly reduce nematode populations and yield losses, forming a cornerstone of sustainable management strategies. Further research into the genetic basis of VH-1898's resistance is clearly warranted to facilitate breeding programs. Regarding control tactics, individual chemical nematicides provided moderate suppression, but combinations were significantly more effective in this trial. The triple combination of Fluopyram + Cadusafos + Cartap achieved near-complete suppression of nematodes, reducing juvenile counts substantially, similar to multi-ingredient approaches reported elsewhere (Padgham et al., 2004 ). Fluopyram, an SDH inhibitor, likely contributed significantly to this effect. However, the use of such a potent chemical cocktail raises significant concerns. Fluopyram exhibits significant soil persistence, with reported half-lives varying, suggesting persistence in Central Punjab's soils (e.g., Yun et al., 2023; Zhang et al., 2014). Heavy reliance on such broad-spectrum chemical combinations also contradicts Integrated Pest Management (IPM) principles focused on minimizing environmental impact. While this study included this potent treatment, its routine use cannot be recommended from a sustainability perspective without thorough risk assessment. Biological control agents (BCAs) also demonstrated efficacy, particularly the triple combination of T. harzianum , B. megaterium , and P. lilacinum . The success of this combination likely stems from complementary modes of action, including mycoparasitism, antibiosis, egg parasitism, and induced plant resistance (Amarasinghe & Hemachandra, 2020 ). While synergistic effects are plausible, further work could explore if simpler, potentially more cost-effective BCA combinations, or integration with a single, targeted nematicide, could provide adequate control. Integrated Pest Management (IPM) offers a framework for sustainable nematode control, combining biological, cultural, physical, and chemical methods based on ecological understanding. For M. graminicola , IPM integrates tactics like biological controls, resistant varieties, and cultural practices such as crop rotation. Notably, IDM treatment resulted in significant improvements in plant height, biomass, and 100-grain weight compared to the inoculated control, achieving yield metrics that approached those of the uninfested Healthy Control plants (Soriano & Réversat, 2003). This demonstrates the potential of this integrated approach to substantially mitigate yield losses caused by M. graminicola under the tested conditions. However, the sustainability concerns regarding the chemical components remain. A truly integrated and sustainable approach should prioritize foundational non-chemical tactics. Crop rotation with non-host crops is essential, particularly as maize fields are typically not flooded like rice fields (Soriano et al., 2000 ). Rotating with legumes like cowpea or using crops like marigolds ( Tagetes spp.) might be potential options based on practices used for Meloidogyne management elsewhere. Deploying resistant varieties like VH-1898 is also paramount. While specific resistance to M. graminicola in maize is not well documented, resistance to other Meloidogyne species exists in some cultivars (e.g., Danso et al., Year ), indicating potential for breeding. From an economic perspective, effective nematode management can provide significant benefits for farmers through yield increases, as shown in this study. However, adopting sustainable practices like IPM faces challenges for smallholder farmers in Pakistan. Lack of awareness, limited access to resources (including quality BCAs or resistant seeds), inadequate extension services, and the initial costs or perceived complexity of new methods are significant barriers. Overcoming these adoption hurdles requires targeted support, farmer education, and participatory approaches. This study has limitations, including its single-season, single-location nature for the field trial, requiring validation. The lack of systematic soil data across survey sites limits interpretation of incidence variation. The economic feasibility requires formal assessment, and the genetic basis of resistance in VH-1898 needs exploration. In conclusion, Meloidogyne graminicola significantly constrains maize production in Central Punjab. While potent chemical combinations and integrated strategies showed high efficacy here, environmental sustainability concerns necessitate prioritizing foundational components like host plant resistance (VH-1898), cultural practices (rotation with non-hosts like cowpea or marigolds), and biological control. Judicious chemical use should be a last resort within a true IPM framework. Future research must focus on developing and promoting accessible, economically viable, and environmentally sound IDM strategies, including screening local germplasm for resistance and strengthening extension support for smallholder farmers in the region. Declarations Acknowledgments: Not applicable. Data Availability Statement: The data supporting this study’s findings were generated by the authors from their own research and surveys. These data are not publicly archived, but they are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request. Authors contribution: The sole author, S. Ali, was responsible for the conception and design of the study, data collection, analysis, and interpretation, as well as drafting, revising, and approving the final manuscript. Generative Artificial Intelligence (AI) Usage Disclosure During the preparation of this work, the authors used ChatGPT (OpenAI) to improve the clarity and readability of the manuscript text. After using this tool, the authors carefully reviewed and edited the content, and take full responsibility for the final version of the manuscript. Conflict of Interest: Not applicable. Funding: No funding was received for conducting this study. Consent to Participate: Not applicable. Consent to Publish: Not applicable. Ethics Approval: Not applicable. References Amarasinghe, L., & Hemachandra, K. H. D. J. K. (2020). Meloidogyne graminicola infestation in selected Sri Lankan rice varieties and nematotoxic effect of Trichoderma viride. Journal of Agriculture and Environment, 13, 18. Anwar, M., Ahmad, H., & Ali, A. (2021). Occurrence and molecular characterization of Meloidogyne graminicola in rice fields of Central Punjab, Pakistan. Journal of Nematology, 53(1), 1-8. Begam, A., Adhikary, S., Roy, D. and Ray, M. (2018). Grain Yield of Kharif Maize Hybrid (Zea mays L) as Influenced by Doses and Split Application of Nitrogen. Int. J. Curr. Microbiol. App. Sci 7:2121-2129. Bridge, J. and Page, S. (1982). The rice root-knot nematode, Meloidogyne graminicola, on deep water rice (Oryza sativa subsp. indica). Rev. Nématol. 5:225-232. Danso, Y., Adomako, J., Osei, K., & Abugri, B. (2019). Host-suitability of maize varieties to root knot nematode meloidogyne incognita. Dutta, S., Gaur, H. S., & Singh, R. (2012). Rice root-knot nematode (Meloidogyne graminicola): An emerging threat to food security in Asia. International Journal of Current Microbiology and Applied Sciences, 6(8), 3143-3171. Economic Survey of Pakistan (2022–23). Ministry of Finance, Government of Pakistan. Retrieved from https://www.finance.gov.pk/survey/chapters_23/02_Agriculture.pdf Goswami, B., et al. (2008). "Management of root-knot nematodes in agricultural crops." Indian Journal of Nematology, 38(2), 271-281. Hajihassani, A., Rutter, W.B., & Luo, X. (2020). The Screening of Resistance against Meloidogyne graminicola in Oats. Agriculture, 10(8), 352. Hertfordshire PPDB. (2025). Fluopyram - AERU - University of Hertfordshire. Retrieved from https://sitem.herts.ac.uk/aeru/ppdb/en/Reports/1362.htm Mantelin, S., Petitot, A. S., & De Waele, D. (2022). Insights into the genetics of the Zhonghua 11 resistance to Meloidogyne graminicola in rice. Frontiers in Plant Science, 13, Article 854961. Padgham, J., Abawi, G., Duxbury, J., & Mazid, M. (2004). Impact of wheat on Meloidogyne graminicola populations in the rice-wheat system of Bangladesh. Nematropica, 34, 183–190. PAN Europe. (2025). Protect Europe's Water: Why Fluopyram Must Be Banned. Retrieved from https://www.pan-europe.info/node/3970 Pankaj, H., Sharma, J., & Prasad, J. (2010). The rice root-knot nematode, Meloidogyne graminicola: An emerging problem in rice-wheat cropping system. Indian Journal of Nematology, 40, 1–11. Pathak, M. D., & Kumar, V. (2003). "Integrated pest management in rice-based systems." Field Crops Research, 85(1), 119-128. Ravindra, H., Dutta, S., & Gaur, H. S. (2017). Rice root-knot nematode (Meloidogyne graminicola): An emerging threat to food security in Asia. International Journal of Current Microbiology and Applied Sciences, 6(8), 3143-3171. Sacchi, S., Torrini, G., Marianelli, L., Mazza, G., Fumagalli, A., Cavagna, B., Ciampitti, M., & Roversi, P. F. (2021). Control of Meloidogyne graminicola a Root-Knot Nematode Using Rice Plants as Trap Crops: Preliminary Results. Agriculture, 11(1), 37. Soriano, I. R., Prot, J. C., & Matias, D. M. (2000). Expression of tolerance for Meloidogyne graminicola in rice cultivars as affected by soil type and flooding. Journal of Nematology, 32(3), 309–317. UC Davis Horticulture. (2025). Feed the Future Innovation Lab for Horticulture: Integrated nematode and soil health management strategies for smallholder potato farmers in Guatemala. Retrieved from https://horticulture.ucdavis.edu/project/nematode-ipm-guatemala Yun MS, Choi H. (2023). Uptake of Fungicide Fluopyram from Soil by Scallions during Greenhouse Cultivation. Foods, 12(10):1996. doi: 10.3390/foods12101996. Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Cite Share Download PDF Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. Our growing team is made up of researchers and industry professionals working together to solve the most critical problems facing scientific publishing. Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-7597635","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":514702464,"identity":"de7ac2c9-070e-4630-b638-c1ae379a58f8","order_by":0,"name":"Saqib Ali","email":"data:image/png;base64,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","orcid":"","institution":"University of Agriculture Faisalabad","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Saqib","middleName":"","lastName":"Ali","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2025-09-12 07:24:07","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":{"humanSubjects":false,"vertebrateSubjects":false,"conflictsOfInterestStatement":false,"humanSubjectEthicalGuidelines":false,"humanSubjectConsent":false,"humanSubjectClinicalTrial":false,"humanSubjectCaseReport":false,"vertebrateSubjectEthicalGuidelines":false},"doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7597635/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-7597635/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":91318609,"identity":"dd12a6a4-1e96-45a2-8a01-2aceedcb3a93","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-09-15 08:42:31","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":707170,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eIncidence of \u003cem\u003eMeloidogyne graminicola\u003c/em\u003e in Different Maize-Growing Locations in Central Punjab, Pakistan.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Figure1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7597635/v1/06022db613d86da7105f63b2.png"},{"id":91317482,"identity":"66f4021a-e913-4f0c-b36b-20d873b24c9f","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-09-15 08:34:31","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":810366,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eComparative Analysis of Nematode Populations (\u003cem\u003eMeloidogyne graminicola\u003c/em\u003e) in Roots and Soil of Different Maize Varieties.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Figure2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7597635/v1/17169ff9f2ebd54b6b220b5d.png"},{"id":91318966,"identity":"6d7d1161-f6a7-461d-9cdd-3252dcbc68ec","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-09-15 08:50:31","extension":"png","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":516974,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eComparative Efficacy of Chemical Treatments on Juvenile Nematode (J2) Populations of \u003cem\u003eMeloidogyne graminicola\u003c/em\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Figure3.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7597635/v1/38230602791e2b3c7fb52190.png"},{"id":91318613,"identity":"695011f1-fb3e-4a81-8658-e826ab282c35","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-09-15 08:42:31","extension":"png","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":711607,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eComparative Efficacy of Biological Control Agents on Juvenile Nematode (J2) Populations of \u003cem\u003eMeloidogyne graminicola\u003c/em\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Figure4.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7597635/v1/8a391e955fac606ae6941070.png"},{"id":91317487,"identity":"de44962c-ae1b-4390-9561-e12d917f1353","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-09-15 08:34:31","extension":"png","order_by":5,"title":"Figure 5","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":459380,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eComparative Analysis of J2 Counts in Root Systems for IDM Treatments.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Figure5.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7597635/v1/7e419dc2dc5ae55c02fe0225.png"},{"id":91317484,"identity":"3bc1801f-b4e1-45bb-bed6-398a0d7742f8","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-09-15 08:34:31","extension":"png","order_by":6,"title":"Figure 6","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":251557,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eComparative Analysis of Plant Height Across Management Strategies.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Figure6.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7597635/v1/b6cb47429d86f4254c6fcdb3.png"},{"id":91317490,"identity":"578aa478-fe91-4789-b757-867a2f8b72b7","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-09-15 08:34:31","extension":"png","order_by":7,"title":"Figure 7","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":222061,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e100-Grain Weight Under Different Management Strategies.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Figure7.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7597635/v1/ace7dc92b6b997c180b072b4.png"},{"id":94645612,"identity":"36637e4b-a80d-4434-a66b-9a4a18aa60bd","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-29 08:39:09","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":5959639,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7597635/v1/be17dae8-3179-40d1-899f-14771ad94e27.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Incidence and Integrated Management of Meloidogyne graminicola in Maize Fields of Central Punjab, Pakistan","fulltext":[{"header":"Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eMaize (\u003cem\u003eZea mays\u003c/em\u003e L.) ranks among the top three cereal crops globally, alongside wheat and rice, serving as a crucial source of food, livestock feed, and industrial raw materials (Begam et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). In Pakistan, agriculture remains a vital sector, and maize cultivation is heavily concentrated in Central Punjab and Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (KP), which together contribute nearly 90% of the national production. The cultivated area for maize has recently expanded to 1,720 thousand hectares, highlighting its increasing importance (Economic Survey of Pakistan 2022\u0026ndash;23). However, this production is challenged by numerous biotic stresses, with plant-parasitic nematodes recognized as a significant threat to agricultural productivity in Pakistan, including in Central Punjab.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAmong these pests, the rice root-knot nematode, \u003cem\u003eMeloidogyne graminicola\u003c/em\u003e, poses a serious risk, particularly in tropical and subtropical agricultural systems. While primarily studied in rice, where it can cause severe yield reductions ranging from 17% to 87% depending on conditions (Dutta et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e; Ravindra et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e), M. \u003cem\u003egraminicola\u003c/em\u003e has a broad host range, including other cereals like wheat, and its potential impact on maize is a growing concern. The nematode impairs plant growth by forming root galls that disrupt water and nutrient uptake. Although specific yield loss data for \u003cem\u003eM. graminicola\u003c/em\u003e in maize is limited, the severe damage observed in rice and its known prevalence in Central Punjab\u0026mdash;reportedly up to 27.5% in rice fields (Anwar et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e)\u0026mdash;underscore the potential threat to the region's intensifying maize cultivation. Understanding its impact in the non-flooded conditions typical of maize fields in Punjab, which differ from traditional flooded rice systems, is therefore crucial.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eDespite extensive research on \u003cem\u003eM. graminicola\u003c/em\u003e in rice, its specific impact and management in maize remain under-documented, representing a significant knowledge gap. Given maize's increasing role in food security, investigating the nematode's incidence, identifying resistant maize varieties, and developing effective control strategies for Central Punjab's maize systems are essential. Integrated Disease Management (IDM) provides a holistic framework for nematode control by combining chemical, biological, and cultural practices (Pathak and Kumar, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2003\u003c/span\u003e; Goswami et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e). Biological agents like \u003cem\u003eTrichoderma harzianum\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eBacillus megaterium\u003c/em\u003e, and \u003cem\u003ePurpureocillium lilacinum\u003c/em\u003e offer antagonistic effects against root-knot nematodes, while selective nematicides can reduce populations. Cultural methods such as crop rotation and fallow periods also contribute to disrupting nematode life cycles (Hajihassani et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Sacchi et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eWe hypothesize that an IDM approach combining effective biocontrol agents with selected chemical nematicides will significantly reduce \u003cem\u003eM. graminicola\u003c/em\u003e infestation in maize, leading to improved plant growth and yield. Accordingly, this study aimed to: (i) determine the incidence and distribution of \u003cem\u003eM. graminicola\u003c/em\u003e in major maize-growing areas of Central Punjab, (ii) evaluate the susceptibility of locally relevant maize varieties to \u003cem\u003eM. graminicola\u003c/em\u003e infection, and (iii) develop and validate an IDM strategy integrating biological and chemical control agents. By comparing integrated methods with individual tactics, this research seeks to establish a robust management framework to minimize nematode damage and support sustainable maize production in Central Punjab.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Materials \u0026 Methods","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eStudy Area and Nematode Incidence Survey\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis study was conducted in Central Punjab, a major maize production region in Pakistan. Field surveys were carried out during the primary maize growing season across 13 diverse maize-growing locations (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e) within Central Punjab. These sites were selected to represent a range of farming practices and included areas with suspected high nematode incidence (e.g., Jaranwala, 74 JB) and historically lower pressure (e.g., 223 JB I), allowing for a broad assessment of \u003cem\u003eMeloidogyne graminicola\u003c/em\u003e incidence and severity. However, detailed soil characteristics (texture, pH, moisture) were not systematically recorded across all survey locations as part of this study.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSurvey Locations and Geographical Coordinates (Central Punjab)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"3\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLocation\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLatitude\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLongitude\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eChak Jhumra\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e31.5672\u0026deg;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e73.2733\u0026deg;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eKhurrianwala\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e31.6418\u0026deg;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e73.3948\u0026deg;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eJaranwala\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e31.3642\u0026deg;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e73.4318\u0026deg;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBhawana\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e31.5689\u0026deg;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e72.6508\u0026deg;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eUAF (PP EA)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e31.4381\u0026deg;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e73.0733\u0026deg;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e74 JB\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e31.3560\u0026deg;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e72.8916\u0026deg;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e273 JB\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e31.3891\u0026deg;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e72.8055\u0026deg;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e223 JB I\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e31.4553\u0026deg;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e72.6795\u0026deg;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e210 JB\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e31.4427\u0026deg;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e72.7487\u0026deg;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e227 JB\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e31.4428\u0026deg;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e72.6284\u0026deg;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAminpur\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e31.4910\u0026deg;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e72.8566\u0026deg;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e91 RB\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e31.5260\u0026deg;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e73.4485\u0026deg;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e275 JB\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e31.3432\u0026deg;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e72.8280\u0026deg;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eSample Collection\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDuring the maize growing season, soil and root samples were randomly collected from each surveyed field. From each field, a composite sample consisting of approximately 1 kg of soil and several root systems was gathered from 5\u0026ndash;10 random spots around maize plants at a depth of 0\u0026ndash;30 cm. Samples were bagged, labeled, and immediately transported to the laboratory for nematode analysis, providing a representative overview of \u003cem\u003eM. graminicola\u003c/em\u003e prevalence and severity under field conditions.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eNematodes were extracted from soil using a modified Baermann funnel method. A 100 cm\u0026sup3; subsample of soil from each composite sample was processed for 24\u0026ndash;72 hours. Nematodes were collected and concentrated by centrifugation. Second-stage juveniles (J2s) were also extracted from approximately 20 g of chopped maize roots per sample using the same Baermann method.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eNematode Identification and Symptom Assessment:\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cul\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eSymptomatological Observations\u003c/b\u003e: During initial field surveys and the subsequent field trial, visual symptoms indicative of Meloidogyne graminicola infection were meticulously observed on both the root systems and above-ground parts of maize plants. Infected roots consistently exhibited various degrees of galling, the most characteristic symptom of root-knot nematode infection. These galls ranged from small, discrete swellings on feeder roots at lower severity levels to large, coalescing, and sometimes necrotic galls that severely distorted the entire root system at higher infection intensities. The root architecture was often visibly impaired, leading to a reduced and inefficient root mass. This galling disrupts the plant's normal water and nutrient uptake. Beyond the roots, above-ground symptoms were also noted, particularly in heavily infested plots (e.g., the inoculated control in the field trial). These symptoms included significant stunting of plant height, generalized chlorosis (yellowing of leaves) indicating nutrient deficiency, reduced plant vigor, and premature wilting, especially during periods of water stress. These above-ground manifestations are direct consequences of the impaired water and nutrient uptake caused by the root galling, which disrupts the vascular system of the host plant. The severity of these symptoms was quantitatively assessed using a 1\u0026ndash;10 rating scale, adapted from Bridge \u0026amp; Page (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1982\u003c/span\u003e), correlating directly with nematode population densities in roots and soil.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eMorphological Identification: Extracted nematodes were identified to the genus and species level using diagnostic morphological features under a compound microscope. For initial identification, second-stage juveniles (J2s) were characterized by their vermiform body shape, a distinct conical tail with a pointed tip, and a prominent stylet. Mature females were isolated from galled maize roots and were typically pear-shaped to globular, white, and sedentary within the root tissue. Crucially, the perineal patterns of mature females were prepared and examined for species-specific identification. These patterns consistently exhibited a high dorsal arch with wavy striae in the anal-vulval region, gradually becoming more circular towards the lateral fields. The lateral lines were generally indistinct or absent, a characteristic feature of\u003c/b\u003e \u003cb\u003eM. graminicola\u003c/b\u003e. \u003cb\u003eThese morphological observations, particularly the distinct perineal patterns, were consistent with published descriptions for\u003c/b\u003e \u003cb\u003eMeloidogyne graminicola\u003c/b\u003e \u003cb\u003efrom cereal hosts.\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eMolecular Confirmation: Species confirmation for\u003c/b\u003e \u003cb\u003eM. graminicola\u003c/b\u003e \u003cb\u003ewas performed via PCR amplification of the internal transcribed spacer (ITS) region. Genomic DNA was extracted from individual or pooled second-stage juveniles (J2s) or excised female nematodes using a standardized protocol. The ITS region was amplified using the species-specific primers rDNA2 (5\u0026prime;-TTGATTACGTCCCTGCCCTTT-3\u0026prime;) and rDNA1.58s (5\u0026prime;-ACGAGCCCGAGTGATCCACCG-3\u0026prime;). PCR reactions were carried out in a 25 \u0026micro;L reaction volume containing 1\u0026times; PCR buffer, 1.5 mM MgCl₂, 0.2 mM dNTPs, 0.5 \u0026micro;M of each primer, 1 U\u003c/b\u003e \u003cb\u003eTaq\u003c/b\u003e \u003cb\u003eDNA polymerase, and approximately 50 ng of template DNA. The thermal cycling conditions included an initial denaturation at 94\u0026deg;C for 5 minutes, followed by 35 cycles of denaturation at 94\u0026deg;C for 30 seconds, annealing at 58\u0026deg;C for 30 seconds, and extension at 72\u0026deg;C for 1 minute, with a final extension at 72\u0026deg;C for 7 minutes. PCR products were analyzed by electrophoresis on a 1.5% agarose gel stained with ethidium bromide and visualized under UV light, confirming the presence of an amplicon of the expected size (approximately 700 bp). Representative PCR products were then purified using a commercial PCR purification kit and sent for Sanger sequencing (e.g., to a reputable commercial sequencing facility). The resulting sequences were compared with known sequences in the GenBank database using NCBI's BLAST tool. All analyzed sequences showed high (99\u0026ndash;100%) nucleotide identity with previously deposited\u003c/b\u003e \u003cb\u003eMeloidogyne graminicola\u003c/b\u003e \u003cb\u003eITS sequences, unequivocally confirming the identity of the nematode populations.\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eIncidence and Prevalence Calculation\u003c/b\u003e: Incidence was calculated as the percentage of sampled plants infected with \u003cem\u003eM. graminicola\u003c/em\u003e. Prevalence was calculated as the percentage of surveyed fields found positive for \u003cem\u003eM. graminicola\u003c/em\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ul\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003e4. Root Galling Severity Scoring\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe severity of root galling on infected maize root systems was assessed using a 1\u0026ndash;10 rating scale, adapted from Bridge \u0026amp; Page (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1982\u003c/span\u003e). On this scale, 1 indicates no visible galls (healthy roots), while 10 represents extremely severe galling covering almost the entire root system.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003e5. Field Trial Design and Setup\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eA field trial was conducted at the University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF) Plant Pathology Experimental Site, known to be naturally infested with \u003cem\u003eM. graminicola\u003c/em\u003e, to evaluate nematode management strategies.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cul\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eMaize Varieties\u003c/b\u003e: Eight maize varieties were used: FH-2047, FH-255, FH-988, Malka-16, P-1429, Sahiwal-Gold, VH-1898, and VH-5427.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eExperimental Design\u003c/b\u003e: The trial used a randomized complete block design (RCBD) with three replications, although a formal \u003cem\u003ea priori\u003c/em\u003e power analysis was not conducted to determine this specific sample size.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003ePlot Layout\u003c/b\u003e: Each plot measured 5 m \u0026times; 5 m (25 m\u0026sup2;). Plots were separated by a 1-meter buffer zone. Maize was sown with standard spacing (75 cm rows, 25 cm between plants) resulting in approximately 100\u0026ndash;120 plants per plot. Agronomic practices were kept uniform across plots.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ul\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003e6. Treatments and Application\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe trial evaluated chemical nematicides, biological control agents (BCAs), and integrated combinations. These specific agents were selected based on their reported efficacy against Meloidogyne spp. in previous literature, their known modes of action suggesting potential for integrated use, and their availability for use in the region.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cul\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eChemical Nematicides\u003c/b\u003e: Fluopyram (seed treatment, 10 ml/kg seed), Rugby (Cadusafos) (soil application before planting, 10 ml/kg equivalent), and Cartap (soil drench, 2 g/L) were sourced from UAF labs.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eBiological Control Agents\u003c/b\u003e: \u003cem\u003eTrichoderma harzianum\u003c/em\u003e (1\u0026times;10⁶ spores/mL), \u003cem\u003eBacillus megaterium\u003c/em\u003e (1\u0026times;10⁸ CFU/mL), and \u003cem\u003ePurpureocillium lilacinum\u003c/em\u003e (1\u0026times;10⁷ spores/mL) were sourced from UAF culture collections and verified.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eTreatment Groups\u003c/b\u003e: Included sole chemical applications, sole BCA applications, selected chemical\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;BCA combinations, a full combination of all three chemicals\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;all three BCAs, an inoculated control (untreated, infested), and a healthy control (using soil confirmed free of \u003cem\u003eM. graminicola\u003c/em\u003e, untreated).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eApplication Timing and Methods\u003c/b\u003e: All treatments were applied once at the early maize growth stage (V1). Fluopyram was applied as a seed treatment. Cadusafos was applied to the soil before ridging/planting. Cartap was applied as a soil drench at planting. BCAs were applied at planting via seed coating, seedling root dip, or soil inoculum around the seed/seedling. No further applications were made.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ul\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003e7. Disease Assessments and Data Collection (Field Trial)\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAt harvest, nematode populations and plant health were assessed.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cul\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eNematode Assessment\u003c/b\u003e: Final J2 density per 100 cm\u0026sup3; soil was determined from root-zone soil samples using the Baermann method. Root galling severity (1\u0026ndash;10 scale) and the number of mature females per root system were assessed by uprooting and examining 5 randomly selected plants per plot. Gall Index (GI) and Reproduction Factor (Rf), sometimes suggested for nematode studies, were not determined in this study.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003ePlant Health Metrics\u003c/b\u003e: Plant height, biomass (dry weight), cob length, and 100-grain weight were recorded from the sampled plants.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ul\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003e8. Statistical Analysis\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eData were checked for normality (Shapiro\u0026ndash;Wilk test) and homogeneity of variance (Levene\u0026rsquo;s test). Analysis of variance (ANOVA) was performed for each variable using R software (version 2023.12.1). Significant differences among treatment means (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05) were identified using Tukey\u0026rsquo;s Honestly Significant Difference (HSD) post hoc test. Results are presented as means, with letters indicating statistical groupings. Graphs were generated using the ggplot2 package.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"RESULTS","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e1. Geographic Incidence and Distribution of \u003cem\u003eMeloidogyne graminicola\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe incidence of \u003cem\u003eMeloidogyne graminicola\u003c/em\u003e varied significantly across the surveyed maize-growing locations in Central Punjab, Pakistan (Table 1; Figure 1). Incidence ranged from 1.6% to 9.4%. The highest incidence rates were observed in Jaranwala (9.0%) and 74 JB (9.4%), indicating substantial nematode pressure in these fields, associated with juvenile nematode counts exceeding 3000 J2s per root system. In these areas, more pronounced above-ground symptoms such as stunting and generalized chlorosis were also commonly observed, consistent with the severity of root galling.\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eIn contrast, the 223 JB I location recorded the lowest incidence rate (1.6%), suggesting potential influences of local environmental or agronomic factors. Table 1 summarizes the incidence, prevalence, severity scores, and nematode counts for each location, with statistical groupings indicating significant differences among locations (p \u0026le; 0.05). Figure 1 visually represents the mean incidence percentages, highlighting these significant differences. These findings underscore the spatial variability in \u003cem\u003eM. graminicola\u003c/em\u003e prevalence and the need for location-specific management.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable 1.\u003c/strong\u003e Incidence, Prevalence, and Severity of \u003cem\u003eMeloidogyne graminicola\u003c/em\u003e in Different Maize-Growing Locations in Central Punjab, Pakistan.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eLocation\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eIncidence (%)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ePrevalence (%)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSeverity (1\u0026ndash;10)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eNo. of Females\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eNo. of J2s/Root System\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eNo. of J2s/100ml Soil\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eKhurrianwala\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7.4 ab\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e15\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e89\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1888\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e345\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eUAF (PP EA)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7.4 ab\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e92\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1905\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e365\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e91 RB\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.2 cd\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e25\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e51\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1513\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e205\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBhawana\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.2 cd\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e63\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1731\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e252\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e74 JB\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e9.4 a\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e18\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e118\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3175\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e470\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e273 JB\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.4 de\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e22\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e58\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1493\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e223\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAminpur\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.4 cd\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e73\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1733\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e293\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eJaranwala\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e9.0 a\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e114\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3040\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e456\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e223 JB I\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.6 e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e48\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1453\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e172\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e275 JB\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6.6 b\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e23\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e78\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2076\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e311\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e227 JB\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6.8 b\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e15\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e88\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2884\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e354\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eChak Jhumra\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5.6 bc\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e84\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2140\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e336\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e210 JB\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5.6 bc\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e88\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2680\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e352\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e2. Varietal Response to \u003cem\u003eMeloidogyne graminicola\u003c/em\u003e Infestation\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe eight evaluated maize varieties exhibited significant differences in susceptibility to \u003cem\u003eM. graminicola\u003c/em\u003e (Table 2; Figure 2). \u0026apos;Sahiwal-Gold\u0026apos; was the most susceptible, showing a high mean root-knot severity score (7 on a 1-10 scale) and the highest average number of females per root system (122). Conversely, \u0026apos;VH-1898\u0026apos; demonstrated substantial resistance, with the lowest mean severity score (2) and the fewest females per root system (47). Correspondingly, above-ground symptoms such as stunting and chlorosis were visually more severe in \u0026apos;Sahiwal-Gold\u0026apos; compared to the less affected \u0026apos;VH-1898\u0026apos; during the trial, further supporting its resistant nature\u003cstrong\u003e.\u003c/strong\u003e Table 2 presents comparative data on severity and nematode counts (females, J2s in roots, J2s in soil) for all varieties, with statistical groupings indicating significant differences (p \u0026le; 0.05). Figure 2 visually compares the mean J2 counts per root system and per 100 ml of soil across varieties. These results highlight the potential of host plant resistance, exemplified by VH-1898, in managing \u003cem\u003eM. graminicola\u003c/em\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable 2.\u003c/strong\u003e Comparative Disease Severity and Nematode Infestation Across Maize Varieties.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eVariety\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSeverity\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eNo. of Females\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eNo. of J2s/Root System\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eNo. of J2s/100ml Soil\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFH-2047\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6 b\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e98 bc\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3040 a\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e613 ab\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFH-255\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6 b\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e103 b\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3004 a\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e648 ab\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFH-988\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3 c\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e82 cd\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1622 b\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e446 bc\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMalka-16\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6 b\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e109 ab\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2988 b\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e673 a\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eP-1429\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3 c\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e72 d\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1560 b\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e307 d\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSahiwal-Gold\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7 a\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e122 a\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3172 a\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e682 a\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eVH-1898\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2 d\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e47 e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1125 b\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e328 d\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eVH-5427\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3 c\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e68 d\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1598 b\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e551 bc\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e3. Efficacy of Individual Management Strategies\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e3.1. Efficacy of Chemical Treatments\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIndividual and combined chemical nematicides were evaluated against \u003cem\u003eM. graminicola\u003c/em\u003e (Table 3; Figure 3). Single applications of Cartap, Cadusafos (\u0026quot;Rugby\u0026quot;), and Fluopyram reduced nematode populations and severity compared to the inoculated control, though effects were modest. Combinations significantly enhanced efficacy. The three-way combination (Fluopyram + Cadusafos + Cartap) provided the most pronounced suppression, reducing the severity score to 0 and J2 populations to minimal levels (average 37 J2s/root system; 15 J2s/100ml soil), representing substantial reductions compared to the inoculated control. Table 3 details the effectiveness of each chemical treatment regarding severity, female counts, and J2 levels, indicating significant differences (p \u0026le; 0.05). Figure 3 compares the mean J2 counts per 100 ml of soil for each chemical treatment. These findings demonstrate that chemical control, particularly using combined modes of action, can be highly effective.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable 3.\u003c/strong\u003e Effectiveness of Different Chemical Treatments on \u003cem\u003eMeloidogyne graminicola\u003c/em\u003e in Maize.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" width=\"100%\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 32px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eChemical\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 13px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSeverity\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 15px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFemales\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 20px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eJ2s/Root System\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 18px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eJ2s/100ml Soil\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 32px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCartap\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 13px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2 b + 1.24\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 15px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e55 b + 7.6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 20px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e613 c + 39.5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 18px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e45 b + 2.9\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 32px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eRugby\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 13px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2 b + 1.24\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 15px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e25 c + 4.9\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 20px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e657 bc + 42.3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 18px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e40 bc + 2.6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 32px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFluopyram\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 13px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2 b + 1.24\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 15px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12 de + 3.7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 20px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e714 b + 46.0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 18px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e50 b + 3.2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 32px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFluopyram + Rugby\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 13px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1 bc + 1.3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 15px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e18 cd + 4.2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 20px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e517 d + 33.3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 18px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e30 cd + 1.9\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 32px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFluopyram + Cartap\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 13px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1 bc + 1.3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 15px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12 de + 3.7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 20px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e463 de + 29.8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 18px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e25 de + 1.6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 32px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eRugby + Cartap\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 13px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1 bc + 1.3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 15px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8 e + 5.2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 20px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e398 e + 25.7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 18px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e20 de + 1.3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 32px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFluopyram + Rugby + Cartap\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 13px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0 c\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 15px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5 e + 1.9\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 20px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e37 f + 2.4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 18px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e15 e + 0.9\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 32px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eInoculated Control\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 13px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7 a + 2.77\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 15px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e200 a + 13.5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 20px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3114 a + 200.7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 18px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e457 a + 29.5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e3.2. Biological Control Agents\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEfficacy of Biological Control Agents\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBiological control agents (BCAs) \u003cem\u003eTrichoderma harzianum\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eBacillus megaterium\u003c/em\u003e, and \u003cem\u003ePurpureocillium lilacinum\u003c/em\u003e were tested individually and in combination (Table 4; Figure 4). Individual BCAs provided moderate reductions in nematode populations and severity compared to the inoculated control. Two-way combinations showed slight improvements, but the triple combination of \u003cem\u003eT. harzianum\u003c/em\u003e + \u003cem\u003eB. megaterium\u003c/em\u003e + \u003cem\u003eP. lilacinum\u003c/em\u003e was most effective among BCA treatments, significantly reducing the severity score to 1 and lowering J2 populations substantially (average 656 J2s/root system; 95 J2s/100ml soil) compared to the inoculated control. Table 4 presents the results for each BCA treatment, showing significant differences in efficacy (p \u0026le; 0.05). Figure 4 compares the mean J2 counts per 100 ml of soil for the BCA treatments. This indicates that combined BCAs can significantly suppress \u003cem\u003eM. graminicola\u003c/em\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable 4.\u003c/strong\u003e Effectiveness of Different Biological Control Agents on \u003cem\u003eMeloidogyne graminicola\u003c/em\u003e in Maize.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" width=\"100%\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 18px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eBCA\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 13px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSeverity\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 20px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFemales\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 22px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eJ2s/Root System\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 23px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eJ2s/100ml Soil\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 18px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eT. harzianum\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 13px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2 d\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 20px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e43 de + 4.2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 22px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1128 e + 124.3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 23px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e169 d + 17\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 18px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eB. megaterium\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 13px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2 d\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 20px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e42 e + 3.5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 22px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1268 de + 124.5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 23px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e186 cd + 20.6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 18px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eP. lilacinum\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 13px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3 b\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 20px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e69 b + 6.0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 22px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1558 bc + 119.2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 23px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e236 b + 25.7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 18px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eT. harzianum\u003c/em\u003e + \u003cem\u003eB. megaterium\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 13px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3 b\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 20px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e65 bc + 7.1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 22px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1334 d + 161.4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 23px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e193 cd + 20.9\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 18px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eT. harzianum\u003c/em\u003e + \u003cem\u003eP. lilacinum\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 13px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2 d\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 20px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e51 d + 3.9\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 22px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1379 cd + 142.0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 23px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e178 cd + 18.7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 18px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eB. megaterium\u003c/em\u003e + \u003cem\u003eP. lilacinum\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 13px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3 b\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 20px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e59 c + 7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 22px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1581 b + 155.5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 23px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e201 c + 16.4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 18px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eT. harzianum\u003c/em\u003e + \u003cem\u003eB. megaterium\u003c/em\u003e + \u003cem\u003eP. lilacinum\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 13px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1 e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 20px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e27 f + 2.7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 22px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e656 f + 79.6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 23px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e95 e + 7.5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 18px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eInoculated Control\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 13px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8 a\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 20px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e144 a + 13.5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 22px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2752 a + 320.8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 23px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e551 a + 53.5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e4. Integrated Disease Management (IDM)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAn Integrated Disease Management (IDM) strategy, combining selected chemical nematicides and BCAs, was evaluated (Table 5; Figure 5). All tested IDM combinations significantly reduced nematode populations and root galling compared to the inoculated control, although efficacy varied among combinations. The most robust suppression was achieved with the full-spectrum IDM approach combining all three chemical nematicides and all three BCAs (T7), which reduced severity to 1 and lowered J2 populations significantly (average 481 J2s/root system; 11 J2s/100ml soil). This represented an 85% reduction in root J2s and a 98% reduction in soil J2s compared to the inoculated control, performing similarly to the triple-chemical treatment (T6). Table 5 details the effectiveness of the different IDM strategies (p \u0026le; 0.05). Figure 5 compares J2 counts per root system across IDM treatments. These results highlight the potential for robust nematode control through integrated approaches.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable 5.\u003c/strong\u003e Effectiveness of Different Integrated Management Strategies on \u003cem\u003eMeloidogyne graminicola\u003c/em\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" width=\"100%\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 33px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eIntegrated Management\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 11px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSeverity\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 15px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eNo. of Females\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 20px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eNo. of J2s/Root System\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 19px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eNo. of J2s/100ml Soil\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 33px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFluopyram + \u003cem\u003eP. lilacinum\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 11px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1 b\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 15px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10 bc\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 20px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e624 a\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 19px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e29 ab\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 33px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eRugby + \u003cem\u003eP. lilacinum\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 11px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1 c\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 15px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8 cd\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 20px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e611 b\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 19px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e24 bc\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 33px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCartap + \u003cem\u003eT. harzianum\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 11px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2 a\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 15px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e13 a\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 20px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e563 c\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 19px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e34 a\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 33px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCartap + \u003cem\u003eB. megaterium\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 11px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2 a\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 15px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e11 ab\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 20px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e546 d\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 19px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e31 ab\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 33px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCartap + \u003cem\u003eP. lilacinum\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 11px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1 bc\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 15px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7 de\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 20px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e534 e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 19px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e21 c\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 33px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFluopyram + Rugby + Cartap\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 11px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1 bc\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 15px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5 e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 20px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e487 f\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 19px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e13 d\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 33px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFluopyrum\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;+\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003eRugby\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;+\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003eCartap\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;+ T. Harzianum + B. Megaterium + P. Lilacinum\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 11px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1 bc\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 15px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8 cd\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 20px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e481 f\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 19px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e11 d\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e5. Comparative Analysis of Yield Metrics\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe impact of management strategies on maize yield parameters was assessed (Table 6; Figures 6, 7). The IDM approach consistently resulted in the highest yield metrics among the nematode-infested treatments. Compared to the Inoculated Control, IDM-treated plants showed significant improvements: 15% increase in height (158.0 cm vs 137.7 cm), 19% increase in biomass (258.3 g vs 217.5 g), and 25% increase in 100-grain weight (34.2 g vs 27.4 g). These IDM yield values approached, but were slightly lower than, those of the Healthy Control (e.g., 100-grain weight 34.2 g vs 36.2 g). Chemical-only and biological-only treatments also showed yield improvements over the inoculated control, though generally less than the full IDM approach. The significantly lower yields in the Inoculated Control highlight the detrimental impact of unchecked \u003cem\u003eM. graminicola\u003c/em\u003e. Table 6 provides a detailed comparison of yield metrics across treatments (p \u0026le; 0.05). Figures 6 and 7 visually compare plant height and 100-grain weight, respectively, across the management strategies.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable 6.\u003c/strong\u003e Comparative Yield Metrics Across Different Management Strategies.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" class=\"fr-table-selection-hover\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTreatment\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ePlant Height (cm)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eBiomass (g)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCob Length (cm)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCob Diameter (cm)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eKernel Weight (g)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e100 Grain Weight (g)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eChemical\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e152.6 ab + 5.8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e243 abc + 14.8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e17.1 ab + 0.6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.2 c + 0.1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e317.9 abc + 15.6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e32.3 abc + 2.6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBiological\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e146.2 bc + 5.6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e229.8 bc + 14\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e16.2 bc + 0.5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.0 d + 0.1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e310.9 bc + 15.3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e29.3 bc + 2.4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIntegrated (IDM)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e158 ab + 6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e258.3 ab + 15.8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e17.7 a + 0.6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.5 b + 0.1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e338.1 ab + 16.6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e34.2 ab + 2.8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHealthy Control\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e162.2 a + 6.2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e270.6 a + 16.5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e18.3 a + 0.6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.7 a + 0.1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e350.2 a + 17.2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e36.2 a + 2.9\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eInoculated Control\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e137.7 c + 5.3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e217.5 c + 13.3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e15.6 c + 0.5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.8 e + 0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e295.7 c + 14.6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e27.4 c + 2.2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e"},{"header":"Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis study confirms that the rice root-knot nematode, \u003cem\u003eMeloidogyne graminicola\u003c/em\u003e, poses a significant threat to maize production in Central Punjab, Pakistan, mirroring concerns previously focused mainly on rice crops where yield losses have reached 11\u0026ndash;80% under serious infestation (Pankaj et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e; Mantelin et al., 2017). The observed high incidence rates (up to 9.4%) and large juvenile populations (\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;3000 J2s/root system) in surveyed fields, coupled with significant yield reductions in untreated controls, underscore the damaging potential of \u003cem\u003eM. graminicola\u003c/em\u003e in the region's maize systems. The variability in incidence across locations, with some fields showing much lower incidence (e.g., 1.6% in 223 JB I), suggests that local environmental factors, soil properties (though not systematically measured across survey sites in this study), and cropping history likely influence nematode pressure, consistent with observations in other systems where certain environments experience minimal galling (Padgham et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2004\u003c/span\u003e). Potential variation in host suitability between regional \u003cem\u003eM. graminicola\u003c/em\u003e populations may also play a role, highlighting an area for further investigation.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe evaluation of maize varieties revealed significant differences in host suitability. 'Sahiwal-Gold' proved highly susceptible, whereas 'VH-1898' exhibited strong resistance. This highlights host plant resistance as a crucial, foundational component of sustainable nematode management, paralleling findings in resistant rice lines where certain genotypes deter nematode entry or reproduction (Pankaj et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e). While the specific resistance mechanisms in VH-1898 were not investigated here, studies on other resistant maize lines against \u003cem\u003eMeloidogyne\u003c/em\u003e suggest mechanisms may involve slowed nematode development rather than complete exclusion. Identifying and deploying resistant cultivars like VH-1898 is paramount, as it can significantly reduce nematode populations and yield losses, forming a cornerstone of sustainable management strategies. Further research into the genetic basis of VH-1898's resistance is clearly warranted to facilitate breeding programs.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eRegarding control tactics, individual chemical nematicides provided moderate suppression, but combinations were significantly more effective in this trial. The triple combination of Fluopyram\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;Cadusafos\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;Cartap achieved near-complete suppression of nematodes, reducing juvenile counts substantially, similar to multi-ingredient approaches reported elsewhere (Padgham et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2004\u003c/span\u003e). Fluopyram, an SDH inhibitor, likely contributed significantly to this effect. However, the use of such a potent chemical cocktail raises significant concerns. Fluopyram exhibits significant soil persistence, with reported half-lives varying, suggesting persistence in Central Punjab's soils (e.g., Yun et al., 2023; Zhang et al., 2014). Heavy reliance on such broad-spectrum chemical combinations also contradicts Integrated Pest Management (IPM) principles focused on minimizing environmental impact. While this study included this potent treatment, its routine use cannot be recommended from a sustainability perspective without thorough risk assessment.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eBiological control agents (BCAs) also demonstrated efficacy, particularly the triple combination of \u003cem\u003eT. harzianum\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eB. megaterium\u003c/em\u003e, and \u003cem\u003eP. lilacinum\u003c/em\u003e. The success of this combination likely stems from complementary modes of action, including mycoparasitism, antibiosis, egg parasitism, and induced plant resistance (Amarasinghe \u0026amp; Hemachandra, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). While synergistic effects are plausible, further work could explore if simpler, potentially more cost-effective BCA combinations, or integration with a single, targeted nematicide, could provide adequate control.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIntegrated Pest Management (IPM) offers a framework for sustainable nematode control, combining biological, cultural, physical, and chemical methods based on ecological understanding. For \u003cem\u003eM. graminicola\u003c/em\u003e, IPM integrates tactics like biological controls, resistant varieties, and cultural practices such as crop rotation. Notably, IDM treatment resulted in significant improvements in plant height, biomass, and 100-grain weight compared to the inoculated control, achieving yield metrics that approached those of the uninfested Healthy Control plants (Soriano \u0026amp; R\u0026eacute;versat, 2003). This demonstrates the potential of this integrated approach to substantially mitigate yield losses caused by M. graminicola under the tested conditions. However, the sustainability concerns regarding the chemical components remain. A truly integrated and sustainable approach should prioritize foundational non-chemical tactics. Crop rotation with non-host crops is essential, particularly as maize fields are typically not flooded like rice fields (Soriano et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2000\u003c/span\u003e). Rotating with legumes like cowpea or using crops like marigolds (\u003cem\u003eTagetes\u003c/em\u003e spp.) might be potential options based on practices used for \u003cem\u003eMeloidogyne\u003c/em\u003e management elsewhere. Deploying resistant varieties like VH-1898 is also paramount. While specific resistance to \u003cem\u003eM. graminicola\u003c/em\u003e in maize is not well documented, resistance to other \u003cem\u003eMeloidogyne\u003c/em\u003e species exists in some cultivars (e.g., Danso et al., \u003cem\u003eYear\u003c/em\u003e), indicating potential for breeding.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFrom an economic perspective, effective nematode management can provide significant benefits for farmers through yield increases, as shown in this study. However, adopting sustainable practices like IPM faces challenges for smallholder farmers in Pakistan. Lack of awareness, limited access to resources (including quality BCAs or resistant seeds), inadequate extension services, and the initial costs or perceived complexity of new methods are significant barriers. Overcoming these adoption hurdles requires targeted support, farmer education, and participatory approaches.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis study has limitations, including its single-season, single-location nature for the field trial, requiring validation. The lack of systematic soil data across survey sites limits interpretation of incidence variation. The economic feasibility requires formal assessment, and the genetic basis of resistance in VH-1898 needs exploration.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn conclusion, \u003cem\u003eMeloidogyne graminicola\u003c/em\u003e significantly constrains maize production in Central Punjab. While potent chemical combinations and integrated strategies showed high efficacy here, environmental sustainability concerns necessitate prioritizing foundational components like host plant resistance (VH-1898), cultural practices (rotation with non-hosts like cowpea or marigolds), and biological control. Judicious chemical use should be a last resort within a true IPM framework. Future research must focus on developing and promoting accessible, economically viable, and environmentally sound IDM strategies, including screening local germplasm for resistance and strengthening extension support for smallholder farmers in the region.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAcknowledgments:\u003c/strong\u003e Not applicable.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eData Availability Statement:\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe data supporting this study\u0026rsquo;s findings were generated by the authors from their own research and surveys. These data are not publicly archived, but they are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAuthors contribution:\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe sole author, S. Ali, was responsible for the conception and design of the study, data collection, analysis, and interpretation, as well as drafting, revising, and approving the final manuscript.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eGenerative Artificial Intelligence (AI) Usage Disclosure\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDuring the preparation of this work, the authors used ChatGPT (OpenAI) to improve the clarity and readability of the manuscript text. After using this tool, the authors carefully reviewed and edited the content, and take full responsibility for the final version of the manuscript.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConflict of Interest:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eNot applicable.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFunding:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eNo funding was received for conducting this study.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConsent to Participate:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eNot applicable.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConsent to Publish:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eNot applicable.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEthics Approval:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eNot applicable.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAmarasinghe, L., \u0026amp; Hemachandra, K. H. D. J. K. (2020). Meloidogyne graminicola infestation in selected Sri Lankan rice varieties and nematotoxic effect of Trichoderma viride. Journal of Agriculture and Environment, 13, 18.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAnwar, M., Ahmad, H., \u0026amp; Ali, A. (2021). Occurrence and molecular characterization of Meloidogyne graminicola in rice fields of Central Punjab, Pakistan. Journal of Nematology, 53(1), 1-8. \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eBegam, A., Adhikary, S., Roy, D. and Ray, M. (2018). Grain Yield of Kharif Maize Hybrid (Zea mays L) as Influenced by Doses and Split Application of Nitrogen. Int. J. Curr. Microbiol. App. Sci 7:2121-2129.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eBridge, J. and Page, S. (1982). The rice root-knot nematode, Meloidogyne graminicola, on deep water rice (Oryza sativa subsp. indica). Rev. N\u0026eacute;matol. 5:225-232. \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eDanso, Y., Adomako, J., Osei, K., \u0026amp; Abugri, B. (2019). Host-suitability of maize varieties to root knot nematode meloidogyne incognita. \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eDutta, S., Gaur, H. S., \u0026amp; Singh, R. (2012). Rice root-knot nematode (Meloidogyne graminicola): An emerging threat to food security in Asia. International Journal of Current Microbiology and Applied Sciences, 6(8), 3143-3171.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eEconomic Survey of Pakistan (2022\u0026ndash;23). Ministry of Finance, Government of Pakistan. Retrieved from https://www.finance.gov.pk/survey/chapters_23/02_Agriculture.pdf \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eGoswami, B., et al. (2008). \u0026quot;Management of root-knot nematodes in agricultural crops.\u0026quot; Indian Journal of Nematology, 38(2), 271-281.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eHajihassani, A., Rutter, W.B., \u0026amp; Luo, X. (2020). The Screening of Resistance against Meloidogyne graminicola in Oats. Agriculture, 10(8), 352. \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eHertfordshire PPDB. (2025). Fluopyram - AERU - University of Hertfordshire. Retrieved from https://sitem.herts.ac.uk/aeru/ppdb/en/Reports/1362.htm \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eMantelin, S., Petitot, A. S., \u0026amp; De Waele, D. (2022). Insights into the genetics of the Zhonghua 11 resistance to Meloidogyne graminicola in rice. Frontiers in Plant Science, 13, Article 854961.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003ePadgham, J., Abawi, G., Duxbury, J., \u0026amp; Mazid, M. (2004). Impact of wheat on Meloidogyne graminicola populations in the rice-wheat system of Bangladesh. Nematropica, 34, 183\u0026ndash;190.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003ePAN Europe. (2025). Protect Europe\u0026apos;s Water: Why Fluopyram Must Be Banned. Retrieved from https://www.pan-europe.info/node/3970 \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003ePankaj, H., Sharma, J., \u0026amp; Prasad, J. (2010). The rice root-knot nematode, Meloidogyne graminicola: An emerging problem in rice-wheat cropping system. Indian Journal of Nematology, 40, 1\u0026ndash;11. \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003ePathak, M. D., \u0026amp; Kumar, V. (2003). \u0026quot;Integrated pest management in rice-based systems.\u0026quot; Field Crops Research, 85(1), 119-128.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eRavindra, H., Dutta, S., \u0026amp; Gaur, H. S. (2017). Rice root-knot nematode (Meloidogyne graminicola): An emerging threat to food security in Asia. International Journal of Current Microbiology and Applied Sciences, 6(8), 3143-3171. \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eSacchi, S., Torrini, G., Marianelli, L., Mazza, G., Fumagalli, A., Cavagna, B., Ciampitti, M., \u0026amp; Roversi, P. F. (2021). Control of Meloidogyne graminicola a Root-Knot Nematode Using Rice Plants as Trap Crops: Preliminary Results. Agriculture, 11(1), 37.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eSoriano, I. R., Prot, J. C., \u0026amp; Matias, D. M. (2000). Expression of tolerance for Meloidogyne graminicola in rice cultivars as affected by soil type and flooding. Journal of Nematology, 32(3), 309\u0026ndash;317.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eUC Davis Horticulture. (2025). Feed the Future Innovation Lab for Horticulture: Integrated nematode and soil health management strategies for smallholder potato farmers in Guatemala. Retrieved from https://horticulture.ucdavis.edu/project/nematode-ipm-guatemala \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eYun MS, Choi H. (2023). Uptake of Fungicide Fluopyram from Soil by Scallions during Greenhouse Cultivation. Foods, 12(10):1996. doi: 10.3390/foods12101996.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":true,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":true,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Meloidogyne graminicola, Integrated Disease Management (IDM), Maize nematology, Crop resistance, Biological and chemical nematode control","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7597635/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-7597635/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eMeloidogyne graminicola\u003c/em\u003e constrains maize production in Central Punjab, Pakistan. This study surveyed \u003cem\u003eM. graminicola\u003c/em\u003e incidence and evaluated an integrated management (IDM) strategy. Field surveys revealed incidence up to 9.4% in hotspots. 'Sahiwal-Gold' was highly susceptible (122 females/root); 'VH-1898' showed resistance (47 females/root). The IDM approach, combining biocontrol agents (\u003cem\u003eTrichoderma harzianum, Bacillus megaterium, Purpureocillium lilacinum\u003c/em\u003e) with nematicides (fluopyram, cadusafos, cartap), reduced root juvenile nematodes by 85% compared to inoculated controls (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05). IDM significantly improved plant height (15% increase), biomass (19% increase), and 100-grain weight (25% increase) over inoculated controls, achieving yields approaching healthy control levels (e.g., 100-grain weight: 34.2 g vs. 36.2 g). Findings demonstrate IDM offers a highly effective strategy for managing \u003cem\u003eM. graminicola\u003c/em\u003e and improving maize yields in infested regions.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Incidence and Integrated Management of Meloidogyne graminicola in Maize Fields of Central Punjab, Pakistan","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-09-15 08:34:26","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7597635/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"ca76eb04-b413-49c7-92c4-4ceab99d7ae3","owner":[],"postedDate":"September 15th, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2025-10-29T08:38:41+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2025-09-15 08:34:26","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-7597635","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-7597635","identity":"rs-7597635","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}