Impact of Mindfulness During the Luteal and Early Follicular Phases

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Whitehead, Victoria E. Bowden, Katherine Jankevicius, and 1 more This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-6894014/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Objectives The purpose of this research was to determine the effects of mindful meditation on body image in active females during the luteal and early follicular phases of the menstrual cycle. The participants consisted of 19 recreationally active college aged females. Methods This investigation utilized a quasi-experimental cross-over design consisting of a control (CNT) and intervention (INT) protocol based on estimated phase of the menstrual cycle (luteal and early follicular) within the same research cohort. Body image was evaluated using three surveys: the Self-Compassion Scale, Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale, and the Body Appreciation Scale. All questionnaires were administered before and after each three-week cycle. The participants maintained their regular lifestyles during the CNT protocol but engaged in mindful meditation sessions lasting approximately 20 minutes each, conducted five days a week the INT protocol. A Wilcoxon Signed Ranks Test and Cohen’s D Test were used for statistical analysis with p ≤ 0.05 set as level of significance for all analysis. Results A significant difference was found between the groups on the Self-Compassion Scale for Week 1 (CNT = 2.93 ± 0.56, INT = 3.09 ± 0.48, p = 0.015) and for Pre on the Body Appreciation Scale (CNT = 3.83 ± 0.77, INT = 3.62 ± 0.76, p = 0.038). Conclusions Mindfulness meditation positively influenced self-compassion during the suggesting a crucial role in mitigating negative body perceptions in specific menstrual cycle phases. This finding, along with prospective research endeavors, contribute to addressing the existing gaps in female-focused research considering the menstrual cycle. Humanities/Health humanities Social science/Psychology Body Image Menstrual Cycle Meditation INTRODUCTION Women experience phasic hormonal shifts during the menstrual cycle which have been associated with temporal fluctuations in their mental states.(Ansdell et al. 2020) These oscillations can impact an individual’s beliefs, desires, emotions, intentions, memory, perception, and pain or pleasure experiences. The menstrual cycle is defined by phases which have been shown to significantly impact the physiological and psychological states of pre-menopausal women. The luteal phase is characterized by a decrease in estrogen and luteinizing hormone and an increase in progesterone. This phase is also referred to as premenstrual syndrome. The early follicular phase is characterized by an increase in estrogen and luteinizing hormone and a decrease in progesterone. This phase is referred to as the post-menstrual phase. During the menstrual cycle, variations in mood, body perception, and overall well-being can be pronounced.(Teixeira et al. 2013) Body perception and body image are related concepts; however, each focuses on different aspects of how individuals relate to their own body. Body perception is more sensory and proprioceptive in nature. It relates to an individual's awareness and understanding of their physical body, including how they perceive sensations, movements, and the location of body parts.(Emanuelsen, Drew, and Köteles 2015) Body image refers to a person's emotional and cognitive evaluation of their own body.(Teixeira et al. 2013) It involves thoughts, feelings, and beliefs about one's body, including judgments about its appearance, size, shape, and desirability. Body image can be positive by one's body contentment or negative by dissatisfaction and self-criticism related to one's body.(Sukamto, Hamidah, and Fajrianthi 2019) Societal ideals, media portrayal of bodies, and cultural standards of beauty may influence body image.(Emanuelsen, Drew, and Köteles 2015) Previous research has demonstrated that individual perceptions of body image can be improved through physical activity(Emanuelsen, Drew, and Köteles 2015). Specifically, exercise has been shown to positively impact mental health, primarily through the release of endorphins, which elevate mood and diminish negative emotions such as symptoms of depression and anxiety. (Sharma, Madaan, and Petty 2006; Falsafi and Leopard 2015) In addition to exercise, mindful meditation has also been shown to positively influence body satisfaction and image.(Furnham, Badmin, and Sneade 2002) Mindfulness meditation has been used as a mental training method and is recognized for its capacity to gently slow down negative thoughts while inducing a sense of relaxation in both the mind and body.(Hölzel and Ott 2006) The practice of mindfulness is characterized by focusing on the present moment and fostering self-acceptance. The implementation of a mindfulness-based stress reductions intervention has been demonstrated to be effective in reducing premenstrual symptoms.(Hölzel and Ott 2006) Mindful meditation practice holds promise as a potentially beneficial intervention for women during other phases of their menstrual cycle as well but remains uninvestigated. The purpose of this research was to determine the effects of mindful meditation on self-esteem, self-compassion, and body appreciation in recreationally active females during the luteal and early follicular phases of the menstrual cycle. METHODS Study Design This investigation utilized a quasi-experimental cross-over design consisting of a control (CNT) and intervention (INT) protocol based on estimated phase of the menstrual cycle (luteal and early follicular) within the same research cohort. A STROBE (Strengthening the Reporting of Observational Studies in Epidemiology) checklist for the appropriate reporting was utilized in the preparation of this manuscript. Setting and Sample All procedures performed in studies involving human participants were in accordance with the ethical standards of the institutional and/or national research committee and with the 1964 Helsinki Declaration and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards. All participants provided voluntary written informed consent prior to participation in this research. The study was approved by the Institutional Review Board at Stephen F. Austin State University approval number AY2023-0200. The study was conducted utilizing female students (N = 19) in the Department of Kinesiology and Public Health Science at Stephen F. Austin State University between September 2022, and June 2023. Sample size was determined using G*Power 3.1, with an estimated large effect size of 0.8, a two-tailed hypothesis, and α ≤ 0.05 the estimated sample size was 20 participants. Participant characteristics are depicted in Table 1 . The research cohort was comprised of recreationally active college aged females who met the criterion of engaging in a minimum of 150 minutes of physical activity per week as defined by the American College of Sports Medicine (ACSM). Table 1 Participant Characteristics Age (years) Height (meters) Weight (kilograms) Body Composition (% Fat) n = 19 21.1 ± 1.6 1.7 ± 0.1 67.3 ± 14.9 30.6 ± 10.0 Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria Eligible participants must have had a regular menstrual cycle lasting 3–5 weeks without a history of missed periods as confirmed by the researchers. Individuals who had used hormonal-based contraceptives within the previous six months were excluded from participating. Written informed consent was obtained from all participants. In order to participate in the research all individuals must have been considered to be recreationally active by meeting the ACSM standards. Data Collection Data was collected during two separate three-week intervals associated with the follicular and early luteal phases of the menstrual cycle of each individual participant. The menstrual cycle phases for data collection were estimated by the researchers and based on the timing of each participant’s previous self-reported menstrual cycle. Data was collected over a three-week time frame during two separate months for the control (CNT) and mindful meditation intervention (INT). Prior to data collection the researchers aided each participant in determining the onset of menses using the calendar method. Based on the predicted dates the protocol commenced one week before the onset of each participant’s menstrual cycle. The initial participants were randomly assigned to either the CNT or INT with the remainder of the participants being assigned to a cohort in a counterbalanced manner. The INT sessions were conducted five days a week where each participant engaged in approximately 20-minute mindful meditation. The CNT sessions required the participants to sit quietly for 20 minutes with no other input from the researchers. Participants participated in the mindful meditation protocol before the onset of the late luteal phase and continued it for three weeks until the end of menstruation. Throughout the three-week period, participants engaged in 20-minute mindful meditation session five days a week, scheduled at approximately the same time each day. Each session was conducted in a dark and quiet environment under the researcher's supervision. All meditation sessions used in this research are from Dr. Kristin Neff and are open source. The meditation sessions for each week were as follows: Week one consisted of the Compassionate Body Scan lasting 24 minutes; Week two involved the Affectionate Breathing (21 minutes), and Week three featured the Loving-Kindness Meditation Self-Compassion (20 minutes). Each participant listened to different meditations each week. Data was collected using the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale, Self-Compassion Scale, and Body Appreciation Scale. Data was collected for both the CNT and INT protocols at the beginning of Week 1, the end of Week 1, the end of Week 2, and again at the end of Week 3. At the end of each week, on Friday, all participants completed handwritten self-report scales. Data Analysis The data collected from Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale, Self-Compassion Scale, and Body Appreciation Scale were used to compare the CNT and the INT mindful groups for Pre, Week 1, Week 2, and Week3. These comparisons were performed using a Wilcoxon Signed Ranks Test with statistical significance set at p < 0.05. Effects size was evaluated using the Cohen’s D test. RESULTS The results of comparison between the CNT and INT for the Self-Compassion Scale are presented in Table 2 . There was no significant difference between the CNT and the INT groups for the Pre and Week 2 measurements. There was a significant difference between the groups for Week 1 with the intervention self-compassion scores being higher than the control self-compassion at this time point. Cohen’s D analysis indicated small effect size for Pre, medium effect for Week 1, small effect for Week 3, and medium effect for Week 3. The results of comparison between the control and intervention for the Body Appreciation Scale are presented in Table 3 . There was a significant difference between the CNT and INT groups at the Pre time point only. There were no significant differences between the groups for Weeks 1, 2, and 3. Cohen’s D analysis indicated medium effect for Pre, and small for Weeks 2 and 3 effects for the Body Appreciation Scale. The results of comparison between the control and intervention for the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale are presented in Table 4 . There were no significant differences between the groups for any of the time points. Cohen’s D analysis indicated small-medium effect for Pre, small effect for Week1, very small effect for Week 2, and small effect for Week 3 for the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale. Table 2 Self-Compassion Scale Comparison Between Control and Intervention Control Intervention p Effect Size Pre 3.060 3.059 1.000 -0.036 Week 1 2.921 3.085 0.025* -0.691 Week 2 3.048 3.172 0.192 -0.286 Week 3 3.046 3.212 0.088 -0.667 *p < 0.05 Table 3 Body Appreciation Scale Comparison Between Control and Intervention Control Intervention p Effect Size Pre 3.826 3.621 0.019* -0.561 Week 1 3.653 3.721 0.335 -0.124 Week 2 3.737 3.800 0.129 -0.352 Week 3 3.789 3.958 0.163 -0.287 *p < 0.05 Table 4 Rosenburg Self-Esteem Scale Comparison Between Control and Intervention Control Intervention p Effect Size Pre 19.842 18.526 0.952 0.463 Week 1 20.105 19.947 0.693 0.131 Week 2 20.368 20.474 0.489 -0.017 Week 3 21.052 21.052 0.622 0.078 DISCUSSION The intersection of various methods for improving body image, particularly in relation to the menstrual cycle's distinct phases, remains largely unexplored in existing research. This study was undertaken to assess the effects of mindful meditation on body image among recreationally active females, specifically during the late luteal and early follicular phases of their menstrual cycle. Hölzel and Ott (2006) describe mindfulness meditation as a technique for mental training aimed at reducing negative thought patterns and inducing a state of relaxation across both mind and body. Prior research suggests that mindfulness meditation holds promise for fostering improvements in body image. The focus on the late luteal and early follicular phases is strategic, as these periods are often associated with heightened negative body image perceptions among women.(Toole and Craighead 2016) The data from the current research involved a three-week study involved participants divided into control and intervention groups, with sessions held five days per week. Participants engaged in 20-minute mindfulness meditation sessions to assess changes in body image, self-esteem, self-compassion, and body perceptions. Measurement tools such as the Self-Compassion Scale, Body Appreciation Scales, and Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale were employed. Group comparisons did not yield significant differences overall. However, analysis of the Self-Compassion Scale indicated no significant difference between control and intervention groups at the pre-test and Week 2, but significant differences emerged at Week 1 and scores trending towards significance in Week 3. Week 1 corresponded to the late luteal phase, while Week 3 represented the early follicular phase. This distinction reveals an increase in self-compassion, self-esteem, and body appreciation among intervention group participants compared to the control group. Specifically, during the late luteal phase, the control group (M = 2.93, SD = 0.55) was surpassed by the intervention group (M = 3.09, SD = 0.48), and in the early follicular phase, the control group (M = 3.05, SD = 0.51) was again exceeded by the intervention group (M = 3.21, SD = 0.38). These findings highlight the beneficial effects of mindfulness meditation on participants' well-being. A study conducted by Falsai and Leopard (2015) aimed to investigate the impact of mindfulness practices, such as self-compassion and yoga, on depression and/or anxiety among low-income individuals lacking insurance coverage.(Furnham, Badmin, and Sneade 2002) The results of the study revealed the effectiveness of these interventions in significantly reducing symptoms of depression and/or anxiety in the participants. However, a notable limitation of the study by Falsai and Leopard (2015) is the lack of consideration for the menstrual cycle phase of the participants. Furthermore, our statistical analysis also considered the effect size. Within our study, substantial effect sizes were observed on Self-Compassion during Week 1 (Cohen’s d =-0.07) and week 3 (Cohen’s d =-0.68). A Cohen's d value of -0.69 falls within the range of moderate to large effects. This signifies a noteworthy distinction between the two compared groups, where CNT exhibits a lower mean score than INT. Similarly, a Cohen's d of -0.68 falls within the realm of a moderate effect size, indicating a meaningful difference between the two groups. Once again, this highlights that the first group, CNT, holds a lower mean compared to the second group, INT. Another study by explored the impact of mindfulness meditation, specifically the Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction (MBSR) program, on individuals with nonspecific chronic pain.(la Cour and Petersen 2015) The study revealed that beyond the significant effect observed in vitality, the treatment group exhibited larger effect sizes in other areas. Particularly, there were substantial improvements in pain acceptance (engaging in activities despite pain), feeling in control of pain, and general anxiety compared to the wait-list group. Medium effect sizes were also noted for mental health and quality of life, encompassing psychological well-being and reduced depressive symptoms. This demonstrates a notable dissimilarity in Cohen's effect size between our study and that of La Cour and Petersen (2015) concerning the participants. The discernible moderate to large effect size in our findings underscores meaningful distinctions. Concerning the Body Appreciation Scale, a notable distinction between groups was observed at the Pre time point, but no statistically significant differences emerged during Weeks 1, 2, and 3. In the case of the Rosenberg Self-Esteem test, there were no significant differences between the groups at any of the time points. Furthermore, both the Body Appreciation Scale and Rosenberg Self-Esteem test exhibited small Cohen's d effect sizes. Overall, limited significant differences were observed in the Self-Compassion Scale, Body Appreciation Scales, and Rosenberg Self-Esteem. However, a nuanced pattern emerged in the Self-Compassion Scale, revealing that during both the late luteal and early follicular phases, mindfulness meditation exerted a positive influence on participants' self-compassion, self-esteem, and body appreciation. These findings suggest that mindfulness meditation may play a crucial role in mitigating negative body image perceptions during specific phase of the menstrual cycle when women are considered more susceptible to such negative perceptions. The findings of this investigation, while meaningful, are subject to certain limitations. A notable limitation stems from the study's methodological design, which involved an intervention period of three weeks, succeeded by another three-week phase. This prolonged duration may have led to participant fatigue or diminished engagement. Furthermore, the requirement for participants to answer a restricted set of questions over six consecutive weeks might have compromised the accuracy of their responses. In addition to dealing with fatigue, another challenge encountered was participants occasionally falling asleep during meditation sessions. This unintended event presented a potential obstacle, as it might have negatively influenced participants' answers to the survey, thereby introducing a state of fatigue among the study's participants. An additional potential limitation concerns the environmental conditions under which the study was conducted. To foster a sense of peace and calm, participants were placed in an empty room. Moreover, they were afforded the flexibility to schedule their mindfulness sessions according to their own availability. However, some participants chose daytime slots, which may have exposed them to noise disturbances from other students or ongoing classes, possibly undermining the serene environment necessary for the sessions. Furthermore, the inclusion of collegiate athletes, who often had to travel for competitions, presented another logistical challenge. To accommodate their schedules, participants were offered alternative means to complete the meditation sessions, such as joining an online meeting with the researcher or receiving materials to conduct sessions independently. This ensured their continued participation in the study while traveling. Nonetheless, these adjustments also had the potential to impact the ability to maintain a consistent atmosphere of tranquility and calmness during the sessions. Future research should further explore a targeted exercise program coupled with mindfulness meditation, specifically emphasizing the late luteal and early follicular phases. Such investigation could determine whether a regular exercise regimen and mindfulness meditation might interact to yield a positive transformation in body image. Conclusions This research unveils the discernible influence of mindfulness meditation on self-compassion during specific menstrual cycle phases. However, statistical non-significance characterizes the observed differences across scales and throughout various menstrual cycle phases. Declarations Ethical Approval All procedures performed in studies involving human participants were in accordance with the ethical standards of the institutional and/or national research committee and with the 1964 Helsinki Declaration and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards. The study was approved by the Institutional Review Board at Stephen F. Austin State University approval number AY2023-0200 on 09/12/2023. Informed Consent All participants provided voluntary written informed consent prior to participation in this research between 09/13/2023 and 04/02/2024. Informed consent was obtained by the researchers prior to data collection. Funding Declaration This research did not receive any grant funding from specific agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors. Author Contribution V.B. and K.J. collected data and contributed to the creation of the manuscript.R.W. made substantial contributions to the conception or design of the research study, guided students in data collected, and was instrumental in the writing and editing phases of the project. M.W. made substantial contributions to the conception or design of the research study, guided students in data collected, data analysis, and was instrumental in the writing and editing phases of the project. Acknowledgement The researchers would like to express appreciation to all the students who participated in the project. Data Availability Coded data is available to interested parties upon request and approval from the researchers. References Ansdell, Paul, Kevin Thomas, Kirsty M. Hicks, Sandra K. Hunter, Glyn Howatson, and Stuart Goodall. 2020. “Physiological Sex Differences Affect the Integrative Response to Exercise: Acute and Chronic Implications.” Experimental Physiology 105 (12): 2007–21. https://doi.org/10.1113/EP088548. Cour, Peter la, and Marian Petersen. 2015. “Effects of Mindfulness Meditation on Chronic Pain: A Randomized Controlled Trial.” Pain Medicine (Malden, Mass.) 16 (4): 641–52. https://doi.org/10.1111/pme.12605. Emanuelsen, Lene, Raechel Drew, and Ferenc Köteles. 2015. “Interoceptive Sensitivity, Body Image Dissatisfaction, and Body Awareness in Healthy Individuals.” Scandinavian Journal of Psychology 56 (2): 167–74. https://doi.org/10.1111/sjop.12183. Falsafi, Nasrin, and Louisa Leopard. 2015. “Pilot Study: Use of Mindfulness, Self-Compassion, and Yoga Practices With Low-Income and/or Uninsured Patients With Depression and/or Anxiety.” Journal of Holistic Nursing: Official Journal of the American Holistic Nurses’ Association 33 (4): 289–97. https://doi.org/10.1177/0898010115569351. Furnham, Adrian, Nicola Badmin, and Ian Sneade. 2002. “Body Image Dissatisfaction: Gender Differences in Eating Attitudes, Self-Esteem, and Reasons for Exercise.” The Journal of Psychology 136 (6): 581–96. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223980209604820. Hölzel, Britta, and Ulrich Ott. 2006. “Relationships between Meditation Depth, Absorption, Meditation Practice, and Mindfulness: A Latent Variable Approach.” Journal of Transpersonal Psychology 38 (2): 179–99. Sharma, Ashish, Vishal Madaan, and Frederick D. Petty. 2006. “Exercise for Mental Health.” Primary Care Companion to the Journal of Clinical Psychiatry 8 (2): 106. https://doi.org/10.4088/pcc.v08n0208a. Sukamto, Monique, Hamidah Hamidah, and Fajrianthi Fajrianthi. 2019. “‘Can I Look Like Her?’: Body Image of Adolescent Girls Who Use Social Media.” Makara Human Behavior Studies in Asia 23 (1): 60–72. https://doi.org/10.7454/hubs.asia.1120519. Teixeira, André Luiz S., Marcelo Ricardo C. Dias, Vinícius O. Damasceno, Joel A. Lamounier, and Rick M. Gardner. 2013. “Association between Different Phases of Menstrual Cycle and Body Image Measures of Perceived Size, Ideal Size, and Body Dissatisfaction.” Perceptual and Motor Skills 117 (3): 892–902. https://doi.org/10.2466/24.27.PMS.117x31z1. Toole, Aubrey M., and Linda W. Craighead. 2016. “Brief Self-Compassion Meditation Training for Body Image Distress in Young Adult Women.” Body Image 19 (December):104–12. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bodyim.2016.09.001. Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. 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The menstrual cycle is defined by phases which have been shown to significantly impact the physiological and psychological states of pre-menopausal women. The luteal phase is characterized by a decrease in estrogen and luteinizing hormone and an increase in progesterone. This phase is also referred to as premenstrual syndrome. The early follicular phase is characterized by an increase in estrogen and luteinizing hormone and a decrease in progesterone. This phase is referred to as the post-menstrual phase. During the menstrual cycle, variations in mood, body perception, and overall well-being can be pronounced.(Teixeira et al. 2013)\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eBody perception and body image are related concepts; however, each focuses on different aspects of how individuals relate to their own body. Body perception is more sensory and proprioceptive in nature. It relates to an individual's awareness and understanding of their physical body, including how they perceive sensations, movements, and the location of body parts.(Emanuelsen, Drew, and K\u0026ouml;teles 2015) Body image refers to a person's emotional and cognitive evaluation of their own body.(Teixeira et al. 2013) It involves thoughts, feelings, and beliefs about one's body, including judgments about its appearance, size, shape, and desirability. Body image can be positive by one's body contentment or negative by dissatisfaction and self-criticism related to one's body.(Sukamto, Hamidah, and Fajrianthi 2019) Societal ideals, media portrayal of bodies, and cultural standards of beauty may influence body image.(Emanuelsen, Drew, and K\u0026ouml;teles 2015)\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003ePrevious research has demonstrated that individual perceptions of body image can be improved through physical activity(Emanuelsen, Drew, and K\u0026ouml;teles 2015). Specifically, exercise has been shown to positively impact mental health, primarily through the release of endorphins, which elevate mood and diminish negative emotions such as symptoms of depression and anxiety. (Sharma, Madaan, and Petty 2006; Falsafi and Leopard 2015) In addition to exercise, mindful meditation has also been shown to positively influence body satisfaction and image.(Furnham, Badmin, and Sneade 2002) Mindfulness meditation has been used as a mental training method and is recognized for its capacity to gently slow down negative thoughts while inducing a sense of relaxation in both the mind and body.(H\u0026ouml;lzel and Ott 2006) The practice of mindfulness is characterized by focusing on the present moment and fostering self-acceptance. The implementation of a mindfulness-based stress reductions intervention has been demonstrated to be effective in reducing premenstrual symptoms.(H\u0026ouml;lzel and Ott 2006) Mindful meditation practice holds promise as a potentially beneficial intervention for women during other phases of their menstrual cycle as well but remains uninvestigated. The purpose of this research was to determine the effects of mindful meditation on self-esteem, self-compassion, and body appreciation in recreationally active females during the luteal and early follicular phases of the menstrual cycle.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"METHODS","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eStudy Design\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis investigation utilized a quasi-experimental cross-over design consisting of a control (CNT) and intervention (INT) protocol based on estimated phase of the menstrual cycle (luteal and early follicular) within the same research cohort. A STROBE (Strengthening the Reporting of Observational Studies in Epidemiology) checklist for the appropriate reporting was utilized in the preparation of this manuscript.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eSetting and Sample\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e All procedures performed in studies involving human participants were in accordance with the ethical standards of the institutional and/or national research committee and with the 1964 Helsinki Declaration and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards. All participants provided voluntary written informed consent prior to participation in this research. The study was approved by the Institutional Review Board at Stephen F. Austin State University approval number AY2023-0200. The study was conducted utilizing female students (N\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;19) in the Department of Kinesiology and Public Health Science at Stephen F. Austin State University between September 2022, and June 2023. Sample size was determined using G*Power 3.1, with an estimated large effect size of 0.8, a two-tailed hypothesis, and α \u0026le; 0.05 the estimated sample size was 20 participants. Participant characteristics are depicted in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e. The research cohort was comprised of recreationally active college aged females who met the criterion of engaging in a minimum of 150 minutes of physical activity per week as defined by the American College of Sports Medicine (ACSM).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eParticipant Characteristics\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"5\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAge\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(years)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eHeight\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(meters)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eWeight\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(kilograms)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBody Composition\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(% Fat)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003en\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;19\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e21.1 \u0026plusmn; 1.6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.7 \u0026plusmn; 0.1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e67.3 \u0026plusmn; 14.9\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e30.6 \u0026plusmn; 10.0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eInclusion and Exclusion Criteria\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eEligible participants must have had a regular menstrual cycle lasting 3\u0026ndash;5 weeks without a history of missed periods as confirmed by the researchers. Individuals who had used hormonal-based contraceptives within the previous six months were excluded from participating. Written informed consent was obtained from all participants. In order to participate in the research all individuals must have been considered to be recreationally active by meeting the ACSM standards.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eData Collection\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eData was collected during two separate three-week intervals associated with the follicular and early luteal phases of the menstrual cycle of each individual participant. The menstrual cycle phases for data collection were estimated by the researchers and based on the timing of each participant\u0026rsquo;s previous self-reported menstrual cycle. Data was collected over a three-week time frame during two separate months for the control (CNT) and mindful meditation intervention (INT). Prior to data collection the researchers aided each participant in determining the onset of menses using the calendar method. Based on the predicted dates the protocol commenced one week before the onset of each participant\u0026rsquo;s menstrual cycle. The initial participants were randomly assigned to either the CNT or INT with the remainder of the participants being assigned to a cohort in a counterbalanced manner.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e The INT sessions were conducted five days a week where each participant engaged in approximately 20-minute mindful meditation. The CNT sessions required the participants to sit quietly for 20 minutes with no other input from the researchers. Participants participated in the mindful meditation protocol before the onset of the late luteal phase and continued it for three weeks until the end of menstruation. Throughout the three-week period, participants engaged in 20-minute mindful meditation session five days a week, scheduled at approximately the same time each day. Each session was conducted in a dark and quiet environment under the researcher's supervision. All meditation sessions used in this research are from Dr. Kristin Neff and are open source. The meditation sessions for each week were as follows: Week one consisted of the Compassionate Body Scan lasting 24 minutes; Week two involved the Affectionate Breathing (21 minutes), and Week three featured the Loving-Kindness Meditation Self-Compassion (20 minutes). Each participant listened to different meditations each week. Data was collected using the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale, Self-Compassion Scale, and Body Appreciation Scale. Data was collected for both the CNT and INT protocols at the beginning of Week 1, the end of Week 1, the end of Week 2, and again at the end of Week 3. At the end of each week, on Friday, all participants completed handwritten self-report scales.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec7\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eData Analysis\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe data collected from Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale, Self-Compassion Scale, and Body Appreciation Scale were used to compare the CNT and the INT mindful groups for Pre, Week 1, Week 2, and Week3. These comparisons were performed using a Wilcoxon Signed Ranks Test with statistical significance set at \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05. Effects size was evaluated using the Cohen\u0026rsquo;s D test.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"RESULTS","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe results of comparison between the CNT and INT for the Self-Compassion Scale are presented in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e. There was no significant difference between the CNT and the INT groups for the Pre and Week 2 measurements. There was a significant difference between the groups for Week 1 with the intervention self-compassion scores being higher than the control self-compassion at this time point. Cohen\u0026rsquo;s D analysis indicated small effect size for Pre, medium effect for Week 1, small effect for Week 3, and medium effect for Week 3. The results of comparison between the control and intervention for the Body Appreciation Scale are presented in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e. There was a significant difference between the CNT and INT groups at the Pre time point only. There were no significant differences between the groups for Weeks 1, 2, and 3. Cohen\u0026rsquo;s D analysis indicated medium effect for Pre, and small for Weeks 2 and 3 effects for the Body Appreciation Scale. The results of comparison between the control and intervention for the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale are presented in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e. There were no significant differences between the groups for any of the time points. Cohen\u0026rsquo;s D analysis indicated small-medium effect for Pre, small effect for Week1, very small effect for Week 2, and small effect for Week 3 for the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSelf-Compassion Scale Comparison Between Control and Intervention\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"5\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eControl\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eIntervention\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEffect Size\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePre\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.060\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.059\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.000\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.036\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eWeek 1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.921\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.085\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.025*\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.691\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eWeek 2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.048\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.172\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.192\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.286\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eWeek 3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.046\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.212\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.088\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.667\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003ctfoot\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"5\"\u003e\u003cem\u003e*p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tfoot\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBody Appreciation Scale Comparison Between Control and Intervention\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"5\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eControl\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eIntervention\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEffect Size\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePre\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.826\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.621\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.019*\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.561\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eWeek 1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.653\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.721\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.335\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.124\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eWeek 2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.737\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.800\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.129\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.352\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eWeek 3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.789\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.958\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.163\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.287\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003ctfoot\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"5\"\u003e\u003cem\u003e*p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tfoot\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab4\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 4\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eRosenburg Self-Esteem Scale Comparison Between Control and Intervention\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"5\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eControl\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eIntervention\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEffect Size\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePre\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e19.842\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e18.526\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.952\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.463\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eWeek 1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e20.105\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e19.947\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.693\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.131\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eWeek 2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e20.368\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e20.474\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.489\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-0.017\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eWeek 3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e21.052\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e21.052\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.622\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.078\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"DISCUSSION","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe intersection of various methods for improving body image, particularly in relation to the menstrual cycle's distinct phases, remains largely unexplored in existing research. This study was undertaken to assess the effects of mindful meditation on body image among recreationally active females, specifically during the late luteal and early follicular phases of their menstrual cycle. H\u0026ouml;lzel and Ott (2006) describe mindfulness meditation as a technique for mental training aimed at reducing negative thought patterns and inducing a state of relaxation across both mind and body. Prior research suggests that mindfulness meditation holds promise for fostering improvements in body image. The focus on the late luteal and early follicular phases is strategic, as these periods are often associated with heightened negative body image perceptions among women.(Toole and Craighead 2016)\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe data from the current research involved a three-week study involved participants divided into control and intervention groups, with sessions held five days per week. Participants engaged in 20-minute mindfulness meditation sessions to assess changes in body image, self-esteem, self-compassion, and body perceptions. Measurement tools such as the Self-Compassion Scale, Body Appreciation Scales, and Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale were employed. Group comparisons did not yield significant differences overall. However, analysis of the Self-Compassion Scale indicated no significant difference between control and intervention groups at the pre-test and Week 2, but significant differences emerged at Week 1 and scores trending towards significance in Week 3. Week 1 corresponded to the late luteal phase, while Week 3 represented the early follicular phase. This distinction reveals an increase in self-compassion, self-esteem, and body appreciation among intervention group participants compared to the control group. Specifically, during the late luteal phase, the control group (M\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;2.93, SD\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.55) was surpassed by the intervention group (M\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;3.09, SD\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.48), and in the early follicular phase, the control group (M\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;3.05, SD\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.51) was again exceeded by the intervention group (M\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;3.21, SD\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.38). These findings highlight the beneficial effects of mindfulness meditation on participants' well-being. A study conducted by Falsai and Leopard (2015) aimed to investigate the impact of mindfulness practices, such as self-compassion and yoga, on depression and/or anxiety among low-income individuals lacking insurance coverage.(Furnham, Badmin, and Sneade 2002) The results of the study revealed the effectiveness of these interventions in significantly reducing symptoms of depression and/or anxiety in the participants. However, a notable limitation of the study by Falsai and Leopard (2015) is the lack of consideration for the menstrual cycle phase of the participants.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFurthermore, our statistical analysis also considered the effect size. Within our study, substantial effect sizes were observed on Self-Compassion during Week 1 (Cohen\u0026rsquo;s \u003cem\u003ed\u003c/em\u003e=-0.07) and week 3 (Cohen\u0026rsquo;s \u003cem\u003ed\u003c/em\u003e=-0.68). A Cohen's \u003cem\u003ed\u003c/em\u003e value of -0.69 falls within the range of moderate to large effects. This signifies a noteworthy distinction between the two compared groups, where CNT exhibits a lower mean score than INT. Similarly, a Cohen's d of -0.68 falls within the realm of a moderate effect size, indicating a meaningful difference between the two groups. Once again, this highlights that the first group, CNT, holds a lower mean compared to the second group, INT. Another study by explored the impact of mindfulness meditation, specifically the Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction (MBSR) program, on individuals with nonspecific chronic pain.(la Cour and Petersen 2015) The study revealed that beyond the significant effect observed in vitality, the treatment group exhibited larger effect sizes in other areas. Particularly, there were substantial improvements in pain acceptance (engaging in activities despite pain), feeling in control of pain, and general anxiety compared to the wait-list group. Medium effect sizes were also noted for mental health and quality of life, encompassing psychological well-being and reduced depressive symptoms. This demonstrates a notable dissimilarity in Cohen's effect size between our study and that of La Cour and Petersen (2015) concerning the participants. The discernible moderate to large effect size in our findings underscores meaningful distinctions. Concerning the Body Appreciation Scale, a notable distinction between groups was observed at the Pre time point, but no statistically significant differences emerged during Weeks 1, 2, and 3. In the case of the Rosenberg Self-Esteem test, there were no significant differences between the groups at any of the time points. Furthermore, both the Body Appreciation Scale and Rosenberg Self-Esteem test exhibited small Cohen's d effect sizes.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eOverall, limited significant differences were observed in the Self-Compassion Scale, Body Appreciation Scales, and Rosenberg Self-Esteem. However, a nuanced pattern emerged in the Self-Compassion Scale, revealing that during both the late luteal and early follicular phases, mindfulness meditation exerted a positive influence on participants' self-compassion, self-esteem, and body appreciation. These findings suggest that mindfulness meditation may play a crucial role in mitigating negative body image perceptions during specific phase of the menstrual cycle when women are considered more susceptible to such negative perceptions.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe findings of this investigation, while meaningful, are subject to certain limitations. A notable limitation stems from the study's methodological design, which involved an intervention period of three weeks, succeeded by another three-week phase. This prolonged duration may have led to participant fatigue or diminished engagement. Furthermore, the requirement for participants to answer a restricted set of questions over six consecutive weeks might have compromised the accuracy of their responses. In addition to dealing with fatigue, another challenge encountered was participants occasionally falling asleep during meditation sessions. This unintended event presented a potential obstacle, as it might have negatively influenced participants' answers to the survey, thereby introducing a state of fatigue among the study's participants.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAn additional potential limitation concerns the environmental conditions under which the study was conducted. To foster a sense of peace and calm, participants were placed in an empty room. Moreover, they were afforded the flexibility to schedule their mindfulness sessions according to their own availability. However, some participants chose daytime slots, which may have exposed them to noise disturbances from other students or ongoing classes, possibly undermining the serene environment necessary for the sessions. Furthermore, the inclusion of collegiate athletes, who often had to travel for competitions, presented another logistical challenge. To accommodate their schedules, participants were offered alternative means to complete the meditation sessions, such as joining an online meeting with the researcher or receiving materials to conduct sessions independently. This ensured their continued participation in the study while traveling. Nonetheless, these adjustments also had the potential to impact the ability to maintain a consistent atmosphere of tranquility and calmness during the sessions. Future research should further explore a targeted exercise program coupled with mindfulness meditation, specifically emphasizing the late luteal and early follicular phases. Such investigation could determine whether a regular exercise regimen and mindfulness meditation might interact to yield a positive transformation in body image.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Conclusions","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis research unveils the discernible influence of mindfulness meditation on self-compassion during specific menstrual cycle phases. However, statistical non-significance characterizes the observed differences across scales and throughout various menstrual cycle phases.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003ch2\u003eEthical Approval\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eAll procedures performed in studies involving human participants were in accordance with the ethical standards of the institutional and/or national research committee and with the 1964 Helsinki Declaration and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards. The study was approved by the Institutional Review Board at Stephen F. Austin State University approval number AY2023-0200 on 09/12/2023.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eInformed Consent\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cp\u003e All participants provided voluntary written informed consent prior to participation in this research between 09/13/2023 and 04/02/2024. Informed consent was obtained by the researchers prior to data collection.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eFunding\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eDeclaration\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis research did not receive any grant funding from specific agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAuthor Contribution\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eV.B. and K.J. collected data and contributed to the creation of the manuscript.R.W. made substantial contributions to the conception or design of the research study, guided students in data collected, and was instrumental in the writing and editing phases of the project. M.W. made substantial contributions to the conception or design of the research study, guided students in data collected, data analysis, and was instrumental in the writing and editing phases of the project.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAcknowledgement\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe researchers would like to express appreciation to all the students who participated in the project.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eData Availability\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eCoded data is available to interested parties upon request and approval from the researchers.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAnsdell, Paul, Kevin Thomas, Kirsty M. Hicks, Sandra K. Hunter, Glyn Howatson, and Stuart Goodall. 2020. \u0026ldquo;Physiological Sex Differences Affect the Integrative Response to Exercise: Acute and Chronic Implications.\u0026rdquo; \u003cem\u003eExperimental Physiology\u003c/em\u003e 105 (12): 2007\u0026ndash;21. https://doi.org/10.1113/EP088548.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eCour, Peter la, and Marian Petersen. 2015. \u0026ldquo;Effects of Mindfulness Meditation on Chronic Pain: A Randomized Controlled Trial.\u0026rdquo; \u003cem\u003ePain Medicine (Malden, Mass.)\u003c/em\u003e 16 (4): 641\u0026ndash;52. https://doi.org/10.1111/pme.12605.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eEmanuelsen, Lene, Raechel Drew, and Ferenc K\u0026ouml;teles. 2015. \u0026ldquo;Interoceptive Sensitivity, Body Image Dissatisfaction, and Body Awareness in Healthy Individuals.\u0026rdquo; \u003cem\u003eScandinavian Journal of Psychology\u003c/em\u003e 56 (2): 167\u0026ndash;74. https://doi.org/10.1111/sjop.12183.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eFalsafi, Nasrin, and Louisa Leopard. 2015. \u0026ldquo;Pilot Study: Use of Mindfulness, Self-Compassion, and Yoga Practices With Low-Income and/or Uninsured Patients With Depression and/or Anxiety.\u0026rdquo; \u003cem\u003eJournal of Holistic Nursing: Official Journal of the American Holistic Nurses\u0026rsquo; Association\u003c/em\u003e 33 (4): 289\u0026ndash;97. https://doi.org/10.1177/0898010115569351.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eFurnham, Adrian, Nicola Badmin, and Ian Sneade. 2002. \u0026ldquo;Body Image Dissatisfaction: Gender Differences in Eating Attitudes, Self-Esteem, and Reasons for Exercise.\u0026rdquo; \u003cem\u003eThe Journal of Psychology\u003c/em\u003e 136 (6): 581\u0026ndash;96. https://doi.org/10.1080/00223980209604820.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eH\u0026ouml;lzel, Britta, and Ulrich Ott. 2006. \u0026ldquo;Relationships between Meditation Depth, Absorption, Meditation Practice, and Mindfulness: A Latent Variable Approach.\u0026rdquo; \u003cem\u003eJournal of Transpersonal Psychology\u003c/em\u003e 38 (2): 179\u0026ndash;99.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eSharma, Ashish, Vishal Madaan, and Frederick D. Petty. 2006. \u0026ldquo;Exercise for Mental Health.\u0026rdquo; \u003cem\u003ePrimary Care Companion to the Journal of Clinical Psychiatry\u003c/em\u003e 8 (2): 106. https://doi.org/10.4088/pcc.v08n0208a.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eSukamto, Monique, Hamidah Hamidah, and Fajrianthi Fajrianthi. 2019. \u0026ldquo;\u0026lsquo;Can I Look Like Her?\u0026rsquo;: Body Image of Adolescent Girls Who Use Social Media.\u0026rdquo; \u003cem\u003eMakara Human Behavior Studies in Asia\u003c/em\u003e 23 (1): 60\u0026ndash;72. https://doi.org/10.7454/hubs.asia.1120519.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eTeixeira, Andr\u0026eacute; Luiz S., Marcelo Ricardo C. Dias, Vin\u0026iacute;cius O. Damasceno, Joel A. Lamounier, and Rick M. Gardner. 2013. \u0026ldquo;Association between Different Phases of Menstrual Cycle and Body Image Measures of Perceived Size, Ideal Size, and Body Dissatisfaction.\u0026rdquo; \u003cem\u003ePerceptual and Motor Skills\u003c/em\u003e 117 (3): 892\u0026ndash;902. https://doi.org/10.2466/24.27.PMS.117x31z1.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eToole, Aubrey M., and Linda W. Craighead. 2016. \u0026ldquo;Brief Self-Compassion Meditation Training for Body Image Distress in Young Adult Women.\u0026rdquo; \u003cem\u003eBody Image\u003c/em\u003e 19 (December):104\u0026ndash;12. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bodyim.2016.09.001.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Body Image, Menstrual Cycle, Meditation","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6894014/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-6894014/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003ch2\u003eObjectives\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe purpose of this research was to determine the effects of mindful meditation on body image in active females during the luteal and early follicular phases of the menstrual cycle. The participants consisted of 19 recreationally active college aged females.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eMethods\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis investigation utilized a quasi-experimental cross-over design consisting of a control (CNT) and intervention (INT) protocol based on estimated phase of the menstrual cycle (luteal and early follicular) within the same research cohort. Body image was evaluated using three surveys: the Self-Compassion Scale, Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale, and the Body Appreciation Scale. All questionnaires were administered before and after each three-week cycle. The participants maintained their regular lifestyles during the CNT protocol but engaged in mindful meditation sessions lasting approximately 20 minutes each, conducted five days a week the INT protocol. A Wilcoxon Signed Ranks Test and Cohen\u0026rsquo;s D Test were used for statistical analysis with \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e \u0026le; 0.05 set as level of significance for all analysis.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eResults\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eA significant difference was found between the groups on the Self-Compassion Scale for Week 1 (CNT\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;2.93 \u0026plusmn; 0.56, INT\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;3.09 \u0026plusmn; 0.48, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.015) and for Pre on the Body Appreciation Scale (CNT\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;3.83 \u0026plusmn; 0.77, INT\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;3.62 \u0026plusmn; 0.76, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.038).\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eConclusions\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eMindfulness meditation positively influenced self-compassion during the suggesting a crucial role in mitigating negative body perceptions in specific menstrual cycle phases. This finding, along with prospective research endeavors, contribute to addressing the existing gaps in female-focused research considering the menstrual cycle.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Impact of Mindfulness During the Luteal and Early Follicular Phases","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-10-29 11:07:09","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6894014/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"0f45bb98-c191-4c9a-8c15-9416293c76d3","owner":[],"postedDate":"October 29th, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[{"id":57044372,"name":"Humanities/Health humanities"},{"id":57044373,"name":"Social science/Psychology"}],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2025-12-31T04:24:07+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2025-10-29 11:07:09","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-6894014","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-6894014","identity":"rs-6894014","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}