Ethnobotany of traditional plant cosmetics utilized by women; A study in Northern Ghana

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The study therefore assessed the use of plants for cosmetic purposes among female residents in Tamale metropolis the in the Northern Region of Ghana. Method A cross-sectional study was thus conducted among women in the Tamale metropolis to specifically identify plants used as cosmetics and determine the level of usage among women. A convenience sampling method was used in selecting the 383 participants from 20 randomly selected communities in Tamale. A semi-structured questionnaire-guided interview was used to collect the data which was then analyzed using Microsoft Excel version 2310 and IBM Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) software version 25.0. The results of the data analysis were presented in tables and graphs. Also, multivariate analysis was used to determine the association between some variables. Statistical significance is assumed at p < 0.05 at a confidence level of 95%. Results A total of 19 plants belonging to 18 families were listed by women in Tamale to be used for cosmetic purposes. Out of the 383 respondents, 228 use plants for cosmetic purposes. The most preferred application areas were skin, hair and private parts whereas the main cosmetic uses were skin smoothening (33.4%), skin protection (8.1%), hair growth (13.3%), treatment of acne (11.7%), body odour (9.9%) and vaginal hygiene (5.7%). Employment status (p-value = 0.325), level of education (p – value = 0.709), the origin of growth (p-value = 0.455) and type of accommodation (p – value = 0.925) which measured the economic status of the women had no association with their usage of plants for cosmetic purposes. Marital status however had a significant association with plant cosmetic usage (p – value = 0.020). Conclusion: Shea butter ( Vitellaria paradoxa ) was the most used plant by females for smoothening the skin and enhancing hair growth. This study provided an understanding of the abandoned areas of plants concerning their cosmetic values. Continuous research is encouraged to record and preserve this indigenous knowledge. Cosmetics herbal cosmetics females plants Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 INTRODUCTION Plants have been used as food, medicine and spices since the dawn of humanity [ 1 ]. In traditional folk medicine, plants can also be used to treat dermatological conditions and improve a person's appearance and personality or hygiene [ 2 , 3 ]. According to Rogiers and Pauwels (2008), the European Commission defined cosmetics as “any substance or preparation intended to be placed in contact with different external parts of the human body (epidermis, hair, nails, and lips) or the teeth and the mucous membrane of the oral cavity with the sole or primary goal of cleaning them, smelling them, altering their appearance or odours, and protecting them in good condition” [ 4 ]. Many tribes employed plant-based lotions, powders, and oils to improve their attractiveness and for therapeutic purposes [ 5 ]. Natives in Suriname on the north-east coast of South America use Aloe vera ( Aloe barbadensis) as the main cosmetic ingredient in skin care products and anti–ageing creams. They also use neem tree ( Azadirachta indica) to make facial and eye mark products and coconut ( Cocos nucifera) to make soaps, hair care products and anti-acne creams [ 6 ]. Furthermore, tribal women of Kashmir Himalayas use the extracts of garlic ( Allium sativum ) to treat toothache and the cloves ( Syzygium aromaticum ) are crushed and applied on the face to treat pimples [ 7 ]. Also, in the Indian state of Chhattisgarh, inhabitants use coconut milk and carrot juice as anti–ageing cream [ 8 ]. The use of plants in cosmetics has advanced over time due to their natural properties that offer a variety of advantages for the skin and hair [ 9 ]. Women especially have always resorted to the use of herbal remedies to maintain and enhance their beauty [ 10 ]. There is a growing interest in phytochemicals in cosmetics because of their ability to protect the skin from both external and internal harmful substances and also help in resolving many skin diseases [ 11 ]. These phytochemicals produce their cosmetic effect through their antioxidant properties, anti-inflammation activity as well as antibacterial and antifungal activities. For example, Aloe vera ( Aloe barbadensis) , a succulent plant native to Africa, has been used for centuries for its medicinal properties and is commonly found in cosmetics due to its hydrating, soothing, and healing effects on the skin 12]. Also, chamomile ( Matricaria chamomilla ) a herb that has been used in traditional medicine for centuries, is a popular ingredient in cosmetics due to its anti-inflammatory and calming properties 13]. Additionally, green tea, a popular beverage derived from the Camellia sinensis plant, has been shown to possess antioxidant and anti-ageing properties, making it a valuable ingredient in cosmetic formulations [ 14 ]. Research into the properties and potential benefits of plants used for cosmetic purposes has increased in recent years, as consumers have become more interested in natural and sustainable beauty products with less or no side effects to the skin, as well as the recognition of the potential health benefits of these plant-based cosmetics [ 9 ]. The cosmeceutical sector is currently expanding due to the addition of natural components to many cosmetic products and the increasing awareness of the harmful effects of synthetic chemicals on their skin and the environment [ 5 ]. But the tragic reality of our time is that valuable cosmetic ethnobotanical information is soon being lost. The younger generation prefers allopathic treatments and cosmetics due to a lack of enthusiasm and expertise or knowledge [ 15 ]. This study therefore investigated plants that are used as cosmetics among the women in the Tamale metropolis and documented this indigenous knowledge to prevent them from being lost. METHODS Study design A cross-sectional study design was used to conduct this research between January and December 2023. Study Location The study was conducted at the Tamale Metropolitan Assembly (TMA) area. It is among the 16 Metropolitan, Municipal, and District Assemblies (MMDAs) in the Northern Region. In 2004, the Tamale Metropolitan Assembly was given the metropolis status with its capital as Tamale which is located between longitudes 0.36° and 0.57° west and latitudes 9.16° and 9.34° north. The metropolis is bordered to the north by Sagnerigu District, to the east by Yendi Municipal Assembly, to the west by Tolon District, to the south-west by Central Gonja District, and to the south by East Gonja municipality. The metropolis has a 440.4 km 2 total land area and an 850.8 persons/km 2 population density according to Ghana Statistical Service as indicated by Brinkhoff (2022) [ 16 ]. Study population The study was conducted among female residents in Tamale who were 18 years or above. Females who are above 18 years are legally considered adults so they can provide informed consent and are at the age where they pay attention to their looks. Study site Twenty (20) communities out of the 116 in Tamale were selected randomly using the “RAND” function in Microsoft Excel version 2310 for the study. The randomly selected suburbs include; Lamashegu, Wamale, Gumbihini, Vittin, Chagnayili, Dohini, Pagazaa, Ticheli, Lahagu, Bogkurugu, Kumbuyili, Sugaaashee, Choggu-Manayili, Batanyili, Gbanyamli, Gunnaayili, Doboagshie, Yong, Checko, Sanga. Sample Size The total population of females in Tamale in 2010 was 185,356 of which the population of females 18 + years was 106,540 (57.5%) [ 6 ]. According to the 2021 Population and Housing Census by the Ghana Statistical Service, the total number of females is 189,693 [ 16 ]. The 2021 census has no published data on the distribution of females according to their age. Therefore, assuming the percentage of females 18 + years is 57.5% then the population of females 18 + years is 109,053. Hence our study population was 109,053. The sample size was calculated using Cochran’s standard formula (1977) at a confidence interval of 95%, $${n}_{0}=\frac{{z}^{2}pq}{{e}^{2}}$$ Where: n 0 = the sample size, z = the abscissa of the normal curve that cuts off an area at the tails (set at 1.96 which corresponds to the 95% confidence interval), p = the estimated proportion of an attribute that is present in the population, set at 0.5, q = 1-p, e = acceptable sample error = 0.05 $${n}_{0}=\frac{{0.96}^{2}x 0.5 x 0.5}{{0.05}^{2}}$$ $${n}_{0}=384$$ Using the Finite Population Correction formula which is: \(n= \frac{{\text{n}}_{0}}{(1+ {n}_{0})/N}\) where: n = desired sample size, N = sample population size (females 18 + years) = 109,053 $$n=\frac{384}{(1+384)/\text{109,053}}$$ $$n=383$$ The sample size for this study was therefore 383 Sampling Technique Convenience sampling was used in selecting the participants from the 20 communities in Tamale for the study. In entering a suburb, the researchers move along the busy streets and speak with any female who says she is over 18 years old and willing to partake in the study. This continued until the minimum number (19) for each suburb was reached. Study Tools The semi-structured questionnaire was designed de novo based on the literature on cosmetics. The questionnaire was piloted among 20 females in Dungu, one of the suburbs in Tamale. The responses were reviewed by senior faculties at the Department of Pharmacognosy and Herbal Medicine of the University for Development Studies, Tamale, to ensure face validity. The questionnaire was of two parts. Part A sought information on the socio-demographic characteristics of the participants such as age, sex, residence, level of education, occupation and marital status. The second part (Part B) of the questionnaire obtained information on various cosmetic conditions that plants have been used to treat They included the traditional name(s) of the plant and the plant part(s), cosmetic uses of the plants, mode of preparation and mode of administration of plant species. Data Collection Techniques Whereas a few respondents self-administered the questionnaire, for the majority, the questions were translated mainly to the local language, Dagbanli or Twi, a widely spoken Ghanaian language and the responses were recorded on the hard copy of the questionnaire. Statistical Analysis The data was analyzed using Microsoft Excel version 2310 and IBM Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) Version 25. The results of the data analysis were presented in tables and charts. Also, the appropriate inferential statistical tool was used to determine the association between variables. Statistical significance and confidence level were assumed at p < 0.05 and 95% respectively. RESULTS Sociodemographic characteristics of respondents Table 1 shows the sociodemographic characteristics of respondents. Most, 159 (41.5%) of the respondents were between the ages of 21 and 30 years with the least of them, 10 (2.6%) being more than 60 years. Majority, 240 (62.7%) were in informal employment while 67 (17.5%) were students, with 55 (14.4%) and 21 (5.5%) being unemployed and those in formal employment respectively. Whilst, 10 (2.6%) grew up in district capitals, the majority, 198 (51.7%) grew up in cities. About their marital status, 217 (56.7%) were married, while 157 (41.0%) were single. Whereas, most, 140 (36.6%) of the female respondents had obtained senior high school level education, only 19 (5.0%) had completed a tertiary level educational institution. Majority, 253 (66.1%) were living in single-room apartments, while the least 9 (2.3%) lived in at least a 4-bedroom apartment. Table 1 Socio-demographic characteristics of respondents Variables Subgroup Frequency Percentage Age (years) 60 10 2.6 Employment status Informal 240 62.7 Student 67 17.5 Unemployed 55 14.3 Formal 21 5.5 Location of early life Village 152 39.7 District capital 10 2.6 Regional capital/Town 23 6.0 Cities 198 51.7 Marital status Married 217 56.7 Single 157 41.0 Widowed 9 2.3 Highest level of education No formal education 117 30.5 JHS 107 27.9 SHS 140 36.6 Tertiary 19 5.0 Type of accommodation Single room 253 66.1 Chamber and Hall 73 19.1 2 -3-bedroom apartment 48 12.5 At least 4 bedrooms 9 2.3 Purposes for which the respondents use plants as cosmetics Table 2 shows the reports on women who use or have ever used plants for any cosmetic purpose. This study shows the top six most common uses of plants by the respondents for cosmetic purposes were for the toning and smoothening of the skin (128, 33.4%), hair growth and improvement (51, 13.3%), treating acne/pimples (45, 11.7%), body odour (38, 9.9%), skin protection (31, 8.1%) and the vagina hygiene (22, 5.7%). The study found no use of plant materials for treating wrinkles, make-up, toothache, hair colouring and as perfume. Table 2 Purposes for which respondents use plants as cosmetics Variables Response Frequency Percentage Ever used it for skin protection? Yes 31 8.1 No 352 91.9 Ever used it for skin fairness? Yes 1 0.3 No 382 99.7 Ever used it for toning and smoothening skin? Yes 128 33.4 No 255 66.6 Ever used it for acne? Yes 45 11.7 No 338 88.3 Ever used it for dry skin care? Yes 15 3.9 No 368 96.1 Ever used it for exfoliation? Yes 6 1.6 No 377 98.4 Ever used it for wrinkles? Yes 0 0.0 No 383 100.0 Ever used it for dark spots? Yes 7 1.8 No 376 98.2 Ever used it for stretch marks? Yes 2 0.5 No 381 99.5 Ever used it for body cleaning? Yes 2 0.5 No 381 99.5 Ever used it for body odour? Yes 38 9.9 No 345 90.1 Ever used it for make-up? Yes 0 0.0 No 383 100.0 Ever used it for eye care? Yes 1 0.3 No 382 99.7 Ever used it for dark circles? Yes 3 0.8 No 380 99.2 Ever used it for anti-ageing? Yes 1 0.3 No 382 99.7 Ever used it for mouth odour? Yes 4 1.0 No 379 99.0 Ever used it for a toothache? Yes 0 0.0 No 383 100.0 Ever used it for nail care? Yes 10 2.6 No 373 97.4 Ever used it for smelly feet? Yes 4 1.0 No 379 99.0 Ever used it for vaginal hygiene? Yes 22 5.7 No 361 94.3 Ever used it for hair growth? Yes 51 13.3 No 332 86.7 Ever used it as hair perfume? Yes 0 0.0 No 383 100.0 Ever used it for hair loss? Yes 2 0.5 No 381 99.5 Ever used it for dandruff? Yes 2 0.5 No 381 99.5 Ever used it for hair colouring? Yes 0 0.0 No 383 100.0 Plants used for cosmetics purposes A total of 19 plants belonging to 18 different families were listed by the respondents as being used as cosmetics (Table 3 ). The top ten plants listed were; shea tree ( Vitellaria paradoxa) , 170 (44.4%); aloe vera ( Aloe barbadensis) 40 (10.4%); lime ( Citrus aurantifolia ), 38 (9.9%); cloves ( Syzygium aromaticum ), 20 (5.2%); turmeric ( Curcuma domestica ), 18 (4.7%); henna ( Lawsonia inermis ), 11 (2.9%); neem ( Azadirachta indica ), 5 (1.3%); coconut ( Cocos nucifera ), 3 (0.5%) moringa ( Moringa oleifera ), 2 (0.5%) and Cucumber ( Cucumis sativus ), 2 (0.5%). Table 3 Plants used for cosmetics purposes Common /local name Scientific name Family Parts used Number of users Percentage Shea tree(tááŋà) Vitellaria paradoxa Sapotaceae Seed 170 44.4 Aloe vera Aloe barbadensis Asphodelaceae Leaves 40 10.4 Lime(nyòmsá) Citrus aurantifolia Rutaceae Fruit 38 9.9 Cloves Syzygium aromaticum Myrtaceae Flower buds 20 5.2 Turmeric (àsóómà) Curcuma domestica Zingiberaceae Rhizome 18 4.7 Henna (zàblìgá) Lawsonia inermis Lythraceae Leaves 11 2.9 Neem (nyímsà) Azadirachta indica Meliaceae Leaves Stem Branches Seeds 5 1.3 Coconut Cocos nucifera Arecaceae Kernel 3 0.8 Moringa (jèŋgbè yògrlí) Moringa oleifera Moringaceae Leaves 2 0.5 Cucumber Cucumis sativus Cucurbitaceae Fruit 2 0.5 Cocoa Theobroma cacao Malvaceae Fruit 1 0.3 Tomato Solanum lycopersicum Solanaceae Fruit 1 0.3 Mango Mangifera indica Anacardiaceae Leaves 1 0.3 Olive oil Olea europaea Oleaceae Fruit 1 0.3 Cassava Manihot esculenta Euphorbiaceae Stem 1 0.3 Locust beans (dawadawa, dòó) Parkia biglobosa Fabaceae Stem 1 0.3 Carrot Daucus carota Apiaceae Root 1 0.3 Okro Abelmoschus esculentus Malvaceae Fruit 1 0.3 Rice Oryza sativa Poaceae Seed 1 0.3 Methods of preparation and application of plant cosmeceuticals Table 4 shows the raw plant materials with their cosmetic uses, parts of the plant used, method of preparation and body parts to which respondents apply them. Shea butter from the seeds of Vitelleria paradoxa was used mainly for smoothening the skin and moisturizing dry skin and hair. Lime was used to treat body odour as well as smelly feet. The powdered rhizome of turmeric was used to treat acne, dark spots and for exfoliation. The leaves of aloe vera performed a similar function as turmeric on the skin but were also used alone or together with the stem or branches of the neem tree to remove mouth odour. To improve hair texture and hair growth, respondents resorted to using shea butter and aloe vera. Rice and moringa were also used to treat dandruff and hair loss respectively. Cloves were soaked overnight, filtered and the filtrate was splashed around the vagina to clear off bad odour. Henna was occasionally used to beautify the hands and feet and rarely to treat acne. Table 4 Plant materials used by females for cosmetic purposes Common/ (local name) Scientific name Part(s) used Cosmetic use Method of preparation Place of administration Cloves Syzygium aromaticum Flower buds Vaginal hygiene, hair loss Soak in water, filter and use the filtrate Vagina and hair Lime (nyòmsá) Citrus aurantifolia Fruit Body odour, smelly feet Squeeze the juice out Axilla, feet Aloe vera Aloe barbadensis Leaves Acne/pimple, hair conditioner, exfoliation, skin protection, dark spots, mouth odour Peel and scoop gel Face, hair and body Shea butter (tááŋà) Vitelleria paradoxa Seed Skin smoothness and toning, dry skin care, skin protection, hair growth and improvement After the kernel is removed from the seed, it is ground into a powder and boiled in water. The butter then rises to the top of the water and becomes solid Body and hair Turmeric (àsóómà) Curcuma domestica Rhizome Exfoliation, acne/ pimple, dark spots, skin fairness Make a paste from turmeric powder and water Face Henna (zàblìgá) Lawsonia inermis Leaves Beautifying hands and feet, treating acne Make a paste from henna powder and water Feet, hands and face Cucumber Cucumis sativus Fruit Dark circles Slice the cucumber into smaller pieces Face Neem (nyímsà) Azadirachta indica Leaves, stem, branches and seeds Chewing sticks for mouth freshener, acne, skin smoothening, mosquito repellant Peel off the bark, wash and break into desirable sizes. Brush teeth with the sticks Various parts of the body Coconut Cocos nucifera Kernel Skin smoothening Add oil extract to any desirable pomade Body Moringa (jèŋgbè yògrlí) Moringa oleifera Leaves Hair loss, skin rashes, treating pimples Dry leaves, blend and make a paste Hair and Body Olive oil Olea europaea Fruit Dandruff Oil extracts from fruit Hair Mango Mangifera indica Leaves Stretch marks Crush leaves and make a paste of leaves with water Body Cassava Manihot esculenta Stem Soap Add water to the burnt ashes of the stem and add to shea oil Body Locust beans (dawadawa, dòó) Parkia biglobosa Stem Soap Add water to the burnt ashes of the stem and add to shea oil Body Rice Oryza sativa Seed Dandruff Soak in water, filter and use the filtrate Hair Tomato Solanum lycopersicum Fruit Acne Slice into two and apply directly on the face Face Cocoa Theobroma cacao Fruit Soap Burn the dry fruit and use the ash Body Okro Abelmoschus esculentus Fruit Smelly feet Blend okro Feet Carrot Daucus carota Root Anti – ageing Grind carrot, add desirable oil (vegetable or coconut oil) and place on low heat for about 5 minutes. Allow to cool, filter and use the filtrate Body Level of patronage of plant materials as cosmetic The use of plants for cosmeceutical purposes was reported by majority, 228 (59.5%) of the females in this study (Table 5 ). Most of the respondents, 105(46.1%) have used the raw plant material as cosmetics for less than 5 years and the least period was between 11–15 years, 8 (3.5%). Out of the 228 respondents who have used plants as a cosmetic, only 4 (1.8%) reported experiencing a side effect they attributed to the plant material used. Only, 11(4.8%) ever used a manufactured herbal cosmetic product while a greater number of 103 (45.2%) ever used cosmetics made from synthetic chemicals. Majority, 227 (99.6%) would recommend the use of raw plant materials as cosmetics to other people. Table 5 Level of patronage of plant materials as cosmetic Variable Subgroups Frequency Percentage Ever used plants for any cosmeceutical purpose? No 155 40.5 Yes 228 59.5 How long have you used raw plant materials as cosmetics? 20 years 30 13.2 Have you experienced any side effects (s)? Yes 4 1.8 No 224 98.2 Have you used herbal-based manufactured cosmetic products before? Yes 11 4.8 No 217 95.2 Have you used a synthetic cosmetic product before? Yes 103 45.2 No 125 54.8 Would you recommend using raw plants as cosmetics to others? Yes 227 99.6 No 1 0.4 Reasons for patronising natural plants as cosmetics instead of synthetic cosmetic Various reasons were given by the respondents for their use of raw plant materials as cosmetics instead of synthetic or manufactured cosmetics (Fig. 1 ). Whereas the majority, 192 (85%) preferred the raw plants because they are more effective, 29 (13%) used them because it is less costly. It is free from chemicals (3, 1%) and readily accessible (3, 1%) are the least of the reasons respondents patronized raw plants as cosmetics. Sources of first-time information on the use of plants as cosmetics The respondents listed several sources of first-time information about the use of plants as cosmetics (Fig. 2 ). Majority indicated members of their family, 174 (76.3%) as their most important source followed by their friends, 35 (15.4%) and media, 14 (6.1%). A few of the respondents, 5 (2.2%) started using plants as cosmetics after their own personal research. . Parts of the plants most used for cosmetics Seeds, 217 (57.0%) were the most used part of plants in preparation of cosmetic recipes from raw plant materials. This was followed by leaves, 70 (18.4%), fruits, 46 (12.1%), flower buds, 21 (5.5%), rhizome, 20 (5.2%), stem 3 (0.8%), branches, 3 (0.8%) and lastly the roots. 1 (0.2%). Figure 3 shows the parts of the plant that are used as cosmeceuticals. Association between sociodemographic characteristics of respondents and the usage of plants as cosmetics Table 6 shows the association between the sociodemographic characteristics of respondents and the usage of plants as cosmetics. A greater proportion of women between the ages of 21 to 30 years (42.8%) had used plants as cosmetics whereas those who were above 60 years, (10.0%) were the least age group but there was no significant difference (χ 2 = 8.267; p-value = 0.142). Self–employed women, (37.5%) were seen to patronize a lot more raw plants as cosmetics followed by unemployed women, 28 (50.9%) and then students, 28 (41.8%) and lastly formal workers, 9 (42.9%) but there was no significant difference in their level of usage (χ 2 = 3.465; p-value = 0.325). More women who grew up in the villages (69, 45.4%) patronized natural plants used for cosmetic purposes with those who lived in cities, 73 (36.9%) least likely to use plants as cosmetics, but there was no significant difference in their usage (χ 2 = 2.614; p-value = 0.455). The highest use of plants as cosmetics was recorded among single women (45.2%) with (38.7%) and (0.0%), recorded among married and widowed women respectively. There was a statistically significant difference between the women based on their marital status (χ 2 = 7.780; p-value = 0.020). There was no significant association between the use of plants as cosmetics and other sociodemographic characteristics such as level of education (χ 2 = 1.385; p-value = 0.709), type of accommodation one resides in, (χ 2 = 0.482; p-value = 0.923) and highest educational attainment by the women (χ 2 = 1.385; p-value = 0.709). Table 6 Association between sociodemographic characteristics of respondents and the usage of plants as cosmetics Variables Subgroup Ever used plants as cosmetics p-value Chi-square value Yes No Age (years) 60 1 (10.0%) 9 (90.0%) Employment status Informal 90 (37.5%) 150 (62.5%) 0.325 3.465 Student 28 (41.8%) 39 (58.2%) Unemployed 28 (50.9%) 27 (49.1%) Formal 9 (42.9%) 12 (57.1%) Location of early life Village 69 (45.4%) 83 (54.6%) 0.455 2.614 District capital 4 (40.0%) 6 (60.0%) Regional capital/Town 9 (39.1%) 14 (60.9%) Cities 73 (36.9%) 125 (63.1%) Marital status Married 84 (38.7%) 133(61.3%) 0.020* 7.870 Single 71 (45.2%) 86 (54.8%) Widowed 0 (0.0%) 9 (100.0%) Highest level of education No formal education 44 (37.6%) 73 (62.4%) 0.709 1.385 Basic level 47 (43.9%) 60 (56.1%) Senior High School 55 (39.3%) 85 (60.7%) Tertiary 9 (47.4%) 10 (52.6%) Type of accommodation Single room 105 (41.5%) 148 (58.5%) 0.923 0.482 Chamber and Hall 28 (38.4%) 45 (61.6%) 2 -3-bedroom apartment 18 (37.5%) 30 (62.5%) At least 4 bedrooms 4 (44.4%) 5 (55.6%) * Statistically significant DISCUSSION Whereas it is explicit when a plant is being used as food, some challenges may arise in differentiating between plant material being used for cosmetic purposes or used to treat minor ailments. However, in this study, the plant is considered to provide a cosmeceutical role when its intended use is to enhance the physical appearance of the user, protect that external part of the body or provide good hygiene by way of cleaning, altering their appearance or odours. Cosmeceutical uses of plant materials by women It was seen in Table 2 , that more women used plants to tone and smoothen their skin. Others preferred to use it for hair growth, treating acne/pimples, body odour, skin protection and vagina hygiene. Similar results were observed in a study by Mwinga et al., (2019[ 17 ]) Xhosa women used plants for the above cosmetic purposes. The study also did not find the use of plants for treating wrinkles and toothache or for make-up, hair colouring and perfume. However, Sultan et al., (2024) report the use of several plants for purposes such as perfumery, and teeth hygiene, among others which were not indicated in this study [ 18 ]. The Madda Walabu district, in Southeastern Ethiopia where Sultan et al., (2024) conducted their study has a bimodal rainfall pattern unlike Tamale, which has only a season of rainfall which will influence the difference in the vegetation cover in these two study sites [ 18 ]. In this study, the major cosmetic uses of the plants were for skin care, hair care, and vaginal hygiene. For skin care, products from the shea tree ( Vitellaria paradoxa) and coconut ( Cocos nucifera ) were used for moisturizing dry skin and smoothening skin. Shea butter contains fatty acids and vitamins, providing deep hydration and promoting skin elasticity [ 19 , 20 ]. Coconut oil has moisturizing and antimicrobial properties, helping to soothe and soften the skin [ 21 , 22 ]. Together, they can create a barrier that locks in moisture, reducing dryness and contributing to smoother, healthier-looking skin. Aloe vera ( Aloe barbadensis) and turmeric ( Curcuma domestica ) for acne and dark blemishes on the face. They possess anti-inflammatory, antioxidant and antibacterial properties that can help reduce redness and inflammation associated with acne [ 23 , 24 ]. Carrot ( Daucus carota) was used as an anti–ageing agent because it is high in beta-carotene, a powerful antioxidant that the body converts into vitamin A [ 25 ]. Vitamin A is essential for maintaining skin health, promoting cell regeneration, and protecting. Several other authors found the use of these plants for similar purposes as shown in this study [ 9 , 26 , 27 ]. The use of Lime (Citrus aurantifolia) by the women in this study for skin hygiene can be explained by the proven activity of the extract of his plant which is known to possess natural antibacterial and antimicrobial properties, thereby combating odour-causing bacteria on the skin [ 28 ]). The acidity of lime may also assist in neutralizing or masking unpleasant odours. For hair care, women used cloves ( Syzygium aromaticum ) which is rich in antioxidants, to help combat oxidative stress linked to hair loss, and antioxidants may protect hair follicles from damage to prevent hair loss [ 29 , 30 ]. This study found the use of rice ( Oryza sativa) to treat dandruff, aloe vera ( Aloe barbadensis) and shea butter ( Vitellaria paradoxa) for hair growth. Enechukwu and Ogunbiyi, (2022) also reported the use of several indigenous plants for hair and scalp disorders in Nigeria [ 31 ]. The antimicrobial properties of essential oil from the flower buds of cloves as reported by Maggini et al., (2024) may account for its use for the improvement of vaginal hygiene by women in this study [ 32 ]. The stem and branches of the neem tree ( Azadirachta indica) were used as a chewing stick to clean the teeth and remove mouth odour just as reported by Sultan et al., (2024) [ 18 ]. Plants used as cosmetics A total of 19 plants belonging to 18 different families were discovered to be used as cosmetics. In a study conducted in Oyo, Ogun, Ekiti, and Lagos states in Nigeria by Fred-Jaiyesimi et al., (2015), 80 species belonging to 39 families were discovered [ 33 ]. The high rainforest zone of these states could suggest the high number of plants identified. The most represented family was Malvaceae with two species. The rest of the families had one species each. The most used family was Sapotaceae to which the shea tree ( Vitellaria paradoxa) belongs. This is because the shea tree grows mostly in the savannah ecological zone making it more common in Northern Ghana where the study site, Tamale is located. Aside from the shea tree ( Vitellaria paradoxa) , aloe vera ( Aloe barbadensis) , lime ( Citrus aurantifolia ), cloves ( Syzygium aromaticum ), turmeric ( Curcuma domestica ), henna ( Lawsonia inermis ), neem ( Azadirachta indica ), coconut ( Cocos nucifera ), moringa ( Moringa oleifera ) and cucumber ( Cucumis sativus ) were among plants with high-value use. Shea tree ( Vitellaria paradoxa) , lime ( Citrus aurantifolia ), cloves ( Syzygium aromaticum ), henna ( Lawsonia inermis ), and neem ( Azadirachta indica ) were also reported among plants that were commonly used by Arab-Choa and Kotoko Ethnic Groups in the Semi-Arid Areas of Far North Cameroon [ 27 ]. Sociodemographic factors associated with the use of plant cosmeceuticals Among the sociodemographic characteristics, it was observed that more women between 21 and 30 years used plants as cosmetics than those more than 50 years, but there was no significant difference based on the age of the respondents. This present finding is consistent with a study by Abdalbasit et al., (2014) where elderly women, above 50 years (11.9%) were less endowed in indigenous knowledge of herbal cosmetics than the younger women, below 30 years (38.1%) [ 34 ]. Compared to a study by Shaheen et al., (2014) where the elder generation (> 30 years) were knowledgeable, this study reflects the traditional usage of plants for cosmetic purposes being established and high in the younger generation (< 30 years) [ 35 ]. Between employment, occupation, origin of growth and education, there was no significant association of these demographic characteristics with the use of plants as cosmetics. This indicates that employment status, occupation, origin and level of education did not influence the use of plants as cosmetics by women. There was also no significant difference between the type of accommodation with the use of plants. The type of accommodation was used to determine the economic status of the respondents. Hence the income of women did not influence the use of plants as cosmetics. There was a significant association between marital status and the use of plants as cosmetics. These results were similar to the outcome of the study by Abdalbasit et al., (2014), in which age group, occupation and education level had no influence on the usage of plants as cosmetics but marital status did [ 34 ]. In this study, marital status was significantly associated with the use of plant cosmetics (χ 2 = 7.780; p-value = 0.020). It is expected that married women would utilize plants as cosmetics more frequently to keep their bodies whole and preserve their attractiveness for their spouses but the contrary was found in this study with single women patronizing plant-based cosmetics a lot more. Cosmetic is a common tool used by single women who wish to stand out and appeal to men to project confidence, sociability, and assertiveness. Others who suffer from anxiety and insecurity may conceal their imperfections with cosmetics [ 36 ]. Plant parts of cosmeceutical importance to respondents The survey revealed that different morphological parts of plants were used in the preparation of recipes for cosmetic purposes. These parts included the seeds, leaves, fruits, flower buds, rhizome, branches, stem and roots. Among the plant parts used, seeds and leaves were most utilized with roots being least as seen in Fig. 3 . This study corroborates the study by Haque and Uddin (2018) which also found seeds (25%) and leaves (28%) as the most used plant parts [ 37 ]. Other studies showed leaves as the most used plant parts for cosmetic preparation [ 3 , 38 ]. The high-level use of seeds and leaves shows that the use of plants for cosmetic purposes in Tamale does not pose a threat to the survival of these plants since the leaves and seeds are in abundance, unlike the roots upon which the plant depends on for its physiological survival. The predilection for leaves stemmed from their ease of availability, ease of harvesting, and ease of preparation for remedies [ 39 ]. Leaves are frequently utilized because they serve as both a source for photochemical reactions and a storage site for organic matter resulting from these reactions. They contribute significantly to the presence of alkaloids, glycosides, and essential oils [ 40 ]. Unlike this study, the bark was the most used part of plants used for cosmetic purposes among Xhosa women in South Africa [ 17 ]. Reasons for preferring herbal cosmetics over synthetic ones Various reasons were given by the women in this study for depending on plants as their cosmetics. Just as reported by Gamage et al., (2021) in Sri Lanka, the reasons among others include the plants being more effective, less costly, readily available and free from chemicals that may cause damage as compared to the manufactured cosmetics made from synthetic substances [ 41 ]. Sources of first knowledge about plant cosmetics Most of the respondents indicated several sources of knowledge of the use of plant cosmetics with the majority of the recommenders being family members (76.3%) although a few of the respondents (2.2%) started using plants as cosmetics after their research. Jost et al., (2016) confirmed family members as being the most important source of indigenous knowledge on the use of plants for cosmetics purposes [ 42 ]. Additional ways that indigenous knowledge is shared include through elder storytelling, ceremonies, rituals, apprenticeships, and involvement in communal events [ 43 ]. CONCLUSION Shea butter was the most commonly used plant for cosmetic purposes out of the 19 different plants which were identified to be used for cosmetic purposes. This is suggestive of the importance of this plant as women used it for different reasons such as skin protection, dry skin, smoothening skin and hair growth. Age group, occupation, origin of growth, level of education and type of accommodation had no association with the usage of plants as cosmetics. However, marital status was associated with the use of plants for cosmetics. Majority of respondents preferred raw plants for cosmetic purposes because they have proven to be more effective. Abbreviations TMA Tamale Metropolitan Assembly MMDAs Metropolitan, Municipal and District Assemblies SPSS Statistical Package for Social Sciences Declarations Data Availability The results presented are adequate to support the conclusion of this study. However, the lead author is available to provide extra data upon request. Conflicts of interest The authors declare that there is no conflict of interest regarding the publication of this article. Funding Statement No funds were received Ethical consideration and consent to participate Participants' verbal consent was given. The Student Project Committee of the School for Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University for Development Studies, Tamale, Ghana approved the conduct of this study. Respondents were also provided assurances regarding the anonymity and confidentiality of the data obtained after being carefully briefed on the study. Participants weren't required to give their names when responding to the questionnaire. Additionally, it was clarified that participation was voluntary. Consent for publication Not applicable Authors’ Contributions E.P.K.A. conceived the idea, designed the questionnaire, analysed the data and drafted the manuscript. J.A. designed the questionnaire, and collected, curated and analysed the data. 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A review of indigenous therapies for hair and scalp disorders in Nigeria. Dermatologic Therapy, 35(6), e15505. Maggini, V., Semenzato, G., Gallo, E., Nunziata, A., Fani, R., & Firenzuoli, F. (2024). Antimicrobial Activity of Syzygium aromaticum Essential Oil in Human Health Treatment. Molecules, 29(5), 999. Fred-Jaiyesimi, A. A., Ajibesin, K. K., Tolulope, O., & Gbemisola, O. (2014). Ethnobotanical studies of folklore phytocosmetics of South West Nigeria. Pharmaceutical Biology, 53(3), 313–318. https://doi.org/10.3109/13880209.2014.918155 Abdalbasit A. M., Mohammed, N.S., Mohammed, F., Fatima Omer Nabag, & Alfatih Ahmed Hassan. (2014). Ethnobotanical study of three trees: Indigenous knowledge on trees used as cosmetic in Khartoum state, Sudan. 1(4), 178–182. Shaheen, H., Nazir, J., Firdous, S.S., & Khalid A.-U.-R. (2014). Cosmetic ethnobotany practised by tribal women of Kashmir Himalayas. Avicenna Journal of Phytomedicine, 4(4), 239–250. Edwards, V. (2023). Why do women wear makeup? The science behind makeup obsession. Science of People. https://www.scienceofpeople.com/makeup/#:~:text=Research%20shows%20 there%20are%20two%20primary%20reasons%20why,makeup%20to%20be%20more%20confident%2C%20sociable%2C%20and%20assertive Haque, T. & Uddin, M. (2018). Plants used for the beauty care in Dhaka, Bangladesh, 5, 29–35. Nirmalan, T.E. (2017). Cosmetic perspectives of ethno-botany in northern part of Sri Lanka. Journal of Cosmetology and Trichology, 03(03). Chaachouay, N., Benkhnigue, O., Fadli, M., El Ibaoui, H., & Zidane, L. (2019). Ethnobotanical and ethnopharmacological studies of medicinal and aromatic plants used in the treatment of metabolic diseases in the Moroccan Rif. Heliyon, 5(10), Article e02191. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2019.e02191 Najem, M., Harouak, H., Ibijbijen, J., & Nassiri, L. (2020). Oral disorders and ethnobotanical treatments: A field study in the central Middle Atlas (Morocco). Heliyon, 6(8), Article e04707. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2020.e04707 Gamage, D. G. N. D., Dharmadasa, R., Abeysinghe, D. C., Wijesekara, R., Prathapasinghe, G. A., & Someya, T. (2021). Emerging herbal cosmetic production in Sri Lanka: Identifying possible interventions for the development of the herbal cosmetic industry. Scientifica, 2021, 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1155/2021/6662404 Jost, X., Ansel, J.L., Lecellier, G., Raharivelomanana, P., & Butaud, J.F. (2016). Ethnobotanical survey of cosmetic plants used in Marquesas Islands (French Polynesia), November 29, 12(1). Eshete, M. A., & Molla, E. L. (2021). Cultural significance of medicinal plants in healing human ailments among Guji semi-pastoralist people, Suro Barguda District, Ethiopia. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine, 17, Article 61. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002-021-00487-4 Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Cite Share Download PDF Status: Under Review Version 1 posted Editor assigned by journal 03 May, 2024 Submission checks completed at journal 03 May, 2024 First submitted to journal 01 May, 2024 You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. Our growing team is made up of researchers and industry professionals working together to solve the most critical problems facing scientific publishing. Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-4355598","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":298290839,"identity":"4cdba630-204f-40a1-879b-85214deaa884","order_by":0,"name":"Evans Paul Kwame Ameade","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAAwUlEQVRIiWNgGAWjYFACNhBxQI6BgYdELcaka0lsIFqLfHtb2oMPf+6kbzh+9uCDDwx2croNBLQYnDl23HBm27PcDWfykg1nMCQbmx0gpEUivU2at+Fw7oYDOWbSPEAXbiOkRX4GUMufP4fTDc6/IVILw420Y9IMbIcTDG4QawvQL+mGvW2HDWfeeGNsOMOACL8AQ8zswY8/h+X5zucYPvhQYSdHUAsDNGIYFMAqDQgrR2iRbyBO9SgYBaNgFIxAAABCdEegHbVFZwAAAABJRU5ErkJggg==","orcid":"","institution":"University for Development Studies","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Evans","middleName":"Paul Kwame","lastName":"Ameade","suffix":""},{"id":298290847,"identity":"69b5b0c7-bb06-4c1f-9997-331bdf9cad3a","order_by":1,"name":"Josephine Aparku","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"University for Development Studies","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Josephine","middleName":"","lastName":"Aparku","suffix":""},{"id":298290852,"identity":"fb58b46e-1e1c-4eb3-b26a-58bacea92a00","order_by":2,"name":"Emmanuel Adom","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"University for Development Studies","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Emmanuel","middleName":"","lastName":"Adom","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2024-05-01 18:25:12","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-4355598/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-4355598/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":56281263,"identity":"d32b5696-4bf1-441d-898b-f822495f8c67","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-05-10 21:12:53","extension":"jpg","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":133112,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eReasons for patronising natural plants for cosmetic purposes\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Picture1.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4355598/v1/aef3bb9f2ae7c60278bc2368.jpg"},{"id":56281275,"identity":"c5980aab-90a2-4574-8901-8fdcb67c3aee","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-05-10 21:13:30","extension":"jpg","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":110526,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSources of first-time information on the use of plants as cosmetic\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Picture2.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4355598/v1/a1a9d4f22276748f73665478.jpg"},{"id":56281319,"identity":"349c9421-552c-4e4d-b78e-31ca8aed5b74","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-05-10 21:15:20","extension":"jpg","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":158418,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eParts of plants used for cosmetic preparation\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Picture3.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4355598/v1/49d448897059140dee60375a.jpg"},{"id":56282113,"identity":"76f33f02-f8c6-4f76-83a7-db6c756a54d8","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-05-10 21:25:34","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":1633874,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4355598/v1/ac7fca0f-4ac1-4fe8-8023-086ed5fc7d09.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Ethnobotany of traditional plant cosmetics utilized by women; A study in Northern Ghana","fulltext":[{"header":"INTRODUCTION","content":"\u003cp\u003ePlants have been used as food, medicine and spices since the dawn of humanity [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e]. In traditional folk medicine, plants can also be used to treat dermatological conditions and improve a person's appearance and personality or hygiene [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e]. According to Rogiers and Pauwels (2008), the European Commission defined cosmetics as \u0026ldquo;any substance or preparation intended to be placed in contact with different external parts of the human body (epidermis, hair, nails, and lips) or the teeth and the mucous membrane of the oral cavity with the sole or primary goal of cleaning them, smelling them, altering their appearance or odours, and protecting them in good condition\u0026rdquo; [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e]. Many tribes employed plant-based lotions, powders, and oils to improve their attractiveness and for therapeutic purposes [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e]. Natives in Suriname on the north-east coast of South America use Aloe vera (\u003cem\u003eAloe barbadensis)\u003c/em\u003e as the main cosmetic ingredient in skin care products and anti\u0026ndash;ageing creams. They also use neem tree (\u003cem\u003eAzadirachta indica)\u003c/em\u003e to make facial and eye mark products and coconut (\u003cem\u003eCocos nucifera)\u003c/em\u003e to make soaps, hair care products and anti-acne creams [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e]. Furthermore, tribal women of Kashmir Himalayas use the extracts of garlic (\u003cem\u003eAllium sativum\u003c/em\u003e) to treat toothache and the cloves (\u003cem\u003eSyzygium aromaticum\u003c/em\u003e) are crushed and applied on the face to treat pimples [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e]. Also, in the Indian state of Chhattisgarh, inhabitants use coconut milk and carrot juice as anti\u0026ndash;ageing cream [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e]. The use of plants in cosmetics has advanced over time due to their natural properties that offer a variety of advantages for the skin and hair [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e]. Women especially have always resorted to the use of herbal remedies to maintain and enhance their beauty [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThere is a growing interest in phytochemicals in cosmetics because of their ability to protect the skin from both external and internal harmful substances and also help in resolving many skin diseases [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e]. These phytochemicals produce their cosmetic effect through their antioxidant properties, anti-inflammation activity as well as antibacterial and antifungal activities. For example, Aloe vera (\u003cem\u003eAloe barbadensis)\u003c/em\u003e, a succulent plant native to Africa, has been used for centuries for its medicinal properties and is commonly found in cosmetics due to its hydrating, soothing, and healing effects on the skin 12]. Also, chamomile (\u003cem\u003eMatricaria chamomilla\u003c/em\u003e) a herb that has been used in traditional medicine for centuries, is a popular ingredient in cosmetics due to its anti-inflammatory and calming properties 13]. Additionally, green tea, a popular beverage derived from the \u003cem\u003eCamellia sinensis\u003c/em\u003e plant, has been shown to possess antioxidant and anti-ageing properties, making it a valuable ingredient in cosmetic formulations [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eResearch into the properties and potential benefits of plants used for cosmetic purposes has increased in recent years, as consumers have become more interested in natural and sustainable beauty products with less or no side effects to the skin, as well as the recognition of the potential health benefits of these plant-based cosmetics [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e]. The cosmeceutical sector is currently expanding due to the addition of natural components to many cosmetic products and the increasing awareness of the harmful effects of synthetic chemicals on their skin and the environment [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eBut the tragic reality of our time is that valuable cosmetic ethnobotanical information is soon being lost. The younger generation prefers allopathic treatments and cosmetics due to a lack of enthusiasm and expertise or knowledge [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e15\u003c/span\u003e]. This study therefore investigated plants that are used as cosmetics among the women in the Tamale metropolis and documented this indigenous knowledge to prevent them from being lost.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"METHODS","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eStudy design\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eA cross-sectional study design was used to conduct this research between January and December 2023.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec4\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eStudy Location\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe study was conducted at the Tamale Metropolitan Assembly (TMA) area. It is among the 16 Metropolitan, Municipal, and District Assemblies (MMDAs) in the Northern Region. In 2004, the Tamale Metropolitan Assembly was given the metropolis status with its capital as Tamale which is located between longitudes 0.36\u0026deg; and 0.57\u0026deg; west and latitudes 9.16\u0026deg; and 9.34\u0026deg; north. The metropolis is bordered to the north by Sagnerigu District, to the east by Yendi Municipal Assembly, to the west by Tolon District, to the south-west by Central Gonja District, and to the south by East Gonja municipality. The metropolis has a 440.4 km\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e total land area and an 850.8 persons/km\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e population density according to Ghana Statistical Service as indicated by Brinkhoff (2022) [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec5\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eStudy population\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe study was conducted among female residents in Tamale who were 18 years or above. Females who are above 18 years are legally considered adults so they can provide informed consent and are at the age where they pay attention to their looks.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec6\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eStudy site\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eTwenty (20) communities out of the 116 in Tamale were selected randomly using the \u0026ldquo;RAND\u0026rdquo; function in Microsoft Excel version 2310 for the study. The randomly selected suburbs include; Lamashegu, Wamale, Gumbihini, Vittin, Chagnayili, Dohini, Pagazaa, Ticheli, Lahagu, Bogkurugu, Kumbuyili, Sugaaashee, Choggu-Manayili, Batanyili, Gbanyamli, Gunnaayili, Doboagshie, Yong, Checko, Sanga.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec7\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eSample Size\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe total population of females in Tamale in 2010 was 185,356 of which the population of females 18\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;years was 106,540 (57.5%) [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e]. According to the 2021 Population and Housing Census by the Ghana Statistical Service, the total number of females is 189,693 [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e]. The 2021 census has no published data on the distribution of females according to their age. Therefore, assuming the percentage of females 18\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;years is 57.5% then the population of females 18\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;years is 109,053. Hence our study population was 109,053. The sample size was calculated using Cochran\u0026rsquo;s standard formula (1977) at a confidence interval of 95%,\u003cdiv id=\"Equa\" class=\"Equation\"\u003e\u003cdiv format=\"TEX\" class=\"mathdisplay\" id=\"FileID_Equa\" name=\"EquationSource\"\u003e\n$${n}_{0}=\\frac{{z}^{2}pq}{{e}^{2}}$$\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWhere: n\u003csub\u003e0\u003c/sub\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;the sample size, z\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;the abscissa of the normal curve that cuts off an area at the tails (set at 1.96 which corresponds to the 95% confidence interval), p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;the estimated proportion of an attribute that is present in the population, set at 0.5, q\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1-p, e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;acceptable sample error\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.05\u003cdiv id=\"Equb\" class=\"Equation\"\u003e\u003cdiv format=\"TEX\" class=\"mathdisplay\" id=\"FileID_Equb\" name=\"EquationSource\"\u003e\n$${n}_{0}=\\frac{{0.96}^{2}x 0.5 x 0.5}{{0.05}^{2}}$$\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Equc\" class=\"Equation\"\u003e\u003cdiv format=\"TEX\" class=\"mathdisplay\" id=\"FileID_Equc\" name=\"EquationSource\"\u003e\n$${n}_{0}=384$$\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eUsing the Finite Population Correction formula which is: \u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\(n= \\frac{{\\text{n}}_{0}}{(1+ {n}_{0})/N}\\)\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ewhere: n\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;desired sample size, N\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;sample population size (females 18\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;years)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;109,053\u003cdiv id=\"Equd\" class=\"Equation\"\u003e\u003cdiv format=\"TEX\" class=\"mathdisplay\" id=\"FileID_Equd\" name=\"EquationSource\"\u003e\n$$n=\\frac{384}{(1+384)/\\text{109,053}}$$\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Eque\" class=\"Equation\"\u003e\u003cdiv format=\"TEX\" class=\"mathdisplay\" id=\"FileID_Eque\" name=\"EquationSource\"\u003e\n$$n=383$$\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe sample size for this study was therefore 383\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eSampling Technique\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eConvenience sampling was used in selecting the participants from the 20 communities in Tamale for the study. In entering a suburb, the researchers move along the busy streets and speak with any female who says she is over 18 years old and willing to partake in the study. This continued until the minimum number (19) for each suburb was reached.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec9\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eStudy Tools\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe semi-structured questionnaire was designed de novo based on the literature on cosmetics. The questionnaire was piloted among 20 females in Dungu, one of the suburbs in Tamale. The responses were reviewed by senior faculties at the Department of Pharmacognosy and Herbal Medicine of the University for Development Studies, Tamale, to ensure face validity. The questionnaire was of two parts. Part A sought information on the socio-demographic characteristics of the participants such as age, sex, residence, level of education, occupation and marital status. The second part (Part B) of the questionnaire obtained information on various cosmetic conditions that plants have been used to treat They included the traditional name(s) of the plant and the plant part(s), cosmetic uses of the plants, mode of preparation and mode of administration of plant species.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec10\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eData Collection Techniques\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eWhereas a few respondents self-administered the questionnaire, for the majority, the questions were translated mainly to the local language, Dagbanli or Twi, a widely spoken Ghanaian language and the responses were recorded on the hard copy of the questionnaire.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eStatistical Analysis\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe data was analyzed using Microsoft Excel version 2310 and IBM Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) Version 25. The results of the data analysis were presented in tables and charts. Also, the appropriate inferential statistical tool was used to determine the association between variables. Statistical significance and confidence level were assumed at p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05 and 95% respectively.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"RESULTS","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec13\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eSociodemographic characteristics of respondents\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eTable\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e shows the sociodemographic characteristics of respondents. Most, 159 (41.5%) of the respondents were between the ages of 21 and 30 years with the least of them, 10 (2.6%) being more than 60 years. Majority, 240 (62.7%) were in informal employment while 67 (17.5%) were students, with 55 (14.4%) and 21 (5.5%) being unemployed and those in formal employment respectively. Whilst, 10 (2.6%) grew up in district capitals, the majority, 198 (51.7%) grew up in cities. About their marital status, 217 (56.7%) were married, while 157 (41.0%) were single. Whereas, most, 140 (36.6%) of the female respondents had obtained senior high school level education, only 19 (5.0%) had completed a tertiary level educational institution. Majority, 253 (66.1%) were living in single-room apartments, while the least 9 (2.3%) lived in at least a 4-bedroom apartment.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSocio-demographic characteristics of respondents\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"4\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVariables\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSubgroup\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFrequency\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePercentage\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"5\" rowspan=\"6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAge (years)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;21\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e80\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20.9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e21\u0026ndash;30\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e159\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e41.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e31\u0026ndash;40\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e77\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20.1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e41\u0026ndash;50\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e40\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e51\u0026ndash;60\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e17\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;60\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"3\" rowspan=\"4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEmployment status\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eInformal\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e240\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e62.7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eStudent\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e67\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e17.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUnemployed\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e55\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e14.3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFormal\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e21\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"3\" rowspan=\"4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLocation of early life\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVillage\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e152\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e39.7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDistrict capital\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRegional capital/Town\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e23\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCities\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e198\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e51.7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMarital status\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMarried\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e217\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e56.7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSingle\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e157\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e41.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWidowed\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"3\" rowspan=\"4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHighest level of education\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo formal education\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e117\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e30.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eJHS\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e107\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e27.9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSHS\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e140\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e36.6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTertiary\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e19\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"3\" rowspan=\"4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eType of accommodation\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSingle room\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e253\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e66.1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eChamber and Hall\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e73\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e19.1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2 -3-bedroom apartment\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e48\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAt least 4 bedrooms\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec14\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003ePurposes for which the respondents use plants as cosmetics\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTable\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e shows the reports on women who use or have ever used plants for any cosmetic purpose. This study shows the top six most common uses of plants by the respondents for cosmetic purposes were for the toning and smoothening of the skin (128, 33.4%), hair growth and improvement (51, 13.3%), treating acne/pimples (45, 11.7%), body odour (38, 9.9%), skin protection (31, 8.1%) and the vagina hygiene (22, 5.7%). The study found no use of plant materials for treating wrinkles, make-up, toothache, hair colouring and as perfume.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003ePurposes for which respondents use plants as cosmetics\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"4\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVariables\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eResponse\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFrequency\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePercentage\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEver used it for skin protection?\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e31\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e352\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e91.9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEver used it for skin fairness?\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e382\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e99.7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEver used it for toning and smoothening skin?\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e128\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e33.4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e255\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e66.6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEver used it for acne?\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e45\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e338\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e88.3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEver used it for dry skin care?\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e368\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e96.1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEver used it for exfoliation?\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e377\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e98.4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEver used it for wrinkles?\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e383\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e100.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEver used it for dark spots?\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e376\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e98.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEver used it for stretch marks?\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e381\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e99.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEver used it for body cleaning?\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e381\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e99.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEver used it for body odour?\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e38\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e345\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e90.1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEver used it for make-up?\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e383\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e100.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEver used it for eye care?\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e382\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e99.7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEver used it for dark circles?\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e380\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e99.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEver used it for anti-ageing?\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e382\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e99.7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEver used it for mouth odour?\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e379\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e99.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEver used it for a toothache?\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e383\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e100.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEver used it for nail care?\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e373\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e97.4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEver used it for smelly feet?\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e379\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e99.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEver used it for vaginal hygiene?\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e22\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e361\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e94.3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEver used it for hair growth?\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e51\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e332\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e86.7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEver used it as hair perfume?\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e383\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e100.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEver used it for hair loss?\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e381\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e99.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEver used it for dandruff?\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e381\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e99.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEver used it for hair colouring?\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e383\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e100.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec15\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003ePlants used for cosmetics purposes\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eA total of 19 plants belonging to 18 different families were listed by the respondents as being used as cosmetics (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e). The top ten plants listed were; shea tree (\u003cem\u003eVitellaria paradoxa)\u003c/em\u003e, 170 (44.4%); aloe vera (\u003cem\u003eAloe barbadensis)\u003c/em\u003e 40 (10.4%); lime (\u003cem\u003eCitrus aurantifolia\u003c/em\u003e), 38 (9.9%); cloves (\u003cem\u003eSyzygium aromaticum\u003c/em\u003e), 20 (5.2%); turmeric (\u003cem\u003eCurcuma domestica\u003c/em\u003e), 18 (4.7%); henna (\u003cem\u003eLawsonia inermis\u003c/em\u003e), 11 (2.9%); neem (\u003cem\u003eAzadirachta indica\u003c/em\u003e), 5 (1.3%); coconut (\u003cem\u003eCocos nucifera\u003c/em\u003e), 3 (0.5%) moringa (\u003cem\u003eMoringa oleifera\u003c/em\u003e), 2 (0.5%) and Cucumber (\u003cem\u003eCucumis sativus\u003c/em\u003e), 2 (0.5%).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePlants used for cosmetics purposes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"6\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCommon /local name\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eScientific name\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFamily\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eParts used\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNumber of users\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePercentage\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eShea tree(t\u0026aacute;\u0026aacute;ŋ\u0026agrave;)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eVitellaria paradoxa\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSapotaceae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSeed\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e170\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e44.4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAloe vera\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAloe barbadensis\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAsphodelaceae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLeaves\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e40\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLime(ny\u0026ograve;ms\u0026aacute;)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eCitrus aurantifolia\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRutaceae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFruit\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e38\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCloves\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSyzygium aromaticum\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMyrtaceae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFlower buds\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTurmeric (\u0026agrave;s\u0026oacute;\u0026oacute;m\u0026agrave;)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eCurcuma domestica\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eZingiberaceae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRhizome\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e18\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHenna (z\u0026agrave;bl\u0026igrave;g\u0026aacute;)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eLawsonia inermis\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLythraceae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLeaves\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNeem (ny\u0026iacute;ms\u0026agrave;)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAzadirachta indica\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMeliaceae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLeaves\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eStem\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eBranches\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSeeds\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCoconut\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eCocos nucifera\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eArecaceae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eKernel\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMoringa (j\u0026egrave;ŋgb\u0026egrave; y\u0026ograve;grl\u0026iacute;)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eMoringa oleifera\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMoringaceae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLeaves\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCucumber\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eCucumis sativus\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCucurbitaceae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFruit\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCocoa\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eTheobroma cacao\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMalvaceae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFruit\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTomato\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSolanum lycopersicum\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSolanaceae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFruit\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMango\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eMangifera indica\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAnacardiaceae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLeaves\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOlive oil\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eOlea europaea\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOleaceae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFruit\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCassava\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eManihot esculenta\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEuphorbiaceae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eStem\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLocust beans (dawadawa, d\u0026ograve;\u0026oacute;)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eParkia biglobosa\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFabaceae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eStem\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCarrot\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eDaucus carota\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eApiaceae\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRoot\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOkro\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAbelmoschus esculentus\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMalvaceae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFruit\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRice\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eOryza sativa\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePoaceae\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSeed\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec16\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eMethods of preparation and application of plant cosmeceuticals\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTable\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e shows the raw plant materials with their cosmetic uses, parts of the plant used, method of preparation and body parts to which respondents apply them. Shea butter from the seeds of \u003cem\u003eVitelleria paradoxa\u003c/em\u003e was used mainly for smoothening the skin and moisturizing dry skin and hair. Lime was used to treat body odour as well as smelly feet. The powdered rhizome of turmeric was used to treat acne, dark spots and for exfoliation. The leaves of aloe vera performed a similar function as turmeric on the skin but were also used alone or together with the stem or branches of the neem tree to remove mouth odour. To improve hair texture and hair growth, respondents resorted to using shea butter and aloe vera. Rice and moringa were also used to treat dandruff and hair loss respectively. Cloves were soaked overnight, filtered and the filtrate was splashed around the vagina to clear off bad odour. Henna was occasionally used to beautify the hands and feet and rarely to treat acne.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab4\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 4\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePlant materials used by females for cosmetic purposes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"6\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCommon/ (local name)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eScientific name\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePart(s) used\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCosmetic use\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMethod of preparation\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePlace of administration\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCloves\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSyzygium aromaticum\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFlower buds\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVaginal hygiene, hair loss\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSoak in water, filter and use the filtrate\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVagina and hair\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLime\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(ny\u0026ograve;ms\u0026aacute;)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eCitrus aurantifolia\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFruit\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBody odour, smelly feet\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSqueeze the juice out\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAxilla, feet\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAloe vera\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAloe barbadensis\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLeaves\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAcne/pimple, hair conditioner, exfoliation, skin protection, dark spots, mouth odour\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePeel and scoop gel\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFace, hair and body\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eShea butter (t\u0026aacute;\u0026aacute;ŋ\u0026agrave;)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eVitelleria paradoxa\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSeed\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSkin smoothness and toning, dry skin care, skin protection, hair growth and improvement\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAfter the kernel is removed from the seed, it is ground into a powder and boiled in water. The butter then rises to the top of the water and becomes solid\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBody and hair\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTurmeric (\u0026agrave;s\u0026oacute;\u0026oacute;m\u0026agrave;)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eCurcuma domestica\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRhizome\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eExfoliation, acne/ pimple, dark spots, skin fairness\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMake a paste from turmeric powder and water\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFace\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHenna (z\u0026agrave;bl\u0026igrave;g\u0026aacute;)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eLawsonia inermis\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLeaves\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBeautifying hands and feet, treating acne\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMake a paste from henna powder and water\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFeet, hands and face\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCucumber\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eCucumis sativus\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFruit\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDark circles\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSlice the cucumber into smaller pieces\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFace\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNeem (ny\u0026iacute;ms\u0026agrave;)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAzadirachta indica\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLeaves, stem, branches and seeds\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eChewing sticks for mouth freshener, acne, skin smoothening, mosquito repellant\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePeel off the bark, wash and break into desirable sizes. Brush teeth with the sticks\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVarious parts of the body\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCoconut\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eCocos nucifera\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eKernel\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSkin smoothening\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAdd oil extract to any desirable pomade\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBody\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMoringa (j\u0026egrave;ŋgb\u0026egrave; y\u0026ograve;grl\u0026iacute;)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eMoringa oleifera\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLeaves\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHair loss, skin rashes, treating pimples\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDry leaves, blend and make a paste\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHair and Body\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOlive oil\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eOlea europaea\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFruit\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDandruff\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOil extracts from fruit\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHair\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMango\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eMangifera indica\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLeaves\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eStretch marks\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCrush leaves and make a paste of leaves with water\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBody\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCassava\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eManihot esculenta\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eStem\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSoap\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAdd water to the burnt ashes of the stem and add to shea oil\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBody\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLocust beans (dawadawa, d\u0026ograve;\u0026oacute;)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eParkia biglobosa\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eStem\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSoap\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAdd water to the burnt ashes of the stem and add to shea oil\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBody\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRice\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eOryza sativa\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSeed\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDandruff\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSoak in water, filter and use the filtrate\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHair\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTomato\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSolanum lycopersicum\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFruit\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAcne\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSlice into two and apply directly on the face\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFace\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCocoa\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eTheobroma cacao\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFruit\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSoap\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBurn the dry fruit and use the ash\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBody\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOkro\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAbelmoschus esculentus\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFruit\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSmelly feet\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBlend okro\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFeet\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCarrot\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eDaucus carota\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRoot\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAnti \u0026ndash; ageing\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGrind carrot, add desirable oil (vegetable or coconut oil) and place on low heat for about 5 minutes. Allow to cool, filter and use the filtrate\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBody\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec17\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eLevel of patronage of plant materials as cosmetic\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe use of plants for cosmeceutical purposes was reported by majority, 228 (59.5%) of the females in this study (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e). Most of the respondents, 105(46.1%) have used the raw plant material as cosmetics for less than 5 years and the least period was between 11\u0026ndash;15 years, 8 (3.5%). Out of the 228 respondents who have used plants as a cosmetic, only 4 (1.8%) reported experiencing a side effect they attributed to the plant material used. Only, 11(4.8%) ever used a manufactured herbal cosmetic product while a greater number of 103 (45.2%) ever used cosmetics made from synthetic chemicals. Majority, 227 (99.6%) would recommend the use of raw plant materials as cosmetics to other people.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab5\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 5\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLevel of patronage of plant materials as cosmetic\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"4\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVariable\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSubgroups\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFrequency\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePercentage\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEver used plants for any cosmeceutical purpose?\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e155\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e40.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e228\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e59.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"4\" rowspan=\"5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHow long have you used raw plant materials as cosmetics?\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;5 years\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e105\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e46.1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u0026ndash;10 years\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e63\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e27.6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11\u0026ndash;15 years\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15\u0026ndash;20 years\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e22\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;20 years\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e30\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHave you experienced any side effects (s)?\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e224\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e98.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHave you used herbal-based manufactured cosmetic products before?\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e217\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e95.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHave you used a synthetic cosmetic product before?\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e103\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e45.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e125\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e54.8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWould you recommend using raw plants as cosmetics to others?\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e227\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e99.6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec18\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eReasons for patronising natural plants as cosmetics instead of synthetic cosmetic\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVarious reasons were given by the respondents for their use of raw plant materials as cosmetics instead of synthetic or manufactured cosmetics (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e). Whereas the majority, 192 (85%) preferred the raw plants because they are more effective, 29 (13%) used them because it is less costly. It is free from chemicals (3, 1%) and readily accessible (3, 1%) are the least of the reasons respondents patronized raw plants as cosmetics.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec19\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eSources of first-time information on the use of plants as cosmetics\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe respondents listed several sources of first-time information about the use of plants as cosmetics (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e). Majority indicated members of their family, 174 (76.3%) as their most important source followed by their friends, 35 (15.4%) and media, 14 (6.1%). A few of the respondents, 5 (2.2%) started using plants as cosmetics after their own personal research.\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec20\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eParts of the plants most used for cosmetics\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eSeeds, 217 (57.0%) were the most used part of plants in preparation of cosmetic recipes from raw plant materials. This was followed by leaves, 70 (18.4%), fruits, 46 (12.1%), flower buds, 21 (5.5%), rhizome, 20 (5.2%), stem 3 (0.8%), branches, 3 (0.8%) and lastly the roots. 1 (0.2%). Figure\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e shows the parts of the plant that are used as cosmeceuticals.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec21\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eAssociation between sociodemographic characteristics of respondents and the usage of plants as cosmetics\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTable\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e shows the association between the sociodemographic characteristics of respondents and the usage of plants as cosmetics. A greater proportion of women between the ages of 21 to 30 years (42.8%) had used plants as cosmetics whereas those who were above 60 years, (10.0%) were the least age group but there was no significant difference (χ\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;8.267; p-value\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.142). Self\u0026ndash;employed women, (37.5%) were seen to patronize a lot more raw plants as cosmetics followed by unemployed women, 28 (50.9%) and then students, 28 (41.8%) and lastly formal workers, 9 (42.9%) but there was no significant difference in their level of usage (χ\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;3.465; p-value\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.325). More women who grew up in the villages (69, 45.4%) patronized natural plants used for cosmetic purposes with those who lived in cities, 73 (36.9%) least likely to use plants as cosmetics, but there was no significant difference in their usage (χ\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;2.614; p-value\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.455). The highest use of plants as cosmetics was recorded among single women (45.2%) with (38.7%) and (0.0%), recorded among married and widowed women respectively. There was a statistically significant difference between the women based on their marital status (χ\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;7.780; p-value\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.020). There was no significant association between the use of plants as cosmetics and other sociodemographic characteristics such as level of education (χ\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1.385; p-value\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.709), type of accommodation one resides in, (χ\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.482; p-value\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.923) and highest educational attainment by the women (χ\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1.385; p-value\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.709).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab6\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 6\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAssociation between sociodemographic characteristics of respondents and the usage of plants as cosmetics\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"6\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVariables\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSubgroup\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEver used plants as cosmetics\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ep-value\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eChi-square value\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"5\" rowspan=\"6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAge (years)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;21\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e38 (47.5%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e42 (52.5%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\" morerows=\"5\" rowspan=\"6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.142\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\" morerows=\"5\" rowspan=\"6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.267\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e21\u0026ndash;30\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e68 (42.8%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e91 (57.2%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e31\u0026ndash;40\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e29 (37.7%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e48 (62.3%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e41\u0026ndash;50\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15 (37.5%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e25 (62.5%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e51\u0026ndash;60\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4 (23.5%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13 (76.5%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;60\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1 (10.0%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9 (90.0%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"3\" rowspan=\"4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEmployment status\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eInformal\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e90 (37.5%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e150 (62.5%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\" morerows=\"3\" rowspan=\"4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.325\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\" morerows=\"3\" rowspan=\"4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.465\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eStudent\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e28 (41.8%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e39 (58.2%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eUnemployed\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e28 (50.9%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e27 (49.1%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFormal\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9 (42.9%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12 (57.1%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"3\" rowspan=\"4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLocation of early life\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVillage\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e69 (45.4%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e83 (54.6%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\" morerows=\"3\" rowspan=\"4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.455\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\" morerows=\"3\" rowspan=\"4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.614\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDistrict capital\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4 (40.0%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6 (60.0%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRegional capital/Town\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9 (39.1%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e14 (60.9%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCities\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e73 (36.9%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e125 (63.1%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMarital status\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMarried\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e84 (38.7%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e133(61.3%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.020*\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.870\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSingle\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e71 (45.2%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e86 (54.8%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWidowed\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0 (0.0%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9 (100.0%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"3\" rowspan=\"4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHighest level of education\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo formal education\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e44 (37.6%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e73 (62.4%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\" morerows=\"3\" rowspan=\"4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.709\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\" morerows=\"3\" rowspan=\"4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.385\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBasic level\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e47 (43.9%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e60 (56.1%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSenior High School\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e55 (39.3%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e85 (60.7%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTertiary\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9 (47.4%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10 (52.6%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"3\" rowspan=\"4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eType of accommodation\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSingle room\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e105 (41.5%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e148 (58.5%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\" morerows=\"3\" rowspan=\"4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.923\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\" morerows=\"3\" rowspan=\"4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.482\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eChamber and Hall\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e28 (38.4%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e45 (61.6%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2 -3-bedroom apartment\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e18 (37.5%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e30 (62.5%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAt least 4 bedrooms\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4 (44.4%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5 (55.6%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003ctfoot\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"6\"\u003e* Statistically significant\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tfoot\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"DISCUSSION","content":"\u003cp\u003eWhereas it is explicit when a plant is being used as food, some challenges may arise in differentiating between plant material being used for cosmetic purposes or used to treat minor ailments. However, in this study, the plant is considered to provide a cosmeceutical role when its intended use is to enhance the physical appearance of the user, protect that external part of the body or provide good hygiene by way of cleaning, altering their appearance or odours.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec23\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eCosmeceutical uses of plant materials by women\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eIt was seen in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e, that more women used plants to tone and smoothen their skin. Others preferred to use it for hair growth, treating acne/pimples, body odour, skin protection and vagina hygiene. Similar results were observed in a study by Mwinga et al., (2019[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e]) Xhosa women used plants for the above cosmetic purposes. The study also did not find the use of plants for treating wrinkles and toothache or for make-up, hair colouring and perfume. However, Sultan et al., (2024) report the use of several plants for purposes such as perfumery, and teeth hygiene, among others which were not indicated in this study [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e]. The Madda Walabu district, in Southeastern Ethiopia where Sultan et al., (2024) conducted their study has a bimodal rainfall pattern unlike Tamale, which has only a season of rainfall which will influence the difference in the vegetation cover in these two study sites [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e]. In this study, the major cosmetic uses of the plants were for skin care, hair care, and vaginal hygiene. For skin care, products from the shea tree (\u003cem\u003eVitellaria paradoxa)\u003c/em\u003e and coconut (\u003cem\u003eCocos nucifera\u003c/em\u003e) were used for moisturizing dry skin and smoothening skin. Shea butter contains fatty acids and vitamins, providing deep hydration and promoting skin elasticity [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e]. Coconut oil has moisturizing and antimicrobial properties, helping to soothe and soften the skin [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e22\u003c/span\u003e]. Together, they can create a barrier that locks in moisture, reducing dryness and contributing to smoother, healthier-looking skin. Aloe vera (\u003cem\u003eAloe barbadensis)\u003c/em\u003e and turmeric (\u003cem\u003eCurcuma domestica\u003c/em\u003e) for acne and dark blemishes on the face. They possess anti-inflammatory, antioxidant and antibacterial properties that can help reduce redness and inflammation associated with acne [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e23\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e24\u003c/span\u003e]. Carrot (\u003cem\u003eDaucus carota)\u003c/em\u003e was used as an anti\u0026ndash;ageing agent because it is high in beta-carotene, a powerful antioxidant that the body converts into vitamin A [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e25\u003c/span\u003e]. Vitamin A is essential for maintaining skin health, promoting cell regeneration, and protecting. Several other authors found the use of these plants for similar purposes as shown in this study [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e26\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e27\u003c/span\u003e]. The use of Lime \u003cem\u003e(Citrus aurantifolia)\u003c/em\u003e by the women in this study for skin hygiene can be explained by the proven activity of the extract of his plant which is known to possess natural antibacterial and antimicrobial properties, thereby combating odour-causing bacteria on the skin [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e28\u003c/span\u003e]). The acidity of lime may also assist in neutralizing or masking unpleasant odours. For hair care, women used cloves (\u003cem\u003eSyzygium aromaticum\u003c/em\u003e) which is rich in antioxidants, to help combat oxidative stress linked to hair loss, and antioxidants may protect hair follicles from damage to prevent hair loss [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e29\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e30\u003c/span\u003e]. This study found the use of rice (\u003cem\u003eOryza sativa)\u003c/em\u003e to treat dandruff, aloe vera (\u003cem\u003eAloe barbadensis)\u003c/em\u003e and shea butter (\u003cem\u003eVitellaria paradoxa)\u003c/em\u003e for hair growth. Enechukwu and Ogunbiyi, (2022) also reported the use of several indigenous plants for hair and scalp disorders in Nigeria [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e31\u003c/span\u003e]. The antimicrobial properties of essential oil from the flower buds of cloves as reported by Maggini et al., (2024) may account for its use for the improvement of vaginal hygiene by women in this study [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e32\u003c/span\u003e]. The stem and branches of the neem tree (\u003cem\u003eAzadirachta indica)\u003c/em\u003e were used as a chewing stick to clean the teeth and remove mouth odour just as reported by Sultan et al., (2024) [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec24\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003ePlants used as cosmetics\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eA total of 19 plants belonging to 18 different families were discovered to be used as cosmetics. In a study conducted in Oyo, Ogun, Ekiti, and Lagos states in Nigeria by Fred-Jaiyesimi et al., (2015), 80 species belonging to 39 families were discovered [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e33\u003c/span\u003e]. The high rainforest zone of these states could suggest the high number of plants identified. The most represented family was Malvaceae with two species. The rest of the families had one species each. The most used family was Sapotaceae to which the shea tree (\u003cem\u003eVitellaria paradoxa)\u003c/em\u003e belongs. This is because the shea tree grows mostly in the savannah ecological zone making it more common in Northern Ghana where the study site, Tamale is located. Aside from the shea tree (\u003cem\u003eVitellaria paradoxa)\u003c/em\u003e, aloe vera (\u003cem\u003eAloe barbadensis)\u003c/em\u003e, lime (\u003cem\u003eCitrus aurantifolia\u003c/em\u003e), cloves (\u003cem\u003eSyzygium aromaticum\u003c/em\u003e), turmeric (\u003cem\u003eCurcuma domestica\u003c/em\u003e), henna (\u003cem\u003eLawsonia inermis\u003c/em\u003e), neem (\u003cem\u003eAzadirachta indica\u003c/em\u003e), coconut (\u003cem\u003eCocos nucifera\u003c/em\u003e), moringa (\u003cem\u003eMoringa oleifera\u003c/em\u003e) and cucumber (\u003cem\u003eCucumis sativus\u003c/em\u003e) were among plants with high-value use. Shea tree (\u003cem\u003eVitellaria paradoxa)\u003c/em\u003e, lime (\u003cem\u003eCitrus aurantifolia\u003c/em\u003e), cloves (\u003cem\u003eSyzygium aromaticum\u003c/em\u003e), henna (\u003cem\u003eLawsonia inermis\u003c/em\u003e), and neem (\u003cem\u003eAzadirachta indica\u003c/em\u003e) were also reported among plants that were commonly used by Arab-Choa and Kotoko Ethnic Groups in the Semi-Arid Areas of Far North Cameroon [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e27\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec25\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eSociodemographic factors associated with the use of plant cosmeceuticals\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eAmong the sociodemographic characteristics, it was observed that more women between 21 and 30 years used plants as cosmetics than those more than 50 years, but there was no significant difference based on the age of the respondents. This present finding is consistent with a study by Abdalbasit et al., (2014) where elderly women, above 50 years (11.9%) were less endowed in indigenous knowledge of herbal cosmetics than the younger women, below 30 years (38.1%) [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e34\u003c/span\u003e]. Compared to a study by Shaheen et al., (2014) where the elder generation (\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;30 years) were knowledgeable, this study reflects the traditional usage of plants for cosmetic purposes being established and high in the younger generation (\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;30 years) [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e35\u003c/span\u003e]. Between employment, occupation, origin of growth and education, there was no significant association of these demographic characteristics with the use of plants as cosmetics. This indicates that employment status, occupation, origin and level of education did not influence the use of plants as cosmetics by women. There was also no significant difference between the type of accommodation with the use of plants. The type of accommodation was used to determine the economic status of the respondents. Hence the income of women did not influence the use of plants as cosmetics. There was a significant association between marital status and the use of plants as cosmetics. These results were similar to the outcome of the study by Abdalbasit et al., (2014), in which age group, occupation and education level had no influence on the usage of plants as cosmetics but marital status did [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e34\u003c/span\u003e]. In this study, marital status was significantly associated with the use of plant cosmetics (χ\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;7.780; p-value\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.020). It is expected that married women would utilize plants as cosmetics more frequently to keep their bodies whole and preserve their attractiveness for their spouses but the contrary was found in this study with single women patronizing plant-based cosmetics a lot more. Cosmetic is a common tool used by single women who wish to stand out and appeal to men to project confidence, sociability, and assertiveness. Others who suffer from anxiety and insecurity may conceal their imperfections with cosmetics [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e36\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec26\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003ePlant parts of cosmeceutical importance to respondents\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe survey revealed that different morphological parts of plants were used in the preparation of recipes for cosmetic purposes. These parts included the seeds, leaves, fruits, flower buds, rhizome, branches, stem and roots. Among the plant parts used, seeds and leaves were most utilized with roots being least as seen in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e. This study corroborates the study by Haque and Uddin (2018) which also found seeds (25%) and leaves (28%) as the most used plant parts [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e37\u003c/span\u003e]. Other studies showed leaves as the most used plant parts for cosmetic preparation [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e38\u003c/span\u003e]. The high-level use of seeds and leaves shows that the use of plants for cosmetic purposes in Tamale does not pose a threat to the survival of these plants since the leaves and seeds are in abundance, unlike the roots upon which the plant depends on for its physiological survival. The predilection for leaves stemmed from their ease of availability, ease of harvesting, and ease of preparation for remedies [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e39\u003c/span\u003e]. Leaves are frequently utilized because they serve as both a source for photochemical reactions and a storage site for organic matter resulting from these reactions. They contribute significantly to the presence of alkaloids, glycosides, and essential oils [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e40\u003c/span\u003e]. Unlike this study, the bark was the most used part of plants used for cosmetic purposes among Xhosa women in South Africa [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec27\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eReasons for preferring herbal cosmetics over synthetic ones\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eVarious reasons were given by the women in this study for depending on plants as their cosmetics. Just as reported by Gamage et al., (2021) in Sri Lanka, the reasons among others include the plants being more effective, less costly, readily available and free from chemicals that may cause damage as compared to the manufactured cosmetics made from synthetic substances [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e41\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec28\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eSources of first knowledge about plant cosmetics\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eMost of the respondents indicated several sources of knowledge of the use of plant cosmetics with the majority of the recommenders being family members (76.3%) although a few of the respondents (2.2%) started using plants as cosmetics after their research. Jost et al., (2016) confirmed family members as being the most important source of indigenous knowledge on the use of plants for cosmetics purposes [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e42\u003c/span\u003e]. Additional ways that indigenous knowledge is shared include through elder storytelling, ceremonies, rituals, apprenticeships, and involvement in communal events [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e43\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"CONCLUSION","content":"\u003cp\u003eShea butter was the most commonly used plant for cosmetic purposes out of the 19 different plants which were identified to be used for cosmetic purposes. This is suggestive of the importance of this plant as women used it for different reasons such as skin protection, dry skin, smoothening skin and hair growth. Age group, occupation, origin of growth, level of education and type of accommodation had no association with the usage of plants as cosmetics. However, marital status was associated with the use of plants for cosmetics. Majority of respondents preferred raw plants for cosmetic purposes because they have proven to be more effective.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Abbreviations","content":"\u003cp\u003eTMA\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;Tamale Metropolitan Assembly\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMMDAs\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;\u0026nbsp;Metropolitan, Municipal and District Assemblies\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSPSS \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; Statistical Package for Social Sciences\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003eData Availability\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe results presented are adequate to support the conclusion of this study. However, the lead author is available to provide extra data upon request.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConflicts of interest\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors declare that there is no conflict of interest regarding the publication of this article.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFunding Statement\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNo funds were received\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEthical consideration and consent to participate\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eParticipants\u0026apos; verbal consent was given. The Student Project Committee of the School for Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University for Development Studies, Tamale, Ghana approved the conduct of this study. \u0026nbsp;Respondents were also provided assurances regarding the anonymity and confidentiality of the data obtained after being carefully briefed on the study. Participants weren\u0026apos;t required to give their names when responding to the questionnaire. Additionally, it was clarified that participation was voluntary.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConsent for publication\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNot applicable\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAuthors\u0026rsquo; Contributions\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eE.P.K.A. conceived the idea, designed the questionnaire, analysed the data and drafted the manuscript. \u0026nbsp;J.A. designed the questionnaire, and collected, curated and analysed the data. E.A. drafted the manuscript. All authors reviewed the manuscript.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eNdhlala, A.R., Thibane, V.S., Masehla, C.M., \u0026amp; Mokwala, P.W. (2022). Ethnobotany and toxicity status of medicinal plants with cosmeceutical relevance from Eastern Cape, South Africa. 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Scientifica, 2021, 1\u0026ndash;12. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1155/2021/6662404\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1155/2021/6662404\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eJost, X., Ansel, J.L., Lecellier, G., Raharivelomanana, P., \u0026amp; Butaud, J.F. (2016). Ethnobotanical survey of cosmetic plants used in Marquesas Islands (French Polynesia), November 29, 12(1).\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eEshete, M. A., \u0026amp; Molla, E. L. (2021). Cultural significance of medicinal plants in healing human ailments among Guji semi-pastoralist people, Suro Barguda District, Ethiopia. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine, 17, Article 61. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1186/s13002-021-00487-4\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1186/s13002-021-00487-4\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"journal-of-ethnobiology-and-ethnomedicine","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"jeet","sideBox":"Learn more about [Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine](http://ethnobiomed.biomedcentral.com/)","snPcode":"13002","submissionUrl":"https://submission.nature.com/new-submission/13002/3","title":"Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine","twitterHandle":"@ethnobiomed","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"BMC/SO AJ","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Cosmetics, herbal cosmetics, females, plants","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-4355598/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-4355598/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003ch2\u003eBackground\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003ePlants with cosmetic properties have been often abandoned in research as they mostly focus on plants with medicinal value or properties and their use as food. The study therefore assessed the use of plants for cosmetic purposes among female residents in Tamale metropolis the in the Northern Region of Ghana.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eMethod\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eA cross-sectional study was thus conducted among women in the Tamale metropolis to specifically identify plants used as cosmetics and determine the level of usage among women. A convenience sampling method was used in selecting the 383 participants from 20 randomly selected communities in Tamale. A semi-structured questionnaire-guided interview was used to collect the data which was then analyzed using Microsoft Excel version 2310 and IBM Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) software version 25.0. The results of the data analysis were presented in tables and graphs. Also, multivariate analysis was used to determine the association between some variables. Statistical significance is assumed at p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05 at a confidence level of 95%.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eResults\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eA total of 19 plants belonging to 18 families were listed by women in Tamale to be used for cosmetic purposes. Out of the 383 respondents, 228 use plants for cosmetic purposes. The most preferred application areas were skin, hair and private parts whereas the main cosmetic uses were skin smoothening (33.4%), skin protection (8.1%), hair growth (13.3%), treatment of acne (11.7%), body odour (9.9%) and vaginal hygiene (5.7%). Employment status (p-value\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.325), level of education (p \u0026ndash; value\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.709), the origin of growth (p-value\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.455) and type of accommodation (p \u0026ndash; value\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.925) which measured the economic status of the women had no association with their usage of plants for cosmetic purposes. Marital status however had a significant association with plant cosmetic usage (p \u0026ndash; value\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.020).\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eConclusion:\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eShea butter (\u003cem\u003eVitellaria paradoxa\u003c/em\u003e) was the most used plant by females for smoothening the skin and enhancing hair growth. This study provided an understanding of the abandoned areas of plants concerning their cosmetic values. Continuous research is encouraged to record and preserve this indigenous knowledge.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Ethnobotany of traditional plant cosmetics utilized by women; A study in Northern Ghana","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2024-05-10 20:53:32","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-4355598/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2024-05-03T08:36:13+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"checksComplete","content":"","date":"2024-05-03T07:14:07+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine","date":"2024-05-01T18:23:25+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"journal-of-ethnobiology-and-ethnomedicine","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"jeet","sideBox":"Learn more about [Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine](http://ethnobiomed.biomedcentral.com/)","snPcode":"13002","submissionUrl":"https://submission.nature.com/new-submission/13002/3","title":"Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine","twitterHandle":"@ethnobiomed","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"BMC/SO AJ","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"7b932347-ee2e-47d8-b0f3-2282246689bf","owner":[],"postedDate":"May 10th, 2024","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"under-review","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2024-05-10T20:53:32+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2024-05-10 20:53:32","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-4355598","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-4355598","identity":"rs-4355598","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"qtupq5eGEP_6zYnWcrvyt","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}