Livestock Poisonous Plants, their Ecology, and its Impact on Livestock Production Performance in Southwest Ethiopia

Livestock Poisonous Plants, their Ecology, and its Impact on Livestock Production Performance in Southwest Ethiopia | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Article Livestock Poisonous Plants, their Ecology, and its Impact on Livestock Production Performance in Southwest Ethiopia Seid Mohammed, Tamirat Wato This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-4293103/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract In the southwestern Ethiopia there is huge livestock population with dense forest that requires more extensive assessment and documentation on poisonous plants, which are a neglected research area. Therefore this research was conducted to identify livestock poisoning plants with their respective ecology, seasons of occurrences and to assess effect on livestock production performance in the region from February to November 2022 with our key informants of farmers, traditional animal healers, and veterinarians. Structured questionnaire were used to collect information related to toxic plants for livestock and their associated risk factors. The most common poisoning plants identified in the study area includes Datura stramonium, Rumex crispus, Prosopis juliflora Ajuga alba, Solanum americanum, Amaranthus cruentus, Albizia gummifera, Cyperus rotundus, Uebelinia kiwuensis Xanthium strumarium, Tribulus terestris, Medicago polymorpha, Euphorbia tirucalli, Hedera canariensis and Trifolium burchelianum. Lack of green feed, shortage of pastures and overgrazing are the predisposing factors for livestock to consume poisoning plants. Most of the livestock poisoning plants were distributed in all agroecologies of lowland, midland, highland. Those poisonous plants were growing in the early rainy season and green in the dry season as well. Bovine species are the most frequently poisoned livestock followed by sheep, goats and equine by showing different symptoms. Traditional animal healers and farmers used different treatment mechanisms to relieve their poisoned animals by providing a mixture of soap and ash, soap with milk and cold water, garlic, alcohol, and other plant roots or leaves at different ratio, depending on the species of animal affected and type of poison. Physical control, biological mechanism and herbicide application of the infested areas by toxic plant, good range management, and wise grazing strategies can reduce the degree of poisoning of livestock. Biological sciences/Biochemistry Biological sciences/Physiology Biological sciences/Plant sciences Earth and environmental sciences/Natural hazards Health sciences/Health care Health sciences/Signs and symptoms Agro-ecology Economic impact Livestock Poisonous plants Seasonal occurrences Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Introduction Cattle grazing land has diverse mixtures of invasive and native plants, which may raise the danger of exposure to hazardous plants. Ethiopia boasts a highly varied topography as well as a highly variable macro- and microclimate. However, habitat conversion, invasive species, pollution and climate change, population shifts, poverty, and a lack of awareness and coordination pose risks to biodiversity 1. Although grazing is accepted as a standard practice in livestock management, it exposes the animals to a range of toxic plants, especially when there is less feed available 2 . Similarly, they also reported that the delay in treatment and unattained cases may lead to loss of animal, partially or completely. After being consumed or absorbed by animals, poisonous plants cause their harmful consequences, which can include bodily discomfort, decreased productivity, and even death 3 . The cattle business has suffered significant losses due to a wide range of toxic plants in various parts of the world, primarily in east Africa, especially Ethiopia. These toxic plants contain compounds that impair livestock health and reduce productivity. According to 4 reported that three to five percent of the cattle, sheep, goats, and horses that graze the ranges are impacted by poisonous plants annually. While most dangerous plants are green year-round, and these poisoning is caused by either purposeful eating of toxic plants while pasture is dry or unintentional ingestion of materials eaten with conserved hey and grass. The economic loss includes higher medical expenses for drugs, modified grazing programs, less forage available, lower land values, and directly longer calving intervals, lower fertility, a weakened immune system, and lower productivity -all of which are considered direct losses of toxic plants 5 . Furthermore, producers are impacted by poisonous plants due to the higher rate of animal fatalities, delayed weight gain, reproductive inefficiency, expenses incurred for managing and preventing poisoned animals, and indirect losses from contaminated pasture 5 . As a result of unintentional exposure by skin contact or absorption, eye exposure, inhalation, or inadvertent ingestion of plant parts (seed, leave, root, etc.), they can also have toxic effects or even result in death. Typically, owners are unaware of their poisonous nature of those plants 6 . Nonetheless, debilitating chronic sickness, reduced weight gain, photosensitization, abortion, stomach pain, salivation, birth abnormalities, and unexpected death are common symptoms that can happen even in the absence of clinical signs 5 . Plants produce a variety of medicinal chemicals, while others are made by microbes that growing on or within the plant 7 . For primary healthcare, almost 80% of people on the world rely on traditional medicine, which primarily uses plant extracts. This could be explained by the widespread perception that these therapies are safe because they are "natural" and present a safe and harmless alternative to traditional therapy. Certain plants cause sickness or fatal immediately after ingestion, while other plants may take a few days or weeks to show symptoms. If poisonous plants are identified and taken into consideration during management, fewer losses will occur 8 . Strongly toxic substances called secondary metabolite found in poisonous plants can occasionally be lethal to animals even in relatively small doses. These metabolites have detrimental effects on animals and can influence them negatively. Animals are also exposed to the consumption of poisonous plants, particularly when pastures are poor and major feeds are scarce due to unfavorable conditions such as drought. During drought, most palatable plants dry up; many of the poisonous plants remain green and attractive and become the major feed source for animals. Animals are also exposed to the consumption of poisonous plants during the rainy period because of the intense growth of the plants leaves and the accumulation of potentially toxic compounds 9 . The problem is also aggravated by deficiencies of phosphorus or vitamin A, which affect the grazing behavior of animals. The poisonous nature of a plant or part thereof is due to the presence of some toxicologically significant plant constituents such as alkaloids, cyanide, oxalate, alcohols, phenols, tannins, and minerals. The concentration, amount and distribution of the toxins present in a plant vary according to different parts of the plant, the species, and the geographical conditions where it is grown. Sometimes the concentration of toxic substances is so low that it is considered good fodder, but repeated use of the species as a main feed may cause toxicity 10 . These plant poisonings cause health problems in livestock, resulting in huge economic losses to pastoralists and other livestock owners due to production losses, morbidity, and mortality of their animals. Most importantly, recognition of poisonous plants in hay or forage may help prevent plant poisoning in animals 11 . Even if previous studies have reported the existence of poisonous plants in Ethiopia 12,13 , studies regarding toxic plants to livestock in southwestern region of Ethiopia, especially in the present study area, are lacking. To this date, in Ethiopia, most of the available information about poisonous plants is in case reports. This is an untouched (neglected) area for interested researchers to fill available gaps regarding the shortage of information on the effects of poisonous plants on livestock. Hence, it is important to bring information to the attention of professionals about the effects of poisonous plants on animal health and productivity. This requires more extensive assessment and documentation of poisonous plants in the rangelands, their ecological distribution, and the identification of the major toxic substances of these plant species. This research aims to identify different toxic plants for livestock, their ecological distribution, and their impact on livestock production performance in the southwestern region of Ethiopia. Additionally, it also addresses the season of occurrences and its agro-ecological distribution. Finally, this research aims to investigate the direct and indirect impact of those poisonous plants on livestock productivity and their traditional management mechanisms. Material and Methods Description of the study area This study was conducted from February to November 2022 in the Southwestern region of Ethiopia. For this study, a total of four districts were selected based on their agroecological variation, namely: lowland Goba district, midland Gimbo and Decha districts, and finally highland Saylem district (Fig. 1 ). The southwest region lies between 6.38°N and 8.28°N latitude and 35.48°E and 36.73°E longitude. Kaffa Zone in the southwestern region of Ethiopia, which is one of the wettest areas in the country, has a very good rain-fall pattern throughout the year and fertile soil that creates a conducive environment for different plant species. The area has a varying topography and agro-ecology composed of lowland, midland, and highland areas that cover 22%, 70%, and 8%, respectively. The area is characterized by a tropical rainfall pattern that usually records rain every month to varying extents, with an average annual rainfall of 1000mm to 2200mm. Rainfall starts at the end of February and ends in October, with its peak in August. The mean annual minimum and maximum temperatures range from 10.1°C to 27.5°C 14 . Goba is at the lowest altitude, where most of the livestock owners were pastoralists, and the area was covered by predominantly shrub-type forages. Gimbo and Decha have an elevation of 800–2000 meters above sea level. The area is characterized by a tropical rainfall pattern that usually records rain in every month to various extents (the high rainy season occurs in June, July, and August, while the low rainy season takes place in November and December, with an average annual rainfall of 1000mm to 2200mm). The soil type of the area is predominantly sandy clay loam soil in texture. The other study site was Saylem, which is the highest altitude district in the Kaffa zone. The altitude of the district ranges from 1500 to 3000 meters above sea level, having both mid-land and high-land ecology. The area has a varying topography composed of steep mountains and plateaus. The area is characterized by a bimodal rainfall pattern, with the mean minimum and mean maximum annual rainfall being 1750 and 2200 mm, respectively. It has a humid climate, with a mean maximum and mean minimum temperature of 24°C and 14°C, respectively. In this area, there is a huge livestock population, with most farmers performing beef fattening 14 . The map of the study area was illustrated in Fig. 1 below. Study Population The target study populations were selected from the four districts, including voluntary animal owners, traditional animal healers, and animal health experts or veterinarians. A total of 300 animal owners, 26 animal health experts, and 40 traditional animal healers were separately interviewed in close approaches to collect important data relevant to the study. The respondents were selected based on the recommendations of knowledgeable elders and local authorities (the agricultural offices of the selected districts and small administrative). Study Design and Sampling Methods For this study, a structured questionnaire was designed and used to collect information from farmers, traditional animal healers, and veterinarian related to plant poisoning on livestock in the study area. The districts that used for this study were selected purposively based on their agroecology and growth season of a variety of plant vegetation cover in the area. A questionnaire survey was carried out by interviewing a total of 366 voluntary animal owners, traditional animal healers, and animal health expertise. During the interview, the questionnaire was used to collect all relevant information for the study, including types of livestock poisoning plants, their local name, poisonous parts of the plant by differentiate their leaf, seed, bark, root and flower, poisonous growth stage, seasons of growth, ways of exposure, amount to cause poisoning, exposing factors of those livestock, economic impact, agro-ecological distribution, and habitat of the poisonous plant. The methods employed during data collection were separate semi-structured interviews, field observations, key informants, and plant sample collection for further analysis. Study Methodology All selected individuals were interviewed from the selected districts by applying a face-to-face approach. The structured questionnaire was used to collect information related to toxic plants for livestock and their associated risk factors such as deforestation, climate change, recurrent drought, overgrazing, and soil degradation. The impact of those poisonous plants on the economy of pastoralists from the lowlands and agrarians from midland and highlands was studied by incorporating all relevant questions during the interview. These include costs for treatment, loss of animals due to poisonous plants, encroachment and deterioration of the grazing land, production loss, and others. The plants were collected with their local names from surrounding forests and other sites where the plants were found by the interviewees. Plant Material Collection and Identification From February to November 2022 a total of 15 plant materials were collected from three different agro-ecological areas represented by Goba, Gimbo, Decha, and Saylem districts in southwest Ethiopia (Fig. 3 ). This selected fresh plant sample was collected from its leaf, stem, and root and brought to the laboratory for identification. The plant samples were taken from mature plant parts of leaves and stems that were fresh and free from insect damage, rust, or other visible disease. Voucher specimens were collected from the study areas under the guidance of people who knew the local names of the plants. At times, the field activities included taking notes on plants, taking the geographic location or altitude by GPS, and associated indigenous knowledge with preliminary identification of the plants to family and sometimes to species levels. Photographic records were also taken in the field to capture the field sites, plants, and other useful memories. The specimens of new species were dried, deep-frozen, preserved in their natural colors, and identified at the National Herbarium (ETH), Addis Ababa University, using taxonomic keys and descriptions given in the relevant volumes of the Flora of Ethiopia and Eritrea 15 , 16 , 17 , 18 and by visual comparison with authenticated herbarium specimens. The accuracy of the identifications was confirmed by a senior plant taxonomist. Data Management and Analysis Suspected poisonous plants to livestock were collected in the area through a structured questionnaire, and according to the respective respondents, the data were stored in the Microsoft Excel Spreadsheet 2010. Before the analysis of the coded data, it was filtered. Finally, it was analyzed and presented using tables, graphs, and charts. Lastly, by applying descriptive statistics, frequencies and percentages were calculated. Based on their nature, some of the collected data were subjected to a one-way ANOVA, and a significance level of 0.05 was used for all statistical tests. The Statistical Analysis System (SAS) version 9.4 was used to carry out descriptive statistics on the questionnaire data and field observation variables 19 . Results Livestock poisoning plants From the interviewed interviewees of 366 individuals, 90% of the livestock owners complained that they observed the presence of poisonous plants in the study area, whereas 10% of the individuals had not observed the presence of these plants in their area. Similarly, all of the interviewed traditional animal healers informed us that they observed the presence of these toxic plants (Fig. 2 ). During the present study, a total of 15 plants were identified as having poisonous effects on livestock by the interviewed individuals. Among these plants, Rumex crispus, Solanum americanum, Albizia gummifera and Cyperus rotundus were the most frequently complained toxic plants in all agroecologies (Table 2). Among the fifteen plant species selected, four (26.6%) were trees, ten (66.7%) were herbs, and one (6.7%) was grass. The leaf of the plant was the most commonly consumed and poisoned part by livestock, followed by the stem and seed (Table 1). Table 1. Summary of the identified poisonous plants according to their botanical and local (Kafinoonoo) names, poisonous parts, susceptible species, and harmful effects. Botanic name Common name Local name *(Kafinoonoo (K)/Amharic(A) Poisonous part(s) Susceptible species of animal Harmful effects of Toxic plant Rumex crispus Curly dock Tult (A) Leaf Cattle, equine Bloating, foam formation Ajuga alba Common bugle Qoroo (K) Leaf All species Acute bloat Solanum americanum American Nightshade Hawute (A) Leaf Cattle Bloat, Weakness Amaranthus cruentus Red amaranth Shulloo (K) Leaf and seed Cattle and sheep Bloat, foam formation Albizia gummifera Peacock flower Sesa (A) Steam (water droplets) All species Irritation, parasite/worm Cyperus rotundus Coco Grass Ketema (A) Stem, leaf, root Cattle Bloat, no rumination Uebelinia kiwuensis Oxelman Moocoo (K) Leaf, flower All species Bloat, diarrhea Datura stramonium Ditch weed Nefinnifoo (K) Leaf Cattle No urine, bloat, no rumination Medicago polymorpha Toothed bur clover Wajima (A) Leaf and flower Cattle Bloating, colic Tribulus terestris Devil’s eyelash Kirinchite (A) Leaf, seed Cattle Weakness, inappitance Xanthium strumarium Common cocklebur Astenagir (A) Leaf, seed Cattle, sheep and goat Vomiting, diarrhea Respiratory distress, trebling, coma, death Trifolium burchelianum Wild Clover Shittoo (K) Stem Equine Leg chok or foot and toe rot, infected toe Euphorbia tirucalli Milk bush Kinchib (A) Leaf, stem All species Irritation in the eye and skin Hedera canariensis Common ivy Ceelloo abebboo (K) Leaf, stem All species Irritation in the eye and skin Prosopis juliflora Velvet mesquite Girar (A) Leaf and thorn Equine, cattle Bloat, diarrhea, Lower jaw dislocation *The two local language of A = amharic and K = Kafinoonoo spoken in the study area. Seasonal occurrences of poisonous plant This study was conducted in both dry and rainy seasons because of the access to all types of poisonous plants for livestock in the study area. According to the respondent, Xanthium strumarium grows in the dry season in the river basin, especially in sandy soil types, which make this plant, remain green while other plants dry (Table 2). The deep greenness of the leaf of this plant attracts livestock to consume it and makes them poisonous. Rumex crispus, Ajuga alba, Solanum americanum, Uebelinia kiwuensis, Datura stramonium and Trifolium burchelianum grow in synchrony with the rainy season because they are shrub-type forage. Due to this, cattle and equine consume other forages and are poisoned, based on the information collected and observed by the researchers during the field survey. The remaining forages and trees, such as Euphorbia tirucalli and Hedera canariensis were grown and green throughout the year, and they affect animals either externally (the skin and the eye) by contact or physiologically by consuming those plants. Agro-ecological distribution of poisonous plants This study was conducted in the southwestern parts of Ethiopia, where many endemic species of plants were found due to the diversified climatic and soil conditions of the region. In the study area of the Kaffa zone southwestern Ethiopia, there are three traditionally recognized agro-ecological zones ( Kola, Woina-dega and Dega ). These ecological zones influence the distribution of various species of plants and animals. The Rumex crispus, Prosopis juliflora, Ajuga alba, Solanum americanum, Amaranthus cruentus, Albizia gummifera, Cyperus rotundus, Uebelinia kiwuensis, Datura stramonium, Xanthium strumarium, Tribulus terestris, Medicago polymorpha, Euphorbia tirucalli, Hedera canariensis and Trifolium burchelianum samples collected from different locations of the study area showed significant variations in their level of toxicity for livestock (Table 2). Table 2 . Summary of the identified poisonous plants according to their botanical name, season of occurrences, agroecological distribution, clinical sign, and traditional treatment mechanism. Botanic name Season of occurrences Agro ecology *(epidemiology) Clinical sign Traditional treatment Rumex crispus Rainy season All agroecology Bloating, foam formation Providing soap and cold water, or milk Euphorbia tirucalli All season Lowland, midland Irritation in the eye and skin Soap wash of the infected area with tap water Ajuga alba Rainy season Highland Acute bloat depression, loss of appetite, muscle spasm, weakness Mix Soap and ash, then provide through mouth Solanum americanum Rainy season All agroecology Bloat, loss of appetite, incoordination Provide Liquid dung by mix, if not, use troaca and canula Tribulus terestris Rainy season Lowland, midland Weakness, inappetance Provide Cold water Medicago polymorpha All season Highland summer Bloating, colic, muscle spasm, weakness, Mix Soap and ash and then provide through mouth Hedera canariensis All season Lowland, midland Irritation of skin and eye infection Soap wash with tap water Amaranthus cruentus Dry season Lowland, midland Bloat, foam formation, depression, loss of appetite, incoordination Mix Alcohol and sheep tail fat. Put them over fire, squeeze the liquid out of the bundle, provide through mouth Albizia gummifera All season All agroecology Irritation, parasite/worm Clinic treatment Cyperus rotundus All season All agroecology Bloat, depression, weakness, reluctance to move, coma and death Provide soap and ash mixture through mouth Uebelinia kiwuensis Rainy season Lowland, highland Bloat, diarrhea, loss of appetite, weakness, Provide Soap through mouth Datura stramonium Rainy season Lowland, midland No urine, bloat, no rumination Provide garlic and feto by mix in tap water Trifolium burchelianum Rainy season Lowland, midland Leg chok or foot and toe rot, infected toe Put the root of Trifolium burchelianum on fire the treat the infected area by put on it to burn Xanthium strumarium Dry season Lowland, midland and river basin Depression, loss of appetite, incoordination, lying dawn, paddling of limb, and convulsion, coma and death Mix soap and milk; then provide through mouth Prosopis juliflora Winter Lowland Bloating, foam formation, Lower jaw dislocation Provide Cold water and ash *All plants listed in the above table are wild and some used for fencing. Impact of poisonous plant on the economy of farmers This study also showed that diarrhea, respiratory distress, trebling, irritation, salivation, bloating, inappetance, weakness, coma, and finally death were among the frequently manifested signs of poisoned livestock. Bovine species are the most frequently poisoned livestock, followed by sheep, goats and equine (Table 1). This study indicated that feed shortage is the primary predisposing factor, followed by nutritional deficiency and excessive consumption. During our field assessment and survey, the researcher observed that farmers lost their goats, sheep, donkeys, and horses in Goba, Decha and Gimbo district due to the effects of those poisonous plants. Farmers are told that young and highly productive animals were the most susceptible to poisonous plants than others. All the factors for degree of toxicity included the chemical nature of the toxin, the amount and time period of the toxin eaten, the parts of the plant eaten, the stage of maturity of the plant, the species of the animal, their age, sex, and general condition of the animal. Plant species are the main determining factor for fatality or recovery, depending on the information gained from the traditional animal healers. The results in general have shown that toxic plants were causing significant animal health problems in the Kaffa zone of southwest Ethiopia. Treatment mechanism of the toxin As shown in the figure below, from the total interviewed individuals, 70% of them respond that they used different traditional medicinal plants as a treatment toxin of poisonous plants for their livestock such as cattle, sheep, goat, equine and others. Whereas, the remaining interviewed individuals did not use traditional medicinal plants as a treatment to heal their animals from the poison. Similarly, 38.5% of animal health experts were recommended to use traditional treatments for toxin, and 61.5% were not, but instead they used different modern drugs by veterinarians. While all traditional animal healers were used medicinal plants to treat the toxin caused by poisonous plants (Fig. 4 ). Those animal healers and farmers used different treatment mechanisms to relieve their poisoned animals by providing different locally available inputs like soap, ash, mixture of soap and milk with cold water, grinding garlic and feeding, providing alcohol as drench, and other plant roots or leaves depending on the animal breeds, degree of poisoning and type of poisonous plant as they are different in their toxicity. Discussion According to the current study's findings, livestock were primarily contaminated via eating or coming into touch with the leaves and other elements of the toxic plants. Among the animal health professionals surveyed, 84.6% noted that the area's livestock health issues are primarily caused by plant poisoning (Fig. 2 ). The majority of perennial plants, including shrubs and bushes, have been shown to contain toxic secondary metabolites. According to the information gathered from the respondents, the condition is caused by a shortage of forage supply resulting from a variety of factors, including overgrazing, drought, agricultural expansion, and soil erosion. The investigation's outcome supported 20 conclusions. Several of the species found in this study were also found in Horo Guduru Wollega, where the most commonly reported poisonous plants in the examined area were Solanum americanum, Cyperus rotundus, Amaranthus spp. , and Rumex crispus (Fig. 3 ). Nonetheless, there were differences in the range and kind of numerous toxic plants in the Bako district 12 , 21 . The variations may arise from the growing of different plants in diverse geographic locations with distinct edaphic and climatic conditions. The differences in the chemical makeup of various poisonous plants in various locations are also influenced by these characteristics. Each plant has a different concentration of the harmful compounds. Toxin content and distribution in plants are influenced by a variety of factors, including the species, geographic location, and individual plant parts. Recurrent use of the species as a main feed may result in toxicity, even if the concentration of poisonous chemicals is occasionally so low as to be regarded excellent fodder 10 . These plants are poisonous, according to the responses of 10 , and the good effects usually happen at smaller amounts, while overdosing can result in poisoning. Folk medicine uses these herbs to cure human and animal problems. According to 5 , this result is consistent. Plants can be poisonous in a number of ways, including their leaves, branches, bark, roots, seeds, and, occasionally, entire plants. The formation of chemicals in plant parts can have toxic effects on humans and animals under specific circumstances 22 . While some plants thrive throughout the dry season, others wait for the spring and summer rains to come before emerging into growth. April through May and July through September are the months with the highest rates of precipitation. Some plant species utilized as animal feed, particularly grasses, experience rapid growth during the beginning of the rainy season. This phenomenon is typically linked to an increase in the accumulation of potentially poisonous chemicals like alkaloids. Consistent with the findings of 21 , the current investigation showed a correlation between drought and an increase in the degree of animal poisoning caused by these hazardous plants. During rainy seasons, animals are more likely to consume dangerous plants due to the rapid growth of leaves and the build-up of potentially harmful substances 9 . Poisonous plants can also be consumed by animals; this is especially true in situations where the fields are poor and major feeds are scarce because of adverse conditions like drought. The majority of edible plants in this study area dry up during droughts, as stated by the respondents, yet numerous poisonous plants stay green and attractive and serve as the main source of food for animals. Ajuga alba, Solanum americanum and Amaranthus cruentus grow in synchronize with the rainy season because of they are shrub type forage. Due to this cattle and equine consume with other forages and poisoned based on the information collected and observed by the researchers during field survey. In accordance with 23 the chemical composition of those toxic plants differs depending on where they are from. Various edaphic and climatic conditions allow various plants to grow in different places. These elements also affect how plants are chemically composed, which explains why various hazardous plants can be found in different parts of the world. Nonetheless, some of the plants found in this study have been linked to comparable effects on animals in other studies. In Iran, for example, Amaranthus retroflexus , or red root, has been reported to poison livestock 24 . It has already been established that the tissues of these plants contain nitrate. Likewise, studies have emphasized the significance of Trifolium spp . as a source of cattle toxicity 25 . These agroecological variations of poisonous plant distribution are due to a number of environmental factors, such as climate, altitude, rainfall, soil type, humidity, and others 26 . A number of environmental factors, such as climate, altitude, rainfall, and other conditions, may affect the growth of plants, which in turn affects the quality of herbal ingredients present in a particular species, even if they are produced in the same region. According to the information gathered during the field survey, most of the poisonous plants are commonly used in folk medicine not only for livestock but also for humans because they exhibit antioxidant properties, which in turn inhibit the propagation of free radical reactions and protect the human body from disease. This study concludes that farmers may be directly or indirectly impacted by the financial losses brought on by these toxic plants. Decreases in productivity, animal deaths, abortions, weight loss (from disease or reduced feed intake), longer calving intervals, decreased fertility, diminished function from damage to organs like the nervous system, lungs, liver, etc., loss of breeding stock from deaths, functional inefficiency, etc. are examples of direct losses of livestock. The costs associated with prevention, treatment, and managing poisoned animals are the indirect losses (costs). Other costs include fences constructed and maintained to manage livestock at risk due to poisonous plants, herding livestock to prevent poisoning, supplemental feeding to prevent poisoning, modified grazing programs that may result in increased costs or inefficient grazing, medical costs associated with poisoning, and forage lost because it could not be harvested at the appropriate time or intensity. Although hard to measure, these expenses do exist 27 . When there is a lack of food, animals may be forced to browse perennial shrubs and bushes, many of which have been shown to contain hazardous secondary metabolites 28 . As indicated by several studies and supported by the data from this investigation, poisonous plants can coexist alongside forage plants and are thus easily accessed by grazing animals. Whenever feasible, specialized antidotes should be used to treat plant poisoning rapidly. This condition is primarily an emergency that requires careful management. Correct identification and avoidance of these plants is the key to preventing issues with poisonous plants, though. It is very important to look for harmful plants in fence rows, hay fields, and pastures. Be especially cautious and search for these plants in newly designated grazing or haying areas if there is a drought or a year with little feed. The animals are healthy and will stay away from most toxic plants if there is enough meal available. However, animals are driven to consume food during the dry season due to acute feed shortages. Effective range management is therefore one of the best strategies to reduce the risk of plant poisoning in the region. Our study revealed that the most effective method of avoiding toxic weed infestations is to maintain a healthy and well-managed pasture. Eradication by uprooting and fencing off infected areas are two further strategies that might work 29 . According to this study, plant poisoning has had a major negative influence on livestock producers' and seriously harmed animals' health. For decades, Ethiopians have used various plants, particularly those used by farmers and traditional animal healers, to treat livestock ailments. However, due to incorrect utilization of these plants, livestock health may have been compromised. In Ethiopia, medicinal plants remain the most easily accessible and reasonably priced means of treating a variety of human and animal illnesses. The aforementioned toxic plant has several secondary metabolites, each of which has a distinct purpose. For example, tannins have antibacterial properties, flavonoids have potent anticancer properties, and some alkaloids may be helpful in the fight against HIV infection. Most plants that are found in and around their surroundings but could be dangerous if consumed, injected, or come into contact with the skin are not well known to most people, and most plant poisoning in animals only occurs when an animal eats it by accident 30 . Farmers primarily utilize these plants as fence, however the milk-like droplets from Euphorbia tirucalli and Hedera canariensis harm the exposed animals' skin and eyes. Conclusion In general, based on the results of the present study, it is possible to conclude that plant poisoning is one of the livestock health problems in Kaffa Zone, southwest Ethiopia. The present study has also shown that toxic plants, especially those of evergreen in the dry season, cause problems in animals. Those poisonous plants are different in their toxicity, even for the same species, due to a number of environmental factors such as climate, altitude, rainfall, temperature, soil type, and other factors. Some poisonous plants grow in the dry season, while others remain dormant until the rain comes. Animals are also exposed to the consumption of poisonous plants, either intentionally or suddenly, when pastures are poor and major feeds are scarce due to unfavorable conditions such as drought. As a conclusion in the study area, the respondent confirmed that during drought, most palatable plants dry up; many of the poisonous plants remain green and attractive, and animals start to consume and finally become poisoned. Based on this study, the presence of livestock health problems and significant impacts on livestock producers as a result of plant poisoning were recognized. The results of the current study also indicated that livestock production in the study area was mostly extensive, with a very low population of animals kept in intensive production systems. In conclusion, the results of the present study show that herbal poisoning and chemical toxicities are among the most important causes of health problems in the region. The above-mentioned plant species were the most commonly incriminated toxic plants. Shortage of pasture and mismanagement of the grazing land are among the predisposing factors to toxicosis in this study area. Overall, the current study's findings suggest that one of the health issues with livestock in the Kaffa Zone, southwest Ethiopia, is plant poisoning. According to the current study, animals can have health issues as a result of hazardous plants, particularly those that are evergreen throughout the dry season. Due to a variety of environmental parameters like climate, altitude, rainfall, temperature, soil type, and others, those dangerous plants vary in toxicity, even within the same species. While several dangerous plants thrive throughout the dry season, others stay dormant until it rains. When pastures are low and major feeds are rare because of harsh conditions, animals are also exposed to ingesting poisonous plants, either on purpose or accidentally. The respondent concluded that, in the study area, most edible plants dry up during droughts, whereas many toxic plants stay green and appealing and cause animals to start eating them until they eventually become poisoned. This study established the existence of health issues with animals and the substantial effects that plant poisoning has on livestock producers. The current study's findings also showed that the majority of the livestock produced in the study area was raised extensively, with a relatively small number of animals housed in intensive production systems. Conclusively, the findings of this study indicate that chemical toxicities and herbal poisons rank among the primary causes of health issues in the area. The most often implicated hazardous plant species were the ones listed above. One of the risk factors for toxicosis in this research region is a lack of pasture and poor management of the grazing land. Abbreviations A Amharic ANOVA Analysis of Variance CBIF Canadian Poisonous plants information system EBI Ethiopian Biodiversity Institute ETH National Herbarium FB Bureau of Farm GPS Global positioning system K Kafinono KZFLD Kafa Zone Livestock and Fishery Department SAS Statistical Analysis System Declarations Competing interests The authors declared that there is no conflict of interest exists. Ethics approval and consent to participate All research in this study was conducted using human individual interviewed confirm that all methods were carried out in accordance with relevant guidelines and regulations of Bonga University proclamation No.410/2004. All experimental protocols were approved by a Bonga university licensing and ethical committee. We confirming that informed consent was obtained from all subjects by legal guardian of the country. Funding This study was financed by the Vice President Office of Research and Community Service of Bonga University with Grant No. AgNr/Ansc/2022/01. Author Contribution S. M. contributed to the study design and T. W. contributed to data collection and data acquisition. Data analysis and interpretation was performed by S. M. The first draft of the manuscript was also written by S. M. and both authors commented on previous versions of the manuscript. Both authors read and approved the final manuscript. Acknowledgments The authors would like to extend their gratitude to the Research Directorate of Bonga University, the department of Chemistry and Animal Science for their invaluable support for fund, laboratory works, and Research assistance for their technical support. Data Availability The datasets used in the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request. References Ethiopian Biodiversity Institute (EBI). Ethiopia’s Fifth National Report to the Convention on Biological Diversity, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia (2014). Thilagam,V.K, & Manivannan, S. Eutrophication- a threat to aquatic ecosystem. Indian Farmer. 6, 697–701 (2019). Semayat, O. Review on Traditional Ethnoveterinary Medicine and Medicinal Plants Used by Indigenous People in Ethiopia: Practice and Application System. International Journal of Research. 5,109–119 (2017). Bureau of Farm (FB). San Luis Obispo County Agriculture News. http://www.slofarmbureau.org/ (2021). Panter, K.E. et al . Plants Poisonous to Livestock in the Western States U.S. (Department of Agriculture, Agriculture Bulletin No. 415. 2011). Tamilselvan, N., Thirumalai, T., Shyamala, P. & David, E. A review on some plants and their medicinal values. Journal of Acute Disease. 85–89, (2014). Gilbert, S. A Small Dose of Toxicology. 2nd Ed. 124, 595–603, (2012). Walter, M., Barbara, M., & Robert, T. Stock-poisoning Plants of Western Canada. (Canadian Forest Service, Canada, 1–93, 2008). Diaz, G. Toxic plants of veterinary and agricultural interest in Colombia. International Journal of Poisonous Plants Research. http://www.ars.usda.gov/is/np/Poisonous . 1, 1–19 (2011). Turner, N. & Szczawinski, A. Common poisonous plants and mushrooms of North America. (Timber Press, Portland, Oreg., USA, 2002). Filigenzi, M. & Puschner, B. Determination of oleander in in tissues and biological fluid by liquid chromatography-electrospray tandem mass spectrometry. Journal of Agriculture Food Chemistry.153, 4322–4325, (2005). Abraham, K., Tilahun, Z., Dereje, A. & Girma, K. Assessment of Poisonous Plants to Livestock in and around Nekemte Area, East Wollega Zone of Oromia Regional State, Western Ethiopia. Nat Sci. 13, 8–13 (2015). Dereje, A., Tadesse, B. & Sultan, A. Survey of Toxic Plants in Livestock at Horro Gudurru Wollega Zone, Western Ethiopia. Journal of Biol Agricult and Healthcare. 5, 101–106 (2015). Kaffa zone Fishery and Livestock Department (KZLFD). (Kafa zone fishery and Livestock department Annual report. 2021). Hedberg, I., Edwards, S. & Tadesse, M. Flora of Ethiopia and Eritrea. Canellaceae to Euphorbiaceae Part 2 Volume 2. Ethiopia. (Department of Systematic Botany, Uppsala University, Sweden and the National Herbarium, Addis Ababa University, 1995). Edwards, S., Tadesse, M., Hedberg, I. & Demissew, S. (Eds). Flora of Ethiopia and Eritrea. Magnoliaceae to Flacourtiaceae Volume 2 Part 1. Ethiopia. (Department of Systematic Botany, Uppsala University, Sweden and the National Herbarium, Addis Ababa University, 2000). Hedberg, I., Kelbessa, E., Edwards, S., Demissew, S. & Persson, E. (Eds). Flora of Ethiopia and Eritrea. Plantaginaceae Volume 5. Ethiopia. (Department of Systematic Botany, Uppsala University, Sweden and The National Herbarium, Addis Ababa University, 2006). Hedberg, I., Friis, I. & Person, E. (Eds). Flora of Ethiopia and Eritrea. Lycopodiaceae to Pinaceae. Volume 1. Ethiopia. (Department of Systematic Botany, Uppsala University, Sweden and the National Herbarium, Addis Ababa University, 2009). Statistical Analysis System (SAS) Software. Version 9.4. (Institute Inc. Carry, North Carolina, USA, 2016). Ebbo, A., Agaie, B., Adamu, U., Daneji, A. & Garba, H. Retrospective analysis of cases presented to the Veterinary Teaching Hospital, Sokoto. Nigeria Veterina Journal. 23, 3–5 (2003). Diriba, G. & Debela, A. Identification of Poisonous Plants and Their Toxics Effects on Livestock in Horo Buluk District, Horo Guduru Wollega Zone, Oromia Regional State, Western Ethiopia. Biomedical Journal of Scientific and Technical Research. 23,3–9 (2019). Katewa, S., Galav, P., Ambika, N. & Jain, A. Poisonous plants of the southern Aravalli hills of Rajasthan. (Short Report, 2008). Negrelle, R.B. & Gomes, E.C. Cymbopogon citratus (Dc) Stapf: Chemical Composition and Biological Activities. Revolution of Brasilian Plant Medical Botucatu. 9, 80–92 (2007). Weller, S. et al . Amaranthus retroflexus L. (Redroot Pigweed): Effects of Elevated CO 2 and Soil Moisture on Growth and Biomass and the Effect of Radiant Heat on Seed Germination. Agronomy. 11, 728 (2021). Canadian Poisonous Plants Information System (CBIF). re3data.org - Registry of Research. http://doi.org/10.17616/R3BD2S , (2022) Liu, W. et al . Influence of Environmental Factors on the Active Substance Production and Antioxidant Activity in Potentilla fruticosa L. and Its Quality Assessment. Sci. Rep.6, 285–291 (2016). Walelign, B. & Mekuriaw, E. Major Toxic Plants and Their Effect on Livestock: A Review. Advances in Life Science and Technology. 45, 1–12 (2016). Dereje, A., Tariku, J., Teshale, S., Ashenafi, F. & Takele, B. Assessment of plant and chemical poisoning in livestock in central Ethiopia. Journal of Environ Anal Toxicology. (2014). Hailegabriel, A. Weed Management Systems Adopted For Natural Pastureland: Implication to Improve Yield and Health of the Pastureland in Ethiopia. International Journal of Animal Science and Technology. 7, 48–56 (2023). Ncube, N.S., Afolayan, A.J. & Koh, A.I. Assessment techniques of antimicrobial properties of natural compounds of plant origin: current methods and future trends. African J Biotechnol.7, 1797–1806 (2008). Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. 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Mohammed","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAA+ElEQVRIiWNgGAWjYFACxgYJEGUA5rDZgEQaD5CiJQ0sQkALAwOylsNgCq8W+fbmxhsfGLYlbmc/nbrhR9l5u7Xth4G21NhE49JicOZgs+UMhtuJO3tyt93sOXc7eduZRKCWY2m5Dbi0SCS2SfMAtWw4kLvtBm/b7WSzA0AtjA2HcWqRn/8QquX82203/7adSzY7/xC/FoYbjFAtN3K33eZtO2BndoOALQZnEoF+MbhtvOHG2223Zc4lJ5jdANqSgMcv8u3HH974UHFbdsN5oPfflNnZm51Pf/jgQ40NbodB7EIwE8EqE/AqRwP2pCgeBaNgFIyCkQEAfwFuXMvKVEYAAAAASUVORK5CYII=","orcid":"","institution":"Bonga University","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Seid","middleName":"","lastName":"Mohammed","suffix":""},{"id":342130480,"identity":"f655063d-550c-421f-ab58-219a1346b2c4","order_by":1,"name":"Tamirat Wato","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Bonga University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Tamirat","middleName":"","lastName":"Wato","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2024-04-19 12:18:09","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-4293103/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-4293103/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":62950954,"identity":"c902075b-b057-4f84-bb59-6732a584276e","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-08-21 11:17:17","extension":"jpg","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":34512,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eMap of the study area\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"1.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4293103/v1/d97ee449349631031a4f4774.jpg"},{"id":62950940,"identity":"7e5e04dd-5be6-4c11-bdac-6c5bcc1c39b1","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-08-21 11:17:17","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":35360,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eNumber of respondent in respect to poisonous plant observation\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4293103/v1/2c3951abf5c9c5018b1e0f0b.png"},{"id":62950942,"identity":"a3bea6b4-368f-4e4e-a816-5dac259ec9fa","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-08-21 11:17:17","extension":"jpg","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":93212,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eSome of the livestock poisonous plants: (a)\u003cem\u003e Solanum americanum,\u003c/em\u003e(b) \u003cem\u003eAjuga alba, \u003c/em\u003e(c) \u003cem\u003eEuphorbia tirucalli, \u003c/em\u003e(d)\u003cem\u003e Xanthium strumarium, \u003c/em\u003e(e)\u003cem\u003e Trifolium burchelianum, \u003c/em\u003e(f)\u003cem\u003e Datura stramonium \u003c/em\u003e(g) \u003cem\u003eProsopis juliflora \u003c/em\u003e(h)\u003cem\u003e Albizia gummifera \u003c/em\u003eand (i)\u003cem\u003e Cyperus rotundus,(j\u003c/em\u003e) \u003cem\u003eAmaranthus cruentus (k) \u0026nbsp;Rumex crispus.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"3.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4293103/v1/a0f6ceacc123db0fa20a9c67.jpg"},{"id":62950955,"identity":"afea5989-baef-4cb7-8ab8-c9aeb1640135","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-08-21 11:17:17","extension":"png","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":40708,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eSummary of the number of respondents with respect to the use of traditional treatments for livestock poisoning plants.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"4.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4293103/v1/f9fc82137b77e31bcfc11a2e.png"},{"id":68987408,"identity":"00b1d620-642f-4997-8af3-e7a4a9a0251a","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-11-14 08:47:10","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":893691,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4293103/v1/2655407f-7a76-447f-b29b-0936bcd9094e.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Livestock Poisonous Plants, their Ecology, and its Impact on Livestock Production Performance in Southwest Ethiopia","fulltext":[{"header":"Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eCattle grazing land has diverse mixtures of invasive and native plants, which may raise the danger of exposure to hazardous plants. Ethiopia boasts a highly varied topography as well as a highly variable macro- and microclimate. However, habitat conversion, invasive species, pollution and climate change, population shifts, poverty, and a lack of awareness and coordination pose risks to biodiversity\u003csup\u003e1.\u003c/sup\u003e Although grazing is accepted as a standard practice in livestock management, it exposes the animals to a range of toxic plants, especially when there is less feed available\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e. Similarly, they also reported that the delay in treatment and unattained cases may lead to loss of animal, partially or completely. \u0026nbsp;After being consumed or absorbed by animals, poisonous plants cause their harmful consequences, which can include bodily discomfort, decreased productivity, and even death\u003csup\u003e3\u003cstrong\u003e.\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe cattle business has suffered significant losses due to a wide range of toxic plants in various parts of the world, primarily in east Africa, especially Ethiopia. These toxic plants contain compounds that impair livestock health and reduce productivity. According to\u003csup\u003e4\u003c/sup\u003e reported that three to five percent of the cattle, sheep, goats, and horses that graze the ranges are impacted by poisonous plants annually. While most dangerous plants are green year-round, and these poisoning is caused by either purposeful eating of toxic plants while pasture is dry or unintentional ingestion of materials eaten with conserved hey and grass. The economic loss includes higher medical expenses for drugs,\u0026nbsp;modified grazing programs, less forage available, lower land values, and directly longer calving intervals, lower fertility, a weakened immune system, and lower productivity -all of which are considered direct losses of toxic plants\u003csup\u003e5\u003c/sup\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFurthermore, producers are impacted by poisonous plants due to the higher rate of animal fatalities, delayed weight gain,\u0026nbsp;reproductive inefficiency, expenses incurred for managing and preventing poisoned animals, and indirect losses from contaminated pasture\u003csup\u003e5\u003c/sup\u003e. As a result of unintentional exposure by skin contact or absorption, eye exposure, inhalation, or inadvertent ingestion of plant parts (seed, leave, root, etc.), they can also have toxic effects or even result in death. Typically, owners are unaware of their poisonous nature of those plants\u003csup\u003e6\u003c/sup\u003e. Nonetheless, debilitating chronic sickness, reduced weight gain, photosensitization, abortion, stomach pain, salivation, birth abnormalities, and unexpected death are common symptoms that can happen even in the absence of clinical signs\u003csup\u003e5\u003c/sup\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ePlants produce a variety of medicinal chemicals, while others are made by microbes that growing on or within the plant\u003csup\u003e7\u003c/sup\u003e. For primary healthcare, almost 80% of people on the world rely on traditional medicine, which primarily uses plant extracts. This could be explained by the widespread perception that these therapies are safe because they are \u0026quot;natural\u0026quot; and present a safe and harmless alternative to traditional therapy. Certain plants\u0026nbsp;cause sickness\u0026nbsp;or fatal\u0026nbsp;immediately after ingestion, while other plants may take a few days or weeks to show symptoms. If poisonous plants are identified and taken into consideration during management, fewer losses will occur\u003csup\u003e8\u003c/sup\u003e. Strongly toxic substances called secondary metabolite found in poisonous plants can occasionally be lethal to animals even in relatively small doses. These metabolites have detrimental effects on animals and can influence them negatively.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAnimals are also exposed to the consumption of poisonous plants, particularly when pastures are poor and major feeds are scarce due to unfavorable conditions such as drought. During drought, most palatable plants dry up; many of the poisonous plants remain green and attractive and become the major feed source for animals. Animals are also exposed to the consumption of poisonous plants during the rainy period because of the intense growth of the plants leaves and the accumulation of potentially toxic compounds\u003csup\u003e9\u003c/sup\u003e. The problem is also aggravated by deficiencies of phosphorus or vitamin A, which affect the grazing behavior of animals. The poisonous nature of a plant or part thereof is due to the presence of some toxicologically significant plant constituents such as alkaloids, cyanide, oxalate, alcohols, phenols, tannins, and minerals. The concentration, amount and distribution of the toxins present in a plant vary according to different parts of the plant, the species, and the geographical conditions where it is grown. Sometimes the concentration of toxic substances is so low that it is considered good fodder, but repeated use of the species as a main feed may cause toxicity\u003csup\u003e10\u003c/sup\u003e. These plant poisonings cause health problems in livestock, resulting in huge economic losses to pastoralists and other livestock owners due to production losses, morbidity, and mortality of their animals. Most importantly, recognition of poisonous plants in hay or forage may help prevent plant poisoning in animals\u003csup\u003e11\u003c/sup\u003e. Even if previous studies have reported the existence of poisonous plants in Ethiopia\u003csup\u003e12,13\u003c/sup\u003e, studies regarding toxic plants to livestock in southwestern region of Ethiopia, especially in the present study area, are lacking. To this date, in Ethiopia, most of the available information about poisonous plants is in case reports. This is an untouched (neglected) area for interested researchers to fill available gaps regarding the shortage of information on the effects of poisonous plants on livestock.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHence, it is important to bring information to the attention of professionals about the effects of poisonous plants on animal health and productivity. This requires more extensive assessment and documentation of poisonous plants in the rangelands, their ecological distribution, and the identification of the major toxic substances of these plant species. This research aims to identify different toxic plants for livestock, their ecological distribution, and their impact on livestock production performance in the southwestern region of Ethiopia. Additionally, it also addresses the season of occurrences and its agro-ecological distribution. Finally, this research aims to investigate the direct and indirect impact of those poisonous plants on livestock productivity and their traditional management mechanisms.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Material and Methods","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec2\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eDescription of the study area\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study was conducted from February to November 2022 in the Southwestern region of Ethiopia. For this study, a total of four districts were selected based on their agroecological variation, namely: lowland Goba district, midland Gimbo and Decha districts, and finally highland Saylem district (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e). The southwest region lies between 6.38\u0026deg;N and 8.28\u0026deg;N latitude and 35.48\u0026deg;E and 36.73\u0026deg;E longitude. Kaffa Zone in the southwestern region of Ethiopia, which is one of the wettest areas in the country, has a very good rain-fall pattern throughout the year and fertile soil that creates a conducive environment for different plant species. The area has a varying topography and agro-ecology composed of lowland, midland, and highland areas that cover 22%, 70%, and 8%, respectively. The area is characterized by a tropical rainfall pattern that usually records rain every month to varying extents, with an average annual rainfall of 1000mm to 2200mm. Rainfall starts at the end of February and ends in October, with its peak in August. The mean annual minimum and maximum temperatures range from 10.1\u0026deg;C to 27.5\u0026deg;C\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eGoba is at the lowest altitude, where most of the livestock owners were pastoralists, and the area was covered by predominantly shrub-type forages. Gimbo and Decha have an elevation of 800\u0026ndash;2000 meters above sea level. The area is characterized by a tropical rainfall pattern that usually records rain in every month to various extents (the high rainy season occurs in June, July, and August, while the low rainy season takes place in November and December, with an average annual rainfall of 1000mm to 2200mm). The soil type of the area is predominantly sandy clay loam soil in texture. The other study site was Saylem, which is the highest altitude district in the Kaffa zone. The altitude of the district ranges from 1500 to 3000 meters above sea level, having both mid-land and high-land ecology. The area has a varying topography composed of steep mountains and plateaus. The area is characterized by a bimodal rainfall pattern, with the mean minimum and mean maximum annual rainfall being 1750 and 2200 mm, respectively. It has a humid climate, with a mean maximum and mean minimum temperature of 24\u0026deg;C and 14\u0026deg;C, respectively. In this area, there is a huge livestock population, with most farmers performing beef fattening\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. The map of the study area was illustrated in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e below.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eStudy Population\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe target study populations were selected from the four districts, including voluntary animal owners, traditional animal healers, and animal health experts or veterinarians. A total of 300 animal owners, 26 animal health experts, and 40 traditional animal healers were separately interviewed in close approaches to collect important data relevant to the study. The respondents were selected based on the recommendations of knowledgeable elders and local authorities (the agricultural offices of the selected districts and small administrative).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec4\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eStudy Design and Sampling Methods\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eFor this study, a structured questionnaire was designed and used to collect information from farmers, traditional animal healers, and veterinarian related to plant poisoning on livestock in the study area. The districts that used for this study were selected purposively based on their agroecology and growth season of a variety of plant vegetation cover in the area. A questionnaire survey was carried out by interviewing a total of 366 voluntary animal owners, traditional animal healers, and animal health expertise. During the interview, the questionnaire was used to collect all relevant information for the study, including types of livestock poisoning plants, their local name, poisonous parts of the plant by differentiate their leaf, seed, bark, root and flower, poisonous growth stage, seasons of growth, ways of exposure, amount to cause poisoning, exposing factors of those livestock, economic impact, agro-ecological distribution, and habitat of the poisonous plant. The methods employed during data collection were separate semi-structured interviews, field observations, key informants, and plant sample collection for further analysis.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec5\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eStudy Methodology\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eAll selected individuals were interviewed from the selected districts by applying a face-to-face approach. The structured questionnaire was used to collect information related to toxic plants for livestock and their associated risk factors such as deforestation, climate change, recurrent drought, overgrazing, and soil degradation. The impact of those poisonous plants on the economy of pastoralists from the lowlands and agrarians from midland and highlands was studied by incorporating all relevant questions during the interview. These include costs for treatment, loss of animals due to poisonous plants, encroachment and deterioration of the grazing land, production loss, and others. The plants were collected with their local names from surrounding forests and other sites where the plants were found by the interviewees.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec6\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003ePlant Material Collection and Identification\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eFrom February to November 2022 a total of 15 plant materials were collected from three different agro-ecological areas represented by Goba, Gimbo, Decha, and Saylem districts in southwest Ethiopia (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e). This selected fresh plant sample was collected from its leaf, stem, and root and brought to the laboratory for identification. The plant samples were taken from mature plant parts of leaves and stems that were fresh and free from insect damage, rust, or other visible disease. Voucher specimens were collected from the study areas under the guidance of people who knew the local names of the plants. At times, the field activities included taking notes on plants, taking the geographic location or altitude by GPS, and associated indigenous knowledge with preliminary identification of the plants to family and sometimes to species levels. Photographic records were also taken in the field to capture the field sites, plants, and other useful memories. The specimens of new species were dried, deep-frozen, preserved in their natural colors, and identified at the National Herbarium (ETH), Addis Ababa University, using taxonomic keys and descriptions given in the relevant volumes of the Flora of Ethiopia and Eritrea\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e15\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e and by visual comparison with authenticated herbarium specimens. The accuracy of the identifications was confirmed by a senior plant taxonomist.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec7\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eData Management and Analysis\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003e Suspected poisonous plants to livestock were collected in the area through a structured questionnaire, and according to the respective respondents, the data were stored in the Microsoft Excel Spreadsheet 2010. Before the analysis of the coded data, it was filtered. Finally, it was analyzed and presented using tables, graphs, and charts. Lastly, by applying descriptive statistics, frequencies and percentages were calculated. Based on their nature, some of the collected data were subjected to a one-way ANOVA, and a significance level of 0.05 was used for all statistical tests. The Statistical Analysis System (SAS) version 9.4 was used to carry out descriptive statistics on the questionnaire data and field observation variables\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Results","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec9\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003eLivestock poisoning plants\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFrom the interviewed interviewees of 366 individuals, 90% of the livestock owners complained that they observed the presence of poisonous plants in the study area, whereas 10% of the individuals had not observed the presence of these plants in their area. Similarly, all of the interviewed traditional animal healers informed us that they observed the presence of these toxic plants (Fig. \u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e). During the present study, a total of 15 plants were identified as having poisonous effects on livestock by the interviewed individuals. Among these plants, \u003cem\u003eRumex crispus, Solanum americanum, Albizia gummifera\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eCyperus rotundus\u003c/em\u003e were the most frequently complained toxic plants in all agroecologies (Table 2).\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAmong the fifteen plant species selected, four (26.6%) were trees, ten (66.7%) were herbs, and one (6.7%) was grass. The leaf of the plant was the most commonly consumed and poisoned part by livestock, followed by the stem and seed (Table\u0026nbsp;1).\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"colspec\" align=\"left\"\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable\u0026nbsp;1.\u003c/strong\u003e Summary of the identified poisonous plants according to their botanical and local (Kafinoonoo) names, poisonous parts, susceptible species, and harmful effects.\u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"colspec\" align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/div\u003e\n \u003ctable id=\"Taba\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n \u003cthead\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eBotanic name\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCommon name\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLocal name *(Kafinoonoo (K)/Amharic(A)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePoisonous\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003epart(s)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSusceptible species of animal\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHarmful effects of\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eToxic plant\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/thead\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eRumex crispus\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCurly dock\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTult (A)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLeaf\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCattle, equine\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBloating, foam formation\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAjuga alba\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCommon bugle\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eQoroo (K)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLeaf\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAll species\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAcute bloat\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSolanum americanum\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAmerican Nightshade\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHawute (A)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLeaf\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCattle\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBloat, Weakness\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAmaranthus cruentus\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eRed amaranth\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eShulloo (K)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLeaf and seed\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCattle and sheep\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBloat, foam formation\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAlbizia gummifera\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePeacock flower\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSesa (A)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSteam (water droplets)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAll species\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIrritation, parasite/worm\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eCyperus rotundus\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCoco Grass\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eKetema (A)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eStem, leaf, root\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCattle\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBloat, no rumination\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eUebelinia kiwuensis\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eOxelman\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMoocoo (K)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLeaf, flower\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAll species\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBloat, diarrhea\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eDatura stramonium\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDitch weed\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNefinnifoo (K)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLeaf\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCattle\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNo urine, bloat, no rumination\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eMedicago polymorpha\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eToothed bur clover\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWajima (A)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLeaf and flower\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCattle\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBloating, colic\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eTribulus terestris\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDevil\u0026rsquo;s eyelash\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eKirinchite (A)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLeaf, seed\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCattle\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWeakness, inappitance\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eXanthium strumarium\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCommon cocklebur\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAstenagir (A)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLeaf, seed\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCattle, sheep and goat\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eVomiting, diarrhea Respiratory distress, trebling, coma, death\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eTrifolium burchelianum\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWild Clover\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eShittoo (K)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eStem\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eEquine\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLeg \u003cem\u003echok\u003c/em\u003e or foot and toe rot, infected toe\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eEuphorbia tirucalli\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMilk bush\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eKinchib (A)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLeaf, stem\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAll species\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIrritation in the eye and skin\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eHedera canariensis\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCommon ivy\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCeelloo abebboo (K)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLeaf, stem\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAll species\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIrritation in the eye and skin\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eProsopis juliflora\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eVelvet mesquite\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eGirar (A)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLeaf and thorn\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eEquine, cattle\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBloat, diarrhea, Lower jaw dislocation\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n \u003c/table\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e*The two local language of A\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;amharic and K\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Kafinoonoo spoken in the study area.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec10\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003eSeasonal occurrences of poisonous plant\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThis study was conducted in both dry and rainy seasons because of the access to all types of poisonous plants for livestock in the study area. According to the respondent, \u003cem\u003eXanthium strumarium\u003c/em\u003e grows in the dry season in the river basin, especially in sandy soil types, which make this plant, remain green while other plants dry (Table\u0026nbsp;2). The deep greenness of the leaf of this plant attracts livestock to consume it and makes them poisonous. \u003cem\u003eRumex crispus, Ajuga alba, Solanum americanum, Uebelinia kiwuensis, Datura stramonium\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eTrifolium burchelianum\u003c/em\u003e grow in synchrony with the rainy season because they are shrub-type forage. Due to this, cattle and equine consume other forages and are poisoned, based on the information collected and observed by the researchers during the field survey. The remaining forages and trees, such as \u003cem\u003eEuphorbia tirucalli\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eHedera canariensis\u003c/em\u003e were grown and green throughout the year, and they affect animals either externally (the skin and the eye) by contact or physiologically by consuming those plants.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003eAgro-ecological distribution of poisonous plants\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThis study was conducted in the southwestern parts of Ethiopia, where many endemic species of plants were found due to the diversified climatic and soil conditions of the region. In the study area of the Kaffa zone southwestern Ethiopia, there are three traditionally recognized agro-ecological zones (\u003cem\u003eKola, Woina-dega and Dega\u003c/em\u003e). These ecological zones influence the distribution of various species of plants and animals. The \u003cem\u003eRumex crispus, Prosopis juliflora, Ajuga alba, Solanum americanum, Amaranthus cruentus, Albizia gummifera, Cyperus rotundus, Uebelinia kiwuensis, Datura stramonium, Xanthium strumarium, Tribulus terestris, Medicago polymorpha, Euphorbia tirucalli, Hedera canariensis\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eTrifolium burchelianum\u003c/em\u003e samples collected from different locations of the study area showed significant variations in their level of toxicity for livestock (Table\u0026nbsp;2).\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"colspec\" align=\"left\"\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable\u0026nbsp;2\u003c/strong\u003e. Summary of the identified poisonous plants according to their botanical name, season of occurrences, agroecological distribution, clinical sign, and traditional treatment mechanism.\u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cdiv class=\"colspec\" align=\"left\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/div\u003e\n \u003ctable id=\"Tabb\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n \u003cthead\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eBotanic name\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSeason of occurrences\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAgro ecology *(epidemiology)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eClinical sign\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTraditional treatment\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/thead\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eRumex crispus\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eRainy season\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAll agroecology\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBloating, foam formation\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eProviding soap and cold water, or milk\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eEuphorbia tirucalli\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAll season\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLowland, midland\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIrritation in the eye and skin\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSoap wash of the infected area with tap water\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAjuga alba\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eRainy season\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHighland\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAcute bloat depression, loss of appetite, muscle spasm, weakness\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMix Soap and ash, then provide through mouth\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSolanum americanum\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eRainy season\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAll agroecology\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBloat, loss of appetite, incoordination\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eProvide Liquid dung by mix, if not, use troaca and canula\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eTribulus terestris\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eRainy season\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLowland, midland\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWeakness, inappetance\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eProvide Cold water\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eMedicago polymorpha\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAll season\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHighland summer\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBloating, colic, muscle spasm, weakness,\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMix Soap and ash and then provide through mouth\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eHedera canariensis\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAll season\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLowland, midland\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIrritation of skin and eye infection\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSoap wash with tap water\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAmaranthus cruentus\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDry season\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLowland, midland\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBloat, foam formation, depression, loss of appetite, incoordination\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMix Alcohol and sheep tail fat. Put them over fire, squeeze the liquid out of the bundle, provide through mouth\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAlbizia gummifera\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAll season\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAll agroecology\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIrritation, parasite/worm\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eClinic treatment\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eCyperus rotundus\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAll season\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAll agroecology\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBloat, depression, weakness, reluctance to move, coma and death\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eProvide soap and ash mixture through mouth\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eUebelinia kiwuensis\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eRainy season\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLowland, highland\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBloat, diarrhea, loss of appetite, weakness,\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eProvide Soap through mouth\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eDatura stramonium\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eRainy season\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLowland, midland\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNo urine, bloat, no rumination\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eProvide garlic and \u003cem\u003efeto\u003c/em\u003e by mix in tap water\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eTrifolium burchelianum\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eRainy season\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLowland, midland\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLeg \u003cem\u003echok\u003c/em\u003e or foot and toe rot, infected toe\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePut the root of \u003cem\u003eTrifolium burchelianum\u003c/em\u003e on fire the treat the infected area by put on it to burn\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eXanthium strumarium\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDry season\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLowland, midland and river basin\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDepression, loss of appetite, incoordination, lying dawn, paddling of limb, and convulsion, coma and death\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMix soap and milk; then provide through mouth\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eProsopis juliflora\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWinter\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLowland\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBloating, foam formation, Lower jaw dislocation\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eProvide Cold water and ash\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n \u003c/table\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e*All plants listed in the above table are wild and some used for fencing.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003eImpact of poisonous plant on the economy of farmers\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThis study also showed that diarrhea, respiratory distress, trebling, irritation, salivation, bloating, inappetance, weakness, coma, and finally death were among the frequently manifested signs of poisoned livestock. Bovine species are the most frequently poisoned livestock, followed by sheep, goats and equine (Table\u0026nbsp;1). This study indicated that feed shortage is the primary predisposing factor, followed by nutritional deficiency and excessive consumption. During our field assessment and survey, the researcher observed that farmers lost their goats, sheep, donkeys, and horses in Goba, Decha and Gimbo district due to the effects of those poisonous plants. Farmers are told that young and highly productive animals were the most susceptible to poisonous plants than others. All the factors for degree of toxicity included the chemical nature of the toxin, the amount and time period of the toxin eaten, the parts of the plant eaten, the stage of maturity of the plant, the species of the animal, their age, sex, and general condition of the animal. Plant species are the main determining factor for fatality or recovery, depending on the information gained from the traditional animal healers. The results in general have shown that toxic plants were causing significant animal health problems in the Kaffa zone of southwest Ethiopia.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec13\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003eTreatment mechanism of the toxin\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAs shown in the figure below, from the total interviewed individuals, 70% of them respond that they used different traditional medicinal plants as a treatment toxin of poisonous plants for their livestock such as cattle, sheep, goat, equine and others. Whereas, the remaining interviewed individuals did not use traditional medicinal plants as a treatment to heal their animals from the poison. Similarly, 38.5% of animal health experts were recommended to use traditional treatments for toxin, and 61.5% were not, but instead they used different modern drugs by veterinarians. While all traditional animal healers were used medicinal plants to treat the toxin caused by poisonous plants (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e). Those animal healers and farmers used different treatment mechanisms to relieve their poisoned animals by providing different locally available inputs like soap, ash, mixture of soap and milk with cold water, grinding garlic and feeding, providing alcohol as drench, and other plant roots or leaves depending on the animal breeds, degree of poisoning and type of poisonous plant as they are different in their toxicity.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003e According to the current study's findings, livestock were primarily contaminated via eating or coming into touch with the leaves and other elements of the toxic plants. Among the animal health professionals surveyed, 84.6% noted that the area's livestock health issues are primarily caused by plant poisoning (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e). The majority of perennial plants, including shrubs and bushes, have been shown to contain toxic secondary metabolites. According to the information gathered from the respondents, the condition is caused by a shortage of forage supply resulting from a variety of factors, including overgrazing, drought, agricultural expansion, and soil erosion. The investigation's outcome supported\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e conclusions.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSeveral of the species found in this study were also found in Horo Guduru Wollega, where the most commonly reported poisonous plants in the examined area were \u003cem\u003eSolanum americanum, Cyperus rotundus, Amaranthus spp.\u003c/em\u003e, and \u003cem\u003eRumex crispus\u003c/em\u003e (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e). Nonetheless, there were differences in the range and kind of numerous toxic plants in the Bako district\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. The variations may arise from the growing of different plants in diverse geographic locations with distinct edaphic and climatic conditions. The differences in the chemical makeup of various poisonous plants in various locations are also influenced by these characteristics. Each plant has a different concentration of the harmful compounds. Toxin content and distribution in plants are influenced by a variety of factors, including the species, geographic location, and individual plant parts. Recurrent use of the species as a main feed may result in toxicity, even if the concentration of poisonous chemicals is occasionally so low as to be regarded excellent fodder\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThese plants are poisonous, according to the responses of\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e, and the good effects usually happen at smaller amounts, while overdosing can result in poisoning. Folk medicine uses these herbs to cure human and animal problems. According to\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e, this result is consistent. Plants can be poisonous in a number of ways, including their leaves, branches, bark, roots, seeds, and, occasionally, entire plants. The formation of chemicals in plant parts can have toxic effects on humans and animals under specific circumstances\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e22\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWhile some plants thrive throughout the dry season, others wait for the spring and summer rains to come before emerging into growth. April through May and July through September are the months with the highest rates of precipitation. Some plant species utilized as animal feed, particularly grasses, experience rapid growth during the beginning of the rainy season. This phenomenon is typically linked to an increase in the accumulation of potentially poisonous chemicals like alkaloids. Consistent with the findings of\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e, the current investigation showed a correlation between drought and an increase in the degree of animal poisoning caused by these hazardous plants. During rainy seasons, animals are more likely to consume dangerous plants due to the rapid growth of leaves and the build-up of potentially harmful substances\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Poisonous plants can also be consumed by animals; this is especially true in situations where the fields are poor and major feeds are scarce because of adverse conditions like drought. The majority of edible plants in this study area dry up during droughts, as stated by the respondents, yet numerous poisonous plants stay green and attractive and serve as the main source of food for animals.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAjuga alba, Solanum americanum\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eAmaranthus cruentus\u003c/em\u003e grow in synchronize with the rainy season because of they are shrub type forage. Due to this cattle and equine consume with other forages and poisoned based on the information collected and observed by the researchers during field survey. In accordance with\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e23\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e the chemical composition of those toxic plants differs depending on where they are from. Various edaphic and climatic conditions allow various plants to grow in different places. These elements also affect how plants are chemically composed, which explains why various hazardous plants can be found in different parts of the world. Nonetheless, some of the plants found in this study have been linked to comparable effects on animals in other studies. In Iran, for example, \u003cem\u003eAmaranthus retroflexus\u003c/em\u003e, or red root, has been reported to poison livestock\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e24\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. It has already been established that the tissues of these plants contain nitrate. Likewise, studies have emphasized the significance of \u003cem\u003eTrifolium spp\u003c/em\u003e. as a source of cattle toxicity\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e25\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThese agroecological variations of poisonous plant distribution are due to a number of environmental factors, such as climate, altitude, rainfall, soil type, humidity, and others\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e26\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. A number of environmental factors, such as climate, altitude, rainfall, and other conditions, may affect the growth of plants, which in turn affects the quality of herbal ingredients present in a particular species, even if they are produced in the same region. According to the information gathered during the field survey, most of the poisonous plants are commonly used in folk medicine not only for livestock but also for humans because they exhibit antioxidant properties, which in turn inhibit the propagation of free radical reactions and protect the human body from disease.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study concludes that farmers may be directly or indirectly impacted by the financial losses brought on by these toxic plants. Decreases in productivity, animal deaths, abortions, weight loss (from disease or reduced feed intake), longer calving intervals, decreased fertility, diminished function from damage to organs like the nervous system, lungs, liver, etc., loss of breeding stock from deaths, functional inefficiency, etc. are examples of direct losses of livestock. The costs associated with prevention, treatment, and managing poisoned animals are the indirect losses (costs). Other costs include fences constructed and maintained to manage livestock at risk due to poisonous plants, herding livestock to prevent poisoning, supplemental feeding to prevent poisoning, modified grazing programs that may result in increased costs or inefficient grazing, medical costs associated with poisoning, and forage lost because it could not be harvested at the appropriate time or intensity. Although hard to measure, these expenses do exist\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e27\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. When there is a lack of food, animals may be forced to browse perennial shrubs and bushes, many of which have been shown to contain hazardous secondary metabolites\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e28\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. As indicated by several studies and supported by the data from this investigation, poisonous plants can coexist alongside forage plants and are thus easily accessed by grazing animals.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWhenever feasible, specialized antidotes should be used to treat plant poisoning rapidly. This condition is primarily an emergency that requires careful management. Correct identification and avoidance of these plants is the key to preventing issues with poisonous plants, though. It is very important to look for harmful plants in fence rows, hay fields, and pastures. Be especially cautious and search for these plants in newly designated grazing or haying areas if there is a drought or a year with little feed. The animals are healthy and will stay away from most toxic plants if there is enough meal available. However, animals are driven to consume food during the dry season due to acute feed shortages. Effective range management is therefore one of the best strategies to reduce the risk of plant poisoning in the region. Our study revealed that the most effective method of avoiding toxic weed infestations is to maintain a healthy and well-managed pasture. Eradication by uprooting and fencing off infected areas are two further strategies that might work\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e29\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e According to this study, plant poisoning has had a major negative influence on livestock producers' and seriously harmed animals' health. For decades, Ethiopians have used various plants, particularly those used by farmers and traditional animal healers, to treat livestock ailments. However, due to incorrect utilization of these plants, livestock health may have been compromised. In Ethiopia, medicinal plants remain the most easily accessible and reasonably priced means of treating a variety of human and animal illnesses. The aforementioned toxic plant has several secondary metabolites, each of which has a distinct purpose. For example, tannins have antibacterial properties, flavonoids have potent anticancer properties, and some alkaloids may be helpful in the fight against HIV infection. Most plants that are found in and around their surroundings but could be dangerous if consumed, injected, or come into contact with the skin are not well known to most people, and most plant poisoning in animals only occurs when an animal eats it by accident\u003csup\u003e\u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e30\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e. Farmers primarily utilize these plants as fence, however the milk-like droplets from \u003cem\u003eEuphorbia tirucalli\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eHedera canariensis\u003c/em\u003e harm the exposed animals' skin and eyes.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eIn general, based on the results of the present study, it is possible to conclude that plant poisoning is one of the livestock health problems in Kaffa Zone, southwest Ethiopia. The present study has also shown that toxic plants, especially those of evergreen in the dry season, cause problems in animals. Those poisonous plants are different in their toxicity, even for the same species, due to a number of environmental factors such as climate, altitude, rainfall, temperature, soil type, and other factors. Some poisonous plants grow in the dry season, while others remain dormant until the rain comes. Animals are also exposed to the consumption of poisonous plants, either intentionally or suddenly, when pastures are poor and major feeds are scarce due to unfavorable conditions such as drought. As a conclusion in the study area, the respondent confirmed that during drought, most palatable plants dry up; many of the poisonous plants remain green and attractive, and animals start to consume and finally become poisoned.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eBased on this study, the presence of livestock health problems and significant impacts on livestock producers as a result of plant poisoning were recognized. The results of the current study also indicated that livestock production in the study area was mostly extensive, with a very low population of animals kept in intensive production systems. In conclusion, the results of the present study show that herbal poisoning and chemical toxicities are among the most important causes of health problems in the region. The above-mentioned plant species were the most commonly incriminated toxic plants. Shortage of pasture and mismanagement of the grazing land are among the predisposing factors to toxicosis in this study area.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOverall, the current study's findings suggest that one of the health issues with livestock in the Kaffa Zone, southwest Ethiopia, is plant poisoning. According to the current study, animals can have health issues as a result of hazardous plants, particularly those that are evergreen throughout the dry season. Due to a variety of environmental parameters like climate, altitude, rainfall, temperature, soil type, and others, those dangerous plants vary in toxicity, even within the same species. While several dangerous plants thrive throughout the dry season, others stay dormant until it rains. When pastures are low and major feeds are rare because of harsh conditions, animals are also exposed to ingesting poisonous plants, either on purpose or accidentally. The respondent concluded that, in the study area, most edible plants dry up during droughts, whereas many toxic plants stay green and appealing and cause animals to start eating them until they eventually become poisoned. This study established the existence of health issues with animals and the substantial effects that plant poisoning has on livestock producers. The current study's findings also showed that the majority of the livestock produced in the study area was raised extensively, with a relatively small number of animals housed in intensive production systems. Conclusively, the findings of this study indicate that chemical toxicities and herbal poisons rank among the primary causes of health issues in the area. The most often implicated hazardous plant species were the ones listed above. One of the risk factors for toxicosis in this research region is a lack of pasture and poor management of the grazing land.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Abbreviations","content":"\u003cp\u003eA \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;Amharic\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eANOVA \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;Analysis of Variance\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eCBIF \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; Canadian Poisonous plants information system\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eEBI \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;Ethiopian Biodiversity Institute\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eETH \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; National Herbarium\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFB \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;Bureau of Farm\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eGPS \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; Global positioning system \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eK \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;Kafinono\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eKZFLD \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;Kafa Zone Livestock and Fishery Department\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSAS \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;Statistical Analysis System\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e \u003ch2\u003eCompeting interests\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe authors declared that there is no conflict of interest exists.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cstrong\u003eEthics approval and consent to participate\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cp\u003e All research in this study was conducted using human individual interviewed confirm that all methods were carried out in accordance with relevant guidelines and regulations of Bonga University proclamation No.410/2004. All experimental protocols were approved by a Bonga university licensing and ethical committee. We confirming that informed consent was obtained from all subjects by legal guardian of the country.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eFunding\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study was financed by the Vice President Office of Research and Community Service of Bonga University with Grant No. AgNr/Ansc/2022/01.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAuthor Contribution\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eS. M. contributed to the study design and T. W. contributed to data collection and data acquisition. Data analysis and interpretation was performed by S. M. The first draft of the manuscript was also written by S. M. and both authors commented on previous versions of the manuscript. Both authors read and approved the final manuscript.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAcknowledgments\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe authors would like to extend their gratitude to the Research Directorate of Bonga University, the department of Chemistry and Animal Science for their invaluable support for fund, laboratory works, and Research assistance for their technical support.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eData Availability\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe datasets used in the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eEthiopian Biodiversity Institute (EBI). Ethiopia\u0026rsquo;s Fifth National Report to the Convention on Biological Diversity, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia (2014).\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eThilagam,V.K, \u0026amp; Manivannan, S. Eutrophication- a threat to aquatic ecosystem. 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Advances in Life Science and Technology. 45, 1\u0026ndash;12 (2016).\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eDereje, A., Tariku, J., Teshale, S., Ashenafi, F. \u0026amp; Takele, B. Assessment of plant and chemical poisoning in livestock in central Ethiopia. Journal of Environ Anal Toxicology. (2014).\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eHailegabriel, A. Weed Management Systems Adopted For Natural Pastureland: Implication to Improve Yield and Health of the Pastureland in Ethiopia. International Journal of Animal Science and Technology. 7, 48\u0026ndash;56 (2023).\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eNcube, N.S., Afolayan, A.J. \u0026amp; Koh, A.I. Assessment techniques of antimicrobial properties of natural compounds of plant origin: current methods and future trends. African J Biotechnol.7, 1797\u0026ndash;1806 (2008).\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Agro-ecology, Economic impact, Livestock, Poisonous plants, Seasonal occurrences","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-4293103/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-4293103/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"In the southwestern Ethiopia there is huge livestock population with dense forest that requires more extensive assessment and documentation on poisonous plants, which are a neglected research area. Therefore this research was conducted to identify livestock poisoning plants with their respective ecology, seasons of occurrences and to assess effect on livestock production performance in the region from February to November 2022 with our key informants of farmers, traditional animal healers, and veterinarians. Structured questionnaire were used to collect information related to toxic plants for livestock and their associated risk factors. The most common poisoning plants identified in the study area includes Datura stramonium, Rumex crispus, Prosopis juliflora Ajuga alba, Solanum americanum, Amaranthus cruentus, Albizia gummifera, Cyperus rotundus, Uebelinia kiwuensis Xanthium strumarium, Tribulus terestris, Medicago polymorpha, Euphorbia tirucalli, Hedera canariensis and Trifolium burchelianum. Lack of green feed, shortage of pastures and overgrazing are the predisposing factors for livestock to consume poisoning plants. Most of the livestock poisoning plants were distributed in all agroecologies of lowland, midland, highland. Those poisonous plants were growing in the early rainy season and green in the dry season as well. Bovine species are the most frequently poisoned livestock followed by sheep, goats and equine by showing different symptoms. Traditional animal healers and farmers used different treatment mechanisms to relieve their poisoned animals by providing a mixture of soap and ash, soap with milk and cold water, garlic, alcohol, and other plant roots or leaves at different ratio, depending on the species of animal affected and type of poison. Physical control, biological mechanism and herbicide application of the infested areas by toxic plant, good range management, and wise grazing strategies can reduce the degree of poisoning of livestock.","manuscriptTitle":"Livestock Poisonous Plants, their Ecology, and its Impact on Livestock Production Performance in Southwest Ethiopia","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2024-08-21 11:17:12","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-4293103/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"35998e25-d7c9-49c3-8280-7b8834c0d731","owner":[],"postedDate":"August 21st, 2024","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[{"id":36242435,"name":"Biological sciences/Biochemistry"},{"id":36242436,"name":"Biological sciences/Physiology"},{"id":36242437,"name":"Biological sciences/Plant sciences"},{"id":36242438,"name":"Earth and environmental sciences/Natural hazards"},{"id":36242439,"name":"Health sciences/Health care"},{"id":36242440,"name":"Health sciences/Signs and symptoms"}],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2024-11-14T08:38:57+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2024-08-21 11:17:12","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-4293103","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-4293103","identity":"rs-4293103","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"qtupq5eGEP_6zYnWcrvyt","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}