Preliminary Psychometric Validation of the Greek Version of the Depression Anxiety Stress Scales for Youth (DASS-Y)

Preliminary Psychometric Validation of the Greek Version of the Depression Anxiety Stress Scales for Youth (DASS-Y) | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Preliminary Psychometric Validation of the Greek Version of the Depression Anxiety Stress Scales for Youth (DASS-Y) Eva Alexiou, Georgia Raftopoulou, Eirini Karakasidou This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-8336354/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Under Review Version 1 posted 14 You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Accurate assessment of depression, anxiety, and stress in youth is fundamental for understanding emotional well-being and guiding prevention and intervention efforts. The present study aimed to translate, adapt, and examine the psychometric properties of the Greek version of the Depression Anxiety Stress Scales for Youth (DASS-Y; Szabó & Lovibond, 2022 ). A community sample of 302 adolescents (47.4% female; M = 14.62 years, SD = 1.52) completed the DASS-Y along with measures of anxiety and depression (RCADS), positive and negative affect (PANAS-C), self-compassion (SCS-Y), life satisfaction (SLSS), and self-efficacy (GSE). Confirmatory factor analysis supported the expected three-factor correlated model representing Depression, Anxiety, and Stress, which showed excellent fit to the data (CFI = .997, TLI = .996, RMSEA = .057, SRMR = .051). Internal consistency was high across subscales (Cronbach’s α = .83–.89; McDonald’s ω = .84–.90). Convergent validity was supported by strong positive correlations with RCADS and PANAS-C Negative Affect, while discriminant validity was confirmed through negative correlations with Positive Affect, Self-Compassion, Life Satisfaction, and Self-Efficacy. These results replicate the factorial structure and reliability patterns of the original Australian validation and demonstrate that the Greek DASS-Y is a reliable, valid, and culturally appropriate instrument for assessing depression, anxiety, and stress among Greek youth. Future research should evaluate its clinical utility and longitudinal stability in diverse youth populations. DASS-Y adolescents Greek validation depression anxiety stress psychometrics Figures Figure 1 INTRODUCTION Background and Rationale Mental health difficulties among children and adolescents represent one of the most urgent public health challenges worldwide, with depression and anxiety ranking among the most prevalent internalizing problems (Kessler et al., 2010; Lawrence et al., 2015). Recent epidemiological findings indicate a growing prevalence of youth mental health problems (Wykes et al., 2023), alongside with a doubling of anxiety and depression levels that has been noted after recent societal stressors like the COVID-19 pandemic (Racine et al., 2021). Approximately 31.9% of adolescents ages 13–18 have been or are currently diagnosed with an anxiety disorder (Merikangas et al. 2010) and 31.5% have experienced depression (Center for Disease Control [CDC] 2018). These disorders often emerge by the teenage years and frequently persist into adulthood, increasing vulnerability to additional psychological, social, and academic difficulties, if left unaddressed (de Girolamo et al., 2012). Taken together, these findings highlight the necessity for early and accurate identification of negative emotional states in youth, so as to guide the development of targeted and effective prevention and intervention practices (Szabo & Lovibond, 2022). Despite the need for reliable screening, many existing youth instruments fail to adequately differentiate between depression and anxiety, as they often capture mixtures of general distress and overlapping symptoms such as sleep or appetite disturbances (Lovibond & Lovibond, 1995; McElroy et al., 2018; Szabo & Lovibond, 2022). Furthermore, commonly used youth assessment tools, tend to be lengthy, creating an additional burden for young respondents (O’Connor et al., 2016). Consequently, the field has underscored the importance of brief, psychometrically robust measures capable of assessing distinct affective states in youth. The Depression Anxiety Stress Scales (DASS; Lovibond & Lovibond, 1995) were originally developed to provide a comprehensive measure of negative emotional states in adults. The DASS was grounded in the tripartite model of affective distress, which posits that depression, anxiety, and stress represent related but distinct constructs. The original instrument included 42 items distributed evenly across three subscales—Depression, Anxiety, and Stress—each assessing unique symptom patterns. A shorter 21-item version (DASS-21) was later developed and widely adopted due to its brevity, strong psychometric performance, and applicability across clinical and community populations (Henry & Crawford, 2005). While the adult versions of the DASS have been extensively validated across cultures and languages, their direct application to younger populations raised concerns about developmental appropriateness and language comprehension. In response, Szabó and Lovibond (2022) developed the Depression Anxiety Stress Scales for Youth (DASS-Y), specifically designed for children and adolescents aged 8–17 years. The DASS-Y retained the theoretical structure and content domains of the original DASS but employed simplified language and age-appropriate item phrasing. The measure consists of 21 items, with seven items per subscale, rated on a 4-point Likert scale (0 = Never to 3 = Almost always ), where higher scores reflect greater symptom severity. The original validation study by Szabó and Lovibond (2022) was conducted on a large community sample of Australian adolescents. Confirmatory factor analysis supported a correlated three-factor model representing Depression, Anxiety, and Stress, with excellent fit indices (CFI = .993, RMSEA = .039). Internal consistency was high across subscales (α = .81–.88), and the scale demonstrated expected patterns of association with external constructs such as negative affect, emotional symptoms, and behavioural difficulties, supporting its convergent and discriminant validity. Moreover, measurement invariance across gender and age groups confirmed the DASS-Y’s robustness for use with diverse youth populations. Collectively, these findings established the DASS-Y as a psychometrically sound instrument for assessing core dimensions of emotional distress among children and adolescents. Given the rising rates of emotional difficulties among Greek adolescents (Kokkevi et al. 2018; Koumoula et al., 2024), and the absence of a brief, multidimensional self-report measure that distinguishes between depression, anxiety, and stress, a culturally adapted version of the DASS-Y would constitute a valuable contribution to mental health assessment practices in Greece. The present study The present study aimed to translate, adapt, and validate the DASS-Y for use with Greek children and adolescents. Although the DASS and DASS-21 have been widely employed across cultures and age groups, no validated Greek version tailored specifically to youth populations currently exists. Establishing the psychometric properties of the DASS-Y in a Greek context is therefore essential for ensuring its cultural appropriateness and measurement equivalence in research and clinical settings. Consistent with the original validation study, we examined the factorial validity, internal consistency reliability, and convergent and discriminant validity of the Greek DASS-Y. Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was conducted to test the hypothesized three-factor structure representing Depression, Anxiety, and Stress. Reliability analyses (Cronbach’s α and McDonald’s ω) were performed for the total scale and subscales. To evaluate construct validity, correlations were computed between the DASS-Y subscales and a set of theoretically related or protective constructs measured by established self-report instruments. Convergent validity was examined through associations with the Revised Child Anxiety and Depression Scale (RCADS; Chorpita et al., 2000; Greek: Giannopoulou et al., 2022) and the Negative Affect subscale of the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule for Children – Short Form (PANAS-C; Ebesutani et al., 2012; Greek: Karakasidou et al., in press). Discriminant validity was assessed via correlations with the Positive Affect subscale of the PANAS-C, the Student Life Satisfaction Scale (SLSS; Huebner, 1991a; Greek: Karapanagiotou et al., 2022), the Self-Compassion Scale for Youth (SCS-Y; Neff et al., 2021; Greek: Karakasidou et al., 2021), and the General Self-Efficacy Scale (GSE; Schwarzer & Jerusalem, 1995; Greek: Pilafas et al., 2024). It was hypothesized that the Greek DASS-Y would demonstrate a clear three-factor structure with high internal consistency across subscales. In line with theoretical expectations, DASS-Y Depression and Anxiety were expected to correlate positively with RCADS Depression and Anxiety and with PANAS - Negative Affect, while correlating negatively with PANAS - Positive Affect, Life Satisfaction, Self-Compassion, and Self-Efficacy. MATERIALS AND METHODS Study Design This study employed a quantitative, cross-sectional validation design aimed at translating, culturally adapting, and examining the psychometric properties of the Greek version of the DASS-Y. The design followed standard guidelines for cross-cultural test adaptation (Beaton et al., 2000; Yu et al., 2004) and included translation, back-translation, and psychometric evaluation phases. The research focused on assessing factorial validity, internal consistency, and convergent and discriminant validity of the Greek DASS-Y in a non-clinical, community-based sample of Greek adolescents. Data were collected via self-report questionnaires administered in school settings between April and June 2025. Participants A total of 302 children and adolescents aged 12–18 years participated in this study. The sample included 143 females (47.4%) and 159 males (52.6%) participants, with a mean age of M = 14.62 years (SD = 1.52). Participants were recruited from 3 primary schools (Grades 7-9) and 4 secondary schools (Grades 10-12) located in Athens. Recruitment took place across both public and private schools to ensure representation of different socioeconomic and educational backgrounds (Table 1). The inclusion criteria were: (a) attendance in a Greek school within Grades Junior High School to Senior High School (7-12), (b) parental consent and child assent, and (c) ability to read and understand Greek at an age-appropriate level. No exclusion criteria were applied beyond incomplete data and age outside the target range. Table 1. Demographic Characteristics of the Sample (N = 302). Variable Category n (%) M (SD) Child age (years) 14.62 (1.52) Sex Female 143 (47.4 %) Male 159 (52.6 %) School grade Grade 7 62 (20.5 %) Grade 8 54 (17.9 %) Grade 9 47 (15.6 %) Grade 10 67 (22.2 %) Grade 11 43 (14.2 %) Grade 12 29 (9.6 %) Parental marital status Married 229 (75.8 %) Cohabiting 7 (2.3 %) Divorced 53 (17.5 %) Widowed 13 (4.3 %) Mother’s education Primary 17 (5.6 %) Secondary 169 (56.0 %) University graduate 72 (23.8 %) Postgraduate 44 (14.6 %) Father’s education Primary 14 (4.6 %) Secondary 158 (52.3 %) University graduate 79 (26.2 %) Postgraduate 51 (16.9 %) Note. Percentages are based on valid responses. Procedure The study procedures were approved by the Research Ethics and Deontology Committee of Panteion University of Social and Political Sciences and the Secondary Education Directorate of Attica prior to data collection (Approval Protocol No. 18/09-04-2025). Participants were recruited through collaboration with school principals. Information sheets and consent forms were distributed by each school to parents or guardians, explaining the study aims, voluntary nature of participation, and procedures for maintaining confidentiality and only students who returned signed parental consent and provided their own assent participated in the study. They were also reminded that their participation was voluntary, they could skip any item or withdraw at any time without penalty, and that their responses would remain anonymous. Data collection occurred during school hours in groups of approximately 25 students per classroom under the supervision of trained research assistants or the principal investigator. Participation was entirely voluntary and anonymous, with no incentives provided. Cases with more than 10% missing responses were excluded from analyses. All questionnaires were administered in paper-and-pencil format and took approximately 20 minutes to complete. The order of questionnaires was partially counterbalanced across classrooms to reduce order effects. The DASS-Y was always administered alongside other self-report instruments designed to assess related constructs of emotional functioning, including the RCADS, the SLSS, the GSE, the SCS-Y and the PANAS–C-Short Form. Upon completion, questionnaires were collected immediately and stored securely for later data entry and analysis. Translation procedure For the present study, the DASS-Y was translated and culturally adapted into Greek following internationally recognized guidelines for cross-cultural adaptation of self-report measures (Beaton et al., 2000; Yu et al., 2004). Two independent bilingual translators, one with expertise in clinical psychology and one with linguistic training, produced initial Greek translations of the original English items. The two versions were compared and synthesized into a single reconciled draft by the research team. A third bilingual translator, blind to the original instrument, then performed a back-translation into English to evaluate conceptual equivalence. Discrepancies were discussed by an expert panel consisting of psychologists, psychometricians, and language specialists until full agreement was achieved. The prefinal Greek version was pilot-tested with a small group of adolescents (n = 25) to assess clarity, comprehension, and cultural relevance. Minor wording adjustments were made to improve readability and developmental appropriateness. The final version of the Greek DASS-Y was approved by all translators and was then subjected to psychometric validation replicating the analytical framework used in the original study. Materials Background Sociodemographic Information Information on sociodemographic characteristics, including gender, age (in years), grade, and parental marital status and education level, was collected through a brief background questionnaire completed by the participants. The researchers did not collect information about socioeconomic status, as most youths often have inaccurate knowledge of their family’s SES. All sociodemographic data were collected anonymously and used solely for descriptive and statistical purposes in the validation analyses. Self-Report Questionnaires The Depression Anxiety Stress Scales for Youth (DASS-Y; Szabó & Lovibond, 2022) The Greek version of the DASS-Y was used to assess symptoms of depression, anxiety, and stress among children and adolescents. The original DASS-Y is a 21-item self-report instrument designed as a downward extension of the adult Depression Anxiety Stress Scales ( DASS-21; Lovibond & Lovibond, 1995) to ensure developmental appropriateness for younger populations. It comprises three subscales—Depression, Anxiety, and Stress—each containing seven items. Respondents indicate the extent to which each statement applied to them over the past week using a 4-point Likert-type scale ranging from 0 = not true of me at all to 3 = very true of me or most of the time . One sample item is: “I was stressing about lots of things”. Subscale scores were calculated by summing the seven items corresponding to each construct, while the total score represented overall negative emotional symptoms. Higher scores reflect greater symptom severity. For interpretive purposes, preliminary severity cutoffs have been proposed based on the original Australian validation sample (Szabó & Lovibond, 2022), following the same percentile-based method as in the adult DASS (Lovibond & Lovibond, 1995). The recommended cutoff ranges are presented in Table 2 . In the original validation, Szabó and Lovibond (2022) reported a three-factor structure consistent with the theoretical model and excellent internal consistency, with McDonald’s ω and Cronbach’s α ranging from .84 to .93 across factors and .96 for the total scale. In the current Greek sample, the McDonald’s ω and Cronbach’s alpha ranged from .83 to .90 for the total scale was α = .93 indicating excellent internal consistency. Table 2. DASS-Y Severity Cutoffs for Depression, Anxiety, Stress, and Total Scores Severity Level Depression Anxiety Stress Total Normal 0–6 0–5 0–11 0–23 Mild 7–8 6–7 12–13 24–29 Moderate 9–13 8–12 14–16 30–39 Severe 14–16 13–15 17–18 40–46 Extremely Severe 17+ 16+ 19+ 47+ Note. DASS-Y = Depression Anxiety Stress Scales for Youth (Szabó & Lovibond, 2022). Severity cutoffs were derived from percentile ranges in the original Australian validation sample (N = 2,121) following the same procedure as described in the adult DASS manual (Lovibond & Lovibond, 1995). The Positive and Negative Affect Schedule for Children – Short Form (PANAS-C; Ebesutani et al., 2012; Greek adaptation: Karakasidou et al., in press) The Positive and Negative Affect Schedule for Children – Short Form (PANAS-C) was administered to assess positive and negative emotional states among participants. The PANAS-C is a brief self-report instrument derived from the original Positive and Negative Affect Schedule for Children (Laurent et al., 1999), which itself was adapted from the adult PANAS (Watson et al., 1988). The short form comprises 10 items, including five Positive Affect (PA) and five Negative Affect (NA) descriptors. Respondents indicate the extent to which they felt this way during the past week, using a 5-point Likert-type scale ranging from 1 = very slightly or not at all to 5 = extremely . One sample item is “sad”. Scores are calculated separately for the two subscales. The Positive Affect (PA) score is obtained by summing the five PA items ( range = 5–25 ), with higher scores indicating greater levels of positive affect. The Negative Affect (NA) score is calculated by summing the five NA items ( range = 5–25 ), with higher scores representing greater negative affect. There are no reverse-scored items, and no overall total score is produced; PA and NA are interpreted as distinct affective dimensions (Ebesutani et al., 2012). The PANAS-C has demonstrated excellent psychometric properties in both community and clinical youth samples, with internal consistency coefficients typically exceeding α = .80 for both subscales (Laurent et al., 1999; Ebesutani et al., 2012). In the current Greek sample, Cronbach’s alpha was α = .91 for Positive Affect and α = .83 for Negative Affect, indicating excellent internal reliability. The Revised Child Anxiety and Depression Scale (RCADS; Chorpita et al., 2000, Greek adaptation: Giannopoulou, et al., 2022) The RCADS was used to assess symptoms of anxiety and depression corresponding to DSM-based diagnostic categories in children and adolescents. The RCADS consists of 47 items, rated on a 4-point Likert scale ranging from 0 = never to 3 = always , indicating how often each statement applies to the respondent. One sample item is “I worry when I think I have done poorly at something”. The RCADS yields six subscales: Separation Anxiety Disorder (SAD), Social Phobia (SP), Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD), Panic Disorder (PD), Obsessive–Compulsive Disorder (OCD), and Major Depressive Disorder (MDD). Two composite scores can also be derived: Total Anxiety (sum of the five anxiety subscales) and Total Internalizing (sum of all six subscales). Raw scores for each subscale are obtained by summing the relevant items. The official scoring program (Chorpita et al., 2000; 2019 update) converts these raw scores into T-scores based on sex- and grade-specific U.S. norms. The recommended interpretive cutoffs are T ≥ 65 (borderline clinical range) and T ≥ 70 (clinical range). However, in the present Greek validation study, raw subscale scores were used for all psychometric and correlational analyses. As the RCADS was included solely to examine convergent validity of the Greek DASS-Y, the use of standardized T-scores was not required. Analyses were therefore conducted using raw scores to maintain consistency with the Greek dataset and to directly assess the associations between constructs. The RCADS has demonstrated excellent psychometric properties in both community and clinical samples, with internal consistency estimates typically exceeding α = .80 across subscales (Chorpita et al., 2000; Chorpita et al., 2005). In the current Greek sample, Cronbach’s alpha coefficients ranged from α = .74 to α = .89, indicating good reliability across the anxiety and depression domains. The Student Life Satisfaction Scale (SLSS; Huebner, 1991a, Greek adaptation: Karapanagiotou et al., 2022) The SLSS was used to assess participants’ global cognitive evaluations of life satisfaction. The SLSS is a widely used self-report instrument that measures the degree to which children and adolescents perceive their lives as satisfying, without directly referencing affective states. It consists of seven statements such as “My life is going well” and “I wish I had a different kind of life” (reverse-scored). Respondents rate their agreement with each statement on a 6-point Likert-type scale ranging from 1 = strongly disagree to 6 = strongly agree . Two negatively worded items (items 3 and 4) are reverse-scored before computing the total. A total SLSS score is obtained by summing all seven items, with higher scores reflecting greater overall life satisfaction. The SLSS has demonstrated strong psychometric properties across cultures, with internal consistency typically ranging from α = .80 to .90 (Huebner, 1991a, 1991b). The Greek validation research reported a one-factor structure and high internal consistency (Cronbach’s α ≈ .93) among secondary school students. In the current Greek adaptation, the same response format and scoring procedure were used. In this study, Cronbach’s alpha was α = .91, indicating [good/excellent] internal reliability. The General Self-Efficacy Scale (GSE; Schwarzer & Jerusalem, 1995, Greek adaptation: Pilafas et al., 2024) The GSE was included to assess participants’ perceived self-efficacy, defined as the belief in one’s ability to cope effectively with a variety of difficult demands and challenges in life. The GSE is a 10-item self-report instrument designed to measure optimistic self-beliefs related to personal competence across different life situations. Respondents rate each statement on a 4-point Likert-type scale ranging from 1 = not at all true to 4 = exactly true , reflecting the degree to which each statement describes them. All items are positively worded (e.g., “I can always manage to solve difficult problems if I try hard enough” ). The total score is computed as the sum of all 10 items, yielding a possible range of 10 to 40, with higher scores indicating greater perceived self-efficacy. The GSE has demonstrated strong internal consistency and validity across numerous cultures and age groups, with Cronbach’s α typically ranging from .76 to .90 (Schwarzer & Jerusalem, 1995). It is negatively correlated with measures of depression, anxiety, stress, and burnout, and positively associated with optimism, emotion regulation, and life satisfaction. In the present Greek sample, Cronbach’s alpha was α = .90, indicating excellent reliability. The Self-Compassion Scale for Youth (SCS-Y ; Neff et al., 2021; Greek adaptation: Karakasidou et al., 2021) The SCS-Y was administered to assess adolescents’ capacity for self-compassion, defined as responding to personal hardship with kindness, understanding, and mindful awareness rather than harsh self-criticism or over-identification with negative emotions. The SCS-Y is a 17-item self-report questionnaire, developed as a downward extension of the adult Self-Compassion Scale (Neff, 2003) and adapted for youth aged 12–18 years. Participants indicate how often each statement describes them using a 5-point Likert-type scale ranging from 1 = almost never to 5 = almost always. One sample item is “I try to be kind and supportive toward myself when I’m having a hard time.” The SCS-Y consists of six subscales corresponding to the components of self-compassion: Self-Kindness, Self-Judgment, Common Humanity, Isolation, Mindfulness, and Over-Identification. Subscale scores are calculated by averaging the relevant items after reverse scoring the negatively worded ones. The total self-compassion score is obtained by averaging all six subscale means, with higher scores indicating greater self-compassion. The SCS-Y has shown excellent psychometric properties in international adolescent samples (Neff et al., 2021). The Greek version (Karakasidou et al., 2021) demonstrated satisfactory internal consistency and factorial validity with Cronbach α= .64. In the present study, the Greek version of the SCS-Y was used following the authors’ validated translation. Cronbach’s alpha for the total scale was α = .91, indicating excellent internal reliability. RESULTS Data Analysis Data were analysed using IBM SPSS Statistics , version 25 (IBM Corp., 2017), and RStudio (RStudio Team, 2024 ), which served as the integrated development environment for R (version 4.4.1; R Core Team, 2024 ). SPSS was used for data screening, descriptive analyses, and reliability estimates, whereas R (via the lavaan package; Rosseel, 2012 ) was employed for confirmatory factor analyses and validity testing. Prior to analyses, all variables were screened for missing data, univariate normality, and outliers. Item-level descriptive statistics (means, standard deviations, skewness, kurtosis) were computed to evaluate distributional characteristics. Internal consistency was assessed using Cronbach’s α and McDonald’s ω for each DASS-21-Youth (DASS-Y) subscale and the total score. Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was conducted to evaluate the hypothesized three-factor structure of the DASS-Y. Because the items were ordinal (0–3), the model was estimated using the weighted least squares mean and variance adjusted (WLSMV) estimator with polychoric correlations. Model fit was evaluated using the χ² statistic, the Comparative Fit Index (CFI), the Tucker–Lewis Index (TLI), the Root Mean Square Error of Approximation (RMSEA) with 90% confidence interval, and the Standardized Root Mean Square Residual (SRMR). Acceptable model fit was defined by CFI and TLI ≥ .90, RMSEA ≤ .08, and SRMR ≤ .08 (Hu & Bentler, 1999). Convergent and discriminant validity were examined by computing Pearson correlations between DASS-Y subscales and external measures theoretically related to negative and positive aspects of emotional functioning: the RCADS, the SLSS, the GSE, the SCS-Y and the PANAS–C-Short Form. Consistent with theory, positive correlations were expected with measures of anxiety and depression, and negative correlations with positive affect, self-compassion, life satisfaction, and self-efficacy. Data Screening and Descriptive Statistics Data screening was performed prior to analysis following the procedures described by Szabó and Lovibond ( 2022 ). All responses were examined for completeness, accuracy, and response range. No missing data were identified for any DASS-Y item (N = 302). One response exceeding the allowable range (a value of 4 on item 21) was corrected to the maximum valid value (3). Descriptive statistics for all items were inspected for distributional properties. Item means ranged from M = 0.35 to M = 1.53 (SDs = 0.70–1.12). Skewness values ranged from 0.05 to 2.30 and kurtosis from − 1.38 to 5.02 , both within the recommended thresholds for acceptable normality (|skew| < 2, |kurtosis| < 7; West et al., 1995 ). Although the Shapiro–Wilk tests were significant for all items ( p 300) and does not indicate substantive non-normality. Composite scores for Depression, Anxiety, and Stress were calculated by summing the seven corresponding items, and a total DASS-Y score was obtained by summing all 21 items. Higher scores represent greater symptom severity. For the present sample, mean subscale scores were M = 3.67 (SD = 4.68) for Depression, M = 3.31 (SD = 4.27) for Anxiety, and M = 8.29 (SD = 5.72) , with a total DASS-Y mean of M = 15.26 (SD = 12.93) . All subscales showed high internal consistency (Cronbach’s α = .85–.92). Descriptive statistics for the external measures are summarized in Table 3 . Participants reported moderate levels of positive affect ( M = 17.79, SD = 5.21 ) and low-to-moderate negative affect ( M = 9.99, SD = 4.35 ) on the PANAS-C. Mean scores for the remaining indicators were as follows: self-compassion M = 3.09 (SD = 0.86) , life satisfaction M = 30.25 (SD = 8.51) , and general self-efficacy M = 27.34 (SD = 6.86) . RCADS subscale means were within expected ranges, with total anxiety M = 28.64 (SD = 18.34) and depression M = 8.31 (SD = 6.31) . All instruments demonstrated satisfactory internal consistency (Cronbach’s α > .80). Table 3 Descriptive Statistics and Internal Consistency of Study Measures (N = 302) Measure M SD Range α Depression Anxiety Stress Scales for Youth (DASS-Y) Depression 3.67 4.68 0–20 .89 Anxiety 3.31 4.27 0–20 .83 Stress 8.29 5.72 0–21 .88 Total 15.26 12.93 0–58 .93 Positive and Negative Affect Schedule for Children – Short Form (PANAS-C) Positive Affect 17.79 5.21 5–25 .91 Negative Affect 9.99 4.35 5–24 .82 Self-Compassion Scale for Youth (SCS-Y) 3.09 0.86 1.41–4.88 .91 Student Life Satisfaction Scale (SLSS) 30.25 8.51 8–42 .91 General Self-Efficacy Scale (GSE) 27.34 6.86 13–40 .90 Revised Child Anxiety and Depression Scale (RCADS) Separation Anxiety 10.61 6.27 0–27 .74 Social Phobia 6.26 4.09 0–18 .88 Generalized Anxiety Disorder 4.85 4.95 0–25 .84 Panic Disorder 4.82 3.83 0–18 .86 Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder 8.31 6.31 0–28 .78 Major Depressive Disorder 8.31 6.31 0–28 .89 Total Anxiety (RCADS) 28.64 18.34 0–93 .87 Reliability Cronbach’s α and McDonald’s ω coefficients were calculated for each DASS-Y subscale and the total score to evaluate internal consistency. Results indicated excellent reliability for the Depression subscale (α = .89, ω = .90) and Stress subscale (α = .88, ω = .88), and good reliability for the Anxiety subscale (α = .83, ω = .84). The total scale’s internal consistency was also excellent (α = .93). Corrected item–total correlations ranged from .42 to .75 across items, suggesting adequate item homogeneity within each factor. These values are consistent with those reported in the original development study by Szabó and Lovibond ( 2022 ), supporting the reliability of the Greek adaptation. Factorial Validity Following the approach of Szabó and Lovibond ( 2022 ), the factorial validity of the DASS-Y was examined using confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) on the total sample. Given the moderate sample size (N = 302), the dataset was not split for cross-validation analyses, as recommended minimum sample sizes for CFA require approximately 200–300 cases per model (Brown, 2015 ; Kline, 2016 ). Model stability and construct validity were instead assessed through reliability estimates and replication of the theoretical three-factor structure. Three competing models were tested: (a) a one-factor model representing general Negative Affect, (b) a three-factor correlated model comprising Depression, Anxiety, and Stress, and (c) a second-order hierarchical model with a higher-order General Distress factor accounting for the three first-order factors. Model fit was evaluated using the χ² statistic, the Comparative Fit Index (CFI), Tucker–Lewis Index (TLI), Root Mean Square Error of Approximation (RMSEA) with 90% confidence intervals, and the Standardized Root Mean Square Residual (SRMR). The results are presented in Table 4 . Table 4 Model fit indices for the 21-item DASS-Y in the Greek validation sample (N = 302) Model χ² df CFI TLI RMSEA 90% CI for RMSEA SRMR 1. One-factor model 590.80 189 .984 .983 .092 [.084, .099] .072 2. Three-factor correlated model 270.28 186 .997 .996 .057 [.048, .066] .051 3. Second-order (hierarchical) model 270.28 186 .997 .996 .057 [.048, .066] .051 Note. CFI = Comparative Fit Index; TLI = Tucker–Lewis Index; RMSEA = Root Mean Square Error of Approximation; SRMR = Standardized Root Mean Square Residual; CI = confidence interval. Model 1 = single-factor model (all items loading on one general factor); Model 2 = three correlated factors (Depression, Anxiety, Stress); Model 3 = second-order hierarchical model (Depression, Anxiety, and Stress loading onto a higher-order General Distress factor). The one-factor model showed inadequate fit to the data, χ² (189) = 590.80, p < .001, CFI = .984, TLI = .983, RMSEA = .092, 90% CI [.084, .099], SRMR = .072, indicating that a single latent construct could not account for all item covariances. This pattern of indices indicates poor model fit, suggesting that the assumption of a single underlying factor did not adequately represent the covariance structure among the DASS-Y items and was therefore rejected. In contrast, the three-factor correlated model demonstrated excellent fit to the data, χ² (186) = 270.28, p < .001, CFI = .997, TLI = .996, RMSEA = .057, 90% CI [.048, .066], SRMR = .051. All standardized factor loadings were statistically significant (p < .001) and ranged from .64 to .89, with moderate-to-high correlations among the three latent factors (r = .76–.83). The second-order hierarchical model, in which Depression, Anxiety, and Stress loaded onto a higher-order General Distress factor, also provided an excellent fit, χ² (186) = 270.28, p < .001, CFI = .997, TLI = .996, RMSEA = .057, 90% CI [.048, .066], SRMR = .051. Standardized loadings of the first-order factors on the higher-order factor ranged from .87 to .94. Comparison of the two well-fitting models indicated that both the three-factor correlated and the second-order hierarchical structures provided an excellent and nearly identical fit to the data. Although the hierarchical model yielded slightly lower χ² and marginally higher incremental fit indices (ΔCFI = .001; ΔRMSEA = .004), these differences were trivial and did not indicate a meaningful improvement in model performance. Given the comparable statistical fit and the theoretical clarity of treating Depression, Anxiety, and Stress as distinct but related constructs, the three-factor correlated model was retained as the final and most parsimonious representation of the DASS-Y structure in the Greek sample. Standardized factor loadings for the final model are presented in Table 5 . Table 5 Standardized factor loadings for the 21-item DASS-Y (three-factor correlated model, N = 302) Item Depression Anxiety Stress DASS3 .84 DASS5 .88 DASS10 .75 DASS13 .88 DASS16 .86 DASS17 .83 DASS21 .89 DASS2 .64 DASS4 .79 DASS7 .69 DASS9 .80 DASS15 .88 DASS19 .83 DASS20 .78 DASS1 .77 DASS6 .79 DASS8 .80 DASS11 .79 DASS12 .80 DASS14 .65 DASS18 .82 Note. All standardized factor loadings were statistically significant (p < .001). The standardized loadings were all significant ( p < .001) and ranged from .64 to .89, indicating strong relationships between observed items and their latent constructs. A path diagram illustrating the three-factor model is shown in Fig. 1 . Figure 1 Three-factor correlated model of the 21-item Depression Anxiety Stress Scales for Youth (DASS-Y) Note Confirmatory factor analysis of the DASS-Y (three-factor correlated model) Convergent and Discriminant Validity To examine convergent and discriminant validity, Pearson product–moment correlations were computed between the DASS-Y total and subscale scores (Depression, Anxiety, Stress) and theoretically related constructs, including the RCADS, the SLSS, the GSE, the SCS-Y and the PANAS–C-Short Form. Results are presented in Table 5 . As hypothesized, the DASS-Y subscales demonstrated strong intercorrelations ( r s = .64–.89, ps < .001), indicating that the dimensions of Depression, Anxiety, and Stress are closely related yet distinct facets of negative affectivity. Consistent with expectations, all DASS-Y scores showed positive associations with external measures of anxiety and depression. Correlations with RCADS subscales were large in magnitude (e.g., Panic Disorder r = .78, Generalized Anxiety Disorder r = .69, Major Depressive Disorder r = .81, and RCADS Total Anxiety r = .81; all ps < .001), supporting convergent validity of the Greek DASS-Y. In contrast, DASS-Y scores correlated negatively with measures reflecting positive emotional functioning and psychological resources. Specifically, DASS-Y total scores were negatively related to PANAS Positive Affect ( r = –.68, 95% CI [–.74, –.62]), Self-Compassion (SCS-Y; r = –.74, 95% CI [–.78, –.68]), Life Satisfaction (SLSS; r = –.70, 95% CI [–.76, –.64]), and General Self-Efficacy (GSE; r = –.51, 95% CI [–.59, –.42]; all ps < .001). These findings indicate that higher depressive, anxious, and stress symptoms were associated with lower self-compassion, self-efficacy, positive affect, and life satisfaction, thus providing strong evidence of discriminant validity. Overall, the correlation pattern aligns with theoretical expectations and previous research (Szabó & Lovibond, 2022 ), confirming that the Greek version of the DASS-Y shows appropriate convergent and discriminant relationships with related psychological constructs. Table 5 Pearson Correlations Between the DASS-Y Subscales and External Measures (N = 302) Measure DASS-Y Total Depression Anxiety Stress RCADS – Separation Anxiety .53 *** .48 *** .49 *** .44 *** RCADS – Social Phobia .68 *** .53 *** .56 *** .68 *** RCADS – Generalized Anxiety Disorder .69 *** .54 *** .59 *** .68 *** RCADS – Panic Disorder .78 *** .63 *** .78 *** .67 *** RCADS – Obsessive–Compulsive Disorder .62 *** .48 *** .50 *** .64 *** RCADS – Major Depressive Disorder .85 *** .81 *** .69 *** .74 *** RCADS – Total Anxiety .81 *** .64 *** .71 *** .77 *** PANAS-C Positive Affect –.68 *** –.69 *** –.49 *** –.61 *** PANAS-C Negative Affect .81 *** .69 *** .72 *** .72 *** SCS-Y (Self-Compassion) –.74 *** –.64 *** –.57 *** –.72 *** SLSS (Life Satisfaction) –.70 *** –.69 *** –.56 *** –.60 *** GSE (Self-Efficacy) –.51 *** –.47 *** –.40 *** –.47 *** Note. RCADS = Revised Child Anxiety and Depression Scale; PANAS-C = Positive and Negative Affect Schedule for Children; SCS-Y = Self-Compassion Scale for Youth; SLSS = Student Life Satisfaction Scale; GSE = General Self-Efficacy Scale. *p < .05. **p < .01. ** p < .001. In contrast to the original validation by Szabó and Lovibond ( 2022 ), multiple regression analyses were not conducted in the present study, as our primary aim was to examine the factorial validity and general convergent and discriminant relationships of the DASS-Y subscales within the Greek youth sample. DISCUSSION Summary of Findings The present study aimed to examine the psychometric properties of the Greek version of the DASS-Y in a community sample of adolescents. Consistent with the original validation study by Szabó and Lovibond ( 2022 ), results supported the adequacy of the three-factor model comprising Depression, Anxiety, and Stress. Confirmatory factor analyses indicated that both the correlated three-factor and second-order hierarchical models provided excellent and nearly identical fit to the data, whereas the single-factor model showed poor fit and was therefore rejected. Given the theoretical distinctiveness of the three emotional dimensions, the correlated three-factor solution was retained as the most parsimonious representation of the DASS-Y structure in the Greek context. Internal consistency was excellent across all subscales, with Cronbach’s α and McDonald’s ω values exceeding .80 for Depression, Anxiety, and Stress. Item–total correlations further supported the internal homogeneity of each scale. Descriptive analyses showed that mean DASS-Y scores were within the expected range for a community sample, suggesting that the instrument performs appropriately across the full range of symptom severity. Convergent and discriminant validity were also supported. The DASS-Y subscales correlated positively with external measures of anxiety and depression (RCADS) and negative affect (PANAS-C), and negatively with positive indicators, including self-compassion, life satisfaction, positive affect and self-efficacy, replicating the theoretically expected pattern of associations. These findings demonstrate that the Greek DASS-Y effectively captures dimensions of negative emotionality consistent with contemporary models of youth internalizing symptoms. Overall, the findings indicate that the Greek version of the DASS-Y possesses sound psychometric properties, with a clear and replicable three-factor structure, excellent internal reliability, and robust evidence of convergent and discriminant validity. The measure therefore provides a reliable and theoretically grounded tool for assessing depression, anxiety, and stress symptoms among Greek-speaking adolescents. Comparison with Previous Studies The present findings closely align with those reported in the original Australian validation of the DASS-Y (Szabó & Lovibond, 2022 ), as well as with subsequent international adaptations of the scale (Cao et al., 2023 ; Jovanović, 2024 ; Shabani et al., 2025 ; Śliwerski et al., 2025 ). Consistent with these studies, the Greek version demonstrated excellent internal consistency across all subscales (α = .83–.89; ω = .84–.90) and supported the theoretically derived three-factor model distinguishing Depression, Anxiety, and Stress. Both the three-factor correlated and the second-order hierarchical models provided excellent fit to the data, mirroring the factorial structure identified in the original English version. This convergence supports the cross-cultural robustness of the DASS-Y and its applicability in diverse youth populations. Similar to findings from the original study, the present results revealed strong correlations among the three DASS-Y factors, reflecting the shared variance among negative emotional states in youth while preserving their conceptual distinctiveness. The magnitude of these inter-factor correlations (r = .70–.83) was comparable to those observed in Australian (Szabó & Lovibond, 2022 ) and other international samples, including Serbian (Jovanović, 2024 ), Polish (Śliwerski et al., 2025 ), Persian (Shabani et al., 2025 ) and Chinese (Cao et al., 2023 ) adaptations. This consistency suggests that the tripartite distinction among depression, anxiety, and stress remains theoretically and empirically stable across languages and cultures. Furthermore, the observed pattern of convergent and discriminant validity in the Greek sample closely replicated those reported in previous validations. As expected, DASS-Y Depression, Anxiety and Stress were positively correlated with measures of internalizing symptoms (e.g., RCADS) and negative affect, and negatively associated with self-compassion, life satisfaction, positive affect and self-efficacy. This pattern aligns with prior findings demonstrating that higher DASS-Y scores are associated with greater emotional distress and lower well-being among children and adolescents (Szabó & Lovibond, 2023; Jovanović, 2024 ; Shabani et al., 2025 ). Taken together, these findings indicate that the Greek DASS-Y functions in a psychometrically comparable manner to the original and other translated versions. The replication of the factor structure, reliability indices, and theoretically consistent correlation patterns provides strong evidence for the cross-cultural generalizability of the DASS-Y as a brief and reliable measure of youth emotional difficulties. Theoretical and Practical Implications The present findings have important implications for the use of the Greek DASS-Y in both educational and clinical contexts. Szabó and Lovibond ( 2022 ) argued that valid, developmentally appropriate, and syndrome-specific assessment tools are essential for identifying emotional difficulties in youth and for guiding effective intervention planning. The Greek adaptation of the DASS-Y contributes to this aim by offering a brief, psychometrically sound instrument capable of distinguishing between depressive, anxious, and stress-related symptoms in adolescents. In Greek schools, the demand for systematic mental health screening has increased, alongside rising concerns about students’ emotional well-being (Koumoula et al., 2024 ). The DASS-Y’s short administration time and strong reliability make it a valuable screening tool for use by school-based mental health professionals (psychologists, counselors, social workers) during routine screenings, crisis-response procedures, or targeted assessments for at-risk students, thereby enhancing the process of psychological evaluation in schools. Additionally, in line with Szabo and Lovibond’s (2022) argument, accurate differentiation between depressive, anxious, and stress-related symptoms in Greek DASS-Y can support diagnostic interviews and enable practitioners to develop effective prevention and intervention programs, tailored to each distinct syndrome. Its multidimensional structure also allows clinicians to monitor symptom change across distinct emotional domains over time, improving progress tracking, and adjusting preventive or therapeutic plans accordingly. Cultural Considerations The adaptation of the DASS-Y into Greek also carries important cultural implications. Szabó and Lovibond ( 2022 ) noted that the instrument was developed to be cross-culturally applicable, but emphasized the necessity of local validation to account for cultural differences in emotional expression and language processing. The successful replication of the three-factor structure in the present study supports the theoretical universality of the depression–anxiety–stress tripartite model in Greek adolescents, suggesting that these constructs maintain their distinctiveness across cultural contexts. However, cultural considerations remain essential in interpreting scores and implementing the scale. Greek adolescents face unique sociocultural pressures related to academic demands, family structures, and social expectations (Kokkevi et al., 2018 ), which may shape how emotional symptoms are experienced and reported. Moreover, mental health stigma remains a barrier to help-seeking in Greek youth populations (Koumoula et al., 2024 ), potentially influencing the extent to which adolescents endorse internalizing symptoms on self-report tools. Therefore, while the DASS-Y provides a reliable structure for assessing emotional difficulties, practitioners should interpret findings within the broader cultural and educational context. Continued validation, including measurement invariance testing, qualitative feedback from students, and clinical utility studies, will ensure that the Greek DASS-Y remains both culturally sensitive and theoretically grounded. Limitations and Future Directions Several limitations of the present study should be acknowledged when interpreting the findings. First, the sample consisted of non-clinical adolescents recruited from the general population, which limits the generalizability of the results to clinical settings. Although the DASS-Y demonstrated strong psychometric properties in this community sample, future research should evaluate its diagnostic sensitivity and specificity among youth with clinically significant symptoms of depression, anxiety, or stress. Second, the study employed a cross-sectional design, precluding conclusions about the temporal stability and test–retest reliability of the measure. Longitudinal research is needed to examine the stability of DASS-Y scores over time and their responsiveness to intervention-related change. Third, the sample size, although adequate for confirmatory factor analysis, did not allow for more advanced analyses such as multigroup invariance testing or cross-validation across gender and age groups. Larger and more diverse samples would permit rigorous tests of measurement invariance to further confirm the stability and generalizability of the factor structure across demographic subgroups. Fourth, the reliance on self-report instruments may introduce shared method variance and response bias. Incorporating parent, teacher, or clinician ratings, as well as behavioral or physiological indicators of emotional distress, would strengthen the validity of future research. Finally, this study focused exclusively on the factorial and construct validity of the Greek version of the DASS-Y. Future studies should extend this preliminary validation by exploring normative data, clinical cutoffs, and longitudinal predictive validity, particularly in clinical and educational contexts. Despite these limitations, the current findings provide a solid foundation for the continued adaptation and validation of the DASS-Y in Greek youth populations. The scale appears to be a psychometrically sound and theoretically coherent tool for assessing depression, anxiety, and stress in children and adolescents. Conclusions The present study provides preliminary evidence supporting the reliability and validity of the Greek version of the DASS-Y scale. Consistent with the original English version, the Greek DASS-Y demonstrated an excellent three-factor structure representing distinct but interrelated dimensions of depression, anxiety, and stress. Internal consistency was high across all subscales, and the expected pattern of correlations with external measures confirmed its convergent and discriminant validity. Overall, these findings indicate that the Greek DASS-Y is a psychometrically robust and theoretically sound instrument, and its inclusion will address a significant gap in the existing validated tools for assessing negative emotionality in Greek youth. Although further research is needed to confirm these results in clinical and longitudinal contexts, the current study provides an essential foundation for the use of the DASS-Y in Greek-speaking youth populations for both research and applied purposes. Declarations Author Contribution E.A. and E.K. designed the study and supervised the translation and cultural adaptation of the DASS-Y into Greek. E.A. and E.K. coordinated data collection. G.R. performed the statistical analyses and interpretation of findings. E.A. drafted the introduction and contributed to the discussion section, while G.R. drafted methods and results. E.K. provided critical revisions to all sections. All authors reviewed and approved the final manuscript. Data Availability The datasets generated and analyzed during the current study are not publicly available due to ethical restrictions and the involvement of minors, but are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-8336354","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":581376820,"identity":"803641d4-8587-41cc-aba4-30036da76336","order_by":0,"name":"Eva Alexiou","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAA4UlEQVRIiWNgGAWjYHACxgMMDBIMDOwNQLaBBXF6IFp4DoC0SBCtBQgkEsAkYeX8EskPDnxss5AzuPn86oYfBRIM/O3dCXi1SM5IMzg444yEscHtnLKbPUCHSZw5uwGvFoMzBwwO81RIJG64nZN2gweoxUAiF78W+zPHPxz+YwDUcvNM2s0/xGgxYO8xOMwAsuUG+7HbRNkicbyn4GAP0C+SZ3LYbssYSPAQ9At/M/vGBz/b6uT4jh9/dvPNHxs5/vZe/FrgQOEAjwGI5iFOOQjIN7A/IF71KBgFo2AUjCgAAFDbTFr5a9q6AAAAAElFTkSuQmCC","orcid":"","institution":"Panteion University","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Eva","middleName":"","lastName":"Alexiou","suffix":""},{"id":581376822,"identity":"c285fdfc-e6aa-47bd-9d26-797eed7c7034","order_by":1,"name":"Georgia Raftopoulou","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Panteion University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Georgia","middleName":"","lastName":"Raftopoulou","suffix":""},{"id":581376823,"identity":"42e847fc-f5d7-4332-bba3-00bfd7eec77a","order_by":2,"name":"Eirini Karakasidou","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Panteion University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Eirini","middleName":"","lastName":"Karakasidou","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2025-12-11 11:53:14","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8336354/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-8336354/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":101450687,"identity":"12e46000-bb09-41ca-91b1-422659fab8f0","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-01-29 20:12:21","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":80013,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eThree-factor correlated model of the 21-item Depression Anxiety Stress Scales for Youth (DASS-Y)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eNote.\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/em\u003e\u003cem\u003e Confirmatory factor analysis of the DASS-Y (three-factor correlated model)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8336354/v1/858d9b32ed5a197a8e1e1933.png"},{"id":101751736,"identity":"3a07a082-e95b-4e69-a763-c2707b978f30","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-02-03 10:23:01","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":1536488,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8336354/v1/7a2bc814-29a4-49d2-87d4-4ee7dd8afa1d.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Preliminary Psychometric Validation of the Greek Version of the Depression Anxiety Stress Scales for Youth (DASS-Y)","fulltext":[{"header":"INTRODUCTION","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eBackground and Rationale\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; Mental health difficulties among children and adolescents represent one of the most urgent public health challenges worldwide, with depression and anxiety ranking among the most prevalent internalizing problems (Kessler et al., 2010; Lawrence et al., 2015). Recent epidemiological findings indicate a growing prevalence of youth mental health problems (Wykes et al., 2023), alongside with a doubling\u0026nbsp;of anxiety and depression levels that has been noted after recent societal stressors like the COVID-19 pandemic (Racine et al., 2021). Approximately 31.9% of adolescents ages 13–18 have been or are currently diagnosed with an anxiety disorder (Merikangas et al. 2010) and 31.5% have experienced depression (Center for Disease Control [CDC] 2018). These disorders often emerge by the teenage years and frequently persist into adulthood, increasing vulnerability to additional psychological, social, and academic difficulties, if left unaddressed (de Girolamo et al., 2012). Taken together, these findings highlight the necessity for early and accurate identification of negative emotional states in youth, so as to guide the development of targeted and effective prevention and intervention practices (Szabo \u0026amp; Lovibond, 2022).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; Despite the need for reliable screening, many existing youth instruments fail to adequately differentiate between depression and anxiety, as they often capture mixtures of general distress and overlapping symptoms such as sleep or appetite disturbances (Lovibond \u0026amp; Lovibond, 1995; McElroy et al., 2018; Szabo \u0026amp; Lovibond, 2022). Furthermore, commonly used youth assessment tools, tend to be lengthy, creating an additional burden for young respondents (O’Connor et al., 2016). Consequently, the field has underscored the importance of brief, psychometrically robust measures capable of assessing distinct affective states in youth.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;The \u003cem\u003eDepression Anxiety Stress Scales\u003c/em\u003e (DASS; Lovibond \u0026amp; Lovibond, 1995) were originally developed to provide a comprehensive measure of negative emotional states in adults. The DASS was grounded in the tripartite model of affective distress, which posits that depression, anxiety, and stress represent related but distinct constructs. The original instrument included 42 items distributed evenly across three subscales—Depression, Anxiety, and Stress—each assessing unique symptom patterns. A shorter 21-item version (DASS-21) was later developed and widely adopted due to its brevity, strong psychometric performance, and applicability across clinical and community populations (Henry \u0026amp; Crawford, 2005).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;While the adult versions of the DASS have been extensively validated across cultures and languages, their direct application to younger populations raised concerns about developmental appropriateness and language comprehension. In response, Szabó and Lovibond (2022) developed the \u003cem\u003eDepression Anxiety Stress Scales for Youth\u003c/em\u003e (DASS-Y), specifically designed for children and adolescents aged 8–17 years. The DASS-Y retained the theoretical structure and content domains of the original DASS but employed simplified language and age-appropriate item phrasing. The measure consists of 21 items, with seven items per subscale, rated on a 4-point Likert scale (0 = \u003cem\u003eNever\u003c/em\u003e to 3 = \u003cem\u003eAlmost always\u003c/em\u003e), where higher scores reflect greater symptom severity.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;The original validation study by Szabó and Lovibond (2022) was conducted on a large community sample of Australian adolescents. Confirmatory factor analysis supported a correlated three-factor model representing Depression, Anxiety, and Stress, with excellent fit indices (CFI = .993, RMSEA = .039). Internal consistency was high across subscales (α = .81–.88), and the scale demonstrated expected patterns of association with external constructs such as negative affect, emotional symptoms, and behavioural difficulties, supporting its convergent and discriminant validity. Moreover, measurement invariance across gender and age groups confirmed the DASS-Y’s robustness for use with diverse youth populations. Collectively, these findings established the DASS-Y as a psychometrically sound instrument for assessing core dimensions of emotional distress among children and adolescents.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;Given the rising rates of emotional difficulties among Greek adolescents (Kokkevi et al. 2018; Koumoula et al., 2024), and the absence of a brief, multidimensional self-report measure that distinguishes between depression, anxiety, and stress, a culturally adapted version of the DASS-Y would constitute a valuable contribution to mental health assessment practices in Greece. \u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eThe present study\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; The present study aimed to translate, adapt, and validate the DASS-Y for use with Greek children and adolescents. Although the DASS and DASS-21 have been widely employed across cultures and age groups, no validated Greek version tailored specifically to youth populations currently exists. Establishing the psychometric properties of the DASS-Y in a Greek context is therefore essential for ensuring its cultural appropriateness and measurement equivalence in research and clinical settings.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;Consistent with the original validation study, we examined the factorial validity, internal consistency reliability, and convergent and discriminant validity of the Greek DASS-Y. Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was conducted to test the hypothesized three-factor structure representing Depression, Anxiety, and Stress. Reliability analyses (Cronbach’s α and McDonald’s ω) were performed for the total scale and subscales.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;To evaluate construct validity, correlations were computed between the DASS-Y subscales and a set of theoretically related or protective constructs measured by established self-report instruments. Convergent validity was examined through associations with the Revised Child Anxiety and Depression Scale (RCADS; Chorpita et al., 2000; Greek: Giannopoulou et al., 2022) and the Negative Affect subscale of the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule for Children – Short Form (PANAS-C; Ebesutani et al., 2012; Greek: Karakasidou et al., in press). Discriminant validity was assessed via correlations with the Positive Affect subscale of the PANAS-C, the Student Life Satisfaction Scale (SLSS; Huebner, 1991a; Greek: Karapanagiotou et al., 2022), the Self-Compassion Scale for Youth (SCS-Y; Neff et al., 2021; Greek: Karakasidou et al., 2021), and the General Self-Efficacy Scale (GSE; Schwarzer \u0026amp; Jerusalem, 1995; Greek: Pilafas et al., 2024).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;It was hypothesized that the Greek DASS-Y would demonstrate a clear three-factor structure with high internal consistency across subscales. In line with theoretical expectations, DASS-Y Depression and Anxiety were expected to correlate positively with RCADS Depression and Anxiety and with PANAS - Negative Affect, while correlating negatively with PANAS - Positive Affect, Life Satisfaction, Self-Compassion, and Self-Efficacy.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"MATERIALS AND METHODS","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eStudy Design\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;This study employed a quantitative, cross-sectional validation design aimed at translating, culturally adapting, and examining the psychometric properties of the Greek version of the DASS-Y. The design followed standard guidelines for cross-cultural test adaptation (Beaton et al., 2000; Yu et al., 2004) and included translation, back-translation, and psychometric evaluation phases. The research focused on assessing factorial validity, internal consistency, and convergent and discriminant validity of the Greek DASS-Y in a non-clinical, community-based sample of Greek adolescents. Data were collected via self-report questionnaires administered in school settings between April and June 2025.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eParticipants\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;A total of 302 children and adolescents aged 12–18 years participated in this study. The sample included 143 females (47.4%) and 159 males (52.6%) participants, with a mean age of M = 14.62 years (SD = 1.52). Participants were recruited from 3 primary schools (Grades 7-9) and 4 secondary schools (Grades 10-12) located in Athens. Recruitment took place across both public and private schools to ensure representation of different socioeconomic and educational backgrounds \u003cstrong\u003e(Table 1).\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe inclusion criteria were:\u003cbr\u003e\u0026nbsp;(a) attendance in a Greek school within Grades Junior High School to Senior High School (7-12),\u003cbr\u003e\u0026nbsp;(b) parental consent and child assent, and\u003cbr\u003e\u0026nbsp;(c) ability to read and understand Greek at an age-appropriate level.\u003cbr\u003e\u0026nbsp;No exclusion criteria were applied beyond incomplete data and age outside the target range. \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable 1.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eDemographic Characteristics of the Sample (N = 302).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"0\" cellspacing=\"3\" cellpadding=\"0\" width=\"100%\"\u003e\n \u003cthead\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eVariable\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCategory\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003en (%)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eM (SD)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/thead\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eChild age (years)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e14.62 (1.52)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSex\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFemale\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e143 (47.4 %)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMale\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e159 (52.6 %)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSchool grade\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eGrade 7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e62 (20.5 %)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eGrade 8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e54 (17.9 %)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eGrade 9\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e47 (15.6 %)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eGrade 10\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e67 (22.2 %)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eGrade 11\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e43 (14.2 %)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eGrade 12\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e29 (9.6 %)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eParental marital status\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMarried\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e229 (75.8 %)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCohabiting\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7 (2.3 %)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eDivorced\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e53 (17.5 %)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWidowed\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e13 (4.3 %)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMother’s education\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePrimary\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e17 (5.6 %)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSecondary\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e169 (56.0 %)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eUniversity graduate\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e72 (23.8 %)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePostgraduate\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e44 (14.6 %)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFather’s education\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePrimary\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e14 (4.6 %)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSecondary\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e158 (52.3 %)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eUniversity graduate\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e79 (26.2 %)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePostgraduate\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e51 (16.9 %)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eNote.\u003c/em\u003e Percentages are based on valid responses.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eProcedure\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;The study procedures were approved by the Research Ethics and Deontology Committee of Panteion University of Social and Political Sciences and the Secondary Education Directorate of Attica prior to data collection (Approval Protocol No. 18/09-04-2025).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;Participants were recruited through collaboration with school principals. Information sheets and consent forms were distributed by each school to parents or guardians, explaining the study aims, voluntary nature of participation, and procedures for maintaining confidentiality and only students who returned signed parental consent and provided their own assent participated in the study. They were also reminded that their participation was voluntary, they could skip any item or withdraw at any time without penalty, and that their responses would remain anonymous. Data collection occurred during school hours in groups of approximately 25 students per classroom under the supervision of trained research assistants or the principal investigator. Participation was entirely voluntary and anonymous, with no incentives provided. Cases with more than 10% missing responses were excluded from analyses.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;All questionnaires were administered in paper-and-pencil format and took approximately 20 minutes to complete. The order of questionnaires was partially counterbalanced across classrooms to reduce order effects. The DASS-Y was always administered alongside other self-report instruments designed to assess related constructs of emotional functioning, including the RCADS, the SLSS, the GSE, the SCS-Y and the PANAS–C-Short Form. Upon completion, questionnaires were collected immediately and stored securely for later data entry and analysis.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTranslation procedure\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;For the present study, the DASS-Y was translated and culturally adapted into Greek following internationally recognized guidelines for cross-cultural adaptation of self-report measures (Beaton et al., 2000; Yu et al., 2004). Two independent bilingual translators, one with expertise in clinical psychology and one with linguistic training, produced initial Greek translations of the original English items. The two versions were compared and synthesized into a single reconciled draft by the research team. A third bilingual translator, blind to the original instrument, then performed a back-translation into English to evaluate conceptual equivalence. Discrepancies were discussed by an expert panel consisting of psychologists, psychometricians, and language specialists until full agreement was achieved. The prefinal Greek version was pilot-tested with a small group of adolescents (n = 25) to assess clarity, comprehension, and cultural relevance. Minor wording adjustments were made to improve readability and developmental appropriateness. The final version of the Greek DASS-Y was approved by all translators and was then subjected to psychometric validation replicating the analytical framework used in the original study. \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMaterials\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eBackground Sociodemographic Information\u003c/strong\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;Information on sociodemographic characteristics, including gender, age (in years), grade, and parental marital status and education level, was collected through a brief background questionnaire completed by the participants. The researchers did not collect information about socioeconomic status, as most youths often have inaccurate knowledge of their family’s SES. All sociodemographic data were collected anonymously and used solely for descriptive and statistical purposes in the validation analyses.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSelf-Report Questionnaires\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eThe Depression Anxiety Stress Scales for Youth (DASS-Y; Szabó \u0026amp; Lovibond, 2022)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;The Greek version of the DASS-Y was used to assess symptoms of depression, anxiety, and stress among children and adolescents. The original DASS-Y is a 21-item self-report instrument designed as a downward extension of the adult \u003cem\u003eDepression Anxiety Stress Scales\u003c/em\u003e (\u003cem\u003eDASS-21;\u003c/em\u003e Lovibond \u0026amp; Lovibond, 1995) to ensure developmental appropriateness for younger populations. It comprises three subscales—Depression, Anxiety, and Stress—each containing seven items. Respondents indicate the extent to which each statement applied to them over the past week using a 4-point Likert-type scale ranging from \u003cem\u003e0 = not true of me at all\u003c/em\u003e to \u003cem\u003e3 = very true of me or most of the time\u003c/em\u003e. One sample item is: \u003cem\u003e“I was stressing about lots of things”.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;Subscale scores were calculated by summing the seven items corresponding to each construct, while the total score represented overall negative emotional symptoms. Higher scores reflect greater symptom severity. For interpretive purposes, preliminary severity cutoffs have been proposed based on the original Australian validation sample (Szabó \u0026amp; Lovibond, 2022), following the same percentile-based method as in the adult DASS (Lovibond \u0026amp; Lovibond, 1995). The recommended cutoff ranges are presented in \u003cstrong\u003eTable 2\u003c/strong\u003e. \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;In the original validation, Szabó and Lovibond (2022) reported a three-factor structure consistent with the theoretical model and excellent internal consistency, with McDonald’s ω and Cronbach’s α ranging from .84 to .93 across factors and .96 for the total scale. In the current Greek sample, the McDonald’s ω and Cronbach’s alpha ranged from .83 to .90 for the total scale was α = .93 indicating excellent internal consistency.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable 2.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eDASS-Y Severity Cutoffs for Depression, Anxiety, Stress, and Total Scores\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"0\" cellspacing=\"3\" cellpadding=\"0\" width=\"100%\"\u003e\n \u003cthead\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSeverity Level\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eDepression\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAnxiety\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eStress\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTotal\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/thead\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNormal\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0–6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0–5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0–11\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0–23\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMild\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7–8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6–7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12–13\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e24–29\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eModerate\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e9–13\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8–12\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e14–16\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e30–39\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSevere\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e14–16\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e13–15\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e17–18\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e40–46\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eExtremely Severe\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e17+\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e16+\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e19+\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e47+\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eNote.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003eDASS-Y = Depression Anxiety Stress Scales for Youth (Szabó \u0026amp; Lovibond, 2022). Severity cutoffs were derived from percentile ranges in the original Australian validation sample (N = 2,121) following the same procedure as described in the adult DASS manual (Lovibond \u0026amp; Lovibond, 1995).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eThe Positive and Negative Affect Schedule for Children – Short Form (PANAS-C; Ebesutani et al., 2012; Greek adaptation: Karakasidou et al., in press)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;The Positive and Negative Affect Schedule for Children – Short Form (PANAS-C) was administered to assess positive and negative emotional states among participants. The PANAS-C is a brief self-report instrument derived from the original \u003cem\u003ePositive and Negative Affect Schedule for Children\u003c/em\u003e (Laurent et al., 1999), which itself was adapted from the adult \u003cem\u003ePANAS\u003c/em\u003e (Watson et al., 1988). The short form comprises 10 items, including five Positive Affect (PA) and five Negative Affect (NA) descriptors. Respondents indicate the extent to which they felt this way during the past week, using a 5-point Likert-type scale ranging from \u003cem\u003e1 = very slightly or not at all\u003c/em\u003e to \u003cem\u003e5 = extremely\u003c/em\u003e. One sample item is \u003cem\u003e“sad”.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;Scores are calculated separately for the two subscales. The Positive Affect (PA) score is obtained by summing the five PA items (\u003cem\u003erange = 5–25\u003c/em\u003e), with higher scores indicating greater levels of positive affect. The Negative Affect (NA) score is calculated by summing the five NA items (\u003cem\u003erange = 5–25\u003c/em\u003e), with higher scores representing greater negative affect. There are no reverse-scored items, and no overall total score is produced; PA and NA are interpreted as distinct affective dimensions (Ebesutani et al., 2012).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;The PANAS-C has demonstrated excellent psychometric properties in both community and clinical youth samples, with internal consistency coefficients typically exceeding α = .80 for both subscales (Laurent et al., 1999; Ebesutani et al., 2012). In the current Greek sample, Cronbach’s alpha was α = .91 for Positive Affect and α = .83 for Negative Affect, indicating excellent internal reliability.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eThe Revised Child Anxiety and Depression Scale (RCADS; Chorpita et al., 2000, Greek adaptation: Giannopoulou, et al., 2022)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;The RCADS was used to assess symptoms of anxiety and depression corresponding to DSM-based diagnostic categories in children and adolescents. The RCADS consists of 47 items, rated on a 4-point Likert scale ranging from \u003cem\u003e0 = never\u003c/em\u003e to \u003cem\u003e3 = always\u003c/em\u003e, indicating how often each statement applies to the respondent. One sample item is \u003cem\u003e“I worry when I think I have done poorly at something”.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;The RCADS yields six subscales: Separation Anxiety Disorder (SAD), Social Phobia (SP), Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD), Panic Disorder (PD), Obsessive–Compulsive Disorder (OCD), and Major Depressive Disorder (MDD). Two composite scores can also be derived: Total Anxiety (sum of the five anxiety subscales) and Total Internalizing (sum of all six subscales).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;Raw scores for each subscale are obtained by summing the relevant items. The official scoring program (Chorpita et al., 2000; 2019 update) converts these raw scores into T-scores based on sex- and grade-specific U.S. norms. The recommended interpretive cutoffs are T ≥ 65 (borderline clinical range) and T ≥ 70 (clinical range).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;However, in the present Greek validation study, raw subscale scores were used for all psychometric and correlational analyses. As the RCADS was included solely to examine convergent validity of the Greek DASS-Y, the use of standardized T-scores was not required. Analyses were therefore conducted using raw scores to maintain consistency with the Greek dataset and to directly assess the associations between constructs.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;The RCADS has demonstrated excellent psychometric properties in both community and clinical samples, with internal consistency estimates typically exceeding α = .80 across subscales (Chorpita et al., 2000; Chorpita et al., 2005). In the current Greek sample, Cronbach’s alpha coefficients ranged from α = .74 to α = .89, indicating good reliability across the anxiety and depression domains.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eThe Student Life Satisfaction Scale (SLSS; Huebner, 1991a, Greek adaptation: Karapanagiotou et al., 2022)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;The SLSS was used to assess participants’ global cognitive evaluations of life satisfaction. The SLSS is a widely used self-report instrument that measures the degree to which children and adolescents perceive their lives as satisfying, without directly referencing affective states. It consists of seven statements such as \u003cem\u003e“My life is going well”\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003e“I wish I had a different kind of life”\u003c/em\u003e (reverse-scored).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;Respondents rate their agreement with each statement on a 6-point Likert-type scale ranging from \u003cem\u003e1 = strongly disagree\u003c/em\u003e to \u003cem\u003e6 = strongly agree\u003c/em\u003e. Two negatively worded items (items 3 and 4) are reverse-scored before computing the total. A total SLSS score is obtained by summing all seven items, with higher scores reflecting greater overall life satisfaction.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;The SLSS has demonstrated strong psychometric properties across cultures, with internal consistency typically ranging from α = .80 to .90 (Huebner, 1991a, 1991b). The Greek validation research reported a one-factor structure and high internal consistency (Cronbach’s α ≈ .93) among secondary school students. In the current Greek adaptation, the same response format and scoring procedure were used. In this study, Cronbach’s alpha was α = .91, indicating [good/excellent] internal reliability.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eThe General Self-Efficacy Scale (GSE; Schwarzer \u0026amp; Jerusalem, 1995, Greek adaptation:\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cstrong\u003ePilafas et al., 2024)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;The GSE was included to assess participants’ perceived self-efficacy, defined as the belief in one’s ability to cope effectively with a variety of difficult demands and challenges in life. The GSE is a 10-item self-report instrument designed to measure optimistic self-beliefs related to personal competence across different life situations.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;Respondents rate each statement on a 4-point Likert-type scale ranging from \u003cem\u003e1 = not at all true\u003c/em\u003e to \u003cem\u003e4 = exactly true\u003c/em\u003e, reflecting the degree to which each statement describes them. All items are positively worded (e.g., \u003cem\u003e“I can always manage to solve difficult problems if I try hard enough”\u003c/em\u003e). The total score is computed as the sum of all 10 items, yielding a possible range of 10 to 40, with higher scores indicating greater perceived self-efficacy.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;The GSE has demonstrated strong internal consistency and validity across numerous cultures and age groups, with Cronbach’s α typically ranging from .76 to .90 (Schwarzer \u0026amp; Jerusalem, 1995). It is negatively correlated with measures of depression, anxiety, stress, and burnout, and positively associated with optimism, emotion regulation, and life satisfaction. In the present Greek sample, Cronbach’s alpha was α = .90, indicating excellent reliability.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eThe Self-Compassion Scale for Youth (SCS-Y\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e; Neff et al., 2021; Greek adaptation: Karakasidou et al., 2021)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;The SCS-Y was administered to assess adolescents’ capacity for self-compassion, defined as responding to personal hardship with kindness, understanding, and mindful awareness rather than harsh self-criticism or over-identification with negative emotions. The SCS-Y is a 17-item self-report questionnaire, developed as a downward extension of the adult Self-Compassion Scale (Neff, 2003) and adapted for youth aged 12–18 years. Participants indicate how often each statement describes them using a 5-point Likert-type scale ranging from 1 = almost never to 5 = almost always. One sample item is \u003cem\u003e“I try to be kind and supportive toward myself when I’m having a hard time.”\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;The SCS-Y consists of six subscales corresponding to the components of self-compassion: Self-Kindness, Self-Judgment, Common Humanity, Isolation, Mindfulness, and Over-Identification. Subscale scores are calculated by averaging the relevant items after reverse scoring the negatively worded ones. The total self-compassion score is obtained by averaging all six subscale means, with higher scores indicating greater self-compassion.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;The SCS-Y has shown excellent psychometric properties in international adolescent samples (Neff et al., 2021). The Greek version (Karakasidou et al., 2021) demonstrated satisfactory internal consistency and factorial validity with Cronbach α= .64. In the present study, the Greek version of the SCS-Y was used following the authors’ validated translation. Cronbach’s alpha for the total scale was α = .91, indicating excellent internal reliability.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"RESULTS","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec7\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eData Analysis\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eData were analysed using \u003cem\u003eIBM SPSS Statistics\u003c/em\u003e, version 25 (IBM Corp., 2017), and \u003cem\u003eRStudio\u003c/em\u003e (RStudio Team, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e), which served as the integrated development environment for \u003cem\u003eR\u003c/em\u003e (version 4.4.1; R Core Team, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). SPSS was used for data screening, descriptive analyses, and reliability estimates, whereas \u003cem\u003eR\u003c/em\u003e (via the \u003cem\u003elavaan\u003c/em\u003e package; Rosseel, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e) was employed for confirmatory factor analyses and validity testing.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePrior to analyses, all variables were screened for missing data, univariate normality, and outliers. Item-level descriptive statistics (means, standard deviations, skewness, kurtosis) were computed to evaluate distributional characteristics. Internal consistency was assessed using Cronbach\u0026rsquo;s α and McDonald\u0026rsquo;s ω for each DASS-21-Youth (DASS-Y) subscale and the total score.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eConfirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was conducted to evaluate the hypothesized three-factor structure of the DASS-Y. Because the items were ordinal (0\u0026ndash;3), the model was estimated using the weighted least squares mean and variance adjusted (WLSMV) estimator with polychoric correlations. Model fit was evaluated using the χ\u0026sup2; statistic, the Comparative Fit Index (CFI), the Tucker\u0026ndash;Lewis Index (TLI), the Root Mean Square Error of Approximation (RMSEA) with 90% confidence interval, and the Standardized Root Mean Square Residual (SRMR). Acceptable model fit was defined by CFI and TLI\u0026thinsp;\u0026ge;\u0026thinsp;.90, RMSEA\u0026thinsp;\u0026le;\u0026thinsp;.08, and SRMR\u0026thinsp;\u0026le;\u0026thinsp;.08 (Hu \u0026amp; Bentler, 1999).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eConvergent and discriminant validity were examined by computing Pearson correlations between DASS-Y subscales and external measures theoretically related to negative and positive aspects of emotional functioning: the RCADS, the SLSS, the GSE, the SCS-Y and the PANAS\u0026ndash;C-Short Form. Consistent with theory, positive correlations were expected with measures of anxiety and depression, and negative correlations with positive affect, self-compassion, life satisfaction, and self-efficacy.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eData Screening and Descriptive Statistics\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eData screening was performed prior to analysis following the procedures described by Szab\u0026oacute; and Lovibond (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). All responses were examined for completeness, accuracy, and response range. No missing data were identified for any DASS-Y item (N\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;302). One response exceeding the allowable range (a value of 4 on item 21) was corrected to the maximum valid value (3).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDescriptive statistics for all items were inspected for distributional properties. Item means ranged from \u003cem\u003eM\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.35\u003c/em\u003e to \u003cem\u003eM\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1.53\u003c/em\u003e (SDs\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.70\u0026ndash;1.12). Skewness values ranged from \u003cem\u003e0.05\u003c/em\u003e to \u003cem\u003e2.30\u003c/em\u003e and kurtosis from \u003cem\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1.38\u003c/em\u003e to \u003cem\u003e5.02\u003c/em\u003e, both within the recommended thresholds for acceptable normality (|skew| \u0026lt; 2, |kurtosis| \u0026lt; 7; West et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1995\u003c/span\u003e). Although the Shapiro\u0026ndash;Wilk tests were significant for all items (\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001), this is typical for large samples (N\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;300) and does not indicate substantive non-normality.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eComposite scores for Depression, Anxiety, and Stress were calculated by summing the seven corresponding items, and a total DASS-Y score was obtained by summing all 21 items. Higher scores represent greater symptom severity. For the present sample, mean subscale scores were \u003cem\u003eM\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;3.67 (SD\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;4.68)\u003c/em\u003e for Depression, \u003cem\u003eM\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;3.31 (SD\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;4.27)\u003c/em\u003e for Anxiety, and \u003cem\u003eM\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;8.29 (SD\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;5.72)\u003c/em\u003e, with a total DASS-Y mean of \u003cem\u003eM\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;15.26 (SD\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;12.93)\u003c/em\u003e. All subscales showed high internal consistency (Cronbach\u0026rsquo;s α\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.85\u0026ndash;.92).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDescriptive statistics for the external measures are summarized in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e. Participants reported moderate levels of positive affect (\u003cem\u003eM\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;17.79, SD\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;5.21\u003c/em\u003e) and low-to-moderate negative affect (\u003cem\u003eM\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;9.99, SD\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;4.35\u003c/em\u003e) on the PANAS-C. Mean scores for the remaining indicators were as follows: self-compassion \u003cem\u003eM\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;3.09 (SD\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.86)\u003c/em\u003e, life satisfaction \u003cem\u003eM\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;30.25 (SD\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;8.51)\u003c/em\u003e, and general self-efficacy \u003cem\u003eM\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;27.34 (SD\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;6.86)\u003c/em\u003e. RCADS subscale means were within expected ranges, with total anxiety \u003cem\u003eM\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;28.64 (SD\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;18.34)\u003c/em\u003e and depression \u003cem\u003eM\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;8.31 (SD\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;6.31)\u003c/em\u003e. All instruments demonstrated satisfactory internal consistency (Cronbach\u0026rsquo;s α\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;.80).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eDescriptive Statistics and Internal Consistency of Study Measures (N\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;302)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"5\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMeasure\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eM\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSD\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRange\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eα\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDepression Anxiety Stress Scales for Youth (DASS-Y)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDepression\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.67\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.68\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u0026ndash;20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.89\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAnxiety\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.31\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.27\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u0026ndash;20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.83\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eStress\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.29\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.72\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u0026ndash;21\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.88\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTotal\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.26\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.93\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u0026ndash;58\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.93\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003ePositive and Negative Affect Schedule for Children \u0026ndash; Short Form (PANAS-C)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePositive Affect\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e17.79\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.21\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u0026ndash;25\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.91\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNegative Affect\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.99\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.35\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u0026ndash;24\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.82\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eSelf-Compassion Scale for Youth (SCS-Y)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.09\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.86\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.41\u0026ndash;4.88\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.91\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eStudent Life Satisfaction Scale (SLSS)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e30.25\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.51\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8\u0026ndash;42\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.91\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eGeneral Self-Efficacy Scale (GSE)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e27.34\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.86\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13\u0026ndash;40\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.90\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eRevised Child Anxiety and Depression Scale (RCADS)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSeparation Anxiety\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.61\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.27\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u0026ndash;27\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.74\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSocial Phobia\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.26\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.09\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u0026ndash;18\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.88\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGeneralized Anxiety Disorder\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.85\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.95\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u0026ndash;25\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.84\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePanic Disorder\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.82\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.83\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u0026ndash;18\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.86\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eObsessive-Compulsive Disorder\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.31\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.31\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u0026ndash;28\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.78\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMajor Depressive Disorder\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.31\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.31\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u0026ndash;28\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.89\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTotal Anxiety (RCADS)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e28.64\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e18.34\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0\u0026ndash;93\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.87\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eReliability\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eCronbach\u0026rsquo;s α and McDonald\u0026rsquo;s ω coefficients were calculated for each DASS-Y subscale and the total score to evaluate internal consistency. Results indicated excellent reliability for the Depression subscale (α\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.89, ω\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.90) and Stress subscale (α\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.88, ω\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.88), and good reliability for the Anxiety subscale (α\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.83, ω\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.84). The total scale\u0026rsquo;s internal consistency was also excellent (α\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.93). Corrected item\u0026ndash;total correlations ranged from .42 to .75 across items, suggesting adequate item homogeneity within each factor. These values are consistent with those reported in the original development study by Szab\u0026oacute; and Lovibond (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e), supporting the reliability of the Greek adaptation.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec10\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eFactorial Validity\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eFollowing the approach of Szab\u0026oacute; and Lovibond (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e), the factorial validity of the DASS-Y was examined using confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) on the total sample. Given the moderate sample size (N\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;302), the dataset was not split for cross-validation analyses, as recommended minimum sample sizes for CFA require approximately 200\u0026ndash;300 cases per model (Brown, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e; Kline, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). Model stability and construct validity were instead assessed through reliability estimates and replication of the theoretical three-factor structure.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThree competing models were tested:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003col\u003e \u003cspan\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003e(a) a one-factor model representing general Negative Affect,\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003e(b) a three-factor correlated model comprising Depression, Anxiety, and Stress, and\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003e(c) a second-order hierarchical model with a higher-order General Distress factor accounting for the three first-order factors.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/span\u003e \u003c/ol\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eModel fit was evaluated using the χ\u0026sup2; statistic, the Comparative Fit Index (CFI), Tucker\u0026ndash;Lewis Index (TLI), Root Mean Square Error of Approximation (RMSEA) with 90% confidence intervals, and the Standardized Root Mean Square Residual (SRMR). The results are presented in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab4\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 4\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eModel fit indices for the 21-item DASS-Y in the Greek validation sample (N\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;302)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"8\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eModel\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eχ\u0026sup2;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003edf\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCFI\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTLI\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRMSEA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e90% CI for RMSEA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSRMR\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1. One-factor model\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e590.80\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e189\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.984\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.983\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.092\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e[.084, .099]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.072\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2. Three-factor correlated model\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e270.28\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e186\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.997\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.996\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.057\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e[.048, .066]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.051\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3. Second-order (hierarchical) model\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e270.28\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e186\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.997\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.996\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.057\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e[.048, .066]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.051\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003ctfoot\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"8\"\u003e\u003cb\u003eNote.\u003c/b\u003e CFI\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Comparative Fit Index; TLI\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Tucker\u0026ndash;Lewis Index; RMSEA\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Root Mean Square Error of Approximation; SRMR\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Standardized Root Mean Square Residual; CI\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;confidence interval.\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tfoot\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eModel 1\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;single-factor model (all items loading on one general factor); Model 2\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;three correlated factors (Depression, Anxiety, Stress); Model 3\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;second-order hierarchical model (Depression, Anxiety, and Stress loading onto a higher-order \u003cem\u003eGeneral Distress\u003c/em\u003e factor).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe one-factor model showed inadequate fit to the data, χ\u0026sup2; (189)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;590.80, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001, CFI\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.984, TLI\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.983, RMSEA\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.092, 90% CI [.084, .099], SRMR\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.072, indicating that a single latent construct could not account for all item covariances. This pattern of indices indicates poor model fit, suggesting that the assumption of a single underlying factor did not adequately represent the covariance structure among the DASS-Y items and was therefore rejected.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn contrast, the three-factor correlated model demonstrated excellent fit to the data, χ\u0026sup2; (186)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;270.28, p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001, CFI\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.997, TLI\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.996, RMSEA\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.057, 90% CI [.048, .066], SRMR\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.051. All standardized factor loadings were statistically significant (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001) and ranged from .64 to .89, with moderate-to-high correlations among the three latent factors (r\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.76\u0026ndash;.83).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe second-order hierarchical model, in which Depression, Anxiety, and Stress loaded onto a higher-order General Distress factor, also provided an excellent fit, χ\u0026sup2; (186)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;270.28, \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001, CFI\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.997, TLI\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.996, RMSEA\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.057, 90% CI [.048, .066], SRMR\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.051. Standardized loadings of the first-order factors on the higher-order factor ranged from .87 to .94.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eComparison of the two well-fitting models indicated that both the three-factor correlated and the second-order hierarchical structures provided an excellent and nearly identical fit to the data. Although the hierarchical model yielded slightly lower χ\u0026sup2; and marginally higher incremental fit indices (ΔCFI\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.001; ΔRMSEA\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.004), these differences were trivial and did not indicate a meaningful improvement in model performance. Given the comparable statistical fit and the theoretical clarity of treating Depression, Anxiety, and Stress as distinct but related constructs, the three-factor correlated model was retained as the final and most parsimonious representation of the DASS-Y structure in the Greek sample. Standardized factor loadings for the final model are presented in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab5\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 5\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eStandardized factor loadings for the 21-item DASS-Y (three-factor correlated model, N\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;302)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"4\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eItem\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDepression\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAnxiety\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eStress\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDASS3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.84\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDASS5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.88\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDASS10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.75\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDASS13\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.88\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDASS16\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.86\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDASS17\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.83\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDASS21\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.89\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDASS2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.64\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDASS4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.79\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDASS7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.69\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDASS9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.80\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDASS15\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.88\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDASS19\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.83\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDASS20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.78\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDASS1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.77\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDASS6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.79\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDASS8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.80\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDASS11\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.79\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDASS12\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.80\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDASS14\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.65\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDASS18\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.82\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003ctfoot\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"4\"\u003e\u003cb\u003eNote.\u003c/b\u003e \u003cem\u003eAll standardized factor loadings were statistically significant (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001).\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tfoot\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe standardized loadings were all significant (\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001) and ranged from .64 to .89, indicating strong relationships between observed items and their latent constructs. A path diagram illustrating the three-factor model is shown in \u003cb\u003eFig.\u0026nbsp;1\u003c/b\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eFigure 1\u003c/b\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eThree-factor correlated model of the 21-item Depression Anxiety Stress Scales for Youth (DASS-Y)\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cstrong\u003eNote\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cem\u003eConfirmatory factor analysis of the DASS-Y (three-factor correlated model)\u003c/em\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eConvergent and Discriminant Validity\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo examine convergent and discriminant validity, Pearson product\u0026ndash;moment correlations were computed between the DASS-Y total and subscale scores (Depression, Anxiety, Stress) and theoretically related constructs, including the RCADS, the SLSS, the GSE, the SCS-Y and the PANAS\u0026ndash;C-Short Form. Results are presented in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAs hypothesized, the DASS-Y subscales demonstrated strong intercorrelations (\u003cem\u003er\u003c/em\u003es\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.64\u0026ndash;.89, \u003cem\u003eps\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001), indicating that the dimensions of Depression, Anxiety, and Stress are closely related yet distinct facets of negative affectivity. Consistent with expectations, all DASS-Y scores showed positive associations with external measures of anxiety and depression. Correlations with RCADS subscales were large in magnitude (e.g., Panic Disorder \u003cem\u003er\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.78, Generalized Anxiety Disorder \u003cem\u003er\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.69, Major Depressive Disorder \u003cem\u003er\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.81, and RCADS Total Anxiety \u003cem\u003er\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.81; all \u003cem\u003eps\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001), supporting convergent validity of the Greek DASS-Y.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn contrast, DASS-Y scores correlated negatively with measures reflecting positive emotional functioning and psychological resources. Specifically, DASS-Y total scores were negatively related to PANAS Positive Affect (\u003cem\u003er\u003c/em\u003e = \u0026ndash;.68, 95% CI [\u0026ndash;.74, \u0026ndash;.62]), Self-Compassion (SCS-Y; \u003cem\u003er\u003c/em\u003e = \u0026ndash;.74, 95% CI [\u0026ndash;.78, \u0026ndash;.68]), Life Satisfaction (SLSS; \u003cem\u003er\u003c/em\u003e = \u0026ndash;.70, 95% CI [\u0026ndash;.76, \u0026ndash;.64]), and General Self-Efficacy (GSE; \u003cem\u003er\u003c/em\u003e = \u0026ndash;.51, 95% CI [\u0026ndash;.59, \u0026ndash;.42]; all \u003cem\u003eps\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001). These findings indicate that higher depressive, anxious, and stress symptoms were associated with lower self-compassion, self-efficacy, positive affect, and life satisfaction, thus providing strong evidence of discriminant validity.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOverall, the correlation pattern aligns with theoretical expectations and previous research (Szab\u0026oacute; \u0026amp; Lovibond, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e), confirming that the Greek version of the DASS-Y shows appropriate convergent and discriminant relationships with related psychological constructs.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab6\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 5\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ePearson Correlations Between the DASS-Y Subscales and External Measures (N\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;302)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"5\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMeasure\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDASS-Y Total\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDepression\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAnxiety\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eStress\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRCADS \u0026ndash; Separation Anxiety\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.53 ***\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.48 ***\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.49 ***\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.44 ***\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRCADS \u0026ndash; Social Phobia\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.68 ***\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.53 ***\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.56 ***\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.68 ***\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRCADS \u0026ndash; Generalized Anxiety Disorder\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.69 ***\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.54 ***\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.59 ***\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.68 ***\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRCADS \u0026ndash; Panic Disorder\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.78 ***\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.63 ***\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.78 ***\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.67 ***\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRCADS \u0026ndash; Obsessive\u0026ndash;Compulsive Disorder\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.62 ***\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.48 ***\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.50 ***\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.64 ***\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRCADS \u0026ndash; Major Depressive Disorder\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.85 ***\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.81 ***\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.69 ***\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.74 ***\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRCADS \u0026ndash; Total Anxiety\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.81 ***\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.64 ***\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.71 ***\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.77 ***\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePANAS-C Positive Affect\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026ndash;.68 ***\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026ndash;.69 ***\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026ndash;.49 ***\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026ndash;.61 ***\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePANAS-C Negative Affect\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.81 ***\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.69 ***\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.72 ***\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.72 ***\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSCS-Y (Self-Compassion)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026ndash;.74 ***\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026ndash;.64 ***\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026ndash;.57 ***\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026ndash;.72 ***\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSLSS (Life Satisfaction)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026ndash;.70 ***\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026ndash;.69 ***\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026ndash;.56 ***\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026ndash;.60 ***\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGSE (Self-Efficacy)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026ndash;.51 ***\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026ndash;.47 ***\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026ndash;.40 ***\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026ndash;.47 ***\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003ctfoot\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"5\"\u003e\u003cb\u003eNote.\u003c/b\u003e RCADS\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Revised Child Anxiety and Depression Scale; PANAS-C\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Positive and Negative Affect Schedule for Children; SCS-Y\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Self-Compassion Scale for Youth; SLSS\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Student Life Satisfaction Scale; GSE\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;General Self-Efficacy Scale.\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tfoot\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e*p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.05. **p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.01. **\u003cem\u003ep\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn contrast to the original validation by Szab\u0026oacute; and Lovibond (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e), multiple regression analyses were not conducted in the present study, as our primary aim was to examine the factorial validity and general convergent and discriminant relationships of the DASS-Y subscales within the Greek youth sample.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"DISCUSSION","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec14\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eSummary of Findings\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe present study aimed to examine the psychometric properties of the Greek version of the DASS-Y in a community sample of adolescents. Consistent with the original validation study by Szab\u0026oacute; and Lovibond (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e), results supported the adequacy of the three-factor model comprising Depression, Anxiety, and Stress. Confirmatory factor analyses indicated that both the correlated three-factor and second-order hierarchical models provided excellent and nearly identical fit to the data, whereas the single-factor model showed poor fit and was therefore rejected. Given the theoretical distinctiveness of the three emotional dimensions, the correlated three-factor solution was retained as the most parsimonious representation of the DASS-Y structure in the Greek context.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eInternal consistency was excellent across all subscales, with Cronbach\u0026rsquo;s α and McDonald\u0026rsquo;s ω values exceeding .80 for Depression, Anxiety, and Stress. Item\u0026ndash;total correlations further supported the internal homogeneity of each scale. Descriptive analyses showed that mean DASS-Y scores were within the expected range for a community sample, suggesting that the instrument performs appropriately across the full range of symptom severity.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eConvergent and discriminant validity were also supported. The DASS-Y subscales correlated positively with external measures of anxiety and depression (RCADS) and negative affect (PANAS-C), and negatively with positive indicators, including self-compassion, life satisfaction, positive affect and self-efficacy, replicating the theoretically expected pattern of associations. These findings demonstrate that the Greek DASS-Y effectively captures dimensions of negative emotionality consistent with contemporary models of youth internalizing symptoms.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOverall, the findings indicate that the Greek version of the DASS-Y possesses sound psychometric properties, with a clear and replicable three-factor structure, excellent internal reliability, and robust evidence of convergent and discriminant validity. The measure therefore provides a reliable and theoretically grounded tool for assessing depression, anxiety, and stress symptoms among Greek-speaking adolescents.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec15\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eComparison with Previous Studies\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe present findings closely align with those reported in the original Australian validation of the DASS-Y (Szab\u0026oacute; \u0026amp; Lovibond, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e), as well as with subsequent international adaptations of the scale (Cao et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Jovanović, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e; Shabani et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e; Śliwerski et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e). Consistent with these studies, the Greek version demonstrated excellent internal consistency across all subscales (α\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.83\u0026ndash;.89; ω\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.84\u0026ndash;.90) and supported the theoretically derived three-factor model distinguishing Depression, Anxiety, and Stress. Both the three-factor correlated and the second-order hierarchical models provided excellent fit to the data, mirroring the factorial structure identified in the original English version. This convergence supports the cross-cultural robustness of the DASS-Y and its applicability in diverse youth populations.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSimilar to findings from the original study, the present results revealed strong correlations among the three DASS-Y factors, reflecting the shared variance among negative emotional states in youth while preserving their conceptual distinctiveness. The magnitude of these inter-factor correlations (r\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.70\u0026ndash;.83) was comparable to those observed in Australian (Szab\u0026oacute; \u0026amp; Lovibond, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e) and other international samples, including Serbian (Jovanović, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e), Polish (Śliwerski et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e), Persian (Shabani et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e) and Chinese (Cao et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e) adaptations. This consistency suggests that the tripartite distinction among depression, anxiety, and stress remains theoretically and empirically stable across languages and cultures.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFurthermore, the observed pattern of convergent and discriminant validity in the Greek sample closely replicated those reported in previous validations. As expected, DASS-Y Depression, Anxiety and Stress were positively correlated with measures of internalizing symptoms (e.g., RCADS) and negative affect, and negatively associated with self-compassion, life satisfaction, positive affect and self-efficacy. This pattern aligns with prior findings demonstrating that higher DASS-Y scores are associated with greater emotional distress and lower well-being among children and adolescents (Szab\u0026oacute; \u0026amp; Lovibond, 2023; Jovanović, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e; Shabani et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTaken together, these findings indicate that the Greek DASS-Y functions in a psychometrically comparable manner to the original and other translated versions. The replication of the factor structure, reliability indices, and theoretically consistent correlation patterns provides strong evidence for the cross-cultural generalizability of the DASS-Y as a brief and reliable measure of youth emotional difficulties.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec16\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eTheoretical and Practical Implications\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe present findings have important implications for the use of the Greek DASS-Y in both educational and clinical contexts. Szab\u0026oacute; and Lovibond (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e) argued that valid, developmentally appropriate, and syndrome-specific assessment tools are essential for identifying emotional difficulties in youth and for guiding effective intervention planning. The Greek adaptation of the DASS-Y contributes to this aim by offering a brief, psychometrically sound instrument capable of distinguishing between depressive, anxious, and stress-related symptoms in adolescents.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn Greek schools, the demand for systematic mental health screening has increased, alongside rising concerns about students\u0026rsquo; emotional well-being (Koumoula et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). The DASS-Y\u0026rsquo;s short administration time and strong reliability make it a valuable screening tool for use by school-based mental health professionals (psychologists, counselors, social workers) during routine screenings, crisis-response procedures, or targeted assessments for at-risk students, thereby enhancing the process of psychological evaluation in schools.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAdditionally, in line with Szabo and Lovibond\u0026rsquo;s (2022) argument, accurate differentiation between depressive, anxious, and stress-related symptoms in Greek DASS-Y can support diagnostic interviews and enable practitioners to develop effective prevention and intervention programs, tailored to each distinct syndrome. Its multidimensional structure also allows clinicians to monitor symptom change across distinct emotional domains over time, improving progress tracking, and adjusting preventive or therapeutic plans accordingly.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec17\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eCultural Considerations\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe adaptation of the DASS-Y into Greek also carries important cultural implications. Szab\u0026oacute; and Lovibond (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e) noted that the instrument was developed to be cross-culturally applicable, but emphasized the necessity of local validation to account for cultural differences in emotional expression and language processing. The successful replication of the three-factor structure in the present study supports the theoretical universality of the depression\u0026ndash;anxiety\u0026ndash;stress tripartite model in Greek adolescents, suggesting that these constructs maintain their distinctiveness across cultural contexts.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eHowever, cultural considerations remain essential in interpreting scores and implementing the scale. Greek adolescents face unique sociocultural pressures related to academic demands, family structures, and social expectations (Kokkevi et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e), which may shape how emotional symptoms are experienced and reported. Moreover, mental health stigma remains a barrier to help-seeking in Greek youth populations (Koumoula et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e), potentially influencing the extent to which adolescents endorse internalizing symptoms on self-report tools. Therefore, while the DASS-Y provides a reliable structure for assessing emotional difficulties, practitioners should interpret findings within the broader cultural and educational context. Continued validation, including measurement invariance testing, qualitative feedback from students, and clinical utility studies, will ensure that the Greek DASS-Y remains both culturally sensitive and theoretically grounded.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec18\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eLimitations and Future Directions\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eSeveral limitations of the present study should be acknowledged when interpreting the findings. First, the sample consisted of non-clinical adolescents recruited from the general population, which limits the generalizability of the results to clinical settings. Although the DASS-Y demonstrated strong psychometric properties in this community sample, future research should evaluate its diagnostic sensitivity and specificity among youth with clinically significant symptoms of depression, anxiety, or stress.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSecond, the study employed a cross-sectional design, precluding conclusions about the temporal stability and test\u0026ndash;retest reliability of the measure. Longitudinal research is needed to examine the stability of DASS-Y scores over time and their responsiveness to intervention-related change.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThird, the sample size, although adequate for confirmatory factor analysis, did not allow for more advanced analyses such as multigroup invariance testing or cross-validation across gender and age groups. Larger and more diverse samples would permit rigorous tests of measurement invariance to further confirm the stability and generalizability of the factor structure across demographic subgroups.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFourth, the reliance on self-report instruments may introduce shared method variance and response bias. Incorporating parent, teacher, or clinician ratings, as well as behavioral or physiological indicators of emotional distress, would strengthen the validity of future research.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFinally, this study focused exclusively on the factorial and construct validity of the Greek version of the DASS-Y. Future studies should extend this preliminary validation by exploring normative data, clinical cutoffs, and longitudinal predictive validity, particularly in clinical and educational contexts.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDespite these limitations, the current findings provide a solid foundation for the continued adaptation and validation of the DASS-Y in Greek youth populations. The scale appears to be a psychometrically sound and theoretically coherent tool for assessing depression, anxiety, and stress in children and adolescents.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Conclusions","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe present study provides preliminary evidence supporting the reliability and validity of the Greek version of the DASS-Y scale. Consistent with the original English version, the Greek DASS-Y demonstrated an excellent three-factor structure representing distinct but interrelated dimensions of depression, anxiety, and stress. Internal consistency was high across all subscales, and the expected pattern of correlations with external measures confirmed its convergent and discriminant validity.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOverall, these findings indicate that the Greek DASS-Y is a psychometrically robust and theoretically sound instrument, and its inclusion will address a significant gap in the existing validated tools for assessing negative emotionality in Greek youth. Although further research is needed to confirm these results in clinical and longitudinal contexts, the current study provides an essential foundation for the use of the DASS-Y in Greek-speaking youth populations for both research and applied purposes.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003ch2\u003eAuthor Contribution\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eE.A. and E.K. designed the study and supervised the translation and cultural adaptation of the DASS-Y into Greek. E.A. and E.K. coordinated data collection. G.R. performed the statistical analyses and interpretation of findings. E.A. drafted the introduction and contributed to the discussion section, while G.R. drafted methods and results. E.K. provided critical revisions to all sections. All authors reviewed and approved the final manuscript.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eData Availability\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe datasets generated and analyzed during the current study are not publicly available due to ethical restrictions and the involvement of minors, but are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eBeaton DE, Bombardier C, Guillemin F, Ferraz MB (2000) Guidelines for the process of cross-cultural adaptation of self-report measures. 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West J Nurs Res 26(3):307\u0026ndash;320. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1177/0193945903260554\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1177/0193945903260554\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"child-psychiatry-and-human-development","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"chud","sideBox":"Learn more about [Child Psychiatry \u0026 Human Development](http://link.springer.com/journal/10578)","snPcode":"10578","submissionUrl":"https://submission.nature.com/new-submission/10578/3","title":"Child Psychiatry \u0026 Human Development","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"Springer Hybrid","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":false},"keywords":"DASS-Y, adolescents, Greek validation, depression, anxiety, stress, psychometrics","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8336354/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-8336354/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eAccurate assessment of depression, anxiety, and stress in youth is fundamental for understanding emotional well-being and guiding prevention and intervention efforts. The present study aimed to translate, adapt, and examine the psychometric properties of the Greek version of the \u003cem\u003eDepression Anxiety Stress Scales for Youth\u003c/em\u003e (DASS-Y; Szab\u0026oacute; \u0026amp; Lovibond, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). A community sample of 302 adolescents (47.4% female; \u003cem\u003eM\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;14.62 years, \u003cem\u003eSD\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;1.52) completed the DASS-Y along with measures of anxiety and depression (RCADS), positive and negative affect (PANAS-C), self-compassion (SCS-Y), life satisfaction (SLSS), and self-efficacy (GSE). Confirmatory factor analysis supported the expected three-factor correlated model representing Depression, Anxiety, and Stress, which showed excellent fit to the data (CFI\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.997, TLI\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.996, RMSEA\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.057, SRMR\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.051). Internal consistency was high across subscales (Cronbach\u0026rsquo;s α\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.83\u0026ndash;.89; McDonald\u0026rsquo;s ω\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.84\u0026ndash;.90). Convergent validity was supported by strong positive correlations with RCADS and PANAS-C Negative Affect, while discriminant validity was confirmed through negative correlations with Positive Affect, Self-Compassion, Life Satisfaction, and Self-Efficacy. These results replicate the factorial structure and reliability patterns of the original Australian validation and demonstrate that the Greek DASS-Y is a reliable, valid, and culturally appropriate instrument for assessing depression, anxiety, and stress among Greek youth. Future research should evaluate its clinical utility and longitudinal stability in diverse youth populations.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Preliminary Psychometric Validation of the Greek Version of the Depression Anxiety Stress Scales for Youth (DASS-Y)","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2026-01-29 20:12:13","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8336354/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"decision","content":"Revision requested","date":"2026-02-12T19:51:23+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2026-02-12T06:30:07+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2026-02-09T12:56:17+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2026-02-07T14:01:18+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2026-01-29T06:29:11+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"244825445420620953672251668287343487323","date":"2026-01-27T11:16:03+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"225942480506882224213441247088253800174","date":"2026-01-27T05:41:45+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"158909985691399021116876895912568691353","date":"2026-01-27T05:12:40+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"245281224827403628230477027853606321731","date":"2026-01-27T04:41:33+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"325059392680801990357719719203875840378","date":"2026-01-27T00:04:13+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2026-01-27T00:01:53+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2025-12-31T01:01:24+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"checksComplete","content":"","date":"2025-12-12T09:54:17+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"Child Psychiatry \u0026 Human Development","date":"2025-12-11T11:34:42+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"child-psychiatry-and-human-development","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"chud","sideBox":"Learn more about [Child Psychiatry \u0026 Human Development](http://link.springer.com/journal/10578)","snPcode":"10578","submissionUrl":"https://submission.nature.com/new-submission/10578/3","title":"Child Psychiatry \u0026 Human Development","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"Springer Hybrid","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":false}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"6951778b-12af-4189-8c9b-d1287e220fae","owner":[],"postedDate":"January 29th, 2026","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"under-review","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-05-15T09:39:43+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2026-01-29 20:12:13","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-8336354","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-8336354","identity":"rs-8336354","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"XKTyCvWXoU3ODBz1xrDgd","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}