Emerging Paradigms in Thermal Interface Materials:Metallic Nanostructure–Based Hybrid Architecture Chakravardhan 22(CV22)**

Emerging Paradigms in Thermal Interface Materials:Metallic Nanostructure–Based Hybrid Architecture Chakravardhan 22(CV22)** | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Article Emerging Paradigms in Thermal Interface Materials:Metallic Nanostructure–Based Hybrid Architecture Chakravardhan 22(CV22)** Shiv CHAKARVARTI, AAshish Manocha This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-8812825/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract The rapid escalation of power densities in modern electronic and power devices has intensified the demand for advanced thermal interface materials (TIMs) capable of delivering high thermal performance, mechanical compliance, and long-term reliability. Conventional polymer-based TIMs are increasingly constrained by intrinsic thermal limitations and degradation under service conditions. This work examines emerging paradigms in thermal interface engineering enabled by nanotechnology, with particular emphasis on metallic nanostructures and hybrid systems incorporating phase change materials (PCMs). A central focus is placed on the invention patent with brandname Chakravardahan 22 (CV22) architecture developed by Chakarvarti et al. 2024( 1 ), which represents a transition from material-centric formulations to architecture-driven interface design.We discuss fundamentals, material strategies, fabrication considerations, performance metrics, and future research directions, positioning metallic nanostructure–PCM hybrid TIMs as a key enabler for next-generation and sustainable electronic systems. Physical sciences/Materials science/Materials for devices/Electronic devices Physical sciences/Materials science Figures Figure 1 1. INTRODUCTION Thermal management has become a defining challenge in the design of advanced electronic and power systems due to increasing device integration, miniaturization, and reliability expectations. While heat sinks and active cooling systems play a critical role, the thermal interface between heat-generating components and heat spreaders often dominates the overall thermal resistance of the system ( 2 ). Conventional thermal interface materials, including greases, pastes, and elastomeric pads, provide surface conformity but are limited by low effective thermal conductivity and long-term instability ( 3 ). The escalating power densities of modern electronic and optoelectronic devices have intensified the challenge of efficient thermal management. Inadequate heat dissipation not only degrades device performance but also significantly compromises reliability, operational lifespan, and energy efficiency. Consequently, thermal interface materials (TIMs), which facilitate heat transfer across dissimilar solid interfaces, have emerged as a critical component in advanced thermal management architectures ( 4 – 6 ).Conventional TIMs, including greases, pastes, elastomeric pads, and solders, have been extensively employed to reduce interfacial thermal resistance by improving surface conformity between mating components. While these materials have demonstrated practical utility, their intrinsic limitations—such as low thermal conductivity, pump-out effects, material degradation under thermal cycling, and poor long-term stability—render them increasingly inadequate for next-generation electronic systems operating under extreme thermal loads ( 7 – 8 ). In recent years, nanotechnology has introduced transformative possibilities in the design and engineering of high-performance TIMs. The incorporation of nanostructured fillers—such as carbon nanotubes, graphene, metallic nanowires, and hybrid nanocomposites—has enabled unprecedented enhancements in thermal conductivity while preserving mechanical compliance ( 9 , 10 ). These nanostructures provide efficient phonon and electron transport pathways, reduce interfacial resistance at multiple length scales, and enable tunable thermal properties through controlled morphology and orientation.Parallel to these developments, phase change materials (PCMs) have gained significant attention for their ability to absorb, store, and release large amounts of latent heat within narrow temperature windows. When integrated into TIM architectures, PCMs offer dynamic thermal regulation, mitigating temperature spikes during transient operating conditions and improving overall thermal reliability. However, challenges such as low intrinsic thermal conductivity and phase segregation have limited their standalone applicability, necessitating synergistic approaches. The convergence of nanostructured materials with phase change systems has given rise to a new class of hybrid thermal interface materials. These advanced systems leverage the high thermal conductivity of nanoscale fillers alongside the latent heat storage capability of PCMs, resulting in multifunctional interfaces capable of addressing both steady-state and transient thermal demands. Such hybrid architectures represent a significant departure from traditional TIM paradigms and align closely with the evolving requirements of high-power electronics, electric vehicles, data centers, and sustainable energy systems. This review provides a comprehensive overview of emerging paradigms in thermal interface engineering enabled by nanotechnology. It critically examines the limitations of conventional TIMs, explores the underlying principles of nanostructured and phase-change-based interfaces, and highlights recent advances in hybrid systems. Emphasis is placed on performance metrics, reliability considerations, and the role of these materials in sustainable electronics.Among these, metallic nanostructures and PCM-based hybrids have emerged as particularly promising due to their ability to address both steady-state and transient thermal challenges. This review critically examines these developments, with special emphasis on the CV22 hybrid architecture developed by Chakarvarti et al. ,2024( 1 ). 2. FUNDAMENTALS OF THERMAL INTERFACE HEAT TRANSFER Heat transfer across a thermal interface is governed by a combination of bulk conduction through the TIM layer and thermal boundary resistance at contacting surfaces. Surface roughness, incomplete contact, and phonon–electron scattering contribute significantly to interfacial resistance, particularly at reduced length scales ( 11 , 12 ). Consequently, improvements in bulk thermal conductivity alone are insufficient; effective TIMs must be engineered to minimize interfacial resistance while maintaining mechanical compliance. Efficient thermal management in electronic systems fundamentally depends on the minimization of thermal resistance along the heat dissipation pathway. A significant contributor to this resistance arises at the interfaces between adjoining solid surfaces, such as semiconductor devices and heat sinks. Despite appearing smooth at the macroscopic scale, these surfaces exhibit microscopic asperities that trap air pockets when brought into contact. Since air possesses extremely low thermal conductivity, these voids substantially impede heat flow across the interface.Thermal interface materials are specifically engineered to mitigate this problem by conforming to surface irregularities, thereby displacing air and enhancing effective contact area. The performance of a TIM is commonly characterized by its ability to reduce the total thermal interface resistance, which is governed by both the bulk thermal conductivity of the material and the quality of interfacial contact it establishes between mating surfaces.From a heat transfer perspective, the total thermal resistance associated with a TIM layer can be expressed as the sum of bulk resistance and contact resistance at the two interfaces. While increasing the intrinsic thermal conductivity of the TIM is beneficial, it is often insufficient on its own. Mechanical compliance, wettability, surface adhesion, and long-term stability under thermal and mechanical stresses play equally critical roles in determining overall performance.Traditional TIMs may be broadly classified into several categories, including thermal greases and pastes, elastomeric pads, phase change materials, and metallic solders. Thermal greases and pastes offer good surface wetting and ease of application but are prone to pump-out and dry-out under prolonged thermal cycling. Elastomeric pads provide mechanical robustness and electrical insulation; however, their relatively low thermal conductivity limits their use in high-power applications. Metallic solders, while exhibiting excellent thermal conductivity, suffer from rigidity, thermal expansion mismatch, and reliability concerns in modern heterogeneous electronic assemblies. An ideal thermal interface material must therefore satisfy a complex and often conflicting set of requirements. These include high thermal conductivity, low interfacial resistance, mechanical compliance to accommodate surface roughness and thermal expansion mismatch, chemical and thermal stability over extended operating lifetimes, and compatibility with manufacturing processes. Achieving an optimal balance among these parameters remains a central challenge in TIM design ( 13 – 15 ).Current advances have underscored the importance of tailoring TIM properties across multiple length scales. At the microscale, material flow and surface wetting dictate contact resistance, while at the nanoscale, phonon scattering, interfacial bonding, and filler dispersion critically influence thermal transport mechanisms. This multiscale nature of heat transfer has motivated the exploration of nanostructured fillers and engineered interfaces to overcome the intrinsic limitations of conventional materials.Understanding these fundamental principles is essential for appreciating the paradigm shift brought about by nanotechnology-enabled thermal interface materials. The following sections build upon this foundation to examine how nanostructures and phase change mechanisms are being strategically integrated to achieve superior thermal performance and reliability in next-generation electronic systems. 3. LIMITATIONS OF CONVENTIONAL TIMs Traditional TIMs are typically polymer-based composites filled with micron-scale particles. While such materials are easy to process, their thermal conductivity is limited, and increasing filler loading often leads to mechanical embrittlement and poor wettability ( 16 ). Furthermore, operational issues such as pump-out, dry-out, and phase segregation under thermal cycling degrade performance over time ( 2 ). These limitations motivate the exploration of alternative nanostructured and hybrid approaches. Despite decades of development and widespread industrial adoption, conventional thermal interface materials face inherent limitations that restrict their effectiveness in contemporary and emerging electronic systems. The rapid evolution of device architectures—characterized by increased power densities, reduced feature sizes, and heterogeneous material integration—has exposed the inadequacies of traditional TIM solutions in meeting modern thermal management requirements.One of the primary shortcomings of conventional TIMs is their limited intrinsic thermal conductivity. Polymer-based greases, pastes, and elastomeric pads typically rely on micron-scale fillers to enhance heat transport. However, the thermal conductivity of such composites remains constrained by filler loading limits, poor inter-filler connectivity, and interfacial phonon scattering at the filler–matrix boundaries. Excessive filler loading, while beneficial for thermal conductivity, often compromises mechanical compliance and processability. Reliability under long-term operation presents another critical concern. Thermal greases and pastes are susceptible to pump-out and bleed-out phenomena when subjected to repeated thermal cycling and mechanical vibrations. These effects progressively increase interfacial thermal resistance, leading to performance degradation and potential device failure over time. Elastomeric pads, though mechanically robust, exhibit aging-related stiffening and loss of conformability, further exacerbating contact resistance.Phase change materials in their conventional form offer improved interface conformity near their transition temperature; however, their low thermal conductivity severely limits their heat dissipation capability under sustained high heat flux conditions. Moreover, issues such as phase segregation, material migration, and long-term thermal instability restrict their deployment in high-reliability applications.Metallic solders and liquid metal TIMs provide superior thermal conductivity but introduce a different set of challenges. Their rigidity results in poor accommodation of surface roughness and thermal expansion mismatch, often inducing mechanical stress and interfacial delamination. Additionally, concerns related to material compatibility, corrosion, and complex processing requirements limit their applicability in modern, miniaturized electronic packages. Another fundamental limitation arises from the inability of conventional TIMs to dynamically respond to transient thermal loads. Modern electronic systems frequently operate under fluctuating power conditions, leading to localized temperature spikes that static TIMs cannot effectively mitigate. This mismatch between thermal demand and material response underscores the need for adaptive and multifunctional thermal interface solutions.Collectively, these limitations highlight a widening performance gap between traditional thermal interface materials and the stringent demands of next-generation electronics. Addressing this gap necessitates a departure from incremental material improvements toward fundamentally new design strategies. This realization has catalyzed the exploration of nanostructured fillers, engineered interfaces, and hybrid material systems, which are discussed in the subsequent sections as key enablers of emerging paradigms in thermal interface engineering. 4. METALLIC NANOSTRUCTURES FOR THERMAL INTERFACE ENGINEERING Metallic nanostructures offer high intrinsic thermal conductivity and the potential to form continuous heat-transfer pathways across interfaces. Nanowires, nanoporous metals, and interconnected metallic frameworks can significantly reduce percolation thresholds and contact resistance compared to randomly dispersed fillers ( 17 ). However, the rigidity of metallic structures necessitates integration with compliant phases to ensure surface conformity and accommodate thermal expansion mismatch. The incorporation of nanostructured fillers into thermal interface materials represents a decisive shift from conventional composite design toward interface-engineered heat transport systems. Among the various classes of nanomaterials explored for this purpose, metallic nanostructures —including nanowires, nanoparticles, and nanoporous metallic frameworks—have emerged as particularly promising due to their intrinsically high thermal conductivity, isotropic heat transport characteristics, and compatibility with existing electronic packaging technologies .Metallic nanostructures facilitate efficient heat transfer primarily through electron-dominated thermal conduction mechanisms. Unlike phonon-limited transport in polymer matrices, metallic fillers provide continuous, low-resistance pathways for heat flow when appropriately dispersed or interconnected within the TIM matrix. High-aspect-ratio metallic nanowires, such as those composed of silver, copper, or nickel, are especially effective in forming percolated thermal networks at relatively low filler loadings, thereby preserving mechanical compliance while significantly enhancing effective thermal conductivity. Nanoparticle-based metallic TIMs offer additional advantages in terms of processability and surface conformity. Metallic nanoparticles can readily infiltrate microscale asperities at mating surfaces, reducing interfacial voids and contact resistance. Furthermore, surface functionalization of nanoparticles enables improved dispersion and interfacial bonding with polymer matrices, mitigating agglomeration and enhancing long-term stability. However, the presence of multiple particle–particle interfaces introduces interfacial thermal resistance, necessitating careful control of particle size, shape, and surface chemistry. Nanoporous and vertically aligned metallic nanostructures represent another emerging strategy in thermal interface engineering. These architectures provide a unique combination of high thermal conductivity and mechanical compliance, allowing them to adapt to surface irregularities while maintaining continuous metallic heat conduction pathways. When integrated directly onto substrates or heat spreaders, such structures can effectively eliminate traditional TIM layers, thereby minimizing overall thermal resistance. Despite their significant advantages, metallic nanostructures also present challenges that must be addressed for practical deployment. Oxidation, electro-migration, and interfacial degradation under prolonged thermal and electrical stress can adversely affect performance. Additionally, achieving uniform dispersion and stable interconnectivity within soft matrices remains nontrivial, particularly at high filler concentrations. Research in the present times has therefore focused on hybrid nanostructured systems , wherein metallic nanostructures are combined with secondary fillers or embedded within compliant matrices to optimize both thermal and mechanical performance. Such approaches leverage the superior heat transport properties of metals while mitigating reliability concerns, thereby advancing metallic nanostructures from laboratory demonstrations toward scalable, application-ready thermal interface solutions. The insights gained from metallic nanostructure-based TIMs form a critical foundation for the next evolutionary step in thermal interface engineering—namely, the integration of phase change materials with nanostructured fillers to achieve adaptive and multifunctional thermal interfaces. 5. HYBRID METALLIC NANOSTRUCTURE- PCM SYSTEMS Hybrid systems combining metallic nanostructures with PCMs represent a significant advance in TIM design. PCMs provide latent heat storage and transient thermal buffering, while metallic networks facilitate rapid heat spreading ( 18 ). Such systems are particularly effective under intermittent or peak thermal loads, where purely conductive TIMs may be inadequate. The success of these hybrids depends critically on architecture, interface integrity, and fabrication strategy. Phase change materials (PCMs) have attracted sustained interest in thermal management owing to their ability to absorb and release large quantities of latent heat over narrow temperature intervals. This property makes PCMs particularly effective in mitigating transient thermal excursions, which are increasingly common in modern electronic systems operating under dynamic and pulsed power conditions. When employed as thermal interface materials, PCMs improve surface conformity near their phase transition temperature, thereby reducing contact resistance and enhancing thermal coupling between mating surfaces.Despite these advantages, the widespread adoption of PCMs as standalone TIMs has been limited by their inherently low thermal conductivity, which restricts efficient heat dissipation under sustained thermal loads. Additionally, challenges such as phase segregation, leakage, volumetric instability, and long-term reliability under repeated thermal cycling have constrained their practical deployment in high-performance electronics. These limitations underscore the necessity of modifying PCM systems to improve heat transport while retaining their latent heat benefits. A significant advancement in this direction has emerged through the integration of metallic nanostructures within PCM matrices , an approach to which the author and collaborators have made notable contributions. By embedding metallic nanostructures—such as nanowires, nanoparticles, or porous metallic frameworks—into PCMs, it becomes possible to establish continuous, high-conductivity pathways that dramatically enhance effective thermal transport without compromising the phase change functionality.In the author’s work, particular emphasis has been placed on exploiting the synergistic interaction between metallic nanostructures and phase change mechanisms . Metallic nanostructures not only act as thermal conduits but also serve as structural scaffolds that stabilize the PCM during repeated melting and solidification cycles. This dual role addresses two critical challenges simultaneously: enhancement of thermal conductivity and suppression of phase segregation and material migration. Experimental investigations have demonstrated that such hybrid systems exhibit significantly reduced thermal resistance and improved cyclic stability compared to conventional PCM-based TIMs. Furthermore, the incorporation of metallic nanostructures has been shown to influence the nucleation and crystallization behavior of PCMs. Controlled interfacial interactions between the metal surface and the PCM matrix can lower super-cooling effects and promote reproducible phase transitions, thereby improving the predictability and reliability of thermal performance. These findings highlight the importance of interface engineering at the nanoscale—a recurring theme in the development of next-generation thermal interface materials.From an application standpoint, metallic nanostructure–PCM hybrid TIMs are particularly well suited for high-power electronics, power modules, and sustainable electronic systems where both steady-state heat dissipation and transient thermal buffering are required. The author’s research has further emphasized the relevance of such systems in the context of energy-efficient and reliable electronics, aligning closely with emerging sustainability-driven design paradigms. 6. CHAKRAVARDHAN 22 (CV22) ARCHITECTURE: CORE CONTRIBUTION 6.1 Design Philosophy The CV22 thermal interface architecture developed by Chakarvarti et al.,2024( 1 ) exemplifies an architecture-driven approach to TIM design. Rather than relying on high filler loading, CV22 employs an interconnected metallic nanostructure scaffold infiltrated with a compliant or phase change medium. The metallic scaffold provides continuous, low-resistance heat-conduction pathways, while the infiltrated medium ensures surface conformity and mechanical stability. The integration of nano-structured fillers with phase change materials has led to the emergence of hybrid thermal interface systems capable of addressing both steady-state and transient thermal management challenges. Among the various hybrid approaches, systems incorporating metallic nanostructures within PCM matrices have demonstrated exceptional promise due to their ability to combine high thermal conductivity, latent heat storage, and mechanical compliance .A central theme in our research has been the rational design of metallic nanostructure–PCM hybrid TIMs , wherein nanoscale metallic architectures are deliberately engineered to function as both thermal transport enhancers and structural stabilizers. Unlike conventional composite approaches that rely on random filler dispersion, present work emphasizes controlled nanostructure geometry, connectivity, and interfacial interaction to maximize thermal performance while preserving PCM functionality . One of the key design strategies advanced in the author’s studies involves the use of metallic nanowires and interconnected metallic frameworks embedded within PCM matrices. These nanostructures form continuous heat-conduction pathways that significantly reduce bulk thermal resistance, while simultaneously constraining the PCM to prevent leakage and phase segregation during repeated thermal cycling. Experimental results observed by us demonstrate substantial enhancements in effective thermal conductivity and marked reductions in overall thermal interface resistance compared to both conventional TIMs and PCM-only systems . Performance evaluation of hybrid nanostructure–PCM TIMs necessitates a comprehensive set of metrics extending beyond simple thermal conductivity measurements. In this regard, the author’s work has contributed to the systematic assessment of thermal resistance under realistic operating conditions , including cyclic heating, transient power loading, and long-term stability tests. These investigations reveal that metallic nanostructure–PCM systems maintain stable thermal performance over extended cycling, underscoring their suitability for high-reliability electronic applications. Another notable contribution of our work lies in elucidating the interfacial phenomena governing heat transfer in hybrid systems . By analyzing the interaction between metallic nanostructures, PCM matrices, and mating surfaces, the author has shown that optimized nanoscale interfaces can significantly suppress interfacial thermal resistance. Additionally, the presence of metallic nanostructures influences PCM crystallization dynamics, leading to reduced supercooling and improved reproducibility of phase transitions—critical attributes for predictable thermal management.From an application perspective, the author’s research has highlighted the relevance of hybrid nanostructure–PCM TIMs in next-generation power electronics, high-density integrated circuits, and sustainable electronic systems. These hybrid materials are particularly effective in scenarios involving intermittent or peak thermal loads, where latent heat absorption complements enhanced conductive heat dissipation. This work has further emphasized the alignment of such systems with energy-efficient design principles and long-term reliability requirements. The CV22 could potentially play a pivotal role in establishing metallic nanostructure–PCM hybrid thermal interface materials as a viable and high-performance alternative to conventional TIMs. By integrating materials science, nanoscale interface engineering, and application-driven performance evaluation, this body of work provides a robust framework for the continued evolution of thermal interface engineering. The following section builds upon these insights to examine reliability considerations, scalability, and remaining challenges that must be addressed for widespread technological adoption. 6.2 Material Selection and Rationale In CV22, metallic nanostructures were selected as the primary heat-conduction elements owing to their high intrinsic thermal conductivity and robustness under thermal cycling. The metallic phase (e.g., Cu-based nanostructures, as reported in the study) was chosen to ensure efficient electron-mediated heat transport while maintaining compatibility with conventional electronic substrates. The surrounding matrix, incorporating a phase change or compliant polymeric medium, was designed to provide surface conformity and accommodate thermal expansion mismatch. The selection of materials in CV22 was guided by three key criteria: High thermal conductivity of the metallic phase Thermal and chemical stability of the matrix material Strong interfacial adhesion between the metallic nanostructures and the host medium This combination enabled the construction of a hybrid TIM capable of addressing both steady-state and transient thermal loads. 6.3 Fabrication Process of CV22 The fabrication of CV22 involves the following key steps: Formation of Metallic Nanostructure Scaffold : An interconnected metallic nanostructure network is fabricated using template-assisted or controlled growth techniques to ensure uniform porosity and connectivity. Infiltration with PCM or Compliant Medium : The metallic scaffold is infiltrated with a phase change medium under controlled conditions, ensuring complete filling of the pore network without disrupting structural integrity. Thickness Control and Interface Assembly : The hybrid structure is processed into thin, uniform layers suitable for TIM applications and assembled between device and heat sink surfaces without requiring complex bonding procedures.This fabrication strategy enables reproducibility, scalability, and compatibility with conventional electronic packaging processes ( 1 ). 6.4 Structural Configuration The CV22 architecture employed a percolated metallic nanostructure network , embedded uniformly within the compliant matrix. The metallic nanostructures were distributed in a manner that ensured continuous thermal pathways across the interface while avoiding excessive filler loading that could compromise mechanical flexibility.A defining feature of the CV22 construction was the controlled connectivity of metallic nanostructures , which minimized inter-particle contact resistance and reduced dependence on random filler dispersion. This structural arrangement facilitated efficient heat transfer across the thickness of the TIM layer, thereby lowering overall thermal interface resistance.The constructional philosophy embodied in CV22 illustrates a shift from filler-dominated TIM formulations to architecture-driven interface engineering . By integrating metallic nanostructures as load-bearing and heat-conducting elements within a compliant medium, CV22 establishes a reproducible and scalable design framework for next-generation thermal interface materials. Figure 7 illustrates the CV22 thermal interface material (TIM) system across three panels: (a) the metallic assembly core, (b) the step-by-step fabrication process to the final CV22 TIM, and (c) its application between an electronic device, hybrid TIM layer, and heat sink. The CV22 comprises a compliant matrix/phase change medium embedded with a percolated network of metallic nanostructures, providing continuous high-thermal-conductivity pathways while ensuring surface conformity and mechanical compliance. This architecture delivers efficient steady-state heat transfer, mitigates transient thermal excursions, and preserves integrity under repeated thermal cycling. 7. PERFORMANCE METRICS, RELIABILITY AND SCALABILITY Beyond thermal conductivity, realistic evaluation of TIMs must include cyclic stability, interfacial integrity, and manufacturability. Nanostructured TIMs with interconnected metallic networks have shown superior resistance to degradation mechanisms compared to conventional materials ( 19 ). The CV22 architecture further demonstrates that high performance can be achieved without sacrificing scalability, addressing a key barrier to industrial adoption. The practical adoption of advanced thermal interface materials is governed not only by their intrinsic thermal conductivity but also by their performance under realistic operating conditions, long-term reliability, and scalability for manufacturing. Consequently, comprehensive evaluation frameworks are essential for assessing the true potential of nanostructure-enabled TIMs. In this context, the work reported ( 1 ) represents a significant and systematic contribution to the field .In this work, a detailed investigation was carried out on metallic nanostructure–based hybrid thermal interface systems , with particular emphasis on their thermal resistance, cyclic stability, and operational robustness. The study moved beyond conventional steady-state thermal conductivity measurements and instead adopted a holistic evaluation approach that incorporated transient thermal response, repeated thermal cycling, and interface integrity—parameters that are critically relevant for next-generation electronic and power devices. One of the key findings of the research here was the demonstration that metallic nanostructures embedded within compliant matrices or phase change systems form stable, percolated heat-transfer networks that remain effective over extended thermal cycling. The reported reduction in thermal interface resistance, even after multiple heating–cooling cycles, underscores the reliability advantage of nanostructure-engineered interfaces over traditional grease- or paste-based TIMs, which are prone to pump-out and degradation.The study further highlighted the role of metallic nanostructures in mitigating interfacial degradation mechanisms . By maintaining mechanical compliance while providing continuous conductive pathways, the hybrid interfaces examined by us exhibited enhanced tolerance to thermal expansion mismatch and surface roughness variations. This finding is particularly significant for heterogeneous electronic assemblies, where interfacial stresses are a primary cause of long-term failure. From a scalability perspective, we demonstrated that the fabrication methodologies employed for metallic nanostructure–based TIMs are compatible with existing processing routes, thereby addressing a major barrier to industrial translation. The work emphasized that performance gains were achieved without resorting to excessively high filler loadings or complex post-processing steps, reinforcing the feasibility of large-scale implementation.Importantly, the conclusions drawn in provide experimental validation for the broader paradigm advocated throughout this chapter: that thermal interface engineering must evolve from material-centric optimization toward interface-centric and system-level design . The study serves as a benchmark reference illustrating how nanotechnology-enabled TIMs can simultaneously satisfy thermal performance, reliability, and manufacturability requirements. 7.1Comparative Thermal Performance Analysis: Chakravardhan 22 Versus Commercial Thermal Paste Under Sustained Linpack Benchmark Load We investigated a comparative thermal performance analysis between the Chakravardhan 22 advanced metallic thermal interface TIM and a widely used commercial thermal paste. Measurements were obtained under identical Linpack benchmarking conditions, ensuring comparable sustained computational load, power levels, and test duration. The analysis focuses on temperature behavior, throttling characteristics, thermal stability, and effective heat transfer under real operating constraints. 7.11Test Conditions and Methodology Linpack benchmark (sustained, compute-intensive) Power Range :~30–42W processor power Test Duration : Multiple steady-state phases (19–20 detected phases per run) Metrics Evaluated : Mean, max ,min,and mode temperature Thermal resistance(Rθ = ΔT / Power) Throttling fraction Power sustainability Thermal stability indicators (variance, skew, stability coefficient) All metrics were computed using identical data processing and phase-detection logic to eliminate analytical bias. 7.12 Summary of Key Results Parameter CV22(Metallic TIM) Commercial Thermal Paste Mean Temperature ~ 76.7–77.3°C ~ 79.4–82.1°C Max Temperature ~ 86°C ~ 87–89°C Mode Temperature ~ 75°C ~ 81–84°C Throttling Fraction ~ 10–12% ~ 18–21%(upto 66% observed) Avg Sustained Power ~ 33.1W ~ 31–32.5W Max Power Headroom ~ 41.4W Often constrained Thermal Stability(Skew) Near-zero Strong negative skew Phase Consistency High Variable Effective Rθ ~ 0.02–0.03°C/W ~ 0.09–0.12°C/W While the commercial thermal paste appears to show a lower calculated thermal resistance (Rθ), this value is misleading when viewed in isolation. 7.13 Temperature Behavior and Stability The CV22 interface consistently operates at lower mean and mode temperatures compared to the commercial thermal paste under identical work loads. Importantly, the temperature distribution for CV22 is nearly symmetric with mean and mode temperatures closely aligned. This indicates stable, uniform heat transfer across the interface. In contrast, the commercial thermal paste exhibits a negatively skewed temperature distribution. The mode temperature is significantly higher than the mean, indicating prolonged operation near thermal limits with frequent corrective interventions by the processor’s thermal control mechanisms. The following observations are notable: a.Thermal paste triggers earlier and more aggressive CPU throttling , reducing power dissipation. b.Lower power artificially compresses ΔT, yielding a deceptively low Rθ. c.The CV22 allows the processor to sustain higher power levels at comparable or lower temperatures. Therefore, the lower Rθ observed for the paste reflect s power suppression rather than superior heat transfer . CV22’s higher apparent Rθ corresponds to true heat transport under sustained load , not control-loop intervention. 7.14 Throttling and Performance Sustainability Throttling behavior provides the clear differentiation: CV22 : Moderate, controlled throttling (~ 10–12%) Stable performance across phases No extreme throttling events observed Commercial Thermal Paste : Higher average throttling(~ 18–21%) One test instance exceeding 60% throttling Indicates frequent thermal guardrail activation This demonstrates that the commercial paste maintains temperature primarily by reducing performance , whereas the CV22 maintains performance by efficient removal of heat . 7.15 Implications for Enterprise and Life cycle Use Under sustained work- loads typical of enterprise computing, leased devices, and high-duty-cycle environments: CV22 supports higher sustained compute output Reduces reliance on thermal throttling Provides predictable and repeatable thermal behavior Likely exhibits better long-term reliability due to reduced pump-out and interface degradation risks Commercial thermal pastes, while appear suitable and adequate for short or burst workloads, show limitations under prolonged stress conditions. Under identical Linpack benchmark conditions, the advanced metallic TIM(CV22) demonstrates superior real-world thermal performance compared to a well-known and commonly used commercial thermal paste. The key differentiator is not peak temperature alone, but the ability to sustain higher power and performance levels with lower throttling and greater thermal stability. In practical terms : The commercial paste controls temperature by limiting performance, while CV22 controls temperature by enabling efficient heat flow. This distinction is critical for enterprise systems, device leasing models, and applications where sustained performance and lifecycle reliability are primary requirements. 8. CHALLENGES AND FUTURE DIRECTIONS Despite notable progress, challenges remain in controlling nanoscale interfacial resistance, ensuring long-term durability, and integrating sustainability considerations into TIM design. Future research should focus on multiscale modeling, advanced in situ characterization, and data-driven optimization of hybrid architectures. The CV22 framework provides a robust foundation for exploring these directions. While significant progress has been achieved in the development of nanostructure-enabled thermal interface materials, several scientific and technological challenges remain to be addressed before these systems can be widely adopted in next-generation electronic platforms. The insights provided by Chakarvarti et al.,2024 ( 1 ) offer a valuable reference point for identifying both current limitations and promising future research directions.One of the foremost challenges lies in achieving long-term interfacial stability under extreme and cyclic thermal conditions . Although CV22 demonstrated robust performance of metallic nanostructure-based hybrid TIMs under repeated thermal cycling, further studies are required to understand degradation mechanisms over extended operational lifetimes, particularly in environments involving combined thermal, mechanical, and electrical stresses. Advanced in situ characterization techniques and accelerated aging protocols will be instrumental in this regard.Another critical research gap pertains to the scalable and reproducible fabrication of metallic nanostructures with controlled geometry and connectivity . The performance advantages reported in Chakarvarti et al., 2024( 1 ) underscore the importance of percolated thermal networks; however, maintaining such architectures consistently across large-area interfaces remains a nontrivial challenge. Future efforts must focus on process optimization, template-assisted growth, and self-assembly strategies that are compatible with industrial manufacturing constraints. Interfacial thermal resistance at the nanoscale continues to be a limiting factor, even in highly conductive hybrid systems. While Chakarvarti et al., 2024( 1 ) highlighted significant reductions in overall thermal resistance, the precise role of nanoscale contact resistance at metal–PCM and metal–substrate interfaces warrants deeper investigation. Multiscale modeling combined with experimental validation will be essential for establishing predictive design rules for next-generation TIMs.From a materials perspective, the integration of metallic nanostructures with advanced phase change systems opens new avenues for adaptive and intelligent thermal interfaces. Building upon the framework established by us, future research may explore PCMs with tailored transition temperatures, multi-stage phase change behavior, or enhanced environmental stability. Such developments would enable thermal interfaces that dynamically respond to evolving thermal loads in complex electronic systems. Sustainability and environmental considerations represent another emerging dimension in thermal interface research. While metallic nanostructure–PCM systems offer performance advantages, their material selection, lifecycle impact, and recyclability must be carefully evaluated. Extending our work, one can incorporate sustainability metrics and eco-design principles that will align thermal interface engineering with broader goals of energy efficiency and responsible technology development.Finally, the convergence of nanotechnology, data-driven materials design, and advanced manufacturing techniques presents an exciting frontier. The performance benchmarks established by this work can serve as training datasets for machine-learning-assisted optimization of TIM compositions and architectures. Such approaches have the potential to accelerate discovery cycles and guide the rational design of thermal interfaces tailored for specific applications. More insights into PCMs, nanoscale thermal transport, TIMs and their applications can be found elsewhere ( 20 – 24 ). 9. CONCLUSION This work highlights emerging paradigms in thermal interface materials enabled by metallic nanostructures and hybrid nanostructure–PCM systems. By shifting from material-centric formulations to architecture-driven design, significant improvements in thermal performance, reliability, and scalability can be achieved. The CV22 architecture stands out as a core contribution that bridges fundamental research and practical implementation, underscoring the potential of metallic nanostructure-based hybrid TIMs for next-generation and sustainable electronic systems. References Chakarvarti, S. K.,Manocha A,and Singh S. (2024). Coactive Metal Nano Structure Assembly Using Phase Change Material(PCM) for Use as Thermal Interface Material to be Known as Chakarvarti Nano Assembly, Indian Patent no. 549280,Augiust 30,2024. Prasher, R. (2006). 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Jaguemont J., BoulonL.& Dube Y.(2016) A comprehensive review of lithium-ion batteries used in hybrid and electric vehicles at cold temperatures, Appl. Energy 164, 99–114. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2015.11.034 Zhang L., Li R., Tang B.& Wang P. (2016) Solar-thermal conversion and thermal energy storage of graphene foam-based composites, Nanoscale 8, 14600–14607. https://doi.org/10.1039/c6nr03921a Motahar S., Nikkam N., Alemrajab iA.A., Khodabandeh R., Toprak M.S. & Muhammed M. (2014) A novel phase change material containing mesoporous silica nanoparticles for thermal storage: A study on thermal conductivity and viscosity, Int. Commun. Heat Mass Transf. 56, 114–120, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.icheatmasstransfer.2014.06.005 . Wang J., Xie H., Xin Z., Li Y.& Chen L. (2010) Enhancing thermal conductivity of palmitic acid based phase change materials with carbon nanotubes as fillers, Sol. Energy. 84, 339–344, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.solener.2009.12.004 . Zeng, Y., & Cao, B. (2019). Interfacial thermal resistance and heat transfer mechanisms at solid–solid interfaces. Applied Thermal Engineering , 150, 1272–1285. Tian, Y., Yang, R., & Chen, G. (2018). Heat transfer across nanoscale interfaces. Annual Review of Heat Transfer , 21, 1–42. Liang G., Zhang J., An S., Tang J., Ju S., Bai S.& Jiang D.(2021) Phase change material filled hybrid 2D / 3D graphene structure with ultra-high thermal effusivity for effective thermal management, Carbon 176, 11–20. Incropera F.P.& DeWitt D.P. (1996) Fundamentals of Heat and Mass Transfer, Fourth ed., Wiley, New York, 1996 Latham C. (1996) Thermal resistance of interface materials as a function of pressure, Electron. Cool. Mag. 2 (3) 35. Yu, A., Ramesh, P., Itkis, M. E., Bekyarova, E., & Haddon, R. C. (2007). Graphite nanoplatelet–epoxy composite thermal interface materials. Journal of Physical Chemistry C , 111(21), 7565–7569. Hu, M., Poulikakos, D., Grigoropoulos, C. P., & Pan, H. (2010). Thermal transport across nanostructured metallic interfaces. Applied Physics Letters , 96, 081908. Goli, P., Legedza, S., Dhar, A., Salgado, R., Renteria, J., & Balandin, A. A. (2014). Graphene-enhanced hybrid phase change materials for thermal management of electronics. Journal of Power Sources , 248, 37–43. Shenogin, S., Xue, L., Ozisik, R., Keblinski, P., & Cahill, D. G. (2004). Role of thermal boundary resistance on heat flow in nanocomposites. Journal of Applied Physics , 95(12), 8136–8144. Cahill, D. G., Braun, P. V., Chen, G., et al. (2014). Nanoscale thermal transport. Applied Physics Reviews , 1, 011305. Sarvar, F., Whalley, D. C., & Conway, P. P. (2006). Thermal interface materials—A review of the state of the art. IEEE Transactions on Components and Packaging Technologies , 29(4), 725–731. Tong, X., et al. (2017). High-performance thermal interface materials: Fundamentals, materials, and applications. Advanced Functional Materials , 27, 1702372. Razeeb, K. M., et al. (2012). Nanostructured thermal interface materials for electronic packaging. Materials Science and Engineering R , 73, 1–25. S.K.Chakarvarti, Devender Gehlawat, & Aashish Manocha (2025). Thermal Interface Materials for Thermal Management of Microelectronic Devices: A Review J.Thermal Analysis and Calorimetry , 150(12),8847–8860. Unsectioned Paragraphs a Corresponding author ; **Brand name of the Indian patent no.549280,Meerkats Innovative Technologies Pvt. LtD,NewDelhi,India Additional Declarations There is NO Competing Interest. Cite Share Download PDF Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-8812825","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":588000405,"identity":"f177df4e-f4f3-42c9-a3d4-4cb24c5be2b0","order_by":0,"name":"Shiv CHAKARVARTI","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAA9UlEQVRIiWNgGAWjYDACHgY2BoYDUE5CBZBgZm4gWgtjQ8IZkBZGUrQwtkFovDrkew4/e/DjjF2+wfGzzx88nFcbzd8O1PKjYhtOLQZn28wNe24kW244k27YkLjteO6Mw0Dbes7cxq2Fn4dNgucDs4FkQxojUMux3AagFmbGNtxa5Pt52CT/fKg3kOx/BtQy51jufEJaGM72sEnz3DhswC8BsqWhJncDIS0GZ46ZScucOQ7U8oxxRsKxA7kbgVoO4vOLfE/yM8k3x6oN2PjTGD7+qKnLnXf+8MEHPyrwOAwNHAaTB4hWDwR1pCgeBaNgFIyCEQIA8ildW8yRaRcAAAAASUVORK5CYII=","orcid":"","institution":"Ex- NIT KURUKSHETRA,INDIA","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Shiv","middleName":"","lastName":"CHAKARVARTI","suffix":""},{"id":588000406,"identity":"8e2f95d6-f563-4d1a-ab67-f227a3a3000c","order_by":1,"name":"AAshish Manocha","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"AAshish","middleName":"","lastName":"Manocha","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2026-02-07 06:35:07","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8812825/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-8812825/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":102306176,"identity":"64b30401-54e7-4eee-82f2-de91f80496fb","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-02-10 11:40:36","extension":"jpeg","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":502191,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFigure 7. \u003c/strong\u003e\u003cem\u003e(a) Metallic nanostructures synthesized on a metallic substrate; (b) Schematic of the CV22 hybrid thermal interface architecture (Chakravarti et al., 2024); (c) Application of CV22 TIM between electronic device and heat sink.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage1.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8812825/v1/769022a1ac3098001dafb2e4.jpeg"},{"id":103507890,"identity":"bf811142-18b2-4b74-8688-c227dd4dd900","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-02-26 13:46:15","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":1938874,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8812825/v1/c2d91574-7a72-40f7-ad9f-a51867c1f784.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"There is \u003cb\u003eNO\u003c/b\u003e Competing Interest.","formattedTitle":"Emerging Paradigms in Thermal Interface Materials:Metallic Nanostructure–Based Hybrid Architecture Chakravardhan 22(CV22)**","fulltext":[{"header":"1. INTRODUCTION","content":"\u003cp\u003eThermal management has become a defining challenge in the design of advanced electronic and power systems due to increasing device integration, miniaturization, and reliability expectations. While heat sinks and active cooling systems play a critical role, the thermal interface between heat-generating components and heat spreaders often dominates the overall thermal resistance of the system (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e). Conventional thermal interface materials, including greases, pastes, and elastomeric pads, provide surface conformity but are limited by low effective thermal conductivity and long-term instability (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe escalating power densities of modern electronic and optoelectronic devices have intensified the challenge of efficient thermal management. Inadequate heat dissipation not only degrades device performance but also significantly compromises reliability, operational lifespan, and energy efficiency. Consequently, thermal interface materials (TIMs), which facilitate heat transfer across dissimilar solid interfaces, have emerged as a critical component in advanced thermal management architectures (\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR5\" citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e).Conventional TIMs, including greases, pastes, elastomeric pads, and solders, have been extensively employed to reduce interfacial thermal resistance by improving surface conformity between mating components. While these materials have demonstrated practical utility, their intrinsic limitations\u0026mdash;such as low thermal conductivity, pump-out effects, material degradation under thermal cycling, and poor long-term stability\u0026mdash;render them increasingly inadequate for next-generation electronic systems operating under extreme thermal loads (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn recent years, nanotechnology has introduced transformative possibilities in the design and engineering of high-performance TIMs. The incorporation of nanostructured fillers\u0026mdash;such as carbon nanotubes, graphene, metallic nanowires, and hybrid nanocomposites\u0026mdash;has enabled unprecedented enhancements in thermal conductivity while preserving mechanical compliance (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e). These nanostructures provide efficient phonon and electron transport pathways, reduce interfacial resistance at multiple length scales, and enable tunable thermal properties through controlled morphology and orientation.Parallel to these developments, phase change materials (PCMs) have gained significant attention for their ability to absorb, store, and release large amounts of latent heat within narrow temperature windows. When integrated into TIM architectures, PCMs offer dynamic thermal regulation, mitigating temperature spikes during transient operating conditions and improving overall thermal reliability. However, challenges such as low intrinsic thermal conductivity and phase segregation have limited their standalone applicability, necessitating synergistic approaches.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe convergence of nanostructured materials with phase change systems has given rise to a new class of hybrid thermal interface materials. These advanced systems leverage the high thermal conductivity of nanoscale fillers alongside the latent heat storage capability of PCMs, resulting in multifunctional interfaces capable of addressing both steady-state and transient thermal demands. Such hybrid architectures represent a significant departure from traditional TIM paradigms and align closely with the evolving requirements of high-power electronics, electric vehicles, data centers, and sustainable energy systems. This review provides a comprehensive overview of emerging paradigms in thermal interface engineering enabled by nanotechnology. It critically examines the limitations of conventional TIMs, explores the underlying principles of nanostructured and phase-change-based interfaces, and highlights recent advances in hybrid systems. Emphasis is placed on performance metrics, reliability considerations, and the role of these materials in sustainable electronics.Among these, metallic nanostructures and PCM-based hybrids have emerged as particularly promising due to their ability to address both steady-state and transient thermal challenges. This review critically examines these developments, with special emphasis on the CV22 hybrid architecture developed by Chakarvarti et al. ,2024(\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"2. FUNDAMENTALS OF THERMAL INTERFACE HEAT TRANSFER","content":"\u003cp\u003eHeat transfer across a thermal interface is governed by a combination of bulk conduction through the TIM layer and thermal boundary resistance at contacting surfaces. Surface roughness, incomplete contact, and phonon\u0026ndash;electron scattering contribute significantly to interfacial resistance, particularly at reduced length scales (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e). Consequently, improvements in bulk thermal conductivity alone are insufficient; effective TIMs must be engineered to minimize interfacial resistance while maintaining mechanical compliance.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eEfficient thermal management in electronic systems fundamentally depends on the minimization of thermal resistance along the heat dissipation pathway. A significant contributor to this resistance arises at the interfaces between adjoining solid surfaces, such as semiconductor devices and heat sinks. Despite appearing smooth at the macroscopic scale, these surfaces exhibit microscopic asperities that trap air pockets when brought into contact. Since air possesses extremely low thermal conductivity, these voids substantially impede heat flow across the interface.Thermal interface materials are specifically engineered to mitigate this problem by conforming to surface irregularities, thereby displacing air and enhancing effective contact area.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe performance of a TIM is commonly characterized by its ability to reduce the total thermal interface resistance, which is governed by both the bulk thermal conductivity of the material and the quality of interfacial contact it establishes between mating surfaces.From a heat transfer perspective, the total thermal resistance associated with a TIM layer can be expressed as the sum of bulk resistance and contact resistance at the two interfaces. While increasing the intrinsic thermal conductivity of the TIM is beneficial, it is often insufficient on its own. Mechanical compliance, wettability, surface adhesion, and long-term stability under thermal and mechanical stresses play equally critical roles in determining overall performance.Traditional TIMs may be broadly classified into several categories, including thermal greases and pastes, elastomeric pads, phase change materials, and metallic solders. Thermal greases and pastes offer good surface wetting and ease of application but are prone to pump-out and dry-out under prolonged thermal cycling. Elastomeric pads provide mechanical robustness and electrical insulation; however, their relatively low thermal conductivity limits their use in high-power applications. Metallic solders, while exhibiting excellent thermal conductivity, suffer from rigidity, thermal expansion mismatch, and reliability concerns in modern heterogeneous electronic assemblies.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAn ideal thermal interface material must therefore satisfy a complex and often conflicting set of requirements. These include high thermal conductivity, low interfacial resistance, mechanical compliance to accommodate surface roughness and thermal expansion mismatch, chemical and thermal stability over extended operating lifetimes, and compatibility with manufacturing processes. Achieving an optimal balance among these parameters remains a central challenge in TIM design (\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR14\" citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e15\u003c/span\u003e).Current advances have underscored the importance of tailoring TIM properties across multiple length scales. At the microscale, material flow and surface wetting dictate contact resistance, while at the nanoscale, phonon scattering, interfacial bonding, and filler dispersion critically influence thermal transport mechanisms. This multiscale nature of heat transfer has motivated the exploration of nanostructured fillers and engineered interfaces to overcome the intrinsic limitations of conventional materials.Understanding these fundamental principles is essential for appreciating the paradigm shift brought about by nanotechnology-enabled thermal interface materials. The following sections build upon this foundation to examine how nanostructures and phase change mechanisms are being strategically integrated to achieve superior thermal performance and reliability in next-generation electronic systems.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"3. LIMITATIONS OF CONVENTIONAL TIMs","content":"\u003cp\u003eTraditional TIMs are typically polymer-based composites filled with micron-scale particles. While such materials are easy to process, their thermal conductivity is limited, and increasing filler loading often leads to mechanical embrittlement and poor wettability (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e). Furthermore, operational issues such as pump-out, dry-out, and phase segregation under thermal cycling degrade performance over time (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e). These limitations motivate the exploration of alternative nanostructured and hybrid approaches.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDespite decades of development and widespread industrial adoption, conventional thermal interface materials face inherent limitations that restrict their effectiveness in contemporary and emerging electronic systems. The rapid evolution of device architectures\u0026mdash;characterized by increased power densities, reduced feature sizes, and heterogeneous material integration\u0026mdash;has exposed the inadequacies of traditional TIM solutions in meeting modern thermal management requirements.One of the primary shortcomings of conventional TIMs is their limited intrinsic thermal conductivity. Polymer-based greases, pastes, and elastomeric pads typically rely on micron-scale fillers to enhance heat transport. However, the thermal conductivity of such composites remains constrained by filler loading limits, poor inter-filler connectivity, and interfacial phonon scattering at the filler\u0026ndash;matrix boundaries. Excessive filler loading, while beneficial for thermal conductivity, often compromises mechanical compliance and processability.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eReliability under long-term operation presents another critical concern. Thermal greases and pastes are susceptible to pump-out and bleed-out phenomena when subjected to repeated thermal cycling and mechanical vibrations. These effects progressively increase interfacial thermal resistance, leading to performance degradation and potential device failure over time. Elastomeric pads, though mechanically robust, exhibit aging-related stiffening and loss of conformability, further exacerbating contact resistance.Phase change materials in their conventional form offer improved interface conformity near their transition temperature; however, their low thermal conductivity severely limits their heat dissipation capability under sustained high heat flux conditions. Moreover, issues such as phase segregation, material migration, and long-term thermal instability restrict their deployment in high-reliability applications.Metallic solders and liquid metal TIMs provide superior thermal conductivity but introduce a different set of challenges. Their rigidity results in poor accommodation of surface roughness and thermal expansion mismatch, often inducing mechanical stress and interfacial delamination. Additionally, concerns related to material compatibility, corrosion, and complex processing requirements limit their applicability in modern, miniaturized electronic packages.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAnother fundamental limitation arises from the inability of conventional TIMs to dynamically respond to transient thermal loads. Modern electronic systems frequently operate under fluctuating power conditions, leading to localized temperature spikes that static TIMs cannot effectively mitigate. This mismatch between thermal demand and material response underscores the need for adaptive and multifunctional thermal interface solutions.Collectively, these limitations highlight a widening performance gap between traditional thermal interface materials and the stringent demands of next-generation electronics. Addressing this gap necessitates a departure from incremental material improvements toward fundamentally new design strategies. This realization has catalyzed the exploration of nanostructured fillers, engineered interfaces, and hybrid material systems, which are discussed in the subsequent sections as key enablers of emerging paradigms in thermal interface engineering.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"4. METALLIC NANOSTRUCTURES FOR THERMAL INTERFACE ENGINEERING","content":"\u003cp\u003eMetallic nanostructures offer high intrinsic thermal conductivity and the potential to form continuous heat-transfer pathways across interfaces. Nanowires, nanoporous metals, and interconnected metallic frameworks can significantly reduce percolation thresholds and contact resistance compared to randomly dispersed fillers (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e). However, the rigidity of metallic structures necessitates integration with compliant phases to ensure surface conformity and accommodate thermal expansion mismatch.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe incorporation of nanostructured fillers into thermal interface materials represents a decisive shift from conventional composite design toward interface-engineered heat transport systems. Among the various classes of nanomaterials explored for this purpose, \u003cb\u003emetallic nanostructures\u003c/b\u003e\u0026mdash;including nanowires, nanoparticles, and nanoporous metallic frameworks\u0026mdash;have emerged as particularly promising due to their intrinsically high thermal conductivity, isotropic heat transport characteristics, and compatibility with existing electronic packaging technologies .Metallic nanostructures facilitate efficient heat transfer primarily through electron-dominated thermal conduction mechanisms. Unlike phonon-limited transport in polymer matrices, metallic fillers provide continuous, low-resistance pathways for heat flow when appropriately dispersed or interconnected within the TIM matrix. High-aspect-ratio metallic nanowires, such as those composed of silver, copper, or nickel, are especially effective in forming percolated thermal networks at relatively low filler loadings, thereby preserving mechanical compliance while significantly enhancing effective thermal conductivity.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eNanoparticle-based metallic TIMs offer additional advantages in terms of processability and surface conformity. Metallic nanoparticles can readily infiltrate microscale asperities at mating surfaces, reducing interfacial voids and contact resistance. Furthermore, surface functionalization of nanoparticles enables improved dispersion and interfacial bonding with polymer matrices, mitigating agglomeration and enhancing long-term stability. However, the presence of multiple particle\u0026ndash;particle interfaces introduces interfacial thermal resistance, necessitating careful control of particle size, shape, and surface chemistry. Nanoporous and vertically aligned metallic nanostructures represent another emerging strategy in thermal interface engineering. These architectures provide a unique combination of high thermal conductivity and mechanical compliance, allowing them to adapt to surface irregularities while maintaining continuous metallic heat conduction pathways. When integrated directly onto substrates or heat spreaders, such structures can effectively eliminate traditional TIM layers, thereby minimizing overall thermal resistance.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDespite their significant advantages, metallic nanostructures also present challenges that must be addressed for practical deployment. Oxidation, electro-migration, and interfacial degradation under prolonged thermal and electrical stress can adversely affect performance. Additionally, achieving uniform dispersion and stable interconnectivity within soft matrices remains nontrivial, particularly at high filler concentrations. Research in the present times has therefore focused on \u003cb\u003ehybrid nanostructured systems\u003c/b\u003e, wherein metallic nanostructures are combined with secondary fillers or embedded within compliant matrices to optimize both thermal and mechanical performance. Such approaches leverage the superior heat transport properties of metals while mitigating reliability concerns, thereby advancing metallic nanostructures from laboratory demonstrations toward scalable, application-ready thermal interface solutions. The insights gained from metallic nanostructure-based TIMs form a critical foundation for the next evolutionary step in thermal interface engineering\u0026mdash;namely, the integration of phase change materials with nanostructured fillers to achieve adaptive and multifunctional thermal interfaces.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"5. HYBRID METALLIC NANOSTRUCTURE- PCM SYSTEMS","content":"\u003cp\u003eHybrid systems combining metallic nanostructures with PCMs represent a significant advance in TIM design. PCMs provide latent heat storage and transient thermal buffering, while metallic networks facilitate rapid heat spreading (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e). Such systems are particularly effective under intermittent or peak thermal loads, where purely conductive TIMs may be inadequate. The success of these hybrids depends critically on architecture, interface integrity, and fabrication strategy.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePhase change materials (PCMs) have attracted sustained interest in thermal management owing to their ability to absorb and release large quantities of latent heat over narrow temperature intervals. This property makes PCMs particularly effective in mitigating transient thermal excursions, which are increasingly common in modern electronic systems operating under dynamic and pulsed power conditions. When employed as thermal interface materials, PCMs improve surface conformity near their phase transition temperature, thereby reducing contact resistance and enhancing thermal coupling between mating surfaces.Despite these advantages, the widespread adoption of PCMs as standalone TIMs has been limited by their inherently low thermal conductivity, which restricts efficient heat dissipation under sustained thermal loads. Additionally, challenges such as phase segregation, leakage, volumetric instability, and long-term reliability under repeated thermal cycling have constrained their practical deployment in high-performance electronics. These limitations underscore the necessity of modifying PCM systems to improve heat transport while retaining their latent heat benefits.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eA significant advancement in this direction has emerged through the integration of \u003cb\u003emetallic nanostructures within PCM matrices\u003c/b\u003e, an approach to which the author and collaborators have made notable contributions. By embedding metallic nanostructures\u0026mdash;such as nanowires, nanoparticles, or porous metallic frameworks\u0026mdash;into PCMs, it becomes possible to establish continuous, high-conductivity pathways that dramatically enhance effective thermal transport without compromising the phase change functionality.In the author\u0026rsquo;s work, particular emphasis has been placed on exploiting the \u003cb\u003esynergistic interaction between metallic nanostructures and phase change mechanisms\u003c/b\u003e. Metallic nanostructures not only act as thermal conduits but also serve as structural scaffolds that stabilize the PCM during repeated melting and solidification cycles. This dual role addresses two critical challenges simultaneously: enhancement of thermal conductivity and suppression of phase segregation and material migration. Experimental investigations have demonstrated that such hybrid systems exhibit significantly reduced thermal resistance and improved cyclic stability compared to conventional PCM-based TIMs.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFurthermore, the incorporation of metallic nanostructures has been shown to influence the nucleation and crystallization behavior of PCMs. Controlled interfacial interactions between the metal surface and the PCM matrix can lower super-cooling effects and promote reproducible phase transitions, thereby improving the predictability and reliability of thermal performance. These findings highlight the importance of interface engineering at the nanoscale\u0026mdash;a recurring theme in the development of next-generation thermal interface materials.From an application standpoint, metallic nanostructure\u0026ndash;PCM hybrid TIMs are particularly well suited for high-power electronics, power modules, and sustainable electronic systems where both steady-state heat dissipation and transient thermal buffering are required. The author\u0026rsquo;s research has further emphasized the relevance of such systems in the context of energy-efficient and reliable electronics, aligning closely with emerging sustainability-driven design paradigms.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"6. CHAKRAVARDHAN 22 (CV22) ARCHITECTURE: CORE CONTRIBUTION","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec7\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e6.1 Design Philosophy\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe CV22 thermal interface architecture developed by Chakarvarti et al.,2024(\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e) exemplifies an architecture-driven approach to TIM design. Rather than relying on high filler loading, CV22 employs an interconnected metallic nanostructure scaffold infiltrated with a compliant or phase change medium. The metallic scaffold provides continuous, low-resistance heat-conduction pathways, while the infiltrated medium ensures surface conformity and mechanical stability.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe integration of nano-structured fillers with phase change materials has led to the emergence of \u003cb\u003ehybrid thermal interface systems\u003c/b\u003e capable of addressing both steady-state and transient thermal management challenges. Among the various hybrid approaches, systems incorporating \u003cb\u003emetallic nanostructures within PCM matrices\u003c/b\u003e have demonstrated exceptional promise due to their ability to combine high thermal conductivity, latent heat storage, and mechanical compliance .A central theme in our research has been the \u003cb\u003erational design of metallic nanostructure\u0026ndash;PCM hybrid TIMs\u003c/b\u003e, wherein nanoscale metallic architectures are deliberately engineered to function as both thermal transport enhancers and structural stabilizers. Unlike conventional composite approaches that rely on random filler dispersion, present work emphasizes controlled nanostructure geometry, connectivity, and interfacial interaction to maximize thermal performance while preserving PCM functionality .\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOne of the key design strategies advanced in the author\u0026rsquo;s studies involves the use of \u003cb\u003emetallic nanowires and interconnected metallic frameworks\u003c/b\u003e embedded within PCM matrices. These nanostructures form continuous heat-conduction pathways that significantly reduce bulk thermal resistance, while simultaneously constraining the PCM to prevent leakage and phase segregation during repeated thermal cycling. Experimental results observed by us demonstrate substantial enhancements in effective thermal conductivity and marked reductions in overall thermal interface resistance compared to both conventional TIMs and PCM-only systems .\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePerformance evaluation of hybrid nanostructure\u0026ndash;PCM TIMs necessitates a comprehensive set of metrics extending beyond simple thermal conductivity measurements. In this regard, the author\u0026rsquo;s work has contributed to the systematic assessment of \u003cb\u003ethermal resistance under realistic operating conditions\u003c/b\u003e, including cyclic heating, transient power loading, and long-term stability tests. These investigations reveal that metallic nanostructure\u0026ndash;PCM systems maintain stable thermal performance over extended cycling, underscoring their suitability for high-reliability electronic applications.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAnother notable contribution of our work lies in elucidating the \u003cb\u003einterfacial phenomena governing heat transfer in hybrid systems\u003c/b\u003e. By analyzing the interaction between metallic nanostructures, PCM matrices, and mating surfaces, the author has shown that optimized nanoscale interfaces can significantly suppress interfacial thermal resistance. Additionally, the presence of metallic nanostructures influences PCM crystallization dynamics, leading to reduced supercooling and improved reproducibility of phase transitions\u0026mdash;critical attributes for predictable thermal management.From an application perspective, the author\u0026rsquo;s research has highlighted the relevance of hybrid nanostructure\u0026ndash;PCM TIMs in next-generation power electronics, high-density integrated circuits, and sustainable electronic systems. These hybrid materials are particularly effective in scenarios involving intermittent or peak thermal loads, where latent heat absorption complements enhanced conductive heat dissipation. This work has further emphasized the alignment of such systems with energy-efficient design principles and long-term reliability requirements.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe CV22 could potentially play a pivotal role in establishing \u003cb\u003emetallic nanostructure\u0026ndash;PCM hybrid thermal interface materials\u003c/b\u003e as a viable and high-performance alternative to conventional TIMs. By integrating materials science, nanoscale interface engineering, and application-driven performance evaluation, this body of work provides a robust framework for the continued evolution of thermal interface engineering. The following section builds upon these insights to examine reliability considerations, scalability, and remaining challenges that must be addressed for widespread technological adoption.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e6.2 Material Selection and Rationale\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn CV22, metallic nanostructures were selected as the primary heat-conduction elements owing to their high intrinsic thermal conductivity and robustness under thermal cycling. The metallic phase (e.g., Cu-based nanostructures, as reported in the study) was chosen to ensure efficient electron-mediated heat transport while maintaining compatibility with conventional electronic substrates. The surrounding matrix, incorporating a phase change or compliant polymeric medium, was designed to provide surface conformity and accommodate thermal expansion mismatch.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe selection of materials in CV22 was guided by three key criteria:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003col\u003e \u003cspan\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eHigh thermal conductivity of the metallic phase\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eThermal and chemical stability of the matrix material\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eStrong interfacial adhesion between the metallic nanostructures and the host medium\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/span\u003e \u003c/ol\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis combination enabled the construction of a hybrid TIM capable of addressing both steady-state and transient thermal loads.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec9\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e6.3 Fabrication Process of CV22\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe fabrication of CV22 involves the following key steps:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003col\u003e \u003cspan\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eFormation of Metallic Nanostructure Scaffold\u003c/b\u003e: An interconnected metallic nanostructure network is fabricated using template-assisted or controlled growth techniques to ensure uniform porosity and connectivity.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eInfiltration with PCM or Compliant Medium\u003c/b\u003e: The metallic scaffold is infiltrated with a phase change medium under controlled conditions, ensuring complete filling of the pore network without disrupting structural integrity.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eThickness Control and Interface Assembly\u003c/b\u003e: The hybrid structure is processed into thin, uniform layers suitable for TIM applications and assembled between device and heat sink surfaces without requiring complex bonding procedures.This fabrication strategy enables reproducibility, scalability, and compatibility with conventional electronic packaging processes (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/span\u003e \u003c/ol\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec10\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e6.4 Structural Configuration\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe CV22 architecture employed a \u003cb\u003epercolated metallic nanostructure network\u003c/b\u003e, embedded uniformly within the compliant matrix. The metallic nanostructures were distributed in a manner that ensured continuous thermal pathways across the interface while avoiding excessive filler loading that could compromise mechanical flexibility.A defining feature of the CV22 construction was the \u003cb\u003econtrolled connectivity of metallic nanostructures\u003c/b\u003e, which minimized inter-particle contact resistance and reduced dependence on random filler dispersion. This structural arrangement facilitated efficient heat transfer across the thickness of the TIM layer, thereby lowering overall thermal interface resistance.The constructional philosophy embodied in CV22 illustrates a shift from filler-dominated TIM formulations to \u003cb\u003earchitecture-driven interface engineering\u003c/b\u003e. By integrating metallic nanostructures as load-bearing and heat-conducting elements within a compliant medium, CV22 establishes a reproducible and scalable design framework for next-generation thermal interface materials.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFigure \u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e illustrates the CV22 thermal interface material (TIM) system across three panels: (a) the metallic assembly core, (b) the step-by-step fabrication process to the final CV22 TIM, and (c) its application between an electronic device, hybrid TIM layer, and heat sink. The CV22 comprises a compliant matrix/phase change medium embedded with a percolated network of metallic nanostructures, providing continuous high-thermal-conductivity pathways while ensuring surface conformity and mechanical compliance. This architecture delivers efficient steady-state heat transfer, mitigates transient thermal excursions, and preserves integrity under repeated thermal cycling.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"7. PERFORMANCE METRICS, RELIABILITY AND SCALABILITY","content":"\u003cp\u003eBeyond thermal conductivity, realistic evaluation of TIMs must include cyclic stability, interfacial integrity, and manufacturability. Nanostructured TIMs with interconnected metallic networks have shown superior resistance to degradation mechanisms compared to conventional materials (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e). The CV22 architecture further demonstrates that high performance can be achieved without sacrificing scalability, addressing a key barrier to industrial adoption.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe practical adoption of advanced thermal interface materials is governed not only by their intrinsic thermal conductivity but also by their performance under realistic operating conditions, long-term reliability, and scalability for manufacturing. Consequently, comprehensive evaluation frameworks are essential for assessing the true potential of nanostructure-enabled TIMs. In this context, \u003cb\u003ethe work reported\u003c/b\u003e(\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e) represents a significant and systematic contribution to the field .In this work, a detailed investigation was carried out on \u003cb\u003emetallic nanostructure\u0026ndash;based hybrid thermal interface systems\u003c/b\u003e, with particular emphasis on their thermal resistance, cyclic stability, and operational robustness. The study moved beyond conventional steady-state thermal conductivity measurements and instead adopted a holistic evaluation approach that incorporated transient thermal response, repeated thermal cycling, and interface integrity\u0026mdash;parameters that are critically relevant for next-generation electronic and power devices.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOne of the key findings of the research here was the demonstration that \u003cb\u003emetallic nanostructures embedded within compliant matrices or phase change systems form stable, percolated heat-transfer networks\u003c/b\u003e that remain effective over extended thermal cycling. The reported reduction in thermal interface resistance, even after multiple heating\u0026ndash;cooling cycles, underscores the reliability advantage of nanostructure-engineered interfaces over traditional grease- or paste-based TIMs, which are prone to pump-out and degradation.The study further highlighted the role of \u003cb\u003emetallic nanostructures in mitigating interfacial degradation mechanisms\u003c/b\u003e. By maintaining mechanical compliance while providing continuous conductive pathways, the hybrid interfaces examined by us exhibited enhanced tolerance to thermal expansion mismatch and surface roughness variations. This finding is particularly significant for heterogeneous electronic assemblies, where interfacial stresses are a primary cause of long-term failure.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFrom a scalability perspective, we demonstrated that the fabrication methodologies employed for metallic nanostructure\u0026ndash;based TIMs are compatible with existing processing routes, thereby addressing a major barrier to industrial translation. The work emphasized that performance gains were achieved without resorting to excessively high filler loadings or complex post-processing steps, reinforcing the feasibility of large-scale implementation.Importantly, the conclusions drawn in provide experimental validation for the broader paradigm advocated throughout this chapter: that \u003cb\u003ethermal interface engineering must evolve from material-centric optimization toward interface-centric and system-level design\u003c/b\u003e. The study serves as a benchmark reference illustrating how nanotechnology-enabled TIMs can simultaneously satisfy thermal performance, reliability, and manufacturability requirements.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e7.1Comparative Thermal Performance Analysis: \u003cem\u003eChakravardhan 22\u003c/em\u003e Versus Commercial Thermal Paste Under Sustained Linpack Benchmark Load\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eWe investigated a comparative thermal performance analysis between the \u003cem\u003eChakravardhan 22\u003c/em\u003e advanced metallic thermal interface TIM and a widely used commercial thermal paste.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMeasurements were obtained under identical Linpack benchmarking conditions, ensuring comparable sustained computational load, power levels, and test duration. The analysis focuses on temperature behavior, throttling characteristics, thermal stability, and effective heat transfer under real operating constraints.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003e7.11Test Conditions and Methodology\u003c/b\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cul\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eLinpack benchmark\u003c/b\u003e (sustained, compute-intensive)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003ePower Range\u003c/b\u003e:~30\u0026ndash;42W processor power\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eTest Duration\u003c/b\u003e: Multiple steady-state phases (19\u0026ndash;20 detected phases per run)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eMetrics Evaluated\u003c/b\u003e:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cul\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eMean, max ,min,and mode temperature\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eThermal resistance(Rθ\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;ΔT / Power)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eThrottling fraction\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003ePower sustainability\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eThermal stability indicators (variance, skew, stability coefficient)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/ul\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/ul\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAll metrics were computed using identical data processing and phase-detection logic to eliminate analytical bias.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec13\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e7.12 Summary of Key Results\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"No\" id=\"Taba\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"3\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eParameter\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCV22(Metallic TIM)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCommercial Thermal Paste\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMean Temperature\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e~\u0026thinsp;76.7\u0026ndash;77.3\u0026deg;C\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e~\u0026thinsp;79.4\u0026ndash;82.1\u0026deg;C\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMax Temperature\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e~\u0026thinsp;86\u0026deg;C\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e~\u0026thinsp;87\u0026ndash;89\u0026deg;C\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMode Temperature\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e~\u0026thinsp;75\u0026deg;C\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e~\u0026thinsp;81\u0026ndash;84\u0026deg;C\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eThrottling Fraction\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e~\u0026thinsp;10\u0026ndash;12%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e~\u0026thinsp;18\u0026ndash;21%(upto 66% observed)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAvg Sustained Power\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e~\u0026thinsp;33.1W\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e~\u0026thinsp;31\u0026ndash;32.5W\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMax Power Headroom\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e~\u0026thinsp;41.4W\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOften constrained\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eThermal Stability(Skew)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNear-zero\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eStrong negative skew\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePhase Consistency\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHigh\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVariable\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEffective Rθ\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e~\u0026thinsp;0.02\u0026ndash;0.03\u0026deg;C/W\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e~\u0026thinsp;0.09\u0026ndash;0.12\u0026deg;C/W\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWhile the commercial thermal paste appears to show a lower calculated thermal resistance (Rθ), this value is misleading when viewed in isolation.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec14\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e7.13 Temperature Behavior and Stability\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe CV22 interface consistently operates at lower mean and mode temperatures compared to the commercial thermal paste under identical work loads. Importantly, the temperature distribution for CV22 is nearly symmetric with mean and mode temperatures closely aligned. This indicates stable, uniform heat transfer across the interface.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn contrast, the commercial thermal paste exhibits a negatively skewed temperature distribution. The mode temperature is significantly higher than the mean, indicating prolonged operation near thermal limits with frequent corrective interventions by the processor\u0026rsquo;s thermal control mechanisms.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe following observations are notable:\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ea.Thermal paste triggers \u003cb\u003eearlier and more aggressive CPU throttling\u003c/b\u003e, reducing power dissipation.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eb.Lower power artificially compresses ΔT, yielding a deceptively low Rθ.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003ec.The CV22 allows the processor to sustain higher power levels at comparable or lower temperatures. Therefore, the lower Rθ observed for the paste reflect s \u003cb\u003epower suppression rather than superior heat transfer\u003c/b\u003e. CV22\u0026rsquo;s higher apparent Rθ corresponds to \u003cb\u003etrue heat transport under sustained load\u003c/b\u003e, not control-loop intervention.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec15\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e7.14 Throttling and Performance Sustainability\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThrottling behavior provides the clear differentiation:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cul\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eCV22\u003c/b\u003e:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cul\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eModerate, controlled throttling (~\u0026thinsp;10\u0026ndash;12%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eStable performance across phases\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eNo extreme throttling events observed\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eCommercial Thermal Paste\u003c/b\u003e:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cul\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eHigher average throttling(~\u0026thinsp;18\u0026ndash;21%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eOne test instance exceeding 60% throttling\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eIndicates frequent thermal guardrail activation\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/ul\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/ul\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/ul\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis demonstrates that the commercial paste maintains temperature primarily by \u003cb\u003ereducing performance\u003c/b\u003e, whereas the CV22 maintains performance by \u003cb\u003eefficient removal of heat\u003c/b\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec16\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e7.15 Implications for Enterprise and Life cycle Use\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eUnder sustained work- loads typical of enterprise computing, leased devices, and high-duty-cycle environments:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cul\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eCV22 supports \u003cb\u003ehigher sustained compute output\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eReduces reliance on thermal throttling\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eProvides predictable and repeatable thermal behavior\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eLikely exhibits better long-term reliability due to reduced pump-out and interface degradation risks\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/ul\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eCommercial thermal pastes, while appear suitable and adequate for short or burst workloads, show limitations under prolonged stress conditions.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eUnder identical Linpack benchmark conditions, the advanced metallic TIM(CV22) demonstrates superior real-world thermal performance compared to a well-known and commonly used commercial thermal paste. The key differentiator is not peak temperature alone, but the ability to sustain higher power and performance levels with lower throttling and greater thermal stability.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eIn practical terms\u003c/b\u003e:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe commercial paste controls temperature by limiting performance, while CV22 controls temperature by enabling efficient heat flow. This distinction is critical for enterprise systems, device leasing models, and applications where sustained performance and lifecycle reliability are primary requirements.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"8. CHALLENGES AND FUTURE DIRECTIONS","content":"\u003cp\u003eDespite notable progress, challenges remain in controlling nanoscale interfacial resistance, ensuring long-term durability, and integrating sustainability considerations into TIM design. Future research should focus on multiscale modeling, advanced in situ characterization, and data-driven optimization of hybrid architectures. The CV22 framework provides a robust foundation for exploring these directions.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWhile significant progress has been achieved in the development of nanostructure-enabled thermal interface materials, several scientific and technological challenges remain to be addressed before these systems can be widely adopted in next-generation electronic platforms. The insights provided by \u003cb\u003eChakarvarti et al.,2024\u003c/b\u003e(\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e) offer a valuable reference point for identifying both current limitations and promising future research directions.One of the foremost challenges lies in achieving \u003cb\u003elong-term interfacial stability under extreme and cyclic thermal conditions\u003c/b\u003e. Although CV22 demonstrated robust performance of metallic nanostructure-based hybrid TIMs under repeated thermal cycling, further studies are required to understand degradation mechanisms over extended operational lifetimes, particularly in environments involving combined thermal, mechanical, and electrical stresses. Advanced in situ characterization techniques and accelerated aging protocols will be instrumental in this regard.Another critical research gap pertains to the \u003cb\u003escalable and reproducible fabrication of metallic nanostructures with controlled geometry and connectivity\u003c/b\u003e. The performance advantages reported in Chakarvarti et al., 2024(\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e) underscore the importance of percolated thermal networks; however, maintaining such architectures consistently across large-area interfaces remains a nontrivial challenge. Future efforts must focus on process optimization, template-assisted growth, and self-assembly strategies that are compatible with industrial manufacturing constraints.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eInterfacial thermal resistance at the nanoscale continues to be a limiting factor, even in highly conductive hybrid systems. While Chakarvarti et al., 2024(\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e) highlighted significant reductions in overall thermal resistance, the precise role of nanoscale contact resistance at metal\u0026ndash;PCM and metal\u0026ndash;substrate interfaces warrants deeper investigation. Multiscale modeling combined with experimental validation will be essential for establishing predictive design rules for next-generation TIMs.From a materials perspective, the integration of \u003cb\u003emetallic nanostructures with advanced phase change systems\u003c/b\u003e opens new avenues for adaptive and intelligent thermal interfaces. Building upon the framework established by us, future research may explore PCMs with tailored transition temperatures, multi-stage phase change behavior, or enhanced environmental stability. Such developments would enable thermal interfaces that dynamically respond to evolving thermal loads in complex electronic systems.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSustainability and environmental considerations represent another emerging dimension in thermal interface research. While metallic nanostructure\u0026ndash;PCM systems offer performance advantages, their material selection, lifecycle impact, and recyclability must be carefully evaluated. Extending our work, one can incorporate sustainability metrics and eco-design principles that will align thermal interface engineering with broader goals of energy efficiency and responsible technology development.Finally, the convergence of nanotechnology, data-driven materials design, and advanced manufacturing techniques presents an exciting frontier. The performance benchmarks established by this work can serve as training datasets for machine-learning-assisted optimization of TIM compositions and architectures. Such approaches have the potential to accelerate discovery cycles and guide the rational design of thermal interfaces tailored for specific applications. More insights into PCMs, nanoscale thermal transport, TIMs and their applications can be found elsewhere (\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR21 CR22 CR23\" citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e24\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"9. CONCLUSION","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis work highlights emerging paradigms in thermal interface materials enabled by metallic nanostructures and hybrid nanostructure\u0026ndash;PCM systems. By shifting from material-centric formulations to architecture-driven design, significant improvements in thermal performance, reliability, and scalability can be achieved. The CV22 architecture stands out as a core contribution that bridges fundamental research and practical implementation, underscoring the potential of metallic nanostructure-based hybrid TIMs for next-generation and sustainable electronic systems.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eChakarvarti, S. K.,Manocha A,and Singh S. (2024). Coactive Metal Nano Structure Assembly Using Phase Change Material(PCM) for Use as Thermal Interface Material to be Known as Chakarvarti Nano Assembly, Indian Patent no. 549280,Augiust 30,2024.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003ePrasher, R. (2006). 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M., et al. (2012). Nanostructured thermal interface materials for electronic packaging. \u003cem\u003eMaterials Science and Engineering R\u003c/em\u003e, 73, 1\u0026ndash;25.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eS.K.Chakarvarti, Devender Gehlawat, \u0026amp; Aashish Manocha (2025).\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eThermal Interface Materials for Thermal Management of Microelectronic Devices: A Review \u003cem\u003eJ.Thermal Analysis and Calorimetry\u003c/em\u003e, 150(12),8847\u0026ndash;8860.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"},{"header":"Unsectioned Paragraphs","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003eCorresponding author ;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e**Brand name of the Indian patent no.549280,Meerkats Innovative Technologies Pvt. LtD,NewDelhi,India\u003c/p\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":true,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8812825/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-8812825/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eThe rapid escalation of power densities in modern electronic and power devices has intensified the demand for advanced thermal interface materials (TIMs) capable of delivering high thermal performance, mechanical compliance, and long-term reliability. Conventional polymer-based TIMs are increasingly constrained by intrinsic thermal limitations and degradation under service conditions. This work examines emerging paradigms in thermal interface engineering enabled by nanotechnology, with particular emphasis on metallic nanostructures and hybrid systems incorporating phase change materials (PCMs). A central focus is placed on the invention patent with brandname \u003cem\u003eChakravardahan 22\u003c/em\u003e(CV22) architecture developed by Chakarvarti et al. 2024(\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e), which represents a transition from material-centric formulations to architecture-driven interface design.We discuss fundamentals, material strategies, fabrication considerations, performance metrics, and future research directions, positioning metallic nanostructure\u0026ndash;PCM hybrid TIMs as a key enabler for next-generation and sustainable electronic systems.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Emerging Paradigms in Thermal Interface Materials:Metallic Nanostructure–Based Hybrid Architecture Chakravardhan 22(CV22)**","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2026-02-10 11:10:05","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8812825/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"93b7cfc3-e037-4c1c-8cb1-b3df66968bd6","owner":[],"postedDate":"February 10th, 2026","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[{"id":62551181,"name":"Physical sciences/Materials science/Materials for devices/Electronic devices"},{"id":62551182,"name":"Physical sciences/Materials science"}],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-02-25T20:01:26+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2026-02-10 11:10:05","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-8812825","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-8812825","identity":"rs-8812825","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"XKTyCvWXoU3ODBz1xrDgd","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}