Carbon Nanotubes inspired Resistance Temperature Detector

Carbon Nanotubes inspired Resistance Temperature Detector | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Carbon Nanotubes inspired Resistance Temperature Detector Kuneh Shah, Mayank Goswami This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-9596914/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Resistance Temperature Detectors (RTDs) are currently the most reliable and robust temperature sensors used in industry and academia to measure temperature variations. RTDs are temperature sensors based on the change in electrical resistance of materials to measure temperature variations with high accuracy. This paper describes the design, simulation, creation, and temperature characterization validation of a Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD) based on the high surface area geometry found in Carbon Nanotubes (CNTs). The purpose of this paper is to develop a new, simple, and robust RTD geometry for use in applications where stress levels are high, such as jet engine or plasma reactor thermal management applications. The high electrical conductivity and large surface area of CNTs served as key factors in designing this geometry. The steps included performing simulations with the help of COMSOL Multiphysics to simulate heat dissipation and electrical potential within this element. These simulations demonstrated a linear relationship between resistance and temperature. This element has been created through multiple steps, involving wire-electric discharge machining and manual punching of a meshed structure onto it. The element was then tested using a heating apparatus and an electrical setup. The element’s performance at varying temperature values revealed a linear behaviour with a constant slope measurement of 0.1057 ± 0.0032 in its resistance values (R²=0.9944). This paper comprehensively demonstrates that new and simple robust CNT-based geometry structures can also be used to create efficient RTDs. RTD Design Hexagonal slots Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 Figure 6 Figure 7 1. Introduction Temperature is one of the most basic and essential physical quantities that must be measured in various applications, including process control in industry, scientific research, aviation, and heat management. Even in the most precise applications, where safety and effectiveness are essential, the selection of sensors assumes critical importance, as only highly stable and reliable sensors can do the job. Resistance Temperature Detectors (RTDs) are the most stable and reliable temperature detectors among all other temperature-measuring devices currently in use. They operate on the fundamental principle that the electrical resistance of a material changes predictably and linearly with temperature, providing highly accurate and repeatable measurements. Although highly stable, traditional RTDs (such as those composed of Platinum) commonly encounter challenges related to cost, size, and durability when operating under extreme conditions. Moreover, designing newer geometries with high stability and easy processing techniques is an ongoing issue. This paper investigates an innovative solution that draws inspiration from the exceptional thermal and mechanical properties of Carbon Nanotubes (CNTs). The seminal work on the discovery of Carbon nanotubes (CNTs)[ 1 ] has generated numerous new research opportunities in various fields due to their outstanding properties. CNTs exhibit high elasticity and tensile strength, high thermal conductivity, faster electron transfer rates, and a large surface area [ 2 ], making them highly suitable from a theoretical perspective for improved sensor designs. Depending on the requirements of the desired sensor, carbon nanotubes have been modified and employed for detecting a wide range of physical phenomena, including biological, chemical, flow, gas, mass, optical, position, pressure, stress, strain, and thermal. [ 3 – 10 ] This technique inspires the development of simpler and more durable designs that can easily be produced, aiming at precise temperature analysis in harsh conditions, say the thermal management of jet engines, astronautical spacecraft, and plasma reactors. This work presents a comprehensive methodology for developing a CNT-inspired RTD. The element modeling has been carried out using simulation with COMSOL Multiphysics [ 11 ], which couples heat transfer with electrical potential across the element to predict a linear variation of resistance with temperature. Following the simulation, the element was fabricated using processes such as wire EDM cutting and manual punching to achieve a robust and manufacturable structure. The fabricated element was then characterized in a heating setup, where experimental results validated the highly linear relationship between resistance and temperature predicted, thereby proving the viability of this new geometry toward effective temperature sensing. 1.1. Motivation: The need for research and development of this nature exists due to the essential and urgent requirement for effective and precise temperature sensors that can function satisfactorily even under harsh conditions prevalent in certain industrial applications. While conventional Resistance Temperature Detectors (RTDs) offer the advantage of high stability and can function satisfactorily despite environmental factors, their production complexity, material costs (such as Platinum), and lack of robustness under extreme conditions can prove to be a limitation. Robustness : To develop a structurally sound RTD for demanding, high-stress environments (e.g., jet engines, plasma reactors) where conventional sensors are often inadequate. Performance : To utilize design principles inspired by Carbon Nanotubes (CNTs)' superior thermal and mechanical properties to enhance sensor performance and simplicity. Manufacturability : To provide a complete, verified solution through simulation, fabrication, and testing, proving the new geometry's high accuracy and linearity. Furthermore, providing a simpler/inexpensive manufacturing process as compared to metal 3D printing and related additive manufacturing methods. Learning through Implementation : To prioritize deep, hands-on understanding gained by building and improving upon existing, reliable solutions. 2. Materials and Methods 2.1. Simulation The theoretical simulation and initial design optimization were performed using COMSOL Multiphysics and the Heat Transfer and Electric Currents modules to develop a predictive model for the RTD element. The Carbon Nanotube (CNT)-inspired geometry was recreated into a CAD model inside the simulation framework. To optimize computational simulation time, the element size was scaled down to a diameter of 1 mm and a length of 2 mm. The simulation was set up to combine the thermal and electrical physics interfaces to simulate the Resistance change characteristics with respect to the external temperature. The boundary conditions were accurately specified, which included the heat source and sink. A constant voltage difference of ΔV = 50 V was specified across the RTD to calculate the Resistance (R) characteristic using Ohm's Law (R = V/I) for different temperature values. The fundamental requirement of this simulation was to verify the linearity property of the material, which was used to estimate the Resistance-Temperature characteristics and provided a basis for comparing with the results of the next step of the experiment. The material for the element was selected to be Platinum for carrying out initial simulations. 2.2. Fabrication A multi-step, reductive manufacturing process that balances structural robustness with ease of fabrication and scalability was used to realise the CNT-inspired RTD structure physically. The complete process flow is described below, and Fig. 3 shows the corresponding visual steps. 2.2.1. Material Selection and Initial Structuring A 0.9 mm thick copper sheet was used to create the element. Due to its widespread availability, high electrical conductivity, and affordability, copper was specifically selected to make the final sensor element inexpensive and readily available for mass production. In order to cut the initial complex contour of the sheet from the raw material without causing significant mechanical stress or heat deformation, Wire-EDM, a highly accurate non-contact reductive manufacturing technique, was crucial (Fig. 3 , Step 1) [ 12 ]. This method ensures the accuracy of the first template, preserving the structural integrity necessary for subsequent stages. 2.2.2. Feature Definition To best assimilate the high surface-area, hexagonal lattice structure characteristic of a Carbon Nanotube body, the initial copper sheet was perforated. This critical step was performed using a precise manual punching mechanism (Fig. 3 , Step 2). The use of manual punching enabled high customizability in hole size and positioning, allowing for optimization of the active sensing area and the resistance path length, which is crucial for achieving the desired sensitivity and linear response. After the punching process, the perforated sheet was subjected to flattening, followed by a finishing touch using a bench grinder to ensure the edges were clean, the surface was uniform, and any residual burrs from the punching process were removed (Fig. 3 , Steps 3 & 4). 2.2.3. Final Shaping and Joining The cylindrical configuration was realized to enhance the structural rigidity of the sensing element, ensuring a uniform contact area for testing. This was done by carefully winding the perforated and finished copper sheet around a cylindrical wooden block, as depicted in Fig. 3 , Step 5. This block was custom-carved using a Lathe machine to achieve the exact diameter and concentricity required by the final RTD shape, as shown in Fig. 3 , Step 6. In order to finally set the wound sheet in its cylindrical form and close the circuit, joining was performed. TIG brazing was chosen and is illustrated in Fig. 3 , Step 7. The reason for choosing brazing over conventional welding practices is that copper has high thermal conductivity, and local welding below the melting point is challenging. Moreover, as stated earlier, this project aims to develop a scalable and robust element, and brazing is one such common and accessible industrial practice. The final sensing element after brazing was in the form of a cylindrical structure, as shown in Fig. 4 . 3. Results 3.1. Experimental Setup and Measurement Protocol The RTD is 10cm in length and 5cm in diameter, dimensions that maintain the scale ratios (1:500) initially used in the COMSOL Multiphysics simulation to ensure consistency between theoretical and experimental analysis. Electrical connectivity was established through the use of M6 bolts, spacers, and nuts, which were mounted on opposite ends of the copper reservoir's cylindrical body. These electrical connections were then linked to an external measurement system constructed using a Wheatstone bridge circuit (Fig. 5). The Wheatstone bridge was employed to ensure a reduction in errors generated by environmental conditions, such as ambient pressure and temperature, which would affect the readings, thereby making the readings directly proportional to the resistance change. In the thermal testing, a point heating technique was employed where the blower gun was aimed at the midpoint between the electrical connections. To avoid the effect of the brazing points contributing to a thermal error during testing, the temperature data was collected from the diametrically opposite end of the cylindrical element using a thermal camera. This approach ensured the temperature data collected reflected the actual resistive material properties. The data obtained from the experiment, including the potential difference response of the Wheatstone bridge corresponding to the temperature, are presented in Table 1 . 3.2. Linearization and Performance Analysis Plotting the resistance (R) as a function of temperature (T) involved converting the potential difference readings (Table 1 ) into corresponding resistance values. As shown in Fig. 6 , the experimental results strongly supported the initial simulation phase predictions, showing a highly linear variation of resistance with temperature across the tested range of 100°C to 450°C. The quantitative analysis of the linear relationship, described by the equation: $$\:R={R}_{0}+m.T$$ yielded the following key performance metrics: Slope = 0.1057 \(\:\pm\:\) 0.0032 Coefficient of Determination (R 2 ): 0.9944 The highly accurate R2 value of 0.9944 indicates that 99.44% of the variation in resistance can be attributed to the measured temperature, thereby demonstrating the accuracy and reliability of the RTD. The minimal uncertainty in the slope indicates the predictable performance of the designed resistance. Table 1 Temperature Reading (Thermal Camera) plotted against the potential difference readings at the end of the Wheatstone bridge Temperature Reading (°C) Voltage 100 9.7887 151 9.7824 200 9.7757 250 9.7703 302 9.7641 350 9.7591 402 9.75 450 9.7423 4. Conclusion The linearity in the resistance-temperature relationship is confirmed by successful realization, which demonstrates the viability of the CNT-inspired geometric design. A robust reductive technique in manufacturing, such as Wire-EDM, manual punching, etc., was utilized with the selection of copper to achieve an RTD element meeting the design objective of being simple and robust for high-stress applications. The slope, m, measured to be 0.1057, represents the sensitivity or the temperature coefficient ratio(TCR) of the entire geometric structure in (Ω/°C). Linearity in this novel structure demonstrates functional equivalence with commercially available RTDs, while offering great customization and potential structural robustness, making it highly suitable for integration in specialized thermal management systems. The total project cost was less than INR 2500 (approximately USD 27.60). Minor considerations for future work include: Optimizing the point heating methodology to ensure an absolutely uniform temperature distribution across the element using an oven or similar heating setup. Investigating if the TIG brazing process introduced any localized material stress or heat-trapping effects that could subtly influence the overall thermal response. Further optimization of the hole geometry and detector material selection. Investigation of the mechanical properties of such a structure. Declarations Acknowledgements The work was carried out with the help of the Divyadrishti Lab, Physics Department, IITR. The authors would like to acknowledge the fabrication facilities provided by the Indian Institute of Technology, Roorkee, and the following persons: 1. Mr. Ashish - W EMD operator, 2. Mr. Manoj - Machine Shop, 3. Mr. Subodh and Mr. Ajaj - Welding and carpentry, 4. Tinkering Lab, 5. Ms. Vaishali Sharma – blow torch setup. 5. Resources: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mITc4lXcRpQ References Iijima S (1991) Helical microtubules of graphitic carbon. nature 354.6348 : 56–58. https://doi.org/10.1038/354056a0 Anzar N et al (2020) Carbon nanotube-A review on Synthesis, Properties and plethora of applications in the field of biomedical science. Sens Int 1:100003. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sintl.2020.100003 Sinha N, Ma J, Yeow JTW (2006) Carbon nanotube-based sensors, J. Nanosci. Nanotechnol. , vol. 6, no. 3, pp. 573–90, Mar Lala NL, Thavasi V, Ramakrishna S (Jan. 2009) Preparation of surface adsorbed and impregnated multi-walled carbon nanotube/nylon-6 nanofiber composites and investigation of their gas sensing ability. Sensors 9(1):86–101 Field CR, Yeom J, Salehi-Khojin A, Masel RI (2010) Robust fabrication of selective and reversible polymer coated carbon nanotube-based gas sensors, Sens. Actuators B, Chem. , vol. 148, no. 1, pp. 315–322, Jun Jorio A, Dresselhaus G, Dresselhaus MS (2008) Carbon Nanotubes, Advanced Topics in the Synthesis, Structure, Properties, and Applications. Springer, New York, NY, USA Li J, Lu Y, Ye Q, Cinke M, Han J, Meyyappan M (2003) Carbon nanotube sensors for gas and organic vapor detection, Nano Lett. , vol. 3, no. 7, pp. 929–933, Jul Varghese OK, Kichambre PD, Gong D, Ong KG, Dickey EC, Grimes CA (2001) Gas sensing characteristics of multi-wall carbon nanotubes, Sens. Actuators B, Chem. , vol. 81, no. 1, pp. 32–41, Dec Wujcik EK, Monty CN (May 2013) Nanotechnology for implantable sensors: Carbon nanotubes and graphene in medicine. Wiley Interdiscipl Rev Nanomed Nanobiotechnol 5(3):233–249 Ueda T, Katsuki S, Takahashi K, Narges HA, Ikegami T, Mitsugi F (2008) Fabrication and characterization of carbon nanotube based high sensitive gas sensors operable at room temperature, Diamond Rel. Mater. , vol. 17, nos. 7–10, pp. 1586–1589, Jul Multiphysics COMSOL (1998) Introduction to comsol multiphysics®. COMSOL Multiphysics, Burlington, MA, accessed Feb 9.2018 : 32 Ho KH et al (2004) State of the art in wire electrical discharge machining (WEDM). Int J Mach Tools Manuf 44:12–13. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijmachtools.2004.04.017 Additional Declarations The authors declare no competing interests. Cite Share Download PDF Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-9596914","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":633491786,"identity":"2510992a-a7ed-4ac9-a615-c8355d1388b2","order_by":0,"name":"Kuneh Shah","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Indian institute of technology Roorkee","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Kuneh","middleName":"","lastName":"Shah","suffix":""},{"id":633491787,"identity":"9ccfd5de-9544-4b41-8af9-8e0975c3fb3d","order_by":1,"name":"Mayank 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setup for the resistance temperature detector\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"5.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-9596914/v1/6e408234a317752a4646cab9.png"},{"id":108474296,"identity":"d2791b02-f017-4500-9395-dacb3032014c","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-05-05 06:33:07","extension":"png","order_by":6,"title":"Figure 6","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":14198,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eResistance as a function of Temperature plotted\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"6.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-9596914/v1/9180a3d59bedf884ba9faad0.png"},{"id":108474297,"identity":"04dbd95e-18bb-4c27-bf01-61bb87663f2b","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-05-05 06:33:07","extension":"png","order_by":7,"title":"Figure 7","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":533060,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eThermal Camera Images of the sensing element showing 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Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eTemperature is one of the most basic and essential physical quantities that must be measured in various applications, including process control in industry, scientific research, aviation, and heat management. Even in the most precise applications, where safety and effectiveness are essential, the selection of sensors assumes critical importance, as only highly stable and reliable sensors can do the job. Resistance Temperature Detectors (RTDs) are the most stable and reliable temperature detectors among all other temperature-measuring devices currently in use. They operate on the fundamental principle that the electrical resistance of a material changes predictably and linearly with temperature, providing highly accurate and repeatable measurements.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAlthough highly stable, traditional RTDs (such as those composed of Platinum) commonly encounter challenges related to cost, size, and durability when operating under extreme conditions. Moreover, designing newer geometries with high stability and easy processing techniques is an ongoing issue. This paper investigates an innovative solution that draws inspiration from the exceptional thermal and mechanical properties of Carbon Nanotubes (CNTs). The seminal work on the discovery of Carbon nanotubes (CNTs)[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e] has generated numerous new research opportunities in various fields due to their outstanding properties. CNTs exhibit high elasticity and tensile strength, high thermal conductivity, faster electron transfer rates, and a large surface area [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e], making them highly suitable from a theoretical perspective for improved sensor designs. Depending on the requirements of the desired sensor, carbon nanotubes have been modified and employed for detecting a wide range of physical phenomena, including biological, chemical, flow, gas, mass, optical, position, pressure, stress, strain, and thermal. [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR4 CR5 CR6 CR7 CR8 CR9\" citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e] This technique inspires the development of simpler and more durable designs that can easily be produced, aiming at precise temperature analysis in harsh conditions, say the thermal management of jet engines, astronautical spacecraft, and plasma reactors.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis work presents a comprehensive methodology for developing a CNT-inspired RTD. The element modeling has been carried out using simulation with COMSOL Multiphysics [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e], which couples heat transfer with electrical potential across the element to predict a linear variation of resistance with temperature. Following the simulation, the element was fabricated using processes such as wire EDM cutting and manual punching to achieve a robust and manufacturable structure. The fabricated element was then characterized in a heating setup, where experimental results validated the highly linear relationship between resistance and temperature predicted, thereby proving the viability of this new geometry toward effective temperature sensing.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec2\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e1.1. Motivation:\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe need for research and development of this nature exists due to the essential and urgent requirement for effective and precise temperature sensors that can function satisfactorily even under harsh conditions prevalent in certain industrial applications. While conventional Resistance Temperature Detectors (RTDs) offer the advantage of high stability and can function satisfactorily despite environmental factors, their production complexity, material costs (such as Platinum), and lack of robustness under extreme conditions can prove to be a limitation.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cul\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eRobustness\u003c/b\u003e: To develop a structurally sound RTD for demanding, high-stress environments (e.g., jet engines, plasma reactors) where conventional sensors are often inadequate.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003ePerformance\u003c/b\u003e: To utilize design principles inspired by Carbon Nanotubes (CNTs)' superior thermal and mechanical properties to enhance sensor performance and simplicity.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eManufacturability\u003c/b\u003e: To provide a complete, verified solution through simulation, fabrication, and testing, proving the new geometry's high accuracy and linearity. Furthermore, providing a simpler/inexpensive manufacturing process as compared to metal 3D printing and related additive manufacturing methods.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eLearning through Implementation\u003c/b\u003e: To prioritize deep, hands-on understanding gained by building and improving upon existing, reliable solutions.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/ul\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"2. Materials and Methods","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec4\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.1. Simulation\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe theoretical simulation and initial design optimization were performed using COMSOL Multiphysics and the Heat Transfer and Electric Currents modules to develop a predictive model for the RTD element. The Carbon Nanotube (CNT)-inspired geometry was recreated into a CAD model inside the simulation framework. To optimize computational simulation time, the element size was scaled down to a diameter of 1 mm and a length of 2 mm. The simulation was set up to combine the thermal and electrical physics interfaces to simulate the Resistance change characteristics with respect to the external temperature. The boundary conditions were accurately specified, which included the heat source and sink. A constant voltage difference of ΔV\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;50 V was specified across the RTD to calculate the Resistance (R) characteristic using Ohm's Law (R\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;V/I) for different temperature values. The fundamental requirement of this simulation was to verify the linearity property of the material, which was used to estimate the Resistance-Temperature characteristics and provided a basis for comparing with the results of the next step of the experiment. The material for the element was selected to be Platinum for carrying out initial simulations.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec5\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.2. Fabrication\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eA multi-step, reductive manufacturing process that balances structural robustness with ease of fabrication and scalability was used to realise the CNT-inspired RTD structure physically. The complete process flow is described below, and Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e shows the corresponding visual steps.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec6\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.2.1. Material Selection and Initial Structuring\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eA 0.9 mm thick copper sheet was used to create the element. Due to its widespread availability, high electrical conductivity, and affordability, copper was specifically selected to make the final sensor element inexpensive and readily available for mass production. In order to cut the initial complex contour of the sheet from the raw material without causing significant mechanical stress or heat deformation, Wire-EDM, a highly accurate non-contact reductive manufacturing technique, was crucial (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e, Step 1) [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e]. This method ensures the accuracy of the first template, preserving the structural integrity necessary for subsequent stages.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec7\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.2.2. Feature Definition\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo best assimilate the high surface-area, hexagonal lattice structure characteristic of a Carbon Nanotube body, the initial copper sheet was perforated. This critical step was performed using a precise manual punching mechanism (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e, Step 2). The use of manual punching enabled high customizability in hole size and positioning, allowing for optimization of the active sensing area and the resistance path length, which is crucial for achieving the desired sensitivity and linear response. After the punching process, the perforated sheet was subjected to flattening, followed by a finishing touch using a bench grinder to ensure the edges were clean, the surface was uniform, and any residual burrs from the punching process were removed (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e, Steps 3 \u0026amp; 4).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.2.3. Final Shaping and Joining\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe cylindrical configuration was realized to enhance the structural rigidity of the sensing element, ensuring a uniform contact area for testing. This was done by carefully winding the perforated and finished copper sheet around a cylindrical wooden block, as depicted in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e, Step 5. This block was custom-carved using a Lathe machine to achieve the exact diameter and concentricity required by the final RTD shape, as shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e, Step 6. In order to finally set the wound sheet in its cylindrical form and close the circuit, joining was performed. TIG brazing was chosen and is illustrated in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e, Step 7. The reason for choosing brazing over conventional welding practices is that copper has high thermal conductivity, and local welding below the melting point is challenging. Moreover, as stated earlier, this project aims to develop a scalable and robust element, and brazing is one such common and accessible industrial practice. The final sensing element after brazing was in the form of a cylindrical structure, as shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"3. Results","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec10\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.1. Experimental Setup and Measurement Protocol\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe RTD is 10cm in length and 5cm in diameter, dimensions that maintain the scale ratios (1:500) initially used in the COMSOL Multiphysics simulation to ensure consistency between theoretical and experimental analysis.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eElectrical connectivity was established through the use of M6 bolts, spacers, and nuts, which were mounted on opposite ends of the copper reservoir's cylindrical body. These electrical connections were then linked to an external measurement system constructed using a Wheatstone bridge circuit (Fig.\u0026nbsp;5). The Wheatstone bridge was employed to ensure a reduction in errors generated by environmental conditions, such as ambient pressure and temperature, which would affect the readings, thereby making the readings directly proportional to the resistance change.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn the thermal testing, a point heating technique was employed where the blower gun was aimed at the midpoint between the electrical connections. To avoid the effect of the brazing points contributing to a thermal error during testing, the temperature data was collected from the diametrically opposite end of the cylindrical element using a thermal camera. This approach ensured the temperature data collected reflected the actual resistive material properties. The data obtained from the experiment, including the potential difference response of the Wheatstone bridge corresponding to the temperature, are presented in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.2. Linearization and Performance Analysis\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003ePlotting the resistance (R) as a function of temperature (T) involved converting the potential difference readings (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e) into corresponding resistance values. As shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e, the experimental results strongly supported the initial simulation phase predictions, showing a highly linear variation of resistance with temperature across the tested range of 100\u0026deg;C to 450\u0026deg;C.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe quantitative analysis of the linear relationship, described by the equation:\u003cdiv id=\"Equa\" class=\"Equation\"\u003e\u003cdiv format=\"TEX\" class=\"mathdisplay\" id=\"FileID_Equa\" name=\"EquationSource\"\u003e\n$$\\:R={R}_{0}+m.T$$\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eyielded the following key performance metrics:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cul\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eSlope\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.1057\u003c/b\u003e \u003cspan class=\"InlineEquation\"\u003e \u003cspan class=\"mathinline\"\u003e\\(\\:\\pm\\:\\)\u003c/span\u003e \u003c/span\u003e \u003cb\u003e0.0032\u003c/b\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eCoefficient of Determination (R\u003c/b\u003e \u003csup\u003e \u003cb\u003e2\u003c/b\u003e \u003c/sup\u003e \u003cb\u003e): 0.9944\u003c/b\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/ul\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe highly accurate R2 value of 0.9944 indicates that 99.44% of the variation in resistance can be attributed to the measured temperature, thereby demonstrating the accuracy and reliability of the RTD. The minimal uncertainty in the slope indicates the predictable performance of the designed resistance.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTemperature Reading (Thermal Camera) plotted against the potential difference readings at the end of the Wheatstone bridge\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"2\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTemperature Reading (\u0026deg;C)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVoltage\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e100\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.7887\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e151\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.7824\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e200\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.7757\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e250\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.7703\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e302\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.7641\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e350\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.7591\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e402\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.75\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e450\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.7423\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"4. Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe linearity in the resistance-temperature relationship is confirmed by successful realization, which demonstrates the viability of the CNT-inspired geometric design. A robust reductive technique in manufacturing, such as Wire-EDM, manual punching, etc., was utilized with the selection of copper to achieve an RTD element meeting the design objective of being simple and robust for high-stress applications.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe slope, m, measured to be 0.1057, represents the sensitivity or the temperature coefficient ratio(TCR) of the entire geometric structure in (Ω/\u0026deg;C). Linearity in this novel structure demonstrates functional equivalence with commercially available RTDs, while offering great customization and potential structural robustness, making it highly suitable for integration in specialized thermal management systems. The total project cost was less than INR 2500 (approximately USD 27.60). Minor considerations for future work include:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cul\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eOptimizing the point heating methodology to ensure an absolutely uniform temperature distribution across the element using an oven or similar heating setup.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eInvestigating if the TIG brazing process introduced any localized material stress or heat-trapping effects that could subtly influence the overall thermal response.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eFurther optimization of the hole geometry and detector material selection.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eInvestigation of the mechanical properties of such a structure.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/ul\u003e \u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003ch2\u003eAcknowledgements\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe work was carried out with the help of the Divyadrishti Lab, Physics Department, IITR. The authors would like to acknowledge the fabrication facilities provided by the Indian Institute of Technology, Roorkee, and the following persons: 1. Mr. Ashish - W EMD operator, 2. Mr. Manoj - Machine Shop, 3. Mr. Subodh and Mr. Ajaj - Welding and carpentry, 4. Tinkering Lab, 5. Ms. Vaishali Sharma \u0026ndash; blow torch setup.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e5. Resources: \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mITc4lXcRpQ\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mITc4lXcRpQ\" targettype=\"URL\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eIijima S (1991) Helical microtubules of graphitic carbon. \u003cem\u003enature\u003c/em\u003e 354.6348 : 56\u0026ndash;58. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1038/354056a0\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1038/354056a0\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAnzar N et al (2020) Carbon nanotube-A review on Synthesis, Properties and plethora of applications in the field of biomedical science. Sens Int 1:100003. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1016/j.sintl.2020.100003\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1016/j.sintl.2020.100003\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eSinha N, Ma J, Yeow JTW (2006) Carbon nanotube-based sensors, \u003cem\u003eJ. Nanosci. Nanotechnol.\u003c/em\u003e, vol. 6, no. 3, pp. 573\u0026ndash;90, Mar\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eLala NL, Thavasi V, Ramakrishna S (Jan. 2009) Preparation of surface adsorbed and impregnated multi-walled carbon nanotube/nylon-6 nanofiber composites and investigation of their gas sensing ability. Sensors 9(1):86\u0026ndash;101\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eField CR, Yeom J, Salehi-Khojin A, Masel RI (2010) Robust fabrication of selective and reversible polymer coated carbon nanotube-based gas sensors, \u003cem\u003eSens. Actuators B, Chem.\u003c/em\u003e, vol. 148, no. 1, pp. 315\u0026ndash;322, Jun\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eJorio A, Dresselhaus G, Dresselhaus MS (2008) Carbon Nanotubes, Advanced Topics in the Synthesis, Structure, Properties, and Applications. Springer, New York, NY, USA\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eLi J, Lu Y, Ye Q, Cinke M, Han J, Meyyappan M (2003) Carbon nanotube sensors for gas and organic vapor detection, \u003cem\u003eNano Lett.\u003c/em\u003e, vol. 3, no. 7, pp. 929\u0026ndash;933, Jul\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eVarghese OK, Kichambre PD, Gong D, Ong KG, Dickey EC, Grimes CA (2001) Gas sensing characteristics of multi-wall carbon nanotubes, \u003cem\u003eSens. Actuators B, Chem.\u003c/em\u003e, vol. 81, no. 1, pp. 32\u0026ndash;41, Dec\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eWujcik EK, Monty CN (May 2013) Nanotechnology for implantable sensors: Carbon nanotubes and graphene in medicine. Wiley Interdiscipl Rev Nanomed Nanobiotechnol 5(3):233\u0026ndash;249\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eUeda T, Katsuki S, Takahashi K, Narges HA, Ikegami T, Mitsugi F (2008) Fabrication and characterization of carbon nanotube based high sensitive gas sensors operable at room temperature, \u003cem\u003eDiamond Rel. Mater.\u003c/em\u003e, vol. 17, nos. 7\u0026ndash;10, pp. 1586\u0026ndash;1589, Jul\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eMultiphysics COMSOL (1998) Introduction to comsol multiphysics\u0026reg;. \u003cem\u003eCOMSOL Multiphysics, Burlington, MA, accessed Feb\u003c/em\u003e 9.2018 : 32\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eHo KH et al (2004) State of the art in wire electrical discharge machining (WEDM). Int J Mach Tools Manuf 44:12\u0026ndash;13. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijmachtools.2004.04.017\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1016/j.ijmachtools.2004.04.017\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":true,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"RTD Design, Hexagonal slots","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-9596914/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-9596914/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eResistance Temperature Detectors (RTDs) are currently the most reliable and robust temperature sensors used in industry and academia to measure temperature variations. RTDs are temperature sensors based on the change in electrical resistance of materials to measure temperature variations with high accuracy. This paper describes the design, simulation, creation, and temperature characterization validation of a Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD) based on the high surface area geometry found in Carbon Nanotubes (CNTs). The purpose of this paper is to develop a new, simple, and robust RTD geometry for use in applications where stress levels are high, such as jet engine or plasma reactor thermal management applications. The high electrical conductivity and large surface area of CNTs served as key factors in designing this geometry. The steps included performing simulations with the help of COMSOL Multiphysics to simulate heat dissipation and electrical potential within this element. These simulations demonstrated a linear relationship between resistance and temperature. This element has been created through multiple steps, involving wire-electric discharge machining and manual punching of a meshed structure onto it. The element was then tested using a heating apparatus and an electrical setup. The element\u0026rsquo;s performance at varying temperature values revealed a linear behaviour with a constant slope measurement of 0.1057\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.0032 in its resistance values (R\u0026sup2;=0.9944). This paper comprehensively demonstrates that new and simple robust CNT-based geometry structures can also be used to create efficient RTDs.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Carbon Nanotubes inspired Resistance Temperature Detector","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2026-05-05 06:33:02","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-9596914/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"32bb5b39-03bc-424a-b677-0dc52ecfada0","owner":[],"postedDate":"May 5th, 2026","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-05-05T06:33:02+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2026-05-05 06:33:02","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-9596914","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-9596914","identity":"rs-9596914","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"XKTyCvWXoU3ODBz1xrDgd","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}