livelihood transformation and social networks in Nubian displacement: lessons from the Aswan High Dam

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This research rigorously investigates the enduring social and economic repercussions of this displacement by juxtaposing the experiences of two distinct groups: households displaced in Nasr El Nuba and residents of Heissa Island who remained in situ. Employing the Sustainable Livelihoods Framework (SLF), the study incorporates an innovative sixth dimension, adaptive capacity, to evaluate the ways in which the affected communities modified their livelihoods and social affiliations in response to the upheaval. Through comprehensive interviews with 30 participants and thematic analysis, the investigation reveals that, although displaced Nubians faced considerable degradation of their natural capital, including agricultural land and fishing rights, they exhibited extraordinary adaptability by transitioning to alternative livelihoods, such as tourism, government employment, and overseas labour. In contrast, residents of Heissa Island capitalized on social cohesion and cultural tourism to maintain their economic stability and preserve their identity. The results emphasize the critical importance of community networks and cultural heritage in bolstering resilience during periods of displacement. The study further elucidates the deterioration of social connections in urbanized resettlement environments and the increasing vulnerability associated with reliance on external income streams. By contrasting the experiences of displaced and non-displaced Nubians, this research contributes to global discourses regarding development, cultural identity, and recovery following displacement. It advocates for implementing more inclusive resettlement initiatives that enhance community adaptability, safeguard cultural continuity, and promote sustainable livelihoods. The paper recommends the extension of the SLF to integrate adaptive resilience as a fundamental analytical construct within displacement research. Social science/Development studies Social science/Sociology Sustainable livelihoods framework Social Networks Adaptation Aswan High Dam Nubian Displacement Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 1. Introduction Forced displacement constitutes a widespread global humanitarian crisis with extensive repercussions that surpass the immediate turmoil experienced by those impacted. (Ivanovic, 2024 ) Whether caused by armed conflict, natural disasters, economic instability, or climate change, forced displacement forces individuals to abandon their homes, social networks, and livelihoods, leaving them vulnerable and in urgent need of assistance. (Zetter, 2011 ). The effects of displacement are not limited to the displaced individuals themselves; they also significantly impact the host communities that receive them. In regions like Odesa, Ukraine, where conflict has driven mass migration, the socio-economic challenges faced by displaced individuals are particularly severe, often hindering their ability to integrate into new environments and rebuild their lives. (Ostra et al., 2023 ). Forced displacement is typically triggered by existential threats such as armed conflict, natural disasters, climate change, economic collapse, famine, or identity-based persecution. (Hodges & Abdi, 2024 ). However, the discourse surrounding forced displacement often narrows its focus to specific issues like water and sanitation, neglecting the broader historical, legal, and sociological contexts that shape the experiences of displaced populations. (Mucherera & Spiegel, 2022 ). This narrow perspective fails to capture the full scope of displaced communities' challenges, including economic, social, cultural, and environmental dimensions. The socio-economic impacts of forced displacement are profound and multifaceted. Recent estimates suggest that infrastructure projects, such as hydropower developments, displace over 20 million people annually, highlighting the scale of this issue. (Alam et al., 2022 ). Globally, numerous examples of forced displacement are caused by large infrastructure projects. For instance, constructing the Three Gorges Dam in China displaced over 1.2 million people, leading to significant socio-economic and cultural disruptions, particularly for rural communities. (Zhang, 2018 )Similarly, the Belo Monte Dam in Brazil displaced Indigenous communities in the Amazon, resulting in the loss of traditional livelihoods and cultural heritage. (Fearnside, 2015 ). These cases, like the Nubian experience, highlight the global challenges of balancing development goals with the rights of affected communities. One poignant example is the displacement of the Nubian people in Egypt due to the construction of the Aswan High Dam. This was a physical relocation and a profound cultural upheaval for the Nubians. Their villages were flooded, their ancestral lands lost, and their traditional way of life irrevocably altered (Naidu, 2016 ). With their unique language, customs, and deep connection to the Nile, the Nubians were forced to leave everything behind. They faced inadequate housing, limited economic opportunities, and marginalisation within Egyptian society (Fahim, 2010 ) (Nicholas S. Hopkins, 2010 ). The displacement of the Nubians to areas distant from the Nile River profoundly impacted their cultural and linguistic heritage. Forced to adapt to new environments and integrate with non-Nubian communities, they experienced significant disruptions to their traditional way of life, threatening the preservation of their cultural identity (Gilmore, 2016 ). For example, Heissa Island was heavily affected by dam construction, with its population displaced in multiple waves starting in 1902, followed by further relocations in 1912 and 1933 (Sama Singer, 2017 ). In contrast, other Nubian villages located north of the Aswan Reservoir, such as those in West Aswan and Aswan Island, were not entirely abandoned. However, these communities still experienced significant socio-economic and cultural changes due to the dam’s construction (Agha, 2019 ). The Aswan High Dam, completed in the 1960s, was a monumental engineering project to improve irrigation, control floods, and generate hydroelectric power. While it achieved many of its objectives, the dam also had substantial environmental and socio-economic consequences, particularly for the Nubian community(Lee, 2018 )The dam altered the natural flow of the Nile, disrupting sediment transport and nutrient distribution. This had detrimental effects on local wildlife and fisheries, key sources of livelihood for riverine communities. (Moussa et al., 2001 ). Subsequent research has confirmed these findings, noting a decline in biodiversity and water quality in Lake Nasser, further exacerbating ecological damage (Yang, 2024 ). Additionally, the dam’s construction led to the submergence of numerous Nubian archaeological and cultural sites, including ancient temples, resulting in the loss of vital historical landmarks central to Nubian identity (Tamborrino & Piumatti, 2017). The socio-economic impact on the Nubian community was equally profound. The forced relocation disrupted traditional agricultural practices and knowledge systems, leading to significant cultural and economic shifts (Allen, 2014 ). The destruction of the Nubian way of life has been extensively documented, from the initial displacement caused by the Aswan Reservoir to the completion of the High Dam (Hamdy & Moll, 2024). The loss of historical sites and cultural heritage has been a particular research focus, with scholars emphasising the need for preservation efforts beyond physical relocation (Deprez & Goossens, 2004 ). The resilience of Nubian cultural identity in the face of marginalisation has also been a key area of study, highlighting the broader societal implications of cultural preservation initiatives (Kirsty Rowan, 2017 ). This extensive research emphasises the diverse effects of the Aswan High Dam on the Nubian community, stressing the necessity for ongoing initiatives in cultural preservation, economic assistance, and adaptation techniques for displaced individuals. However, some studies have discussed Nubians' environmental and cultural impact, and a limited amount of research has addressed Nubian displacement's social and economic impact. Many studies have focused on displaced Nubians rather than those not resettled in the new settlements. Although this group was not displaced, it also impacted the construction of the Aswan High Dam. This study aims to examine the impacts of these two communities on livelihood and social networks comparatively. The study's central research question is: What are the impacts of the Aswan High Dam on the livelihood and social networks of the newly displaced? And old (non-displaced) Nubian communities? This study seeks to clarify the socio-economic and cultural implications of large-scale infrastructure projects on impacted communities by examining these populations. 2. Literature Reviews 2.1 Livelihood Impact of Dam-Induced Displacement and Resettlement Dam-induced displacement due to development projects profoundly impacts the livelihoods of affected communities, with outcomes varying significantly across different settings. In the Brazilian Amazon, a study by (Randell, 2016 ). The Belo Monte Dam showed that most displaced households experienced increased wealth and improved housing conditions, particularly among poorer groups, indicating that displacement can sometimes result in economic improvements depending on the context and implementation of resettlement programs. However, the Saguling Dam project, as studied by (Sunardi et al., 2013) Revealed that despite initial improvements in livelihoods, job losses and inequality in resettlement options caused dissatisfaction and socio-economic disparities, highlighting the complex nature of resettlement impacts. Further complicating the picture, Ty et al. (2023) reported that in Vietnam, dam-induced displacement severely impacted households by increasing food insecurity due to the loss of agricultural land and limited access to public property, compounded by unemployment, illiteracy, and low income. Similarly, another study by Ty (2023) in the vicinity of Hue City indicated that although displaced households recovered income faster due to local support and job market access, cultural and community cohesion weakened. This emphasises the need for effective resettlement strategies, especially for vulnerable groups such as women-headed households and those with disabilities. According to (Owusu et al., 2024a ), the Bui Dam area in Ghana continues to see increased challenges. Nevertheless, their situations later improved via livelihood enhancement programs such as cage aquaculture, weaving, and pottery. Although livelihoods have improved, the challenges continue as people still have low crop yields, soil fertility issues, delays in land compensation, etc.; therefore, a more inclusive approach is required. (Singh & Muhuri, 2024 ) Argue that livelihood or livelihood assets are vital for Urban Development-Induced Rural Displacement. It is based on the DFID sustainable livelihood framework. Furthermore, there is a need for a conceptual framework to improve and evaluate the livelihood of the displaced. It also makes them sustainable after resettlement. (Fujikura et al., 2009 ) Highlight that institutional arrangements are necessary for restoring the resettlers’ livelihood in medium and long-term periods. Setting up a development agency in the resettlement area is important to deal with institutional problems. This study also assessed the emotional condition of resettled individuals and its bearing on their social ties, as a successful resettlement program hinges on social ties. This review discusses the impact of dam-induced displacement on people's livelihoods and how it improves that part. To support those communities affected by projects, we must ensure better livelihood sustainability for the resettled. 2.2 Social Impact of Dam-Induced Displacement and Resettlement The social impacts of dam-induced displacement and resettlement have been widely studied, revealing complex outcomes across different regions and communities. In China, a comparative case study by Huang et al. (2018) shows that displacement improves living conditions to a certain degree. It also promotes the adoption of rural cooperative medical insurance. Nevertheless, it negatively impacts employment, income levels, sources, and well-being. Similarly, internal relocation, whether resulting from dams or development initiatives, such as those in Lahore(Ali Nadeem et al., 2024 ), frequently undermines social networks and induces social fragmentation, erasing community cohesion and identity. Displacement due to forced migration results in social and cultural distress (Dibo, 2022 ). This phenomenon is elucidated when individuals are displaced from their homes and cultural contexts (ZHU & WANG, 2020 ). It emphasises that displaced individuals use language daily, participate in local communities, and engage in cultural activities to preserve their identity and social cohesion. (Amer, 2018 ) asserts that Nubians experienced the loss of significant monuments and cultural material due to their forced relocation, indicating cultural disruption resulting from displacement by the dam. Memory is crucial in preserving Nubian culture among displaced youth (Saleh, 2024 ). Elucidates how evoking memories could promote cultural preservation. Displaced Nubians who relocated to the dynamic region suffer economic difficulties in the cultural tourism business. Furthermore, it raises concerns about the commodification of Nubian culture and its associated effects. An examination by Abdullah & Rahman (2021) of the Merowe Dam project reveals intricate social consequences, including the advantages of enhanced infrastructure; however, it also highlights emotional and historical disconnections among displaced communities affected by insufficient and reduced social cohesion issues. Lastly, Randell (2022) discusses the severe effects of dam-induced displacement on social networks, illustrating how forced relocations dismantle community ties and structures, leading to a loss of social capital and enduring socio-economic challenges, especially in poorer regions. Thus, it underlines the urgent need for resettlement strategies that address relocation and social network restoration. 3. Theoretical Framework The concept of sustainable livelihoods was first articulated by Robert Chambers of the Institute of Development Studies (IDS) and later adopted in international development discourse. According to Chambers & Conway ( 1992 ), a livelihood is defined as the capabilities, assets (which encompass both material and social resources), and activities essential for securing a means of living. Recent scholars have significantly expanded the SLF's applications and theoretical scope. Wang et al. (2024) enhanced the framework by incorporating disaster perception into livelihood capital analysis, employing advanced machine learning techniques to examine farmers' adaptation behaviors. Parallel developments by Delgado Jiménez et al. (2022) adapted the SLF to artisanal mining contexts, introducing innovative analytical methods to analyse dynamic capital interactions while accounting for socio-historical factors influencing informal economies. Notable theoretical integrations have further enriched the framework. Su et al. (2025) synthesized the novel by combining SLF with Coupled Infrastructure Systems theory, revealing how rural migrants prioritize human and social capital over economic factors. Contemporary research by Xiong and Sui (2025) demonstrated the transformative effects of digital economy participation on occupational mobility, identifying significant spillover effects in rural workforce development. Huang et al. (2025) contributed methodological advances through their quantitative SLF model, which systematically tracks tourism's differential impacts on livelihood sustainability in ethnic communities. The framework has proven particularly valuable in comparative livelihood analyses. Masud et al. (2016) and Qian et al. (2017) employed SLF to document the variable consequences of tourism development across different rural contexts. Donohue and Biggs (2015) operationalized the framework through their Multidimensional Livelihoods Index, providing policy-relevant insights into spatial variations in livelihood sustainability. Quandt's (2018) work on livelihood resilience metrics expanded the framework's analytical power by quantifying non-monetary capital contributions. This study applies SLF to examine the impacts of the Aswan High Dam on Nubian communities. It highlights how displacement has eroded natural, social, and financial capital among affected groups, while non-displaced communities retained stronger capital foundations. This study extends the SLF by introducing an adaptation dimension to better capture livelihood adjustments in response to displacement. It emphasises that adaptive capacity is essential for sustaining livelihoods under environmental and socio-political change. 4. Methodology The Nubians, who traditionally resided between Aswan, Egypt, and Dongola, Sudan, established a distinctive culture around 5,000 years ago (Fahim, 2013). Their culture comprised 42 villages along the Nile, categorized by ethnicity into three tribes: the Kunoz in the north, the Arabs of Alakiyat in the central region, and the Fadija in the south (Shetawy & El-Shafie, 2013). The construction of the Aswan High Dam in the 1960s led to the inundation of ancestral lands, causing significant displacement of Nubian communities (Abd-El Monsef et al., 2015 ) As Fig. 1 shows, the study area includes Heissa Island and Nasr El Nuba in Aswan Governorate, Egypt. Heissa Island is located east of Aswan, between the Aswan Low Dam and the Aswan High Dam, and is one of the few remaining Nubian islands that have not been fully evacuated. On the other hand, Nasr El Nuba represents the area to which the Nubians were relocated following the construction of the Aswan High Dam in the 1960s. This study aims to determine the impact of the Aswan High Dam construction on the livelihood and social network of the Displaced and Non-Displaced Nubian community between Heissa and Nasr El Nuba, Aswan City, Egypt. The data was collected using multiple-stage sampling techniques to select the community and respondents. Selection of the study area: The central regions of El Nuba and Hiessa Island were designated as the primary sites for the study. The central area of Nasr El Nuba represents the location to which the Nubians were relocated due to the construction of the High Dam. At the same time, Heissa Island remains undisturbed, rendering it exemplary for investigating the impacts of displacement on the Nubian community across various life dimensions. Respondent Selection: 30 respondents from the two regions in Aswan were selected. The study employed purposive sampling to select individuals who directly witnessed the displacement process and those who were not displaced. Additionally, a snowball sampling technique was utilized to recruit further respondents through referrals from initial subjects, ensuring a comprehensive representation of diverse perspectives within the Nubian community. The sample encompassed individuals of varying ages to capture the experiences of different generations adequately. Data collection involved gathering data through in-depth interviews with the respondents from the Nubian population on the islands of Heissa and Nasr El Nuba to ascertain the changes following displacement. The inquiries concentrated on contrasting the experiences of Nubians displaced by the High Dam's construction. They relocated to Nasr El Nuba with those who remained on Heissa Island, examining two primary domains: livelihoods and social networks. ( Table 1 ) presents the demographic information of the study participants, including gender, age, education level, and the area they belong to (Nasr El Nuba or Heissa). Thirty participants were selected from the two regions, with a balanced representation of males and females aged 22 to 80. The sample included individuals with diverse educational backgrounds, from primary education to PhD degrees, ensuring a broad representation of experiences across generations. Purposive sampling was used to select participants who directly experienced the displacement process, while snowball sampling was employed to ensure a comprehensive representation of diverse perspectives within the Nubian community. Table 1 Demographic information of respondents Index Gender Age Education Area 1 Male 75 PhD Degree El Nuba 2 Male 55 Bachelor's Degree El Nuba 3 Female 45 Master's Degree El Nuba 4 Male 40 Bachelor's Degree El Nuba 5 Female 32 Bachelor's Degree El Nuba 6 Male 55 PhD Degree El Nuba 7 Female 25 Bachelor's Degree El Nuba 8 Female 50 Secondary School El Nuba 9 Male 43 Bachelor's Degree El Nuba 10 Female 32 Bachelor's Degree El Nuba 11 Male 44 Bachelor's Degree El Nuba 12 Female 26 Bachelor's Degree El Nuba 13 Male 35 Master's Degree El Nuba 14 Female 38 Bachelor's Degree El Nuba 15 Male 50 Bachelor's Degree El Nuba 16 Female 22 Bachelor's Degree Heissa 17 Female 80 Primary School Heissa 18 Male 66 Bachelor's Degree Heissa 19 Female 31 Bachelor's Degree Heissa 20 Male 64 Bachelor's Degree Heissa 21 Female 68 Primary School Heissa 22 Male 65 Bachelor's Degree Heissa 23 Female 47 Bachelor's Degree Heissa 24 Male 30 Bachelor's Degree Heissa 25 Female 60 Primary School Heissa 26 Female 33 Bachelor's Degree Heissa 27 Male 54 Bachelor's Degree Heissa 28 Female 25 Bachelor's Degree Heissa 29 Male 38 Master's Degree Heissa 30 Male 38 Bachelor's Degree Heissa Sources: fieldwork in 2024 After fieldwork, interviews were transcribed and analyzed thematically using NVivo software. Data was coded and categorized systematically (see Table 2 ) to analyze the changes in livelihood and social networks between displaced and non-displaced Nubian groups. Following the six-step process outlined by (Braun & Clarke, 2006 )We then examined the varied effects of displacement across multiple dimensions, livelihoods, and social networks, facilitating an understanding of the distinctions and transformations between displaced and non-displaced Nubian groups. Table 2 Coding and Themes for Data Analysis Initial codes Refine codes concepts Categories Themes Livelihood impact Livelihood changes Livelihood and economic shifts Economic impact and livelihood Economic adaptation and livelihood transformation Agricultural loss Adaptation to new economic activities Social network and cohesion Cultural identity and continuity Social cohesion and community support Tourism adaptation Income diversification Cultural identity and change Social dynamics and cohesion Urbanization and social isolation Government jobs Cultural identity preservation Social impact Cultural identity and continuity Cultural Preservation Amidst Change Overseas migration Community resilience Social isolation Economic impact and livelihood 5. Results The research focused on two primary points: social networks and livelihoods, which are essential for comprehending forced migration's impact on Nubian society. 5.1 Livelihood Impact The impact of displacement on the livelihoods of the Nubian community is analyzed through the Sustainable Livelihoods Framework (SLF), which categorizes livelihoods across five key capital assets: natural, financial, human, social, and physical. This study also introduces an adaptation dimension, reflecting the capacity of individuals and communities to modify their strategies in response to forced displacement. Prior to displacement, Nubians primarily depended on natural capital—agriculture and fishing along the fertile banks of the Nile. However, relocation to arid regions disrupted access to these resources, undermining long-standing livelihood systems. On Heissa Island, for example, agriculture once formed the backbone of household economies. Post-displacement, residents faced declining land productivity and were compelled to seek alternative sources of income, predominantly in tourism. A 60-year-old male from Heissa stated: "We lived on agriculture and fishing, but the circumstances changed after the displacement. We had to search for work in the cities or in tourism." Similarly, in Nasr El Nuba, the degradation of soil quality and lack of arable land reduced the viability of traditional agriculture. Many community members transitioned to government employment or overseas labor, reflecting a structural shift in livelihood patterns and reconfiguring financial and human capital. A participant noted: "Agriculture was our source of income, but the land here is not like the land we had in the old Nubia, so we had to find alternatives." (Male, 70, Nasr El Nuba) These shifts signify a disruption in natural capital and the need for adaptive strategies to ensure survival in unfamiliar socioeconomic and ecological contexts—an insight aligned with recent theoretical expansions of the SLF (Quandt, 2018; Su et al., 2025). 5.1.1Adaptation to New Economic Activities The communities in Heissa Island and El Nuba demonstrated strong adaptive capacity, a dimension that this study contributes to the SLF. Residents developed innovative ways to respond to livelihood disruptions, mainly through engagement in tourism and formal employment. On Heissa Island, residents transformed their homes into tourist attractions and worked on riverboats transporting visitors to Philae Temple. This indicates a shift in financial capital and a strategic use of cultural and social capital. A 35-year-old female participant from Heissa remarked: "We managed to adapt to the new environment through working in tourism, which helped us maintain a decent standard of living." In Nasr El Nuba, many Nubians entered government service or sought employment abroad, enhancing the household’s financial resilience. These efforts highlight the community’s ability to generate new livelihood strategies when traditional assets were lost—a critical extension to the conventional SLF, where adaptation is not explicitly treated as a standalone analytical category. Through these processes, the Nubian communities compensated for lost capital and redefined their livelihoods based on emergent opportunities. This reinforces the importance of recognizing adaptation as a core component of sustainable livelihoods, especially in displacement contexts. 5.1.2 Diversification of Income Sources The transition to new employment opportunities in Heissa Island and El Nuba led to a significant diversification of financial capital, a key aspect of the SLF. In Heissa, the development of tourism broadened economic possibilities by creating jobs related to hospitality, boat transport, and cultural experiences. This diversification enhanced household income security and community economic resilience. A participant from El Nuba explained: "The change in livelihoods allowed some to travel abroad for better opportunities, while others took on new jobs that were not available to us before the displacement." (Male, 45, El Nuba) This diversification reflects a proactive adaptation strategy, aligning with the extended SLF model proposed in recent literature. This model highlights the capacity of displaced populations to creatively mobilize their remaining assets to build alternative income streams (Delgado Jiménez et al., 2022). Such diversification mitigated the economic vulnerability of losing natural and physical capital (e.g., arable land, agricultural tools), supporting a shift toward more dynamic and responsive livelihood systems. 5.1.3 Preservation of Cultural Identity through New Livelihoods Tourism on Heissa Island not only replaced lost financial and natural capital but also became a mechanism for reinforcing social and cultural capital. Residents transformed cultural preservation into a livelihood strategy by showcasing traditional Nubian homes, language, and customs to visitors. A 30-year-old female participant emphasized: "Tourism has contributed to preserving our Nubian culture. We welcome people into our homes to showcase our way of life and preserve our traditions." This illustrates how cultural identity can be strategically integrated into income generation, reinforcing livelihood sustainability through community-led heritage preservation. It demonstrates the interlinkage between SLF capitals, where cultural pride and collective memory become economic assets. This synergy represents a contextual innovation in applying SLF, where local culture is mobilized as social capital and an adaptive resource. 5.1.4 Community Strength and Solidarity The Nubian community’s social capital, embedded in solidarity, kinship networks, and collective support, emerged as a pivotal asset in adapting to the economic disruptions of displacement. On Heissa Island, for example, tourism-based livelihoods were not developed in isolation but supported by strong internal cooperation: " Even though we had to change our livelihoods, we still help each other as a community. Everyone is involved in tourism, and we share information on how to improve our businesses." (Male, 35, Heissa) This form of collective adaptation aligns with Donohue and Biggs’s (2015) emphasis on spatial and communal dimensions of SLF capital interactions. Rather than viewing social capital as static, the Nubian case demonstrates its dynamic role in facilitating economic transitions and reinforcing community resilience. The strength of social networks thus compensates, at least partially, for the erosion of natural and physical capital. This supports the argument for expanding SLF analysis to include relational adaptation mechanisms that enable communities to reorganize their livelihoods collectively in response to external shocks. 5.1.5 Loss of Traditional Livelihoods One of the most critical consequences of displacement was the loss of natural capital, an incredibly fertile agricultural land that previously formed the foundation of Nubian livelihoods. This loss undermined the community’s ability to sustain its traditional economic activities. It led to deep identity disruptions, as a participant from El Nuba stated: A respondent at El Nuba stated, "We have lost our arable lands and, consequently, our way of life." That constituted a significant loss for us, fundamentally altering everything (Male, 50 years old, Nasr El Nuba). Detachment from the land signifies more than economic dislocation; it represents a loss of livelihood, meaning, and cultural continuity, confirming the interdependence between natural and social capital in the SLF. This dimension underscores the limits of compensation mechanisms when livelihoods are deeply tied to place, memory, and identity. 5.1.6 Reliance on External Resources and Economic Vulnerability The loss of local resources forced Nubians in both Heissa and El Nuba to increasingly depend on external financial flows, such as remittances and government employment. This transformation reflects a restructuring of financial capital, but also reveals rising vulnerability, as livelihoods became tied to unstable or external systems. A participant at El Nuba remarked: "We no longer possess the same autonomy over our lives as we did during our farming days." Currently, we depend on the government or employment overseas, both of which are precarious. (Female, 40 years old, El Nuba). This dependency highlights a crucial risk in post-displacement livelihood transitions: the erosion of local sustainability. While external income may provide short-term stability, it reduces community agency. It increases susceptibility to macroeconomic shocks—an important insight that supports integrating resilience and adaptation perspectives into the SLF. A word cloud Fig. 2 was generated using NVivo software to enrich the qualitative analysis of livelihood transformations among the Nubian community. The visual highlights the most frequent terms mentioned by participants regarding economic adaptation post-displacement. Keywords such as agriculture , tourism , income , and adaptation reflect the central themes in the discourse on livelihood changes. 5.2 Impact of Social Networks The social network constitutes a fundamental pillar underpinning societal cohesiveness and stability. It encompasses familial connections, neighbourly contacts, and social and economic interactions that facilitate emotional and material assistance among people during adversity. Qualitative analysis of the interviews revealed that the forced displacement of Nubians in the 1970s significantly affected the organization of these networks on both Heissa Island and Nasr El Nuba. 5.2.1 Social Cohesion Before displacement, Nubian communities, particularly in Heissa, enjoyed dense and cohesive social capital, rooted in extended family systems and collective life. These social structures facilitated informal safety nets and emotional resilience. A participant at Heissa remarked: “We maintained robust social connections, with all the villagers being acquainted with and collectively participating in joyous and sorrowful events. )Male, 35 years old, Heissa(. This network strength aligns with SLF literature that identifies social capital as a livelihood enabler and a coping mechanism, particularly under stress conditions (Chambers & Conway, 1992 ). 5.2.2 The Family’s Role in Cultural Preservation Social networks played a key role in maintaining cultural capital, especially the transmission of language and customs. The home, as a central social institution, facilitated intergenerational knowledge transfer. A respondent emphasized that: "the family plays a crucial role in learning and speaking the language, as the social network on the island of Hisa facilitates the intergenerational transmission of the Nubian language" (female, 25, Heissa). In SLF terms, this reflects the role of social and human capital in sustaining intangible livelihood assets, which are often overlooked but central to long-term community resilience. 5.2.3 Mutual Assistance and Adaptive Support While initial efforts in El Nuba sought to rebuild social networks post-displacement (e.g., replicating village names and sequences), urban life gradually eroded these structures. Still, early adaptations involved communal proximity and shared identity. A respondent from El Nuba remarked: "Upon our arrival at Nasr El Nuba, we endeavored to preserve our social cohesion by residing in proximity; however, as time progressed, we began to distance ourselves due to the challenges of urban living." (Male, 40 years of age, Nasr El Nuba This shows how environmental and spatial changes reshape the quality of social capital, a finding that supports integrating place-based variables into SLF analysis. 5.2.4 Adapting to New Urban Environments Despite the breakdown of traditional networks, younger generations in El Nuba demonstrated adaptive capacity by more effectively navigating urban systems and institutions. According to a respondent, "We have learned to navigate and adjust to the new environment in El Nuba, particularly with the presence of new generations born, raised, and educated here; these new generations of Nubians are highly proficient in this environment." (Female, 55 years of age, Nasr El Nuba) This suggests a transformation in human capital, where urban education and labor market integration offer new forms of livelihood agency, even as they challenge traditional values. 5.2.5 Experiencing Isolation In contrast, Heissa’s geographical separation fostered internal social cohesion but increased external isolation, limiting access to broader economic and institutional support systems. A respondent from Heissa Island remarked: "The displacement has rendered us isolated. We formerly resided in a close-knit community but grew unfamiliar with one another in the new location”. (Female, 25 years of age, Heissa). Consequently, forced displacement resulted in the fragmentation and dissolution of traditional social relations among communities, adversely impacting their sense of belonging and cohesion with other communities, particularly given the considerable distance from Aswan and further to Nasr El Nuba, where the remaining Nubian villages are located. This duality reflects the tension between bonding and bridging social capital, a key concern in SLF when assessing the quality and reach of networks post-shock. 5.2.6 Urban Pressures and Fragmentation In El Nuba, urbanization disrupted traditional social structures and intensified individualization, weakening collective solidarity. Another respondent extended alterations in social interactions: "Initially, there were minor gatherings; however, as time progressed, individuality became engrossed in their own lives, leading to the erosion of social bonds, though we still convene at public events.” (Female, 45 years of age, Nasr El Nuba). This statement indicates that environmental and urban influences have accelerated the dissolution of the conventional social network more rapidly than anticipated. This erosion of social capital over time highlights how urban pressures and lifestyle changes can gradually dissolve support systems critical for sustainable livelihoods. This reinforces the call for temporal and spatial sensitivity in SLF-based research, particularly in displacement scenarios. A second word cloud in Fig. 3 was created using NVivo to visually represent the shifting nature of social relationships within the displaced Nubian communities. This visualization captures frequently mentioned terms related to community cohesion, support systems, and cultural preservation. Prominent terms like family , support , language , urban , and isolation indicate the key elements influencing social dynamics post-displacement. 6. Discussion The findings of this study definitively demonstrate the consequences of forced displacement of livelihoods within Nubian society, effects similar to those established in several studies about the consequences of displacement on communities dependent on agriculture and fishing. Findings indicate that agriculture and fishing constituted the primary revenue sources before relocation; however, shifting environmental conditions after the move to arid and unproductive regions have resulted in the decline of traditional livelihoods. This finding resonates with (George & Adelaja, 2021 ) Who highlighted that farming communities subjected to forcible relocation encounter considerable economic difficulties when relocating to regions lacking the same natural resources. These findings align with the SLF, which shows how displacement reduces natural capital and forces shifts in financial and human assets like employment and skills. After the resettlement in the new environment, the Nubian community has diversified its traditional livelihood in various ways and adapted to new economic activities. Findings indicate that while tourism has emerged as the primary source of revenue on Heissa Island, some residents of El Nuba have sought employment under the government and migrated abroad to seek jobs. While resettled communities engaged in traditional economic activities, they found some economic alternatives for their sustenance. These findings were echoed by Abera et al. (2021), who established that in Chewaka, agriculture remains the primary income source (72.5%), with non-farm activities contributing 20% and off-farm activities 7.5%. Also, the findings resonate with (Dao, 2022 ), who indicates that dam-induced displacement leads to livelihood diversification and improved living standards. However, conflicts between resettled and host communities highlight that while diversification helps livelihoods, it can also cause social tensions. Before the displacement, Nubian communities on the islands of Heissa and El Nuba were predominantly engaged in agriculture and activities associated with riverine natural resources, such as fishing. However, as indicated by the study participants, the transition to non-agricultural areas has diminished individuals' capacity to uphold their traditional way of life. This finding was echoed by (VanCleef, 2016 ) Who established that Hydropower and irrigation initiatives, including the Sagoling and Sirata dams in Java, have displaced thousands from their ancestral lands, depriving them of their livelihoods, and may result in environmental devastation if inadequately designed. On the island of Heissa, inhabitants have become reliant on tourism as their primary source of income, with many beginning to accommodate visitors or participate in tourist transportation. These findings resonate with (Owusu et al., 2024b ) Who established that, generally, the new livelihood support programs in resettled communities have positively impacted the socioeconomic livelihood activities of resettled people. This study's most significant finding is the beneficial effect of livelihood transformation on maintaining cultural identity. Tourism on Heissa Island has demonstrated its capacity to maintain the cultural identity of the Nubian population by facilitating the exhibition of traditional lifestyles and Nubian residences to visitors from other regions globally. This form of adaptation safeguards local culture. These findings resonate with those who established that Egyptian tourism has benefited from cultural heritage preservation by attracting visitors, boosting the local economy, and offering unique experiences. It improves infrastructure and promotes sustainable tourism through repeat business and word-of-mouth. Further, the findings concur with (Ruhanen & Whitford, 2019 ), emphasizing the role of tourism in conservation by improving living conditions, creating economic possibilities, and creating a supportive environment. Tourism can preserve intangible cultural treasures if government support and sustainable tourist policies are in place. They further highlight community awareness, governmental engagement, digital technologies, and quality of life as key factors in preserving the Ratugala Indigenous community's intangible cultural legacy in Sri Lanka. However, Sarkar et al. (2024) opposed this, showing that Assam's growing tourism sector threatens environmental resources and cultural heritage, including waste management, resource depletion, and community impacts. He recommended sustainable tourism growth to preserve cultural and ecological advantages for future generations. In this process, effective governance and fair planning are crucial. Tourism in Heissa illustrates how social and cultural capital can become new livelihood sources, reflecting resilience within the SLF framework. The research results indicated that solidarity within the Nubian group was crucial in adapting to the new environment. On Heissa Island and El Nuba, community members exhibited robust cooperation to navigate the economic issues stemming from displacement. These findings were echoed by Romanelli (2023), who established that fostering collaboration increases productivity and financial integration, enhancing rural communities' social and economic welfare. It additionally aids in risk diversification and enhances value, thus promoting sustainable development. The report advocates for establishing a robust regulatory framework to improve the efficacy of cooperatives in fostering economic growth. While positive shifts have been noted in Heissa Island and El Nuba communities, adverse effects linked to evolving livelihoods exist. The research indicated that the decline of agriculture and separation from farmland pose significant challenges for the Nubian population. These findings go hand in hand with(Osman & Abebe, 2023 )They established that violence, drought, food scarcity, resource competitiveness, and arable land disputes cause displacement. They also indicated that displacement has increased the urban population and caused social and economic problems. Finally, there is a need to restore agricultural systems, resolve land issues, and provide displaced populations with crucial resources. Community solidarity reflects substantial social capital, helping displaced groups adapt economically, an essential feature in SLF analysis. Dependence on external sources for economic activities has threatened their financial security, paving the way for economic vulnerability. This pertains to the threats to cultural identity and the local economy due to the decline of traditional practices. Although it has had a negative impact, households relocated due to the construction of a hydropower facility in China, switching from agricultural to non-agricultural livelihood strategies, decreasing natural assets, and increasing physical assets. Variations in assets and their impact on livelihood decisions correlated with demographic factors, proposing ethnic unification and vocational training to improve economic conditions. (He et al., 2025 ) However, as noted by (K & Joseph, 2021 ) It affects livelihoods, causing loss of homes and economic opportunities. Displaced individuals often experience increased economic inequality and frustration, with aspirations for sustainable growth unmet. Adivasi or tribal people, who make up 40–50% of the displaced population despite being only 8% of the total, are significantly impacted. Dependence on external income shows fragile financial capital and highlights the SLF's emphasis on the risks of losing localized economic bases. The findings indicated that social networks are essential for cohesion and community stability. Before the 1970s displacement on Heissa Island, social networks were strong, primarily due to the influence of extended family ties in daily life. The Nubian community depended on collaboration and engagement at celebratory and sorrowful events; these social ties were vital to daily existence, providing emotional and material assistance to community members. Nonetheless, forced displacement substantially disturbed these social networks. This alteration in social relationships highlights the effect of displacement on ties to society, resulting in fragmentation and separation among members within the Nubian community. (Becker, 2020 ) These findings resonate with (Xiao et al., 2018 ), who established that resettled people become marginalized due to the disruption of established social networks, cultural and religious events, and when their host communities discriminate against them. Displacement weakens social capital, threatening survival and long-term cultural cohesion under SLF. Displacement frequently results in the fragmentation of social networks, as individuals might become separated during migration. The disintegration of social networks after displacement can lead to enduring impacts on trust and collaboration among inhabitants. (Díaz De León, 2022) (Rusomyo et al., 2017 ) Despite the hurdles, some displaced individuals rebuild social networks through kinship ties and community support, enhancing adaptation and resilience. These findings resonate with those who established that marginalized communities need good social networks to sustain their lives and livelihoods. Historical events like the Indian Partition illustrate that forced displacement can lead to a long-term decline in social capital, as communities that received displaced individuals experienced lower social cohesion. (Bhattacharya & Mukhopadhyay, 2022 ) After their displacement, the Nubians relocated to El Nuba, where they had considerable difficulties reconstructing their social networks within the urban environment. Initially, the Nubians attempted to sustain coherence by residing near one another, preserving a semi-traditional social network. Nonetheless, the urban environment increasingly challenged these relationships due to the social and economic transformations induced by city living. These findings were echoed by (Jayakody et al., 2022 )Indicate that forced displacement weakens social networks and community ties. These alterations influence social networks, as displaced individuals encounter challenges integrating and establishing trust with host groups, impacting social cohesion. The younger generation of Nubians, raised in Nasr El Nuba's urban environment, has adapted more quickly to urban life. The research indicated that younger generations exhibited more resilience to urban life's social and economic pressures than older generations. These findings resonate with (Hodges & Abdi, 2024 )Who highlighted that customized support programs can facilitate positive development for displaced young people, supporting their resettlement into their new environments. Further findings were from (Gallay et al., 2020 )Who showed how place-based stewardship education helps urban youth, particularly those from minority backgrounds, understand and value their relationship with the environment. This educational approach encourages them to take responsibility for their local environmental community, which aligns with enhancing their ability to navigate and thrive in urban settings. The findings also show that social isolation had a prominent impact on the Heissa community post-resettlement, which affected the quality of life in a cohesive community. From the findings, Heissa Island had geographic isolation, as it was located on the Nile River and could only be accessed by boats. This isolation fostered internal cohesion among community members and separated them from Aswan's broader community. These findings were echoed by (Masoom, 2016 ), who established that Social isolation, defined as a lack of social relationships or separation from social institutions, can profoundly weaken the social fabric by destroying community bonds and support networks, ultimately impacting societal cohesion and individual welfare. The findings resonated with(Kim & Kim, 2024 ), who indicated that social infrastructure can mitigate isolation. Geographic isolation is not directly addressed, but the study highlights the importance of urban planning to enhance social connections and reduce isolation. The urban pressures in El Nuba were social challenges that affected the preservation of Nubian cultural identity. One participant mentioned, "Initially, there were simple gatherings, but over time, individuals became busy with their own lives, which led to the erosion of social ties, even though we still meet during public events." These findings were echoed by (Ziemeļniece et al., 2022 ) It has been established that Urban pressures, city density, and the cost of living drive more people to rural areas. This is especially true in the Lielupe River area, where infrastructure and vehicle technology make attractive spots accessible. As population density rises in rural areas, existing homesteads are renovated, and new dwelling clusters are built, transforming the cultural environment; this was echoed by (Feng, 2024 ), who noted that urban expansion threatens cultural identity preservation. It emphasises the importance of sustainable urban planning and community participation to reduce detrimental impacts and support the conservation of cultural heritage. Preserving language and traditions reflects adaptive social and human capital use, aligning with SLF’s focus on resilience beyond material assets. Despite the challenges, preserving Nubian culture remains a fundamental part of life in Nasr El Nuba, with social networks playing a key role in maintaining certain cultural aspects. The results suggest that maintaining Nubian culture, including the language, is essential for the Nubian community in Nasr El Nuba. The findings resonate with (Gavrylyuk, 2023 ), who established that Social networks serve as a mechanism for preserving and transmitting cultural values and norms, facilitating intercultural communication, and influencing how individuals interact and perceive relationships, thereby playing a key role in maintaining specific cultural aspects within society. The same findings were echoed by (Guo, 2024 ), who indicated that social networks, particularly among immigrants, serve as cultural and social conduits that bridge cultural gaps. They facilitate the sharing of cultural values and practices, thereby maintaining cultural aspects while promoting international trade and enhancing cross-border business relationships. Finally, the findings concur with(Rodrigues, 2021 ), who confirmed that social networks facilitate the preservation of cultural aspects by enabling individuals to share traditions, values, and practices within their communities. They create spaces for cultural expression and interaction, reinforcing identity and continuity among members, thus aiding cultural maintenance. 7. Conclusion The study concluded that it is of the essence to enhance livelihood and social networks among the Nubian community post-displacement of core issues in the new areas where they settled after the construction of the Aswan High Dam. The study focused on the impact of forced displacement on the Nubian community in Heissa Island and Nasr El-Nuba. Findings showed that forced displacement had profound impacts on livelihoods and changes in sources of income as agriculture was replaced by others such as tourism and traveling to work abroad; on Heissa Island, tourism has become the primary source of livelihood while on Nasr Alnuba shifted income toward governments jobs or traveling work abroad moreover these changes in livelihood profound resilience of the Nubian community in adapting to new conditions. Additionally, forced displacement has contributed to the significant change in the social network of the Nubian community on Hessia Island. The Nubian people there kept social ties strong and contributed to adapting to economic changes. At the same time, Nasr El Nuba was affected by social isolation due to the urban environment. Despite those challenges, the Nubian society has demonstrated an exceptional ability to adapt to cultural and social transformations. Nonetheless, difficulties remain over the loss of cultural identity and apprehensions about the impact of metropolitan elements on social interactions among community people. Community support is essential to promoting adaptability to newly settled areas and ensuring sustained economic prospects. Additional research is advised to comprehend the long-term effects of displacement on the Nubian population and formulate solutions for improving their socioeconomic stability. Furthermore, this study contributes to developing the Sustainable Livelihoods Framework (SLF) by proposing adaptive capacity as a critical sixth dimension. While traditional SLF focuses on five capital assets, the findings demonstrate that the Nubian community’s ability to respond to displacement through livelihood innovation, social cohesion, and cultural resilience reflects a vital form of adaptation that must be integrated into future applications of the framework. Declarations Acknowledge: I sincerely thank Academic institutions for their essential support, guidance, and contributions, which enabled this research. Author Contributions: “Conceptualization, S.A.; methodology, S.A.; software, S.A.; validation, S.A.; formal analysis, S.A.; investigation, S.A.; resources, S.G.; data curation, S.A.; writing—original draft preparation, S.A.; writing—review and editing, S.G., X.H, E.A.; visualization, S.A.; supervision, S.G.; project administration, S.A.; funding acquisition, E.A. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript Data Availability Statement Data will be provided upon request from the first author Conflict of interest The authors declare that there are no competing interests. Ethical approval All procedures performed in studies involving human participants were in accordance with the ethical standards of the institutional research committee and with the 1964 Helsinki Declaration and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards. The study was approved on May 22, 2024 by the Ethics Committee of the institution, Approval number: CUNI-13/0069. Informed consent Written informed consent was obtained from all participants prior to data collection. Participants were provided with detailed information about the study's objectives, procedures, their right to withdraw at any time without penalty, and assurances of anonymity and confidentiality. No personally identifiable information was collected. For participants with limited literacy, verbal explanations were provided in their native language to ensure full comprehension. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-6587514","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":493124481,"identity":"8841e72c-58e0-46c0-b7af-4a5362761f39","order_by":0,"name":"Shimaa Abdelaziz","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"School of Public Administration, Hohai University, Nanjing, China","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Shimaa","middleName":"","lastName":"Abdelaziz","suffix":""},{"id":493124482,"identity":"8f18d197-25bc-41f1-9012-0e9229135703","order_by":1,"name":"Xiao Han","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"School of Social Sciences, Monash University, Melbourne, Australia","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Xiao","middleName":"","lastName":"Han","suffix":""},{"id":493124483,"identity":"e87a37ed-64b7-4b87-bfd6-3740dc76b0bb","order_by":2,"name":"Edris Alam","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Faculty of Resilience, Rabdan Academy, Abu Dhabi, 22401, United Arab Emirates (UAE).","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Edris","middleName":"","lastName":"Alam","suffix":""},{"id":493124484,"identity":"cc90b470-daf7-4255-b30e-f0e15c796c73","order_by":3,"name":"Shi Guoqing","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAAs0lEQVRIiWNgGAWjYFACHoYDCQYSPPzMzAcfEK/lQYGFjGQ7W7IB0VoYH3yosDE4z2MmQJQGef+zB8EOMz7MYMbAUGMTTVCL4Y28BLAWs8MMaQ8YjqXlNhDUMoPHAKbluAFjw2EitPSfgWgxbmZskyBKizxDDkSLATMzG3FaDCSgWiQOszEbJBDjF/n+M8Yff/yps+fvP//xwYcaGyJsOYDMSyCkHGwLQUNHwSgYBaNgFAAAVNo9DgKFc6QAAAAASUVORK5CYII=","orcid":"","institution":"School of Public Administration, Hohai University, Nanjing, China","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Shi","middleName":"","lastName":"Guoqing","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2025-05-04 08:53:15","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6587514/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-6587514/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":88339104,"identity":"bbb5a91e-fa6a-40d2-96bd-b155957b9109","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-08-05 12:24:10","extension":"jpg","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":143447,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eStudy area\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNote: authors’ construct.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Figure1.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6587514/v1/b8d1b1c688995b244a26ea14.jpg"},{"id":88339014,"identity":"f685b378-2ea1-4678-8bfa-727536fd92a8","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-08-05 12:24:05","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":228739,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eWord cloud generated from participants’ narratives on livelihood transformations post-displacement. Visualization highlights key terms related to economic adaptation, such as \u003cem\u003eagriculture\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003etourism\u003c/em\u003e, and \u003cem\u003eincome\u003c/em\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Figure2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6587514/v1/921f0a4fe4aef7c235e8a4a1.png"},{"id":88339942,"identity":"1603784f-ea74-457a-bb6f-51beefbf80aa","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-08-05 12:32:09","extension":"png","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":377462,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eWord cloud illustrating themes associated with social networks and community relations after displacement. Frequently occurring terms include \u003cem\u003efamily\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003esupport\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003ecohesion\u003c/em\u003e, and \u003cem\u003eurban\u003c/em\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Figure3.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6587514/v1/474483f6f178b1968b9586ed.png"},{"id":88339963,"identity":"ab037950-d20b-4316-8748-28409553fb8a","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-08-05 12:32:19","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":1715172,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6587514/v1/9d901b84-1f27-4ced-ae7b-59b15bbf177d.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"\u003cp\u003elivelihood transformation and social networks in Nubian displacement: lessons from the Aswan High Dam\u003c/p\u003e","fulltext":[{"header":"1. Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eForced displacement constitutes a widespread global humanitarian crisis with extensive repercussions that surpass the immediate turmoil experienced by those impacted. (Ivanovic, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e) Whether caused by armed conflict, natural disasters, economic instability, or climate change, forced displacement forces individuals to abandon their homes, social networks, and livelihoods, leaving them vulnerable and in urgent need of assistance. (Zetter, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR52\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe effects of displacement are not limited to the displaced individuals themselves; they also significantly impact the host communities that receive them. In regions like Odesa, Ukraine, where conflict has driven mass migration, the socio-economic challenges faced by displaced individuals are particularly severe, often hindering their ability to integrate into new environments and rebuild their lives. (Ostra et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eForced displacement is typically triggered by existential threats such as armed conflict, natural disasters, climate change, economic collapse, famine, or identity-based persecution. (Hodges \u0026amp; Abdi, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). However, the discourse surrounding forced displacement often narrows its focus to specific issues like water and sanitation, neglecting the broader historical, legal, and sociological contexts that shape the experiences of displaced populations. (Mucherera \u0026amp; Spiegel, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). This narrow perspective fails to capture the full scope of displaced communities' challenges, including economic, social, cultural, and environmental dimensions.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe socio-economic impacts of forced displacement are profound and multifaceted. Recent estimates suggest that infrastructure projects, such as hydropower developments, displace over 20\u0026nbsp;million people annually, highlighting the scale of this issue. (Alam et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Globally, numerous examples of forced displacement are caused by large infrastructure projects. For instance, constructing the Three Gorges Dam in China displaced over 1.2\u0026nbsp;million people, leading to significant socio-economic and cultural disruptions, particularly for rural communities. (Zhang, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR53\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e)Similarly, the Belo Monte Dam in Brazil displaced Indigenous communities in the Amazon, resulting in the loss of traditional livelihoods and cultural heritage. (Fearnside, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e). These cases, like the Nubian experience, highlight the global challenges of balancing development goals with the rights of affected communities.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eOne poignant example is the displacement of the Nubian people in Egypt due to the construction of the Aswan High Dam. This was a physical relocation and a profound cultural upheaval for the Nubians. Their villages were flooded, their ancestral lands lost, and their traditional way of life irrevocably altered (Naidu, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). With their unique language, customs, and deep connection to the Nile, the Nubians were forced to leave everything behind. They faced inadequate housing, limited economic opportunities, and marginalisation within Egyptian society (Fahim, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e) (Nicholas S. Hopkins, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe displacement of the Nubians to areas distant from the Nile River profoundly impacted their cultural and linguistic heritage. Forced to adapt to new environments and integrate with non-Nubian communities, they experienced significant disruptions to their traditional way of life, threatening the preservation of their cultural identity (Gilmore, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). For example, Heissa Island was heavily affected by dam construction, with its population displaced in multiple waves starting in 1902, followed by further relocations in 1912 and 1933 (Sama Singer, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). In contrast, other Nubian villages located north of the Aswan Reservoir, such as those in West Aswan and Aswan Island, were not entirely abandoned. However, these communities still experienced significant socio-economic and cultural changes due to the dam\u0026rsquo;s construction (Agha, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe Aswan High Dam, completed in the 1960s, was a monumental engineering project to improve irrigation, control floods, and generate hydroelectric power. While it achieved many of its objectives, the dam also had substantial environmental and socio-economic consequences, particularly for the Nubian community(Lee, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e)The dam altered the natural flow of the Nile, disrupting sediment transport and nutrient distribution. This had detrimental effects on local wildlife and fisheries, key sources of livelihood for riverine communities. (Moussa et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2001\u003c/span\u003e). Subsequent research has confirmed these findings, noting a decline in biodiversity and water quality in Lake Nasser, further exacerbating ecological damage (Yang, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR51\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAdditionally, the dam\u0026rsquo;s construction led to the submergence of numerous Nubian archaeological and cultural sites, including ancient temples, resulting in the loss of vital historical landmarks central to Nubian identity (Tamborrino \u0026amp; Piumatti, 2017).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe socio-economic impact on the Nubian community was equally profound. The forced relocation disrupted traditional agricultural practices and knowledge systems, leading to significant cultural and economic shifts (Allen, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e). The destruction of the Nubian way of life has been extensively documented, from the initial displacement caused by the Aswan Reservoir to the completion of the High Dam (Hamdy \u0026amp; Moll, 2024). The loss of historical sites and cultural heritage has been a particular research focus, with scholars emphasising the need for preservation efforts beyond physical relocation (Deprez \u0026amp; Goossens, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2004\u003c/span\u003e). The resilience of Nubian cultural identity in the face of marginalisation has also been a key area of study, highlighting the broader societal implications of cultural preservation initiatives (Kirsty Rowan, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis extensive research emphasises the diverse effects of the Aswan High Dam on the Nubian community, stressing the necessity for ongoing initiatives in cultural preservation, economic assistance, and adaptation techniques for displaced individuals. However, some studies have discussed Nubians' environmental and cultural impact, and a limited amount of research has addressed Nubian displacement's social and economic impact. Many studies have focused on displaced Nubians rather than those not resettled in the new settlements. Although this group was not displaced, it also impacted the construction of the Aswan High Dam. This study aims to examine the impacts of these two communities on livelihood and social networks comparatively. The study's central research question is: What are the impacts of the Aswan High Dam on the livelihood and social networks of the newly displaced? And old (non-displaced) Nubian communities? This study seeks to clarify the socio-economic and cultural implications of large-scale infrastructure projects on impacted communities by examining these populations.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"2. Literature Reviews","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e2.1 Livelihood Impact of Dam-Induced Displacement and Resettlement\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eDam-induced displacement due to development projects profoundly impacts the livelihoods of affected communities, with outcomes varying significantly across different settings. In the Brazilian Amazon, a study by (Randell, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). The Belo Monte Dam showed that most displaced households experienced increased wealth and improved housing conditions, particularly among poorer groups, indicating that displacement can sometimes result in economic improvements depending on the context and implementation of resettlement programs. However, the Saguling Dam project, as studied by (Sunardi et al., 2013) Revealed that despite initial improvements in livelihoods, job losses and inequality in resettlement options caused dissatisfaction and socio-economic disparities, highlighting the complex nature of resettlement impacts.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFurther complicating the picture, Ty et al. (2023) reported that in Vietnam, dam-induced displacement severely impacted households by increasing food insecurity due to the loss of agricultural land and limited access to public property, compounded by unemployment, illiteracy, and low income. Similarly, another study by Ty (2023) in the vicinity of Hue City indicated that although displaced households recovered income faster due to local support and job market access, cultural and community cohesion weakened. This emphasises the need for effective resettlement strategies, especially for vulnerable groups such as women-headed households and those with disabilities.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAccording to (Owusu et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024a\u003c/span\u003e), the Bui Dam area in Ghana continues to see increased challenges. Nevertheless, their situations later improved via livelihood enhancement programs such as cage aquaculture, weaving, and pottery. Although livelihoods have improved, the challenges continue as people still have low crop yields, soil fertility issues, delays in land compensation, etc.; therefore, a more inclusive approach is required. (Singh \u0026amp; Muhuri, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR47\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e) Argue that livelihood or livelihood assets are vital for Urban Development-Induced Rural Displacement. It is based on the DFID sustainable livelihood framework. Furthermore, there is a need for a conceptual framework to improve and evaluate the livelihood of the displaced. It also makes them sustainable after resettlement.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(Fujikura et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e) Highlight that institutional arrangements are necessary for restoring the resettlers\u0026rsquo; livelihood in medium and long-term periods. Setting up a development agency in the resettlement area is important to deal with institutional problems. This study also assessed the emotional condition of resettled individuals and its bearing on their social ties, as a successful resettlement program hinges on social ties. This review discusses the impact of dam-induced displacement on people's livelihoods and how it improves that part. To support those communities affected by projects, we must ensure better livelihood sustainability for the resettled.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec4\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e2.2 Social Impact of Dam-Induced Displacement and Resettlement\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe social impacts of dam-induced displacement and resettlement have been widely studied, revealing complex outcomes across different regions and communities. In China, a comparative case study by Huang et al. (2018) shows that displacement improves living conditions to a certain degree. It also promotes the adoption of rural cooperative medical insurance. Nevertheless, it negatively impacts employment, income levels, sources, and well-being. Similarly, internal relocation, whether resulting from dams or development initiatives, such as those in Lahore(Ali Nadeem et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e), frequently undermines social networks and induces social fragmentation, erasing community cohesion and identity. Displacement due to forced migration results in social and cultural distress (Dibo, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). This phenomenon is elucidated when individuals are displaced from their homes and cultural contexts (ZHU \u0026amp; WANG, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR54\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). It emphasises that displaced individuals use language daily, participate in local communities, and engage in cultural activities to preserve their identity and social cohesion. (Amer, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e) asserts that Nubians experienced the loss of significant monuments and cultural material due to their forced relocation, indicating cultural disruption resulting from displacement by the dam. Memory is crucial in preserving Nubian culture among displaced youth (Saleh, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). Elucidates how evoking memories could promote cultural preservation. Displaced Nubians who relocated to the dynamic region suffer economic difficulties in the cultural tourism business. Furthermore, it raises concerns about the commodification of Nubian culture and its associated effects. An examination by Abdullah \u0026amp; Rahman (2021) of the Merowe Dam project reveals intricate social consequences, including the advantages of enhanced infrastructure; however, it also highlights emotional and historical disconnections among displaced communities affected by insufficient and reduced social cohesion issues. Lastly, Randell (2022) discusses the severe effects of dam-induced displacement on social networks, illustrating how forced relocations dismantle community ties and structures, leading to a loss of social capital and enduring socio-economic challenges, especially in poorer regions. Thus, it underlines the urgent need for resettlement strategies that address relocation and social network restoration.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"3. Theoretical Framework","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe concept of sustainable livelihoods was first articulated by Robert Chambers of the Institute of Development Studies (IDS) and later adopted in international development discourse. According to Chambers \u0026amp; Conway (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1992\u003c/span\u003e), a livelihood is defined as the capabilities, assets (which encompass both material and social resources), and activities essential for securing a means of living.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eRecent scholars have significantly expanded the SLF's applications and theoretical scope. Wang et al. (2024) enhanced the framework by incorporating disaster perception into livelihood capital analysis, employing advanced machine learning techniques to examine farmers' adaptation behaviors. Parallel developments by Delgado Jim\u0026eacute;nez et al. (2022) adapted the SLF to artisanal mining contexts, introducing innovative analytical methods to analyse dynamic capital interactions while accounting for socio-historical factors influencing informal economies.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eNotable theoretical integrations have further enriched the framework. Su et al. (2025) synthesized the novel by combining SLF with Coupled Infrastructure Systems theory, revealing how rural migrants prioritize human and social capital over economic factors. Contemporary research by Xiong and Sui (2025) demonstrated the transformative effects of digital economy participation on occupational mobility, identifying significant spillover effects in rural workforce development. Huang et al. (2025) contributed methodological advances through their quantitative SLF model, which systematically tracks tourism's differential impacts on livelihood sustainability in ethnic communities. The framework has proven particularly valuable in comparative livelihood analyses. Masud et al. (2016) and Qian et al. (2017) employed SLF to document the variable consequences of tourism development across different rural contexts. Donohue and Biggs (2015) operationalized the framework through their Multidimensional Livelihoods Index, providing policy-relevant insights into spatial variations in livelihood sustainability. Quandt's (2018) work on livelihood resilience metrics expanded the framework's analytical power by quantifying non-monetary capital contributions.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis study applies SLF to examine the impacts of the Aswan High Dam on Nubian communities. It highlights how displacement has eroded natural, social, and financial capital among affected groups, while non-displaced communities retained stronger capital foundations. This study extends the SLF by introducing an adaptation dimension to better capture livelihood adjustments in response to displacement. It emphasises that \u003cb\u003eadaptive capacity\u003c/b\u003e is essential for sustaining livelihoods under environmental and socio-political change.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"4. Methodology","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe Nubians, who traditionally resided between Aswan, Egypt, and Dongola, Sudan, established a distinctive culture around 5,000 years ago (Fahim, 2013). Their culture comprised 42 villages along the Nile, categorized by ethnicity into three tribes: the Kunoz in the north, the Arabs of Alakiyat in the central region, and the Fadija in the south (Shetawy \u0026amp; El-Shafie, 2013). The construction of the Aswan High Dam in the 1960s led to the inundation of ancestral lands, causing significant displacement of Nubian communities (Abd-El Monsef et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAs Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e shows, the study area includes Heissa Island and Nasr El Nuba in Aswan Governorate, Egypt. Heissa Island is located east of Aswan, between the Aswan Low Dam and the Aswan High Dam, and is one of the few remaining Nubian islands that have not been fully evacuated. On the other hand, Nasr El Nuba represents the area to which the Nubians were relocated following the construction of the Aswan High Dam in the 1960s.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis study aims to determine the impact of the Aswan High Dam construction on the livelihood and social network of the Displaced and Non-Displaced Nubian community between Heissa and Nasr El Nuba, Aswan City, Egypt. The data was collected using multiple-stage sampling techniques to select the community and respondents.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cul\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003eSelection of the study area: The central regions of El Nuba and Hiessa Island were designated as the primary sites for the study. The central area of Nasr El Nuba represents the location to which the Nubians were relocated due to the construction of the High Dam. At the same time, Heissa Island remains undisturbed, rendering it exemplary for investigating the impacts of displacement on the Nubian community across various life dimensions.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003eRespondent Selection: 30 respondents from the two regions in Aswan were selected. The study employed purposive sampling to select individuals who directly witnessed the displacement process and those who were not displaced. Additionally, a snowball sampling technique was utilized to recruit further respondents through referrals from initial subjects, ensuring a comprehensive representation of diverse perspectives within the Nubian community. The sample encompassed individuals of varying ages to capture the experiences of different generations adequately.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003eData collection involved gathering data through in-depth interviews with the respondents from the Nubian population on the islands of Heissa and Nasr El Nuba to ascertain the changes following displacement. The inquiries concentrated on contrasting the experiences of Nubians displaced by the High Dam's construction. They relocated to Nasr El Nuba with those who remained on Heissa Island, examining two primary domains: livelihoods and social networks. \u003cb\u003e(\u003c/b\u003eTable\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e\u003cb\u003e)\u003c/b\u003e presents the demographic information of the study participants, including gender, age, education level, and the area they belong to (Nasr El Nuba or Heissa). Thirty participants were selected from the two regions, with a balanced representation of males and females aged 22 to 80. The sample included individuals with diverse educational backgrounds, from primary education to PhD degrees, ensuring a broad representation of experiences across generations. Purposive sampling was used to select participants who directly experienced the displacement process, while snowball sampling was employed to ensure a comprehensive representation of diverse perspectives within the Nubian community.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ul\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDemographic information of respondents\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"5\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eIndex\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eGender\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAge\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEducation\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eArea\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMale\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e75\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePhD Degree\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEl Nuba\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMale\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e55\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBachelor's Degree\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEl Nuba\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFemale\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e45\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMaster's Degree\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEl Nuba\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMale\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e40\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBachelor's Degree\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEl Nuba\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFemale\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e32\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBachelor's Degree\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEl Nuba\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMale\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e55\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePhD Degree\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEl Nuba\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFemale\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e25\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBachelor's Degree\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEl Nuba\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFemale\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e50\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSecondary School\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEl Nuba\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e9\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMale\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e43\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBachelor's Degree\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEl Nuba\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFemale\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e32\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBachelor's Degree\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEl Nuba\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e11\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMale\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e44\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBachelor's Degree\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEl Nuba\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFemale\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e26\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBachelor's Degree\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEl Nuba\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e13\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMale\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e35\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMaster's Degree\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEl Nuba\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e14\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFemale\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e38\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBachelor's Degree\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEl Nuba\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e15\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMale\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e50\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBachelor's Degree\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEl Nuba\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e16\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFemale\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e22\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBachelor's Degree\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eHeissa\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e17\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFemale\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e80\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePrimary School\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eHeissa\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e18\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMale\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e66\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBachelor's Degree\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eHeissa\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e19\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFemale\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e31\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBachelor's Degree\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eHeissa\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e20\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMale\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e64\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBachelor's Degree\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eHeissa\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e21\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFemale\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e68\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePrimary School\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eHeissa\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e22\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMale\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e65\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBachelor's Degree\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eHeissa\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e23\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFemale\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e47\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBachelor's Degree\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eHeissa\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e24\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMale\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e30\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBachelor's Degree\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eHeissa\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e25\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFemale\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e60\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePrimary School\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eHeissa\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e26\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFemale\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e33\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBachelor's Degree\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eHeissa\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e27\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMale\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e54\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBachelor's Degree\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eHeissa\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e28\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFemale\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e25\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBachelor's Degree\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eHeissa\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e29\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMale\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e38\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMaster's Degree\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eHeissa\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e30\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMale\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e38\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBachelor's Degree\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eHeissa\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003ctfoot\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"5\"\u003eSources: fieldwork in 2024\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tfoot\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAfter fieldwork, interviews were transcribed and analyzed thematically using NVivo software. Data was coded and categorized systematically (see Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e) to analyze the changes in livelihood and social networks between displaced and non-displaced Nubian groups. Following the six-step process outlined by (Braun \u0026amp; Clarke, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e)We then examined the varied effects of displacement across multiple dimensions, livelihoods, and social networks, facilitating an understanding of the distinctions and transformations between displaced and non-displaced Nubian groups.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCoding and Themes for Data Analysis\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"5\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eInitial codes\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eRefine codes\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003econcepts\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCategories\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eThemes\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLivelihood impact\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLivelihood changes\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLivelihood and economic shifts\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEconomic impact and livelihood\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEconomic adaptation and livelihood transformation\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAgricultural loss\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAdaptation to new economic activities\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSocial network and cohesion\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCultural identity and continuity\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSocial cohesion and community support\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTourism adaptation\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eIncome diversification\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCultural identity and change\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSocial dynamics and cohesion\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eUrbanization and social isolation\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eGovernment jobs\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCultural identity preservation\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSocial impact\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCultural identity and continuity\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCultural Preservation Amidst Change\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eOverseas migration\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCommunity resilience\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSocial isolation\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEconomic impact and livelihood\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"5. Results","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe research focused on two primary points: social networks and livelihoods, which are essential for comprehending forced migration's impact on Nubian society.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e5.1 Livelihood Impact\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe impact of displacement on the livelihoods of the Nubian community is analyzed through the Sustainable Livelihoods Framework (SLF), which categorizes livelihoods across five key capital assets: natural, financial, human, social, and physical. This study also introduces an adaptation dimension, reflecting the capacity of individuals and communities to modify their strategies in response to forced displacement. Prior to displacement, Nubians primarily depended on natural capital\u0026mdash;agriculture and fishing along the fertile banks of the Nile. However, relocation to arid regions disrupted access to these resources, undermining long-standing livelihood systems.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eOn Heissa Island, for example, agriculture once formed the backbone of household economies. Post-displacement, residents faced declining land productivity and were compelled to seek alternative sources of income, predominantly in tourism. A 60-year-old male from Heissa stated:\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\"We lived on agriculture and fishing, but the circumstances changed after the displacement. We had to search for work in the cities or in tourism.\"\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eSimilarly, in Nasr El Nuba, the degradation of soil quality and lack of arable land reduced the viability of traditional agriculture. Many community members transitioned to government employment or overseas labor, reflecting a structural shift in livelihood patterns and reconfiguring financial and human capital. A participant noted: \u003cem\u003e\"Agriculture was our source of income, but the land here is not like the land we had in the old Nubia, so we had to find alternatives.\" (Male, 70, Nasr El Nuba)\u003c/em\u003e These shifts signify a disruption in natural capital and the need for adaptive strategies to ensure survival in unfamiliar socioeconomic and ecological contexts\u0026mdash;an insight aligned with recent theoretical expansions of the SLF (Quandt, 2018; Su et al., 2025).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec9\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e5.1.1Adaptation to New Economic Activities\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe communities in Heissa Island and El Nuba demonstrated strong adaptive capacity, a dimension that this study contributes to the SLF. Residents developed innovative ways to respond to livelihood disruptions, mainly through engagement in tourism and formal employment. On Heissa Island, residents transformed their homes into tourist attractions and worked on riverboats transporting visitors to Philae Temple. This indicates a shift in financial capital and a strategic use of cultural and social capital. \u003cem\u003eA 35-year-old female participant from Heissa remarked: \"We managed to adapt to the new environment through working in tourism, which helped us maintain a decent standard of living.\"\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn Nasr El Nuba, many Nubians entered government service or sought employment abroad, enhancing the household\u0026rsquo;s financial resilience. These efforts highlight the community\u0026rsquo;s ability to generate new livelihood strategies when traditional assets were lost\u0026mdash;a critical extension to the conventional SLF, where adaptation is not explicitly treated as a standalone analytical category.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThrough these processes, the Nubian communities compensated for lost capital and redefined their livelihoods based on emergent opportunities. This reinforces the importance of recognizing adaptation as a core component of sustainable livelihoods, especially in displacement contexts.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec10\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e5.1.2 Diversification of Income Sources\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe transition to new employment opportunities in Heissa Island and El Nuba led to a significant diversification of financial capital, a key aspect of the SLF. In Heissa, the development of tourism broadened economic possibilities by creating jobs related to hospitality, boat transport, and cultural experiences. This diversification enhanced household income security and community economic resilience. A participant from El Nuba explained: \u003cem\u003e\"The change in livelihoods allowed some to travel abroad for better opportunities, while others took on new jobs that were not available to us before the displacement.\" (Male, 45, El Nuba)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis diversification reflects a proactive adaptation strategy, aligning with the extended SLF model proposed in recent literature. This model highlights the capacity of displaced populations to creatively mobilize their remaining assets to build alternative income streams (Delgado Jim\u0026eacute;nez et al., 2022). Such diversification mitigated the economic vulnerability of losing natural and physical capital (e.g., arable land, agricultural tools), supporting a shift toward more dynamic and responsive livelihood systems.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e5.1.3 Preservation of Cultural Identity through New Livelihoods\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eTourism on Heissa Island not only replaced lost financial and natural capital but also became a mechanism for reinforcing social and cultural capital. Residents transformed cultural preservation into a livelihood strategy by showcasing traditional Nubian homes, language, and customs to visitors. A 30-year-old female participant emphasized: \u003cem\u003e\"Tourism has contributed to preserving our Nubian culture. We welcome people into our homes to showcase our way of life and preserve our traditions.\"\u003c/em\u003e This illustrates how cultural identity can be strategically integrated into income generation, reinforcing livelihood sustainability through community-led heritage preservation. It demonstrates the interlinkage between SLF capitals, where cultural pride and collective memory become economic assets. This synergy represents a contextual innovation in applying SLF, where local culture is mobilized as social capital and an adaptive resource.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e5.1.4 Community Strength and Solidarity\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe Nubian community\u0026rsquo;s social capital, embedded in solidarity, kinship networks, and collective support, emerged as a pivotal asset in adapting to the economic disruptions of displacement. On Heissa Island, for example, tourism-based livelihoods were not developed in isolation but supported by strong internal cooperation: \"\u003cem\u003eEven though we had to change our livelihoods, we still help each other as a community. Everyone is involved in tourism, and we share information on how to improve our businesses.\" (Male, 35, Heissa)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis form of collective adaptation aligns with Donohue and Biggs\u0026rsquo;s (2015) emphasis on spatial and communal dimensions of SLF capital interactions. Rather than viewing social capital as static, the Nubian case demonstrates its dynamic role in facilitating economic transitions and reinforcing community resilience. The strength of social networks thus compensates, at least partially, for the erosion of natural and physical capital. This supports the argument for expanding SLF analysis to include relational adaptation mechanisms that enable communities to reorganize their livelihoods collectively in response to external shocks.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec13\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e5.1.5 Loss of Traditional Livelihoods\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eOne of the most critical consequences of displacement was the loss of natural capital, an incredibly fertile agricultural land that previously formed the foundation of Nubian livelihoods. This loss undermined the community\u0026rsquo;s ability to sustain its traditional economic activities. It led to deep identity disruptions, as a participant from El Nuba stated: A respondent at El Nuba stated, \u003cem\u003e\"We have lost our arable lands and, consequently, our way of life.\" That constituted a significant loss for us, fundamentally altering everything (Male, 50 years old, Nasr El Nuba).\u003c/em\u003e Detachment from the land signifies more than economic dislocation; it represents a loss of livelihood, meaning, and cultural continuity, confirming the interdependence between natural and social capital in the SLF. This dimension underscores the limits of compensation mechanisms when livelihoods are deeply tied to place, memory, and identity.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec14\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e5.1.6 Reliance on External Resources and Economic Vulnerability\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe loss of local resources forced Nubians in both Heissa and El Nuba to increasingly depend on external financial flows, such as remittances and government employment. This transformation reflects a restructuring of financial capital, but also reveals rising vulnerability, as livelihoods became tied to unstable or external systems. A participant at El Nuba remarked: \u003cem\u003e\"We no longer possess the same autonomy over our lives as we did during our farming days.\" Currently, we depend on the government or employment overseas, both of which are precarious. (Female, 40 years old, El Nuba).\u003c/em\u003e This dependency highlights a crucial risk in post-displacement livelihood transitions: the erosion of local sustainability. While external income may provide short-term stability, it reduces community agency. It increases susceptibility to macroeconomic shocks\u0026mdash;an important insight that supports integrating resilience and adaptation perspectives into the SLF.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eA word cloud Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e was generated using NVivo software to enrich the qualitative analysis of livelihood transformations among the Nubian community. The visual highlights the most frequent terms mentioned by participants regarding economic adaptation post-displacement. Keywords such as \u003cem\u003eagriculture\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003etourism\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eincome\u003c/em\u003e, and \u003cem\u003eadaptation\u003c/em\u003e reflect the central themes in the discourse on livelihood changes.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec15\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e5.2 Impact of Social Networks\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe social network constitutes a fundamental pillar underpinning societal cohesiveness and stability. It encompasses familial connections, neighbourly contacts, and social and economic interactions that facilitate emotional and material assistance among people during adversity. Qualitative analysis of the interviews revealed that the forced displacement of Nubians in the 1970s significantly affected the organization of these networks on both Heissa Island and Nasr El Nuba.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec16\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e5.2.1 Social Cohesion\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eBefore displacement, Nubian communities, particularly in Heissa, enjoyed dense and cohesive social capital, rooted in extended family systems and collective life. These social structures facilitated informal safety nets and emotional resilience. A participant at Heissa remarked: \u003cem\u003e\u0026ldquo;We maintained robust social connections, with all the villagers being acquainted with and collectively participating in joyous and sorrowful events. )Male, 35 years old, Heissa(.\u003c/em\u003e This network strength aligns with SLF literature that identifies social capital as a livelihood enabler and a coping mechanism, particularly under stress conditions (Chambers \u0026amp; Conway, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1992\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec17\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e5.2.2 The Family\u0026rsquo;s Role in Cultural Preservation\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eSocial networks played a key role in maintaining cultural capital, especially the transmission of language and customs. The home, as a central social institution, facilitated intergenerational knowledge transfer. A respondent emphasized that: \u003cem\u003e\"the family plays a crucial role in learning and speaking the language, as the social network on the island of Hisa facilitates the intergenerational transmission of the Nubian language\" (female, 25, Heissa).\u003c/em\u003e In SLF terms, this reflects the role of social and human capital in sustaining intangible livelihood assets, which are often overlooked but central to long-term community resilience.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec18\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e5.2.3 Mutual Assistance and Adaptive Support\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eWhile initial efforts in El Nuba sought to rebuild social networks post-displacement (e.g., replicating village names and sequences), urban life gradually eroded these structures. Still, early adaptations involved communal proximity and shared identity. A respondent from El Nuba remarked: \"Upon our arrival at Nasr El Nuba, \u003cem\u003ewe endeavored to preserve our social cohesion by residing in proximity; however, as time progressed, we began to distance ourselves due to the challenges of urban living.\" (Male, 40 years of age, Nasr El Nuba\u003c/em\u003e This shows how environmental and spatial changes reshape the quality of social capital, a finding that supports integrating place-based variables into SLF analysis.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec19\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e5.2.4 Adapting to New Urban Environments\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eDespite the breakdown of traditional networks, younger generations in El Nuba demonstrated adaptive capacity by more effectively navigating urban systems and institutions. According to a respondent, \u003cem\u003e\"We have learned to navigate and adjust to the new environment in El Nuba, particularly with the presence of new generations born, raised, and educated here; these new generations of Nubians are highly proficient in this environment.\" (Female, 55 years of age, Nasr El Nuba)\u003c/em\u003e This suggests a transformation in human capital, where urban education and labor market integration offer new forms of livelihood agency, even as they challenge traditional values.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec20\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e5.2.5 Experiencing Isolation\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn contrast, Heissa\u0026rsquo;s geographical separation fostered internal social cohesion but increased external isolation, limiting access to broader economic and institutional support systems.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eA respondent from Heissa Island remarked: \u003cem\u003e\"The displacement has rendered us isolated. We formerly resided in a close-knit community but grew unfamiliar with one another in the new location\u0026rdquo;. (Female, 25 years of age, Heissa).\u003c/em\u003e Consequently, forced displacement resulted in the fragmentation and dissolution of traditional social relations among communities, adversely impacting their sense of belonging and cohesion with other communities, particularly given the considerable distance from Aswan and further to Nasr El Nuba, where the remaining Nubian villages are located. This duality reflects the tension between bonding and bridging social capital, a key concern in SLF when assessing the quality and reach of networks post-shock.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec21\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e5.2.6 Urban Pressures and Fragmentation\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn El Nuba, urbanization disrupted traditional social structures and intensified individualization, weakening collective solidarity. Another respondent extended alterations in social interactions: \u003cem\u003e\"Initially, there were minor gatherings; however, as time progressed, individuality became engrossed in their own lives, leading to the erosion of social bonds, though we still convene at public events.\u0026rdquo; (Female, 45 years of age, Nasr El Nuba).\u003c/em\u003e This statement indicates that environmental and urban influences have accelerated the dissolution of the conventional social network more rapidly than anticipated. This erosion of social capital over time highlights how urban pressures and lifestyle changes can gradually dissolve support systems critical for sustainable livelihoods. This reinforces the call for temporal and spatial sensitivity in SLF-based research, particularly in displacement scenarios.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eA second word cloud in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e was created using NVivo to visually represent the shifting nature of social relationships within the displaced Nubian communities. This visualization captures frequently mentioned terms related to community cohesion, support systems, and cultural preservation. Prominent terms like \u003cem\u003efamily\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003esupport\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003elanguage\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eurban\u003c/em\u003e, and \u003cem\u003eisolation\u003c/em\u003e indicate the key elements influencing social dynamics post-displacement.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"6. Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe findings of this study definitively demonstrate the consequences of forced displacement of livelihoods within Nubian society, effects similar to those established in several studies about the consequences of displacement on communities dependent on agriculture and fishing. Findings indicate that agriculture and fishing constituted the primary revenue sources before relocation; however, shifting environmental conditions after the move to arid and unproductive regions have resulted in the decline of traditional livelihoods. This finding resonates with (George \u0026amp; Adelaja, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e) Who highlighted that farming communities subjected to forcible relocation encounter considerable economic difficulties when relocating to regions lacking the same natural resources. These findings align with the SLF, which shows how displacement reduces natural capital and forces shifts in financial and human assets like employment and skills.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAfter the resettlement in the new environment, the Nubian community has diversified its traditional livelihood in various ways and adapted to new economic activities. Findings indicate that while tourism has emerged as the primary source of revenue on Heissa Island, some residents of El Nuba have sought employment under the government and migrated abroad to seek jobs. While resettled communities engaged in traditional economic activities, they found some economic alternatives for their sustenance. These findings were echoed by Abera et al. (2021), who established that in Chewaka, agriculture remains the primary income source (72.5%), with non-farm activities contributing 20% and off-farm activities 7.5%. Also, the findings resonate with (Dao, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e), who indicates that dam-induced displacement leads to livelihood diversification and improved living standards. However, conflicts between resettled and host communities highlight that while diversification helps livelihoods, it can also cause social tensions.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eBefore the displacement, Nubian communities on the islands of Heissa and El Nuba were predominantly engaged in agriculture and activities associated with riverine natural resources, such as fishing. However, as indicated by the study participants, the transition to non-agricultural areas has diminished individuals' capacity to uphold their traditional way of life. This finding was echoed by (VanCleef, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR49\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e) Who established that Hydropower and irrigation initiatives, including the Sagoling and Sirata dams in Java, have displaced thousands from their ancestral lands, depriving them of their livelihoods, and may result in environmental devastation if inadequately designed. On the island of Heissa, inhabitants have become reliant on tourism as their primary source of income, with many beginning to accommodate visitors or participate in tourist transportation. These findings resonate with (Owusu et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024b\u003c/span\u003e) Who established that, generally, the new livelihood support programs in resettled communities have positively impacted the socioeconomic livelihood activities of resettled people.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis study's most significant finding is the beneficial effect of livelihood transformation on maintaining cultural identity. Tourism on Heissa Island has demonstrated its capacity to maintain the cultural identity of the Nubian population by facilitating the exhibition of traditional lifestyles and Nubian residences to visitors from other regions globally. This form of adaptation safeguards local culture. These findings resonate with those who established that Egyptian tourism has benefited from cultural heritage preservation by attracting visitors, boosting the local economy, and offering unique experiences. It improves infrastructure and promotes sustainable tourism through repeat business and word-of-mouth. Further, the findings concur with (Ruhanen \u0026amp; Whitford, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e), emphasizing the role of tourism in conservation by improving living conditions, creating economic possibilities, and creating a supportive environment. Tourism can preserve intangible cultural treasures if government support and sustainable tourist policies are in place. They further highlight community awareness, governmental engagement, digital technologies, and quality of life as key factors in preserving the Ratugala Indigenous community's intangible cultural legacy in Sri Lanka. However, Sarkar et al. (2024) opposed this, showing that Assam's growing tourism sector threatens environmental resources and cultural heritage, including waste management, resource depletion, and community impacts. He recommended sustainable tourism growth to preserve cultural and ecological advantages for future generations. In this process, effective governance and fair planning are crucial. Tourism in Heissa illustrates how social and cultural capital can become new livelihood sources, reflecting resilience within the SLF framework.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe research results indicated that solidarity within the Nubian group was crucial in adapting to the new environment. On Heissa Island and El Nuba, community members exhibited robust cooperation to navigate the economic issues stemming from displacement. These findings were echoed by Romanelli (2023), who established that fostering collaboration increases productivity and financial integration, enhancing rural communities' social and economic welfare. It additionally aids in risk diversification and enhances value, thus promoting sustainable development. The report advocates for establishing a robust regulatory framework to improve the efficacy of cooperatives in fostering economic growth.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eWhile positive shifts have been noted in Heissa Island and El Nuba communities, adverse effects linked to evolving livelihoods exist. The research indicated that the decline of agriculture and separation from farmland pose significant challenges for the Nubian population. These findings go hand in hand with(Osman \u0026amp; Abebe, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e)They established that violence, drought, food scarcity, resource competitiveness, and arable land disputes cause displacement. They also indicated that displacement has increased the urban population and caused social and economic problems. Finally, there is a need to restore agricultural systems, resolve land issues, and provide displaced populations with crucial resources. Community solidarity reflects substantial social capital, helping displaced groups adapt economically, an essential feature in SLF analysis.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eDependence on external sources for economic activities has threatened their financial security, paving the way for economic vulnerability. This pertains to the threats to cultural identity and the local economy due to the decline of traditional practices. Although it has had a negative impact, households relocated due to the construction of a hydropower facility in China, switching from agricultural to non-agricultural livelihood strategies, decreasing natural assets, and increasing physical assets. Variations in assets and their impact on livelihood decisions correlated with demographic factors, proposing ethnic unification and vocational training to improve economic conditions. (He et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e) However, as noted by (K \u0026amp; Joseph, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e) It affects livelihoods, causing loss of homes and economic opportunities. Displaced individuals often experience increased economic inequality and frustration, with aspirations for sustainable growth unmet. Adivasi or tribal people, who make up 40\u0026ndash;50% of the displaced population despite being only 8% of the total, are significantly impacted. Dependence on external income shows fragile financial capital and highlights the SLF's emphasis on the risks of losing localized economic bases.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe findings indicated that social networks are essential for cohesion and community stability. Before the 1970s displacement on Heissa Island, social networks were strong, primarily due to the influence of extended family ties in daily life. The Nubian community depended on collaboration and engagement at celebratory and sorrowful events; these social ties were vital to daily existence, providing emotional and material assistance to community members. Nonetheless, forced displacement substantially disturbed these social networks. This alteration in social relationships highlights the effect of displacement on ties to society, resulting in fragmentation and separation among members within the Nubian community. (Becker, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e) These findings resonate with (Xiao et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e), who established that resettled people become marginalized due to the disruption of established social networks, cultural and religious events, and when their host communities discriminate against them. Displacement weakens social capital, threatening survival and long-term cultural cohesion under SLF.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eDisplacement frequently results in the fragmentation of social networks, as individuals might become separated during migration. The disintegration of social networks after displacement can lead to enduring impacts on trust and collaboration among inhabitants. (D\u0026iacute;az De Le\u0026oacute;n, 2022)\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(Rusomyo et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e) Despite the hurdles, some displaced individuals rebuild social networks through kinship ties and community support, enhancing adaptation and resilience. These findings resonate with those who established that marginalized communities need good social networks to sustain their lives and livelihoods.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eHistorical events like the Indian Partition illustrate that forced displacement can lead to a long-term decline in social capital, as communities that received displaced individuals experienced lower social cohesion. (Bhattacharya \u0026amp; Mukhopadhyay, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e) After their displacement, the Nubians relocated to El Nuba, where they had considerable difficulties reconstructing their social networks within the urban environment. Initially, the Nubians attempted to sustain coherence by residing near one another, preserving a semi-traditional social network. Nonetheless, the urban environment increasingly challenged these relationships due to the social and economic transformations induced by city living. These findings were echoed by (Jayakody et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e)Indicate that forced displacement weakens social networks and community ties. These alterations influence social networks, as displaced individuals encounter challenges integrating and establishing trust with host groups, impacting social cohesion.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe younger generation of Nubians, raised in Nasr El Nuba's urban environment, has adapted more quickly to urban life. The research indicated that younger generations exhibited more resilience to urban life's social and economic pressures than older generations. These findings resonate with (Hodges \u0026amp; Abdi, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e)Who highlighted that customized support programs can facilitate positive development for displaced young people, supporting their resettlement into their new environments. Further findings were from (Gallay et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e)Who showed how place-based stewardship education helps urban youth, particularly those from minority backgrounds, understand and value their relationship with the environment. This educational approach encourages them to take responsibility for their local environmental community, which aligns with enhancing their ability to navigate and thrive in urban settings.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe findings also show that social isolation had a prominent impact on the Heissa community post-resettlement, which affected the quality of life in a cohesive community.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFrom the findings, Heissa Island had geographic isolation, as it was located on the Nile River and could only be accessed by boats. This isolation fostered internal cohesion among community members and separated them from Aswan's broader community. These findings were echoed by (Masoom, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e), who established that Social isolation, defined as a lack of social relationships or separation from social institutions, can profoundly weaken the social fabric by destroying community bonds and support networks, ultimately impacting societal cohesion and individual welfare. The findings resonated with(Kim \u0026amp; Kim, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e), who indicated that social infrastructure can mitigate isolation. Geographic isolation is not directly addressed, but the study highlights the importance of urban planning to enhance social connections and reduce isolation.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe urban pressures in El Nuba were social challenges that affected the preservation of Nubian cultural identity. One participant mentioned, \"Initially, there were simple gatherings, but over time, individuals became busy with their own lives, which led to the erosion of social ties, even though we still meet during public events.\" These findings were echoed by (Ziemeļniece et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR55\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e) It has been established that Urban pressures, city density, and the cost of living drive more people to rural areas. This is especially true in the Lielupe River area, where infrastructure and vehicle technology make attractive spots accessible. As population density rises in rural areas, existing homesteads are renovated, and new dwelling clusters are built, transforming the cultural environment; this was echoed by (Feng, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e), who noted that urban expansion threatens cultural identity preservation. It emphasises the importance of sustainable urban planning and community participation to reduce detrimental impacts and support the conservation of cultural heritage. Preserving language and traditions reflects adaptive social and human capital use, aligning with SLF\u0026rsquo;s focus on resilience beyond material assets.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eDespite the challenges, preserving Nubian culture remains a fundamental part of life in Nasr El Nuba, with social networks playing a key role in maintaining certain cultural aspects. The results suggest that maintaining Nubian culture, including the language, is essential for the Nubian community in Nasr El Nuba. The findings resonate with (Gavrylyuk, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e), who established that Social networks serve as a mechanism for preserving and transmitting cultural values and norms, facilitating intercultural communication, and influencing how individuals interact and perceive relationships, thereby playing a key role in maintaining specific cultural aspects within society. The same findings were echoed by (Guo, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e), who indicated that social networks, particularly among immigrants, serve as cultural and social conduits that bridge cultural gaps. They facilitate the sharing of cultural values and practices, thereby maintaining cultural aspects while promoting international trade and enhancing cross-border business relationships. Finally, the findings concur with(Rodrigues, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e), who confirmed that social networks facilitate the preservation of cultural aspects by enabling individuals to share traditions, values, and practices within their communities. They create spaces for cultural expression and interaction, reinforcing identity and continuity among members, thus aiding cultural maintenance.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"7. Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe study concluded that it is of the essence to enhance livelihood and social networks among the Nubian community post-displacement of core issues in the new areas where they settled after the construction of the Aswan High Dam. The study focused on the impact of forced displacement on the Nubian community in Heissa Island and Nasr El-Nuba. Findings showed that forced displacement had profound impacts on livelihoods and changes in sources of income as agriculture was replaced by others such as tourism and traveling to work abroad; on Heissa Island, tourism has become the primary source of livelihood while on Nasr Alnuba shifted income toward governments jobs or traveling work abroad moreover these changes in livelihood profound resilience of the Nubian community in adapting to new conditions. Additionally, forced displacement has contributed to the significant change in the social network of the Nubian community on Hessia Island. The Nubian people there kept social ties strong and contributed to adapting to economic changes. At the same time, Nasr El Nuba was affected by social isolation due to the urban environment. Despite those challenges, the Nubian society has demonstrated an exceptional ability to adapt to cultural and social transformations. Nonetheless, difficulties remain over the loss of cultural identity and apprehensions about the impact of metropolitan elements on social interactions among community people. Community support is essential to promoting adaptability to newly settled areas and ensuring sustained economic prospects. Additional research is advised to comprehend the long-term effects of displacement on the Nubian population and formulate solutions for improving their socioeconomic stability. Furthermore, this study contributes to developing the Sustainable Livelihoods Framework (SLF) by proposing adaptive capacity as a critical sixth dimension. While traditional SLF focuses on five capital assets, the findings demonstrate that the Nubian community\u0026rsquo;s ability to respond to displacement through livelihood innovation, social cohesion, and cultural resilience reflects a vital form of adaptation that must be integrated into future applications of the framework.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAcknowledge:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eI sincerely thank Academic institutions for their essential support, guidance, and contributions, which enabled this research.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAuthor Contributions:\u003c/strong\u003e \u0026ldquo;Conceptualization, S.A.; methodology, S.A.; software, S.A.; validation, S.A.; formal analysis, S.A.; investigation, S.A.; resources, S.G.; data curation, S.A.; writing\u0026mdash;original draft preparation, S.A.; writing\u0026mdash;review and editing, S.G., X.H, E.A.; visualization, S.A.; supervision, S.G.; project administration, S.A.; funding acquisition, E.A. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eData Availability Statement\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eData will be provided upon request from the first author\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConflict of interest\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors declare that there are no competing interests.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEthical approval\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAll procedures performed in studies involving human participants were in accordance with the ethical standards of the institutional research committee and with the 1964 Helsinki Declaration and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards. The study was approved on May 22, 2024 by the Ethics Committee of the institution, Approval number:\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cspan dir=\"RTL\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/strong\u003eCUNI-13/0069.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eInformed consent\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWritten informed consent was obtained from all participants prior to data collection. Participants were provided with detailed information about the study\u0026apos;s objectives, procedures, their right to withdraw at any time without penalty, and assurances of anonymity and confidentiality. No personally identifiable information was collected. For participants with limited literacy, verbal explanations were provided in their native language to ensure full comprehension.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eDeclaration of Generative AI and AI-assisted technologies in the writing process\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDuring the preparation of this work, the author(s) used Chat GPT to improve their English language skills. After using this tool/service, the author (s) reviewed and edited the content as needed and assumed full responsibility for the publication\u0026apos;s content.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAbd-El Monsef H, Smith SE, Darwish K (2015) Impacts of the Aswan High Dam After 50 Years. 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JSTOR\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eZiemeļniece A, Īle U, Janpavle I (2022) Urban Pressures and The Process of Cultural Landscape Change. The Example of The Lielupe River Valley. Archit Urban Plann 18(1):148\u0026ndash;155. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.2478/aup-2022-0015\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.2478/aup-2022-0015\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"humanities-and-social-sciences-communications","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"palcomms","sideBox":"Learn more about [Humanities \u0026 Social Sciences Communications](http://www.nature.com/palcomms/)","snPcode":"41599","submissionUrl":"https://submission.springernature.com/new-submission/41599/3","title":"Humanities and Social Sciences Communications","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"stoa","reportingPortfolio":"Nature AJ","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":false},"keywords":"Sustainable livelihoods framework, Social Networks, Adaptation, Aswan High Dam, Nubian Displacement","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6587514/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-6587514/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eEstablishing the Aswan High Dam in Egypt during the 1960s signifies one of the most impactful instances of development-induced displacement in contemporary history, significantly altering Nubian populations' lives and economic activities. This research rigorously investigates the enduring social and economic repercussions of this displacement by juxtaposing the experiences of two distinct groups: households displaced in Nasr El Nuba and residents of Heissa Island who remained in situ. Employing the Sustainable Livelihoods Framework (SLF), the study incorporates an innovative sixth dimension, adaptive capacity, to evaluate the ways in which the affected communities modified their livelihoods and social affiliations in response to the upheaval. Through comprehensive interviews with 30 participants and thematic analysis, the investigation reveals that, although displaced Nubians faced considerable degradation of their natural capital, including agricultural land and fishing rights, they exhibited extraordinary adaptability by transitioning to alternative livelihoods, such as tourism, government employment, and overseas labour. In contrast, residents of Heissa Island capitalized on social cohesion and cultural tourism to maintain their economic stability and preserve their identity. The results emphasize the critical importance of community networks and cultural heritage in bolstering resilience during periods of displacement. The study further elucidates the deterioration of social connections in urbanized resettlement environments and the increasing vulnerability associated with reliance on external income streams. By contrasting the experiences of displaced and non-displaced Nubians, this research contributes to global discourses regarding development, cultural identity, and recovery following displacement. It advocates for implementing more inclusive resettlement initiatives that enhance community adaptability, safeguard cultural continuity, and promote sustainable livelihoods. The paper recommends the extension of the SLF to integrate adaptive resilience as a fundamental analytical construct within displacement research.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"livelihood transformation and social networks in Nubian displacement: lessons from the Aswan High Dam","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-08-05 12:23:34","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6587514/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"decision","content":"Revision requested","date":"2025-12-26T11:26:52+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2025-11-06T16:51:59+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2025-10-31T18:53:37+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"301107299756029612348264008786939617316","date":"2025-10-31T08:26:54+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"115992939480229760751844501451535899517","date":"2025-10-01T06:00:50+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"10143052288737845685130726975069538839","date":"2025-09-30T17:10:37+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2025-09-29T14:39:26+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"83984822659931334791969221529277087377","date":"2025-08-22T12:12:05+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"115992939480229760751844501451535899517","date":"2025-07-30T10:52:32+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2025-07-30T10:25:32+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvited","content":"","date":"2025-07-27T10:03:57+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2025-06-06T18:04:15+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"checksComplete","content":"","date":"2025-05-27T11:55:32+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"Humanities and Social Sciences Communications","date":"2025-05-04T08:45:44+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"humanities-and-social-sciences-communications","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"palcomms","sideBox":"Learn more about [Humanities \u0026 Social Sciences Communications](http://www.nature.com/palcomms/)","snPcode":"41599","submissionUrl":"https://submission.springernature.com/new-submission/41599/3","title":"Humanities and Social Sciences Communications","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"stoa","reportingPortfolio":"Nature AJ","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":false}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"afe04299-03a4-491f-98f7-425f70111a26","owner":[],"postedDate":"August 5th, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"under-review","subjectAreas":[{"id":52612220,"name":"Social science/Development studies"},{"id":52612221,"name":"Social science/Sociology"}],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-04-22T11:38:30+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2025-08-05 12:23:34","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-6587514","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-6587514","identity":"rs-6587514","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}