Glacier Surge as a Trigger for the Fastest Delta Growth in the Arctic

Glacier Surge as a Trigger for the Fastest Delta Growth in the Arctic | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Article Glacier Surge as a Trigger for the Fastest Delta Growth in the Arctic Jan Kavan, Mateusz Strzelecki, Douglas Benn, Adrian Luckman, Roman Matěj, and 1 more This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-4162461/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Published Journal Publication published 14 Nov, 2024 Read the published version in Communications Earth & Environment → Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract The widespread retreat of Svalbard glaciers has been frequently interrupted by short-lived surge advances. In the case of marine-terminating glaciers this is often expressed in the remodelling of coastal zones. We analyzed the coastal zone changes in front of the recently surging Recherchebreen. The glacier advanced ca 1200 m and suddenly stopped in June 2020 followed by the rapid formation of a delta system in front of its subglacial meltwater outlet. The delta advanced by ca 450 m with probably the fastest progradation rate ever detected in the Arctic region. The synchroneity of the final slow-down of the glacier with the delta building indicates that this event records the release of stored water and sediments from beneath the glacier thus providing direct evidence of drainage reorganisation at the termination of a surge. Such behaviour is likely common among Svalbard surging glaciers, but it only rarely leaves any direct geomorphic evidence. Earth and environmental sciences/Solid Earth sciences/Geomorphology Earth and environmental sciences/Climate sciences/Cryospheric science Earth and environmental sciences/Climate sciences/Hydrology Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Introduction Glacier dynamics and coastal zone development in Svalbard Svalbard has experienced significant climate warming since the end of the Little Ice Age (LIA) (Nordli et al., 2020 ), which has resulted in widespread glacier mass loss (e.g. Geyman et al., 2022 ). The warming rate in the Arctic region was nearly four times faster than the rest of the globe during the last 40 years (Rantanen et al., 2022 ). Such warming results in the acceleration of mass loss and thinning rates of glaciers and ice caps (Hugonnet et al., 2021 ) which is likely to continue as the glaciers are highly sensitive to temperature (Rounce et al., 2023 ). Retreat and thinning of Svalbard glaciers have been observed throughout the archipelago (Geyman et al., 2022 ; Kavan and Strzelecki, 2023 ; Schuler et al., 2020 ). Marine terminating glaciers represent an important component of the Svalbard glaciers in terms of their number (15–20%) (Blaszczyk et al., 2009; Konig et al., 2014). In terms of area, more than 60% of all glacier fronts terminate in the sea (Błaszczyk et al., 2009 ). The dynamics (advance/retreat) of the marine terminating glaciers is often expressed in reworking of the coast directly adjacent to their fronts. These areas can thus be considered as one of the most active paraglacial landscapes of Svalbard. The dominant retreat trend has led to the origin of more than 900 km of new coasts since the 1930s, representing an increase of 16.4% in Svalbard coastline length (Kavan and Strzelecki, 2023 ). Svalbard is the location of a major cluster of surge-type glaciers (Hagen et al., 1993 ; Jiskoot et al., 1998), so in many cases glacier retreat has been interrupted by advances of hundreds or thousands of metres (Lønne, 2006 ; Sund et al., 2014 ). The present Svalbard coast is, to a large extent, predisposed by bedrock geology and efficient glacier erosion during the Last Glacial Maximum. The coastal zone was later remodelled by glacier fluctuations during the Holocene and also affected by a continuous glacioisostatic rebound of the landmass. Uplifted beaches, marine terraces and sequences of cliffs are characteristic elements of coastal landscape formed throughout the Holocene. The largest coastal forms, however, preserved in the relict coastal landscapes are deltas, particularly those formed in the early stages of the Holocene characterized by massive paraglacial sediment delivery from deglaciating valleys to the sea. This period was characterised by high air temperatures leading to significant meltwater production from local glaciers, thus probably corresponding to a Holocene peak water period (as defined by Huss and Hock, 2018 ). Deltas are also among the most abundant modern coastal landforms in Svalbard as a result of active sediment transport carried out by both glacial-fed rivers and non-glacial streams (e.g. Mercier and Laffly, 2005 ; Strzelecki et al., 2018 ,). Their growth, however, is rather slow and does not reach the progradation rates observed in other glaciated parts of the Arctic such as Greenland (Bendixen et al., 2017 ). In general, the Svalbard coastal zone is characterized by rather high resilience to erosion and other extreme processes associated with climate warming – for instance a decrease of sea-ice cover or the degradation of coastal permafrost (e.g. Lantuit et al., 2012 ; Lim et al.2020). In recent years the disruption of relative stability of the Svalbard coast has been associated with the occurrence of extreme events such as glacier lake outburst floods leading to barrier breaching and lagoon inundations (Wołoszyn et al., 2022 ), or glacier surge events (Grabiec et al., 2018 ) leading to bulldozing of beaches formed in front of glacier snouts. We selected the case of Recherchebreen in Svalbard to present a previously unseen mode of coastal adaption to the glacier surge in the form of rapid delta formation, that exceed previously documented delta progradation rates in the High Arctic region. Recherchebreen Recherchebreen is a glacier located in the southwestern part of Spitsbergen Island in the Bellsund area (Fig. 1 ). The glacier has an area of 136 km2 (according to GLIMS database) and terminates in the so-called Recherche lagoon. The lagoon is built up from the former deltas that block the lagoon from the open sea (Zagórski et al., 2012 ). The glacier itself is characterised by highly dynamic behavior with four surges identified in the last 200 years (Zagórski et al., 2023 ). However, the two surges recorded during the Little Ice Age (ca 1820 and ca 1880) terminated outside of the recent fjord and therefore did not leave any subaerial landforms. The latter two surges (early 1940s and 2018–2020) did not extend as far as the earlier ones and the glacier only advanced within the shallow fjord environment. Results and Discussion Surging and delta formation Large volumes of water can be released from surging glaciers as the result of reorganisation of the drainage system or the removal of hydraulic barriers (Benn et al., 2019a , b ; Kamb et al., 1985), potentially affecting spatial patterns of sediment delivery and delta formation (Fleisher et al., 2003 ). Extreme release of sediments connected to surge-induced outburst floods at marine-terminating glaciers can be identified in marine sedimentary records (Jaeger and Nittrouer, 1999 ), but is hardly observable in high temporal resolution. The main phase of the most recent surge of Recherchebreen started at the end of 2018 with a major advance recorded in 2019. Figure 2 shows the glacier snout in August 2018, a few months before the advance commenced and in June 2020, close to the end of the surge. Two later images represent building of a delta during the first few weeks after surge termination and a stabilized delta in the summer 2022. The Recherchebreen snout advanced by about 1200 m during the surge event, with the ice flow velocities ranging between 3–4 m/day in 2019 and around 2 m/day in 2020 (Fig. 3 ). The final phase of the surge in June 2020 was characterised by a short speed-up followed by an almost complete cessation of glacier movement. At the same time, the delta started to form in mid-June. After the delta reached ca 450 m in centreline length by end of July the rapid growth ceased. In the course of less than two months, the delta therefore grew at an average rate of more than 7 metres per day. This is probably the fastest delta growth episode observed in the Arctic. To the best of our knowledge, a similar rate has not yet been detected even in the case of the Greenlandic deltas (e.g. Bendinxen et al., 2017), which are fed by much larger glaciers than on Svalbard. Since that time the delta has continued to slightly increase in area. This further growth might be attributed to the transfer of material within the delta from upstream parts to its front as documented by visible erosion of the upper part of the delta observed in the summer of 2023. The delta centreline reached 450 m during the 2020 summer with only a minor growth in the next two years (510 m in 2021 and up to 600 m in 2022 respectively. The delta subaerial volume as calculated from the ArcticDEM (2 July 2021) is 610 000 m3. The average slope of the delta is 1.32% comparing to 0.94% in case of the older delta in front of the current one. This supports the idea of transformation of the delta by transporting material from upper parts towards its front, thus building up larger but flatter delta which would have similar parameters as the older delta. Ice velocity and surface melt To understand the significance of the meltwater release event implied by rapid delta formation, it is useful to consider the controls on water storage and release during the whole surge cycle. Velocity fluctuations during surges of Svalbard glaciers commonly display correlations with air temperature, reflecting routing of surface meltwater to the bed through crevassed ice (Benn et al., 2019b , 2023 ; Sevestre et al., 2018 ). This can be clearly seen in Fig. 3 , which shows that speedups in 2018, 2019 and 2020 coincide with the onset of sustained positive air temperatures. In 2018, a relatively limited summer speedup occurred during the summer months (May – August), broadly mirroring the air temperature record. A more sustained speed-up began in early September 2018, coincident with a succession of positive air temperature anomalies. Velocities reached a peak at the end of January 2019 followed by a gradual slowing trend. With the onset of sustained positive air temperatures in early June 2019, a major rapid speed-up occurred with velocities peaking at over 7 m day-1 at the end of that month. Although air temperatures remained positive during July, August and September, velocities fell dramatically, apart from a brief speed-up during a warm and wet period in August. Such summer slowdowns are common on both surging and non-surging glaciers, and reflect the development of efficient conduit systems in response to high meltwater influx (e.g. Bartholomew et al., 2012; Benn et al., 2023 ; Mair et al., 2003 ; Meier et al., 1994 ). Following a minimum in September 2019, velocities increased slightly then maintained roughly uniform values of 1.5–2.0 m day-1 throughout the winter and following spring. Melt onset in early June 2020 triggered another speed-up, peaking at ca 3 m day-1 at the end of the month. The subsequent rapid slowdown marked the termination of the surge, and the associated release of stored water resulted in the period of rapid delta growth described above. Evidence for similar past processes Four past surges including the one described above were evidenced in Recherchebreen (Zagórski et al., 2023 ). Analysing the historical images, it is apparent that similar patterns of delta development occurred also in the past (Fig. 4 ). On the aerial image from 1960 we can identify the delta that has formed after the surge around 1940. This delta is now positioned in front of the present delta and is completely cut off from the glacier. Between 1960 and 1990 the outlet of the subglacial river network probably switched back to its position visible on the 1936 image (the true right glacier front). This was also accompanied by formation of the delta. These two deltas have consequently closed up the lagoon and isolate it from the open sea environment. Switching of the subglacial hydrological network outlet between very extreme left and right margin is very likely determined by the glacier bedrock topography with an important crest below the glacier centreline diverting outflow to its lateral zones (Fürst et al., 2018 ). Based on the historic evidence we can conclude that delta formation in front of Recherchebreen very likely followed the pattern described for the 2018–2020 surge event and that it is a normal mode of operation in this shallow sea environment. Implications The extreme rapidity of the delta formation recorded in the case of Recherchebreen offers a different perspective on the long term development of similar coastal accumulation environments. Despite the fact that deltas are found frequently in the Svalbard coastal zone and the High Arctic is undergoing fast warming in recent decades (Rantanen et al., 2023), there is no evidence of significant progradation of Svalbard deltas, unlike for example in Greenland (Bendixen et al., 2017 ). We argue that recent climate-induced changes in the cryosphere, and consequent increase in runoff and sediment transport, is insufficient to build up new or remodel the present delta systems in Svalbard. The large deltas that are found in Svalbard originated mostly in the early Holocene during the rapid deglaciation of large ice caps and glaciers from the decaying Svalbard-Barents Sea Ice Sheet, releasing probably even larger amount of material (e.g. Lønne & Nemec, 2004 ) and are currently cut off from the coastal zone due to the glacioisostatic uplift. Formation of similar massive new deltas in the present climate conditions, with limited glacier extent and unavailibility of sediment sources is therefore unlikely to occur. Only in the case of extreme glacio-hydrological events such as surges (e.g. this study) or glacier lake outburst floods, as recorded in the case of Nordenskiöldbreen (Nehyba et al., 2017 ), are rapid episodes of sudden delta growth possible. Conclusions We have documented the evolution of a surge advance of Recherchebreen connected to the formation of a new delta in its true left margin just after the advance has slowed down. The glacier advanced ca 1200 m in 2019–2020 with the highest flow velocities reaching up to 7 m day-1. The surge finished in June 2020 directly followed by the build-up of a 450 m long delta during June and July 2020. The synchroneity of surge speed up followed by a sudden slow down and start of building a delta indicates that this event was caused by the release of stored water from beneath the glacier. This involved the development of an efficient conduit, and possibly also the removal of a barrier to water flow. Overall, it demonstrates the hydraulic switching at the end of a surge as a key control of glacier dynamics. The shallow environment of a fjord and glacier bed topography is favorable for the development of such surge-related events. This is well demonstrated in the presence of similar delta landforms located in front of the present glacier front. These deltas were formed during the 20th century very likely in a similar manner to the most recent one. In a wider perspective, the example of Recherchebreen demonstrates that formation of deltas is currently connected to extreme events, such as surges or glacier lake outburst floods, and the mechanism is probably different from the Early Holocene when most of the Svalbard deltas formed using the powerful paraglacial supply of sediment from the valleys, and glacier forelands delivered from beneath the ice, which lasted several millennia. Data and Methods Remote sensing data A set of remote sensing data was used to document the glacier surge and formation of a delta at the western glacier true-left front. We combined Sentinel-1 radar images, Sentinel-2 multispectral images (available from Sentinel Hub EO browser: https://www.sentinel-hub.com/explore/eobrowser/ ) and Planet images. This was complemented by use of individual ArcticDEM strips from 2021 to evaluate the volumetric changes in the glacier foreland (Porter et al., 2022). All the spatial analyses and calculations were done in QGIS 3.22. Glacier velocity calculations Glacier velocities were derived by feature tracking between consecutive images from the EU Copernicus Sentinel-1 mission. From September 2016 to December 2021, the mission comprised two satellites (Sentinel-1A and 1B) which allowed 6-day tracking. Outside of these dates only one satellite was available with a 12-day repeat. The spatial resolution of Sentinel-1 is approximately 5 x 20m which, when projected onto ground coordinates is around 10 x 10m. Feature tracking was accomplished using windows of 416 x 128 pixels (~ 1km in map coordinates) sampled every 2 x 10 pixels yielding an approximate displacement resolution of 100m. Velocity maps were projected onto map coordinates using a DEM at a pixel size of 100m. In addition, to provide an animation of the surge, backscatter images were projected to map coordinates at a pixel size of 10m. The velocity of Recherchebreen during the surge (Fig. 3 ) was extracted from a point around 3.5km from the terminus which yielded a typical representation of velocities during the surge. Delta extent mapping Delta extent was delimited manually with use of Sentinel-2 images complemented by Sentinel-1 radar images for periods with extensive cloud cover. Normalized Difference Water Index (NDWI) was used to aid distinguishing between delta surface and water when the optical images were not clear enough. High resolution PlanetScope images were also used to complete the dataset. The delta shoreline was then used to calculate delta centreline length for each particular image/date. It was not possible to eliminate the effect of different tidal phase at the moment of the image acquisition. The resulting time series of delta centreline length has therefore a variability of few tens of metres. Delta volume estimation An ArcticDEM strip acquired on 2 July 2021 was used to calculate the subaerial volume of the delta as delimited from the optical Sentinel-2 image (3 July 2021). The DEM was offset by 39.5 m from the local datum and was therefore corrected. The procedure is described for example in Kavan et al. ( 2022 ). The corrected DEM was then masked, and the above-sea-level volume calculated. Data availability Publicly available data were used for the analyses: Planet imagery ( https://www.planet.com/explorer/ ), Sentinel imagery through the EO Browser ( https://apps.sentinel-hub.com/eo-browser/ ) and ArcticDEM through the University of Minnesota application ( https://www.pgc.umn.edu/data/arcticdem/ ). Weather data were provided by the Norwegian Meteorological Institute through the Frost API website ( https://frost.met.no ). The data derived from these archives (delta centreline length, glacier velocities) are available from the online repository at: https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.10837404 Declarations Data availability Publicly available data were used for the analyses: Planet imagery (https://www.planet.com/explorer/), Sentinel imagery through the EO Browser (https://apps.sentinel-hub.com/eo-browser/) and ArcticDEM through the University of Minnesota application (https://www.pgc.umn.edu/data/arcticdem/). Weather data were provided by the Norwegian Meteorological Institute through the Frost API website (https://frost.met.no). The data derived from these archives (delta centreline length, glacier velocities) are available from the online repository at: https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.10837404 Acknowledgments The research leading to these results has received funding from the Norwegian Financial Mechanism 2014-2021: SVELTA - Svalbard Delta Systems Under Warming Climate (UMO-2020/37/K/ST10/02852) based at the University of Wroclaw. JK wrote the manuscript at Alfred Jahn Cold Regions Research Centre, University of Wroclaw during the SVELTA project. MR was supported from a Czech Science Foundation (GACR) grant 22-20621O. Sentinel-1 data was provided by the Copernicus Program and processed by AL. Author contributions JK designed the study, performed the spatial analysis and wrote the first draft of the manuscript. MCS helped with interpretations of the coastal processes. DIB helped with description of glacier surge and interpretations. AL performed the glacier velocity analysis and contributed tointerpretations of the glacier surge interactions with the sediment release. MR helped to gather the remote sensing data and edited the manuscript. PZ provided the historic aerial imagery and helped with site-specific interpretations. All authors contributed to the interpretation of the result and writing the manuscript under coordination of JK. Competing interests The authors declare no competing interests. References Bartholomew, I.et al. (2012). Short‐term variability in Greenland Ice Sheet motion forced by time‐varying meltwater drainage: Implications for the relationship between subglacial drainage system behavior and ice velocity. Journal of Geophysical Research: Earth Surface , 117, (F3). https://doi.org/10.1029/2011JF002220 Bendixen, M. et al. (2017). Delta progradation in Greenland driven by increasing glacial mass loss. Nature , 550, 101– 104. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature23873 Benn, D.I., Fowler, A.C., Hewitt, I. & Sevestre, H., (2019a). A general theory of glacier surges. Journal of Glaciology , 65(253), 701-716. https://doi.org/10.1017/jog.2019.62 Benn, D.I. et al. (2019b). Mass and enthalpy budget evolution during the surge of a polythermal glacier: a test of theory. Journal of Glaciology , 65(253),o 717-731. https://doi.org/10.1017/jog.2019.63 Benn, D.I., Hewitt, I.J. & Luckman, A.J., (2023). Enthalpy balance theory unifies diverse glacier surge behaviour. Annals of Glaciology , 63, 88-94. https://doi.org/10.1017/aog.2023.23 Błaszczyk, M., Jania, J.A., & Hagen, J.O. (2009). Tidewater glaciers of Svalbard: Recent changes and estimates of calving fluxes. Polish Polar Research , 30, 85–142. Fleisher, P.J., Bailey, P.K. & Cadwell, D.H., (2003). A decade of sedimentation in ice-contact, proglacial lakes, Bering Glacier, AK. Sedimentary Geology , 160(4), 309-324. Fürst, J. et al. (2018). The ice-free topography of Svalbard. Geophysical Research Letters 45, 11,760–11, 769. https://doi.org/10.1029/2018GL079734 Geyman, E.C., van Pelt, W.J.J., Maloof, A.C., Aas, H.F, & Kohler, J. (2022). Historical glacier change on Svalbard predicts doubling of mass loss by 2100. Nature , 601, 374–379. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-021-04314-4 Grabiec, M. et al. (2018). Coast formation in an Arctic area due to glacier surge and retreat: The Hornbreen–Hambergbreen case from Spistbergen. Earth Surface Processes and Landforms , 43, 387-400. https://doi.org/10.1002/esp.4251 Hagen, J.O., Liestøl, O., Roland, E. & Jørgensen, T. (1993). Glacier atlas of Svalbard and Jan Mayen. Meddelelser, 129. Norsk Polarinstitutt, 140 p. Hugonnet, R. et al. (2021). Accelerated global glacier mass loss in the early twenty-first century. Nature , 592, 726–731. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-021-03436-z Huss, M., & Hock, R. (2018). Global-scale hydrological response to future glacier mass loss. Nature Climate Change , 8, 135–140. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41558-017-0049-x Jaeger, J.M., & Nittrouer, C.A. (1999). Marine record of surge-induced outburst floods from the Bering Glacier, Alaska. Geology , 27(9), 847-850. Jiskoot, H., Boyle, & Murray, T., (1998). The incidence of glacier surging in Svalbard: evidence from multivariate statistics. Computers & Geosciences , 24(4), 387-399. Kavan, J., Tallentire, G.D., Demidionov, M., Dudek, J., & Strzelecki, M.C. (2022). Fifty Years of Tidewater Glacier Surface Elevation and Retreat Dynamics along the South-East Coast of Spitsbergen (Svalbard Archipelago). Remote Sensing , 14, 354. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs14020354 Kavan, J., & Strzelecki, M.C. (2023). Glacier decay boosts formation of new Arctic coastal environments – perspectives from Svalbard. Land Degradation & Development , 34, 3467-3474. https://doi.org/10.1002/ldr.4695 Kӧnig, M., Nuth, C., Kohler., J. Moholdt, G., & Pettersen, R. (2014). A digital glacier database for Svalbard. In: Kargel JS, Leonard GJ, Bishop MP et al. (eds) Global Land Ice Measurements from Space. Berlin: Springer, 229–239. Lantuit, H. et al. (2012). The ACD coastal database: A new classification scheme and statistics on Arctic permafrost coastlines. Estuaries and Coasts , 35, 383–400. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12237-010-9362-6 Lim, M. et al. (2020). Arctic rock coast responses under a changing climate. Remote Sensing of Environment , 236, 11150. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rse.2019.111500 Lønne, I. (2006). Low-velocity glacial surges—Processes unlocked by modern surge on Svalbard. Geology , 34, 553–556. https://doi.org/10.1130/G21799.1 Lønne, I., & Nemec, W., (2004). High-Arctic fan delta recording deglaciation and environment disequilibrium. Sedimentology , 51, 553-589. Mair, D. et al. (2003). Hydrological controls on patterns of surface, internal and basal motion during three “spring events”: Haut Glacier d’Arolla, Switzerland. Journal of Glaciology , 49(167), 555-567. Meier, M. et al. (1994). Mechanical and hydrologic basis for the rapid motion of a large tidewater glacier: 1. Observations. Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth , 99(B8), 15219-15229. Mercier, D., & Laffly, D. (2005). Actual paraglacial progradation of the coastal zone in the Kongsfjorden area, western Spitsbergen (Svalbard). In Harris, C. and Murton, J.B. (Eds.), Cryospheric systems: Glaciers and permafrost. Special Publication 242, 111–117. London: Geological Society. https://doi.org/10.1144/GSL.SP.2005.242.01.10 Nehyba, S., Hanáček, M., Engel, Z., & Stachoň, Z. (2017). Rise and fall of a small ice-dammed lake – role of deglaciation processes and morphology. Geomorphology , 295, 662–679. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2017.08.019 Nordli, Ø. et al. (2020). Revisiting the extended Svalbard Airport monthly temperature series, and the compiled corresponding daily series 1898–2018. Polar Research , 39. https://doi.org/10.33265/polar.v39.3614 Porter, C. (2022). ArcticDEM – Strips, Version 4.1: https://doi.org/10.7910/DVN/C98DVS, Harvard Dataverse, V1, [accessed 28 April 2023]. Rantanen, M. et al. (2022). The Arctic has warmed nearly four times faster than the globe since 1979. Communication Earth & Environment , 3, 168. https://doi.org/10.1038/s43247-022-00498-3 Rounce, D. et al. (2023). Global glacier change in the 21st century: Every increase in temperature matters. Science , 379, 78-83. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.abo1324 Schuler T.V. et al. (2020). Reconciling Svalbard Glacier Mass Balance. Frontiers in Earth Sciences , 8, 156. https://doi.org/10.3389/feart.2020.00156. Sevestre, H. et al. (2018). Tidewater glacier surges initiated at the terminus. Journal of Geophysical Research: Earth Surface , 123(5), 1035-1051. https://doi.org/10.1029/2017JF004358 Strzelecki, et al. (2018). The role of rapid glacier retreat and landscape transformation in controlling the post-Little Ice Age evolution of paraglacial coasts in Central Spitsbergen (Billefjorden, Svalbard). Land Degradation & Development , 29, 1962–1978. https://doi.org/10.1002/ldr.2923 Sund, M., Lauknes, T. R., & Eiken, T. (2014). Surge dynamics in the Nathorstbreen glacier system, Svalbard. The Cryosphere , 8, 623– 638. https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-8-623-2014 Wołoszyn, A., Owczarek, Z., Wieczorek, I., Kasprzak, M., & Strzelecki, M.C. (2022). Glacial Outburst Floods Responsible for Major Environmental Shift in Arctic Coastal Catchment, Rekvedbukta, Albert I Land, Svalbard. Remote Sensing , 14, 6325. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs14246325 Zagórski P., Gajek, G., & Demczuk, (2012). The influence of glacier systems of polar catchments on the functioning of the coastal zone (Recherchefjorden, Svalbard). Zeitschrift für Geomorphologie , 56, 101 – 121. https://doi.org/10.1127/0372-8854/2012/S-00075 Zagórski, P. et al. (2023). Surges in Three Svalbard Glaciers Derived from Historic Sources and Geomorphic Features, Annals of the American Association of Geographers , 113, 1835-1855. https://doi.org/10.1080/24694452.2023.2200487 Additional Declarations There is NO Competing Interest. Cite Share Download PDF Status: Published Journal Publication published 14 Nov, 2024 Read the published version in Communications Earth & Environment → Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. Our growing team is made up of researchers and industry professionals working together to solve the most critical problems facing scientific publishing. Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-4162461","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":286829393,"identity":"2190976a-f112-4947-9e17-8dd20a0cbda0","order_by":0,"name":"Jan Kavan","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAA7UlEQVRIiWNgGAWjYBACxgYIBgE2hg8gkp0ULYwzQCQzkTaBtTDzgChCWpjbzx5gnFFzWN6cgfnZY5tf2+T5mBkYP3zMwWNDT14C44Zjhw13NrCZG+f23TZsY2Zglpy5DZ+jcgwYH7ClMW44wMMmndtzmxGohY2ZF5+W/jdALf/S7MFaLHtu2xPWMgNoy8Y2m0SwFoYftxOJ0PLG4ODMPpvkDYfZzA17G24ntzEzNuP1i2F/juHDnm8SthuONz978OPPbdv57c0HP3zEp6WBgeEAmAWKDsY2SJDgVg8E8qjcP3gVj4JRMApGwQgFALaITueY3LXlAAAAAElFTkSuQmCC","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4524-3009","institution":"University of South Bohemia","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Jan","middleName":"","lastName":"Kavan","suffix":""},{"id":286829394,"identity":"eae5b60a-89fc-476b-8219-74ef30621bc1","order_by":1,"name":"Mateusz Strzelecki","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Mateusz","middleName":"","lastName":"Strzelecki","suffix":""},{"id":286829395,"identity":"24c915b9-489a-40b4-9c72-a34ab42f5821","order_by":2,"name":"Douglas Benn","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Douglas","middleName":"","lastName":"Benn","suffix":""},{"id":286829396,"identity":"e2363f20-ff1d-4559-8fb9-84db9d919582","order_by":3,"name":"Adrian Luckman","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Adrian","middleName":"","lastName":"Luckman","suffix":""},{"id":286829397,"identity":"9cddc958-446d-47d5-b1ad-6031e9e570a9","order_by":4,"name":"Roman Matěj","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Roman","middleName":"","lastName":"Matěj","suffix":""},{"id":286829398,"identity":"61954937-d882-44fe-ac9d-b1e36a911fec","order_by":5,"name":"Piotr Zagórski","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Piotr","middleName":"","lastName":"Zagórski","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2024-03-25 10:06:58","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-4162461/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-4162461/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[{"content":"https://doi.org/10.1038/s43247-024-01877-8","type":"published","date":"2024-11-14T05:00:00+00:00"}],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":54445056,"identity":"32500f06-19f8-4ba3-a185-69263336aa1b","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-04-10 16:14:39","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":3343254,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e(A) Svalbard archipelago with location of the study area marked with the red rectangle; (B) study area with extent of Recherchebreen indicated in green (according to GLIMS database) – Sentinel-2 false colour image from 31 July 2020 as a background; (C) the glacier snout and a glacier lagoon with two former deltas as a barrier, the new delta formed in 2020 in its true left frontal part – PlanetScope image from 26 August 2022; (D) UAV image of the delta from 29 August 2022.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4162461/v1/c3a1b798560d6c58f0407516.png"},{"id":54446665,"identity":"dc60b962-442d-4e7c-bdba-259544d697c0","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-04-10 16:22:39","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":1174308,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eThe 2018-2020 surge of Recherchebreen and subsequent delta formation. Coloured lines represent positions of glacier front and delta fronts from the previous panels (based on PlanetScope scenes).\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4162461/v1/9c9615355b4be09dfb412bc8.png"},{"id":54445054,"identity":"6518283d-29a5-4ea6-be3a-12e466d803ce","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-04-10 16:14:39","extension":"png","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":186605,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e(A) Time series of glacier velocities and delta centreline length, showing the synchroneity of the final speed-up/slowdown event and delta formation; (B) mean daily air temperature record from the closest weather station (Akseløya – ca. 20 km) operated by The Norwegian Meteorological Institute; above zero air temperature periods highlighted in orange.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage3.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4162461/v1/96ca2323cb496f9b36abf0cf.png"},{"id":54445058,"identity":"170c69dc-f653-498d-844e-2d5605788700","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-04-10 16:14:39","extension":"png","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":4468390,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eLong-term evolution of the glacier front/deltas based on the historic aerial images (acquired by NPI); white arrows mark location of subglacial meltwater outlet and sediment delivery to the lagoon.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage4.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4162461/v1/6be8b30c85fc954cc7530574.png"},{"id":68983647,"identity":"86a04fe0-b62c-4b6b-b04c-318d86b12286","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-11-14 08:08:06","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":10454643,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4162461/v1/e9485431-edf4-4aae-9804-d09e990228a5.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"There is \u003cb\u003eNO\u003c/b\u003e Competing Interest.","formattedTitle":"Glacier Surge as a Trigger for the Fastest Delta Growth in the Arctic","fulltext":[{"header":"Introduction","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec2\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eGlacier dynamics and coastal zone development in Svalbard\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eSvalbard has experienced significant climate warming since the end of the Little Ice Age (LIA) (Nordli et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e), which has resulted in widespread glacier mass loss (e.g. Geyman et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). The warming rate in the Arctic region was nearly four times faster than the rest of the globe during the last 40 years (Rantanen et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Such warming results in the acceleration of mass loss and thinning rates of glaciers and ice caps (Hugonnet et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e) which is likely to continue as the glaciers are highly sensitive to temperature (Rounce et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). Retreat and thinning of Svalbard glaciers have been observed throughout the archipelago (Geyman et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Kavan and Strzelecki, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Schuler et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMarine terminating glaciers represent an important component of the Svalbard glaciers in terms of their number (15\u0026ndash;20%) (Blaszczyk et al., 2009; Konig et al., 2014). In terms of area, more than 60% of all glacier fronts terminate in the sea (Błaszczyk et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e). The dynamics (advance/retreat) of the marine terminating glaciers is often expressed in reworking of the coast directly adjacent to their fronts. These areas can thus be considered as one of the most active paraglacial landscapes of Svalbard. The dominant retreat trend has led to the origin of more than 900 km of new coasts since the 1930s, representing an increase of 16.4% in Svalbard coastline length (Kavan and Strzelecki, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). Svalbard is the location of a major cluster of surge-type glaciers (Hagen et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1993\u003c/span\u003e; Jiskoot et al., 1998), so in many cases glacier retreat has been interrupted by advances of hundreds or thousands of metres (L\u0026oslash;nne, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e; Sund et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe present Svalbard coast is, to a large extent, predisposed by bedrock geology and efficient glacier erosion during the Last Glacial Maximum. The coastal zone was later remodelled by glacier fluctuations during the Holocene and also affected by a continuous glacioisostatic rebound of the landmass. Uplifted beaches, marine terraces and sequences of cliffs are characteristic elements of coastal landscape formed throughout the Holocene. The largest coastal forms, however, preserved in the relict coastal landscapes are deltas, particularly those formed in the early stages of the Holocene characterized by massive paraglacial sediment delivery from deglaciating valleys to the sea. This period was characterised by high air temperatures leading to significant meltwater production from local glaciers, thus probably corresponding to a Holocene peak water period (as defined by Huss and Hock, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). Deltas are also among the most abundant modern coastal landforms in Svalbard as a result of active sediment transport carried out by both glacial-fed rivers and non-glacial streams (e.g. Mercier and Laffly, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e; Strzelecki et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e,). Their growth, however, is rather slow and does not reach the progradation rates observed in other glaciated parts of the Arctic such as Greenland (Bendixen et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). In general, the Svalbard coastal zone is characterized by rather high resilience to erosion and other extreme processes associated with climate warming \u0026ndash; for instance a decrease of sea-ice cover or the degradation of coastal permafrost (e.g. Lantuit et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e; Lim et al.2020). In recent years the disruption of relative stability of the Svalbard coast has been associated with the occurrence of extreme events such as glacier lake outburst floods leading to barrier breaching and lagoon inundations (Wołoszyn et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e), or glacier surge events (Grabiec et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e) leading to bulldozing of beaches formed in front of glacier snouts.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWe selected the case of Recherchebreen in Svalbard to present a previously unseen mode of coastal adaption to the glacier surge in the form of rapid delta formation, that exceed previously documented delta progradation rates in the High Arctic region.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eRecherchebreen\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eRecherchebreen is a glacier located in the southwestern part of Spitsbergen Island in the Bellsund area (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e). The glacier has an area of 136 km2 (according to GLIMS database) and terminates in the so-called Recherche lagoon. The lagoon is built up from the former deltas that block the lagoon from the open sea (Zag\u0026oacute;rski et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e). The glacier itself is characterised by highly dynamic behavior with four surges identified in the last 200 years (Zag\u0026oacute;rski et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). However, the two surges recorded during the Little Ice Age (ca 1820 and ca 1880) terminated outside of the recent fjord and therefore did not leave any subaerial landforms. The latter two surges (early 1940s and 2018\u0026ndash;2020) did not extend as far as the earlier ones and the glacier only advanced within the shallow fjord environment.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Results and Discussion","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec5\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eSurging and delta formation\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eLarge volumes of water can be released from surging glaciers as the result of reorganisation of the drainage system or the removal of hydraulic barriers (Benn et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019a\u003c/span\u003e,\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003eb\u003c/span\u003e; Kamb et al., 1985), potentially affecting spatial patterns of sediment delivery and delta formation (Fleisher et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2003\u003c/span\u003e). Extreme release of sediments connected to surge-induced outburst floods at marine-terminating glaciers can be identified in marine sedimentary records (Jaeger and Nittrouer, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1999\u003c/span\u003e), but is hardly observable in high temporal resolution.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe main phase of the most recent surge of Recherchebreen started at the end of 2018 with a major advance recorded in 2019. Figure\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e shows the glacier snout in August 2018, a few months before the advance commenced and in June 2020, close to the end of the surge. Two later images represent building of a delta during the first few weeks after surge termination and a stabilized delta in the summer 2022.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe Recherchebreen snout advanced by about 1200 m during the surge event, with the ice flow velocities ranging between 3\u0026ndash;4 m/day in 2019 and around 2 m/day in 2020 (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e). The final phase of the surge in June 2020 was characterised by a short speed-up followed by an almost complete cessation of glacier movement. At the same time, the delta started to form in mid-June. After the delta reached ca 450 m in centreline length by end of July the rapid growth ceased. In the course of less than two months, the delta therefore grew at an average rate of more than 7 metres per day. This is probably the fastest delta growth episode observed in the Arctic. To the best of our knowledge, a similar rate has not yet been detected even in the case of the Greenlandic deltas (e.g. Bendinxen et al., 2017), which are fed by much larger glaciers than on Svalbard. Since that time the delta has continued to slightly increase in area. This further growth might be attributed to the transfer of material within the delta from upstream parts to its front as documented by visible erosion of the upper part of the delta observed in the summer of 2023.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe delta centreline reached 450 m during the 2020 summer with only a minor growth in the next two years (510 m in 2021 and up to 600 m in 2022 respectively. The delta subaerial volume as calculated from the ArcticDEM (2 July 2021) is 610 000 m3. The average slope of the delta is 1.32% comparing to 0.94% in case of the older delta in front of the current one. This supports the idea of transformation of the delta by transporting material from upper parts towards its front, thus building up larger but flatter delta which would have similar parameters as the older delta.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eIce velocity and surface melt\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTo understand the significance of the meltwater release event implied by rapid delta formation, it is useful to consider the controls on water storage and release during the whole surge cycle. Velocity fluctuations during surges of Svalbard glaciers commonly display correlations with air temperature, reflecting routing of surface meltwater to the bed through crevassed ice (Benn et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019b\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Sevestre et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). This can be clearly seen in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e, which shows that speedups in 2018, 2019 and 2020 coincide with the onset of sustained positive air temperatures. In 2018, a relatively limited summer speedup occurred during the summer months (May \u0026ndash; August), broadly mirroring the air temperature record. A more sustained speed-up began in early September 2018, coincident with a succession of positive air temperature anomalies. Velocities reached a peak at the end of January 2019 followed by a gradual slowing trend. With the onset of sustained positive air temperatures in early June 2019, a major rapid speed-up occurred with velocities peaking at over 7 m day-1 at the end of that month. Although air temperatures remained positive during July, August and September, velocities fell dramatically, apart from a brief speed-up during a warm and wet period in August. Such summer slowdowns are common on both surging and non-surging glaciers, and reflect the development of efficient conduit systems in response to high meltwater influx (e.g. Bartholomew et al., 2012; Benn et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Mair et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2003\u003c/span\u003e; Meier et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1994\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFollowing a minimum in September 2019, velocities increased slightly then maintained roughly uniform values of 1.5\u0026ndash;2.0 m day-1 throughout the winter and following spring. Melt onset in early June 2020 triggered another speed-up, peaking at ca 3 m day-1 at the end of the month. The subsequent rapid slowdown marked the termination of the surge, and the associated release of stored water resulted in the period of rapid delta growth described above.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec7\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eEvidence for similar past processes\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eFour past surges including the one described above were evidenced in Recherchebreen (Zag\u0026oacute;rski et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). Analysing the historical images, it is apparent that similar patterns of delta development occurred also in the past (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e). On the aerial image from 1960 we can identify the delta that has formed after the surge around 1940. This delta is now positioned in front of the present delta and is completely cut off from the glacier. Between 1960 and 1990 the outlet of the subglacial river network probably switched back to its position visible on the 1936 image (the true right glacier front). This was also accompanied by formation of the delta. These two deltas have consequently closed up the lagoon and isolate it from the open sea environment. Switching of the subglacial hydrological network outlet between very extreme left and right margin is very likely determined by the glacier bedrock topography with an important crest below the glacier centreline diverting outflow to its lateral zones (F\u0026uuml;rst et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). Based on the historic evidence we can conclude that delta formation in front of Recherchebreen very likely followed the pattern described for the 2018\u0026ndash;2020 surge event and that it is a normal mode of operation in this shallow sea environment.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eImplications\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe extreme rapidity of the delta formation recorded in the case of Recherchebreen offers a different perspective on the long term development of similar coastal accumulation environments. Despite the fact that deltas are found frequently in the Svalbard coastal zone and the High Arctic is undergoing fast warming in recent decades (Rantanen et al., 2023), there is no evidence of significant progradation of Svalbard deltas, unlike for example in Greenland (Bendixen et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). We argue that recent climate-induced changes in the cryosphere, and consequent increase in runoff and sediment transport, is insufficient to build up new or remodel the present delta systems in Svalbard. The large deltas that are found in Svalbard originated mostly in the early Holocene during the rapid deglaciation of large ice caps and glaciers from the decaying Svalbard-Barents Sea Ice Sheet, releasing probably even larger amount of material (e.g. L\u0026oslash;nne \u0026amp; Nemec, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2004\u003c/span\u003e) and are currently cut off from the coastal zone due to the glacioisostatic uplift. Formation of similar massive new deltas in the present climate conditions, with limited glacier extent and unavailibility of sediment sources is therefore unlikely to occur. Only in the case of extreme glacio-hydrological events such as surges (e.g. this study) or glacier lake outburst floods, as recorded in the case of Nordenski\u0026ouml;ldbreen (Nehyba et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e), are rapid episodes of sudden delta growth possible.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Conclusions","content":"\u003cp\u003eWe have documented the evolution of a surge advance of Recherchebreen connected to the formation of a new delta in its true left margin just after the advance has slowed down. The glacier advanced ca 1200 m in 2019\u0026ndash;2020 with the highest flow velocities reaching up to 7 m day-1. The surge finished in June 2020 directly followed by the build-up of a 450 m long delta during June and July 2020. The synchroneity of surge speed up followed by a sudden slow down and start of building a delta indicates that this event was caused by the release of stored water from beneath the glacier. This involved the development of an efficient conduit, and possibly also the removal of a barrier to water flow. Overall, it demonstrates the hydraulic switching at the end of a surge as a key control of glacier dynamics.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe shallow environment of a fjord and glacier bed topography is favorable for the development of such surge-related events. This is well demonstrated in the presence of similar delta landforms located in front of the present glacier front. These deltas were formed during the 20th century very likely in a similar manner to the most recent one. In a wider perspective, the example of Recherchebreen demonstrates that formation of deltas is currently connected to extreme events, such as surges or glacier lake outburst floods, and the mechanism is probably different from the Early Holocene when most of the Svalbard deltas formed using the powerful paraglacial supply of sediment from the valleys, and glacier forelands delivered from beneath the ice, which lasted several millennia.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Data and Methods","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eRemote sensing data\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eA set of remote sensing data was used to document the glacier surge and formation of a delta at the western glacier true-left front. We combined Sentinel-1 radar images, Sentinel-2 multispectral images (available from Sentinel Hub EO browser: \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://www.sentinel-hub.com/explore/eobrowser/\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"https://www.sentinel-hub.com/explore/eobrowser/\" targettype=\"URL\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e) and Planet images. This was complemented by use of individual ArcticDEM strips from 2021 to evaluate the volumetric changes in the glacier foreland (Porter et al., 2022). All the spatial analyses and calculations were done in QGIS 3.22.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eGlacier velocity calculations\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eGlacier velocities were derived by feature tracking between consecutive images from the EU Copernicus Sentinel-1 mission. From September 2016 to December 2021, the mission comprised two satellites (Sentinel-1A and 1B) which allowed 6-day tracking. Outside of these dates only one satellite was available with a 12-day repeat. The spatial resolution of Sentinel-1 is approximately 5 x 20m which, when projected onto ground coordinates is around 10 x 10m. Feature tracking was accomplished using windows of 416 x 128 pixels (~\u0026thinsp;1km in map coordinates) sampled every 2 x 10 pixels yielding an approximate displacement resolution of 100m. Velocity maps were projected onto map coordinates using a DEM at a pixel size of 100m. In addition, to provide an animation of the surge, backscatter images were projected to map coordinates at a pixel size of 10m. The velocity of Recherchebreen during the surge (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e) was extracted from a point around 3.5km from the terminus which yielded a typical representation of velocities during the surge.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec13\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eDelta extent mapping\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eDelta extent was delimited manually with use of Sentinel-2 images complemented by Sentinel-1 radar images for periods with extensive cloud cover. Normalized Difference Water Index (NDWI) was used to aid distinguishing between delta surface and water when the optical images were not clear enough. High resolution PlanetScope images were also used to complete the dataset. The delta shoreline was then used to calculate delta centreline length for each particular image/date. It was not possible to eliminate the effect of different tidal phase at the moment of the image acquisition. The resulting time series of delta centreline length has therefore a variability of few tens of metres.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec14\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eDelta volume estimation\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eAn ArcticDEM strip acquired on 2 July 2021 was used to calculate the subaerial volume of the delta as delimited from the optical Sentinel-2 image (3 July 2021). The DEM was offset by 39.5 m from the local datum and was therefore corrected. The procedure is described for example in Kavan et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). The corrected DEM was then masked, and the above-sea-level volume calculated.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec15\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eData availability\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003ePublicly available data were used for the analyses: Planet imagery (\u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://www.planet.com/explorer/\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"https://www.planet.com/explorer/\" targettype=\"URL\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e), Sentinel imagery through the EO Browser (\u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://apps.sentinel-hub.com/eo-browser/\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"https://apps.sentinel-hub.com/eo-browser/\" targettype=\"URL\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e) and ArcticDEM through the University of Minnesota application (\u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://www.pgc.umn.edu/data/arcticdem/\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"https://www.pgc.umn.edu/data/arcticdem/\" targettype=\"URL\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e). Weather data were provided by the Norwegian Meteorological Institute through the Frost API website (\u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://frost.met.no\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"https://frost.met.no\" targettype=\"URL\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e). The data derived from these archives (delta centreline length, glacier velocities) are available from the online repository at: \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.10837404\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.5281/zenodo.10837404\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eData availability\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ePublicly available data were used for the analyses: Planet imagery (https://www.planet.com/explorer/), Sentinel imagery through the EO Browser (https://apps.sentinel-hub.com/eo-browser/) and ArcticDEM through the University of Minnesota application (https://www.pgc.umn.edu/data/arcticdem/). Weather data were provided by the Norwegian Meteorological Institute through the Frost API website (https://frost.met.no). The data derived from these archives (delta centreline length, glacier velocities) are available from the online repository at: https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.10837404 \u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAcknowledgments\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe research leading to these results has received funding from the Norwegian Financial Mechanism 2014-2021: SVELTA - Svalbard Delta Systems Under Warming Climate (UMO-2020/37/K/ST10/02852) based at the University of Wroclaw. JK wrote the manuscript at Alfred Jahn Cold Regions Research Centre, University of Wroclaw during the SVELTA project. MR was supported from a Czech Science Foundation (GACR) grant 22-20621O. Sentinel-1 data was provided by the Copernicus Program and processed by AL. \u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAuthor contributions\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eJK designed the study, performed the spatial analysis and wrote the first draft of the manuscript. MCS helped with interpretations of the coastal processes. DIB helped with description of glacier surge and interpretations. AL performed the glacier velocity analysis and contributed tointerpretations of the glacier surge interactions with the sediment release. MR helped to gather the remote sensing data and edited the manuscript. PZ provided the historic aerial imagery and helped with site-specific interpretations. All authors contributed to the interpretation of the result and writing the manuscript under coordination of JK. \u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCompeting interests\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors declare no competing interests.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eBartholomew, I.et al. (2012). Short‐term variability in Greenland Ice Sheet motion forced by time‐varying meltwater drainage: Implications for the relationship between subglacial drainage system behavior and ice velocity. \u003cem\u003eJournal of Geophysical Research: Earth Surface\u003c/em\u003e, 117, (F3). https://doi.org/10.1029/2011JF002220\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eBendixen, M. et al. (2017). Delta progradation in Greenland driven by increasing glacial mass loss. \u003cem\u003eNature\u003c/em\u003e, 550, 101\u0026ndash; 104. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature23873\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eBenn, D.I., Fowler, A.C., Hewitt, I. \u0026amp; Sevestre, H., (2019a). A general theory of glacier surges. \u003cem\u003eJournal of Glaciology\u003c/em\u003e, 65(253), 701-716. https://doi.org/10.1017/jog.2019.62\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eBenn, D.I. et al. (2019b). Mass and enthalpy budget evolution during the surge of a polythermal glacier: a test of theory. \u003cem\u003eJournal of Glaciology\u003c/em\u003e, 65(253),o 717-731. https://doi.org/10.1017/jog.2019.63\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eBenn, D.I., Hewitt, I.J. \u0026amp; Luckman, A.J., (2023). Enthalpy balance theory unifies diverse glacier surge behaviour. \u003cem\u003eAnnals of Glaciology\u003c/em\u003e, 63, 88-94. https://doi.org/10.1017/aog.2023.23\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eBłaszczyk, M., Jania, J.A., \u0026amp; Hagen, J.O. (2009). Tidewater glaciers of Svalbard: Recent changes and estimates of calving fluxes. \u003cem\u003ePolish Polar Research\u003c/em\u003e, 30, 85\u0026ndash;142.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eFleisher, P.J., Bailey, P.K. \u0026amp; Cadwell, D.H., (2003). A decade of sedimentation in ice-contact, proglacial lakes, Bering Glacier, AK. \u003cem\u003eSedimentary Geology\u003c/em\u003e, 160(4), 309-324.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eF\u0026uuml;rst, J. et al. (2018). The ice-free topography of Svalbard. Geophysical Research Letters 45, 11,760\u0026ndash;11, 769. https://doi.org/10.1029/2018GL079734\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eGeyman, E.C., van Pelt, W.J.J., Maloof, A.C., Aas, H.F, \u0026amp; Kohler, J. (2022). Historical glacier change on Svalbard predicts doubling of mass loss by 2100. \u003cem\u003eNature\u003c/em\u003e, 601, 374\u0026ndash;379. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-021-04314-4\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eGrabiec, M. et al. (2018). Coast formation in an Arctic area due to glacier surge and retreat: The Hornbreen\u0026ndash;Hambergbreen case from Spistbergen. \u003cem\u003eEarth Surface Processes and Landforms\u003c/em\u003e, 43, 387-400. https://doi.org/10.1002/esp.4251\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eHagen, J.O., Liest\u0026oslash;l, O., Roland, E. \u0026amp; J\u0026oslash;rgensen, T. (1993). Glacier atlas of Svalbard and Jan Mayen. Meddelelser, 129. Norsk Polarinstitutt, 140 p.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eHugonnet, R. et al. (2021). Accelerated global glacier mass loss in the early twenty-first century. \u003cem\u003eNature\u003c/em\u003e, 592, 726\u0026ndash;731. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-021-03436-z\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eHuss, M., \u0026amp; Hock, R. (2018). Global-scale hydrological response to future glacier mass loss. \u003cem\u003eNature Climate Change\u003c/em\u003e, 8, 135\u0026ndash;140. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41558-017-0049-x\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eJaeger, J.M., \u0026amp; Nittrouer, C.A. (1999). Marine record of surge-induced outburst floods from the Bering Glacier, Alaska. \u003cem\u003eGeology\u003c/em\u003e, 27(9), 847-850.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eJiskoot, H., Boyle, \u0026amp; Murray, T., (1998). The incidence of glacier surging in Svalbard: evidence from multivariate statistics. \u003cem\u003eComputers \u0026amp; Geosciences\u003c/em\u003e, 24(4), 387-399.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eKavan, J., Tallentire, G.D., Demidionov, M., Dudek, J., \u0026amp; Strzelecki, M.C. (2022). Fifty Years of Tidewater Glacier Surface Elevation and Retreat Dynamics along the South-East Coast of Spitsbergen (Svalbard Archipelago). \u003cem\u003eRemote Sensing\u003c/em\u003e, 14, 354. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs14020354\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eKavan, J., \u0026amp; Strzelecki, M.C. (2023). Glacier decay boosts formation of new Arctic coastal environments \u0026ndash; perspectives from Svalbard. \u003cem\u003eLand Degradation \u0026amp; Development\u003c/em\u003e, 34, 3467-3474. https://doi.org/10.1002/ldr.4695\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eKӧnig, M., Nuth, C., Kohler., J. Moholdt, G., \u0026amp; Pettersen, R. (2014). A digital glacier database for Svalbard. In: Kargel JS, Leonard GJ, Bishop MP et al. (eds) Global Land Ice Measurements from Space. Berlin: Springer, 229\u0026ndash;239.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eLantuit, H. et al. (2012). The ACD coastal database: A new classification scheme and statistics on Arctic permafrost coastlines. \u003cem\u003eEstuaries and Coasts\u003c/em\u003e, 35, 383\u0026ndash;400. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12237-010-9362-6\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eLim, M. et al. (2020). Arctic rock coast responses under a changing climate. \u003cem\u003eRemote Sensing of Environment\u003c/em\u003e, 236, 11150. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rse.2019.111500\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eL\u0026oslash;nne, I. (2006). Low-velocity glacial surges\u0026mdash;Processes unlocked by modern surge\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eon Svalbard. \u003cem\u003eGeology\u003c/em\u003e, 34, 553\u0026ndash;556. https://doi.org/10.1130/G21799.1\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eL\u0026oslash;nne, I., \u0026amp; Nemec, W., (2004). High-Arctic fan delta recording deglaciation and environment disequilibrium. \u003cem\u003eSedimentology\u003c/em\u003e, 51, 553-589.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eMair, D. et al. (2003). Hydrological controls on patterns of surface, internal and basal motion during three \u0026ldquo;spring events\u0026rdquo;: Haut Glacier d\u0026rsquo;Arolla, Switzerland. \u003cem\u003eJournal of Glaciology\u003c/em\u003e, 49(167), 555-567.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eMeier, M. et al. (1994). Mechanical and hydrologic basis for the rapid motion of a large tidewater glacier: 1. Observations. \u003cem\u003eJournal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth\u003c/em\u003e, 99(B8), 15219-15229.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eMercier, D., \u0026amp; Laffly, D. (2005). Actual paraglacial progradation of the coastal zone in the Kongsfjorden area, western Spitsbergen (Svalbard). In Harris, C. and Murton, J.B. (Eds.), Cryospheric systems: Glaciers and permafrost. Special Publication 242, 111\u0026ndash;117. London: Geological Society. https://doi.org/10.1144/GSL.SP.2005.242.01.10\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eNehyba, S., Han\u0026aacute;ček, M., Engel, Z., \u0026amp; Stachoň, Z. (2017). Rise and fall of a small ice-dammed lake \u0026ndash; role of deglaciation processes and morphology. \u003cem\u003eGeomorphology\u003c/em\u003e, 295, 662\u0026ndash;679. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2017.08.019\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eNordli, \u0026Oslash;. et al. (2020). Revisiting the extended Svalbard Airport monthly temperature series, and the compiled corresponding daily series 1898\u0026ndash;2018. \u003cem\u003ePolar Research\u003c/em\u003e, 39. https://doi.org/10.33265/polar.v39.3614\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003ePorter, C. (2022). ArcticDEM \u0026ndash; Strips, Version 4.1: https://doi.org/10.7910/DVN/C98DVS, Harvard Dataverse, V1, [accessed 28 April 2023].\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eRantanen, M. et al. (2022). The Arctic has warmed nearly four times faster than the globe since 1979. \u003cem\u003eCommunication Earth \u0026amp; Environment\u003c/em\u003e, 3, 168. https://doi.org/10.1038/s43247-022-00498-3\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eRounce, D. et al. (2023). Global glacier change in the 21st century: Every increase in temperature matters. \u003cem\u003eScience\u003c/em\u003e, 379, 78-83. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.abo1324\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eSchuler T.V. et al. (2020). Reconciling Svalbard Glacier Mass Balance. \u003cem\u003eFrontiers in Earth Sciences\u003c/em\u003e, 8, 156. https://doi.org/10.3389/feart.2020.00156.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eSevestre, H. et al. (2018). Tidewater glacier surges initiated at the terminus. \u003cem\u003eJournal of Geophysical Research: Earth Surface\u003c/em\u003e, 123(5), 1035-1051. https://doi.org/10.1029/2017JF004358\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eStrzelecki, et al. (2018). The role of rapid glacier retreat and landscape transformation in controlling the post-Little Ice Age evolution of paraglacial coasts in Central Spitsbergen (Billefjorden, Svalbard). \u003cem\u003eLand Degradation \u0026amp; Development\u003c/em\u003e, 29, 1962\u0026ndash;1978. https://doi.org/10.1002/ldr.2923\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eSund, M., Lauknes, T. R., \u0026amp; Eiken, T. (2014). Surge dynamics in the Nathorstbreen glacier system, Svalbard. \u003cem\u003eThe Cryosphere\u003c/em\u003e, 8, 623\u0026ndash; 638. https://doi.org/10.5194/tc-8-623-2014\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eWołoszyn, A., Owczarek, Z., Wieczorek, I., Kasprzak, M., \u0026amp; Strzelecki, M.C. (2022). Glacial Outburst Floods Responsible for Major Environmental Shift in Arctic Coastal Catchment, Rekvedbukta, Albert I Land, Svalbard. \u003cem\u003eRemote Sensing\u003c/em\u003e, 14, 6325. https://doi.org/10.3390/rs14246325\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eZag\u0026oacute;rski P., Gajek, G., \u0026amp; Demczuk, (2012). The influence of glacier systems of polar catchments on the functioning of the coastal zone (Recherchefjorden, Svalbard). \u003cem\u003eZeitschrift f\u0026uuml;r Geomorphologie\u003c/em\u003e, 56, 101 \u0026ndash; 121. https://doi.org/10.1127/0372-8854/2012/S-00075\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eZag\u0026oacute;rski, P. et al. (2023). Surges in Three Svalbard Glaciers Derived from Historic Sources and Geomorphic Features, \u003cem\u003eAnnals of the American Association of Geographers\u003c/em\u003e, 113, 1835-1855. https://doi.org/10.1080/24694452.2023.2200487\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":true,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"nature-portfolio","isNatureJournal":true,"hasQc":false,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"","title":"Nature Portfolio","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":false,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"ejp","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":false},"keywords":"","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-4162461/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-4162461/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eThe widespread retreat of Svalbard glaciers has been frequently interrupted by short-lived surge advances. In the case of marine-terminating glaciers this is often expressed in the remodelling of coastal zones. We analyzed the coastal zone changes in front of the recently surging Recherchebreen. The glacier advanced ca 1200 m and suddenly stopped in June 2020 followed by the rapid formation of a delta system in front of its subglacial meltwater outlet. The delta advanced by ca 450 m with probably the fastest progradation rate ever detected in the Arctic region. The synchroneity of the final slow-down of the glacier with the delta building indicates that this event records the release of stored water and sediments from beneath the glacier thus providing direct evidence of drainage reorganisation at the termination of a surge. Such behaviour is likely common among Svalbard surging glaciers, but it only rarely leaves any direct geomorphic evidence.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Glacier Surge as a Trigger for the Fastest Delta Growth in the Arctic","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2024-04-10 16:14:34","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-4162461/v1","editorialEvents":[],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"communications-earth-and-environment","isNatureJournal":true,"hasQc":false,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"commsenv","sideBox":"Learn more about [Communications Earth and Environment](https://www.nature.com/commsenv/)","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"","title":"Communications Earth \u0026 Environment","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"ejp","reportingPortfolio":"Communications Series","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":false}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"563a3767-5c8d-44e5-8efe-2fd315e855f6","owner":[],"postedDate":"April 10th, 2024","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"published-in-journal","subjectAreas":[{"id":30192501,"name":"Earth and environmental sciences/Solid Earth sciences/Geomorphology"},{"id":30192502,"name":"Earth and environmental sciences/Climate sciences/Cryospheric science"},{"id":30192503,"name":"Earth and environmental sciences/Climate sciences/Hydrology"}],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2024-11-14T08:07:57+00:00","versionOfRecord":{"articleIdentity":"rs-4162461","link":"https://doi.org/10.1038/s43247-024-01877-8","journal":{"identity":"communications-earth-and-environment","isVorOnly":false,"title":"Communications Earth \u0026 Environment"},"publishedOn":"2024-11-14 05:00:00","publishedOnDateReadable":"November 14th, 2024"},"versionCreatedAt":"2024-04-10 16:14:34","video":"","vorDoi":"10.1038/s43247-024-01877-8","vorDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1038/s43247-024-01877-8","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-4162461","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-4162461","identity":"rs-4162461","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"qtupq5eGEP_6zYnWcrvyt","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}