Psychosocial exploration on systemic oppression of tea plantation labours in Kerala, India

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Despite their critical contributions, tea plantation laborers face persistent challenges that impact their livelihoods and well-being. Although governmental interventions have introduced legislation to improve their conditions, the effectiveness of these measures remains questionable. Objective This study aimed to explore the systemic oppression experienced by plantation labourers, focusing on the complex, multidimensional factors that sustain their lives. Methods A qualitative methodology was employed, utilizing a classical grounded theory approach. The study was conducted in Kerala, India, and semi-structured interviews were carried out with 18 plantation labourers to capture in-depth accounts of to capture the depth and complexity of the challenges faced by the labourers. Results Data analysis led to the identification of several codes, which were categorized into six major dimensions: socioeconomic determinants, health, working environment conditions, psychological factors, political influences, and welfare provisions. Together, these dimensions form a comprehensive framework labelled "systemic oppression," highlighting the complex interplay of factors contributing to the ongoing struggles of plantation labourers. Conclusion The analysis reveals a deeply rooted pattern of systemic oppression affecting plantation labourers, emphasizing the multidimensional nature of their challenges and the urgent need for significant reforms. This research offers valuable insights into the persistent struggles faced by these Labours and also calls for further research and government actions. Tea plantation Labours Systemic oppression India Grounded theory Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 1. Introduction Tea originated in China and is disseminated globally, including in India, Indonesia, Sri Lanka, Kenya, and South America [ 1 ]. India is the second-largest tea producer in the world, next to China, with a production of 1267 million kilograms annually [ 2 ]. The first tea plantations were established by British colonialists in the Indian state of Assam in the 1830s, with tea plants brought from China [ 3 ]. These large-scale plantations are spread over South India, specifically within the states of Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, and Kerala. The tea industry remains heavily reliant on a manual labour force, with workers primarily responsible for the plucking of green tea leaves in the plantations[ 4 ]. These labourers, along with their families, typically reside on the estates where they are employed, depending on the plantation infrastructure for access to basic necessities such as food, healthcare, and education, provisions that have been managed by plantation owners[ 5 ]. Tea plantation Laborers have historically faced significant challenges, including low wages, limited opportunities for upward mobility, marked unfair labour conditions, lack of social security benefits, and perpetuating poverty [ 6 , 7 ]. In the post-colonial period, the Indian government acknowledged the challenges faced by tea plantation labourers and implemented significant legislative reforms: In 1951, the Plantations Labour Act was passed to ensure the wellbeing of plantation workers, by regulating the working conditions on plantations [ 8 ]. The State of Jammu & Kashmir is exempt from the Act's coverage to the entire nation. The Minimum Wage Act, 1948 was a landmark piece of legislation that the Government of India adopted with the express purpose of fostering a positive work environment in an industry where workers had been abused and violated for years [ 8 ]. The formation of Plantation Labour Committee (PLC), The PLC made decisions regarding bonuses, wage fixation and revision, the hiring of temporary workers, a gratuity programme for plantation workers, allowances and other benefits, a charter of demands for workers in the plantation industry, and other matters pertaining to the general welfare of plantation workers. These laws and initiatives marked a significant departure from the exploitative practices of the colonial period and sought to provide relief and protection to the labour force within the tea plantations. However, the challenges faced by tea plantation Labours did not evaporate with independence. Instead, they evolved, giving rise to a new set of problems, including the government's trade liberalisation strategy, low productivity, declining auction prices, high production costs, a lack of value-added products, and poor management are the key causes of the crisis in tea plantation business [ 9 ], and that have impacted the labours daily living contributed to a sense of oppression within this demographic [ 10 , 11 ]. Michel Foucault has truly said, “Power is everywhere; is not because it embraces everything, but because it comes from everywhere” [ 12 ]. Oppression is the experience of repeated, widespread, systemic injustice [ 13 ]. Iris Marion Young (2014) has described five aspects of oppression: violence, exploitation, marginalization, powerlessness, and cultural imperialism [ 14 ]. Tea plantation labours are subjected to systemic oppression, perpetuated by a complex interplay of institutional practices, legal frameworks, and deeply ingrained cultural norms. The current Labours on many tea plantations in India are fourth or fifth-generation plantation Labours [ 15 ]. Since the post-independence era, the tea plantation industry has been declining, which has mostly had an impact on the livelihood of the plantation Labours [ 16 ]. Within the confines of the settlement area, the lives of the Labours on tea plantations have been severely constrained. Within the plantation, the majority of the labours are located in outlying and desolate areas [ 5 , 17 ]. The labourers were unable to fulfil their necessities, such as adequate shelter, access to quality education, and proper sanitation facilities, within the constraints of their wages [ 5 , 18 , 19 ]. Repeated exposure to health-damaging conditions, including frequent contact with chemicals and pesticides, excessive workloads, and the resulting hip and foot injuries, increases the risk of various health complications among Labours [ 2 , 20 ]. The unresponsiveness from the legislative boards and authorities toward this issue is the critical element for them to be underrepresented in the basic needs. This study seeks to examine the challenges and hardships faced by tea plantation Labours, encompassing issues such as low wages, poor working conditions, limited access to essential resources, and deprivation of fundamental rights. These adversities are explored in the context of their potential contribution to systemic oppression within this demographic. By providing insights into the lived experiences of these Labours, the research aims to inform interventions addressing their basic needs and offer recommendations to policymakers for actions that promote equitable and sustainable improvements in their living and working conditions. The research questions of the study are follows: What are the socio-economic challenges and experiences of systemic oppression faced by tea plantation labours? What physical and psychological issues do tea plantation labours experience as a result of their work condition? How effectively do tea plantation owners and companies address these challenges, and what support systems or interventions are in place to help the labours? 2. Method An exploratory study is essential for examining the research question. The objective was to comprehend people's experiences and current situation that they are facing in the plantation sector. A grounded theory approach was employed to investigate the factors contributing to the systematic oppression of tea plantation Labours [ 21 ]. Participants Purposeful sampling was used to select participants who were tea plantation Labours aged 18 and above with over three years of experience. Inclusion was limited to Labours currently employed and residing in company-owned housing. Additionally, theoretical sampling [ 21 ] was applied to ensure participants' firsthand experience with the phenomenon, enhancing data richness. The data was collected from the plantation workers of Idukki district of Kerala. A total of 18 plantation workers were taken from the 3 estates of Idukki. Participant details are given in the Table 1 . Table 1 Demographic details of the participants. Participants Age Gender Experience KP 49 Female 27 years PH 51 Female 31 years RV 46 Male 25 years JR 44 Female 18 years SB 47 Female 12 years AJ 52 Male 30 years SA 29 Male 8 years SN 52 Male 32 years BN 31 Female 7 years ER 32 Female 6 years JY 39 Female 11 years SI 45 Female 19 years VT 46 Male 17 years AR 32 Male 10 years SB 40 Female 12 years BV 43 Male 22 years GA 49 Female 28 years SM 38 Female 10 years Procedure The interviews were conducted using a semi-structured schedule consisting of 13 open-ended questions and related sub-questions. The researcher contacted participants directly, explaining the study's purpose and significance, and obtained their consent. While some individuals declined to participate, others agreed. Each interview lasted between 15 and 120 minutes and was transcribed verbatim by the researcher. Data collection ended when no new insights emerged, indicating that saturation had been reached. Figure 1 is a framework summarising methods and processes that underpin the generation of Grounded theory. All participants signed a consent form from the start that they were willing to participate in the interview while also ensuring confidentiality and anonymity throughout the process. Ethical consideration While conducting this study, the researcher ensured Informed consent from all participants. The participants were given advance notice prior to the interview, a broad outline of the subject to be discussed, an indication of the type of information that was required for the participant. Prior to the commencement of each interview the participants were told the length of time involved with the interview and sufficient time was allowed before and after for the participant to ask any questions related to the research topic. All participants signed a consent form from the start that they were willing to participate in the interview while also ensuring confidentiality and anonymity throughout the process. 3. Results and Discussion The study encompasses the systemic oppression of tea plantation Labours in Kerala. The Initial coding is the first step of the grounded theory approach, defined as the process of breaking down, examining, comparing, conceptualizing, and categorizing data [ 21 ]. Codes are systematically generated by conducting a line-by-line analysis of the data. These codes serve as concise, descriptive labels that capture the essential content of each data item, providing a clear and vivid representation of the underlying information [ 22 ]. The codes derived from the initial coding process exhibit common characteristics; based on the shared characteristics, codes are systematically organized into specific dimensions. This procedural step is referred to as intermediate coding. After the intermediate coding, six dimensions are formed: socioeconomic, health, work environment, psychological, political, and welfare measures. Socio-economic dimension Socioeconomic status (SES) encompasses income, educational achievement, occupational prestige, and subjective social position [ 23 ]. Codes that come under the socio-economic dimension are education, house, wage, and toilet. Plantation Labours have long been marginalized in the educational sector since the British invasion of India. Over the years, government officials have made several attempts to improve the academic standard of plantation Labours [ 7 ]. The current investigation confirms that educational backwardness continues with insufficient resources and financial constraints which hindered the academic pursuits of their children, despite their strong interest in acquiring knowledge. The quality of education provided to children is insufficient, and they are required to travel for over an hour to access educational institutions [ 5 , 18 , 19 ]. This prevailing issue persists for future generations, compelling them to seek better education opportunities elsewhere, leading to migration. A research study conducted by Saikia (2017) found that estate management has consistently withheld basic education, both for the Labours and their offspring. Saikia's findings indicate a significant gender disparity in literacy rates, with female Labours lagging behind their male counterparts. The houses where plantation Labours live, provided by plantation companies since the British colonial period, have not been renovated and are in poor condition. Many of these houses are small and lack space, with a large number of them suffering from unsanitary conditions [ 18 ]. This has led to various health problems for the residents. Despite their desire to construct new houses, most plantation Labours face financial constraints that prevent them from doing so independently. The wage for plantation Labours is determined by the Plantation Labour Committee, an assembly consisting of government officials, plantation owners, and trade union representatives. This committee establishes a uniform wage rate applicable to all estates. It is important to note that salary increments are implemented at intervals of 4 to 5 years. The prevailing wage for plantation labour stands at 470 rupees per day, a figure that proves grossly inadequate for meeting their necessities [ 19 ]. Among the 18 participants interviewed, it was evident that many of them have accumulated substantial bank loans to cover essential expenses such as education for their children and other fundamental needs. As a consequence, this situation has had a severe impact on the livelihood and well-being of plantation Labours. Among the challenges encountered by plantation Labours, one of the most prominent issues is the lack of adequate toilet facilities. In their living quarters, several families are accommodated within a single building, each occupying their respective cubicles. Unfortunately, some Labours are forced to share communal toilets, which not only poses hygiene concerns but also gives rise to various health-related problems for the Labours. Health “If you want to learn about the health of a population, look at the air they breathe, the water they drink, and the places where they live. " – Hippocrates Health is a state of complete physical, mental, and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity [ 24 ]. The codes identified under the dimension of health are atopic asthma, hysterectomy, respiratory problems & lung disease, hip & foot injury, shoulder complaints, and dermatitis. The Global Strategy for Asthma Management and Prevention Guidelines define asthma as “a chronic inflammatory disorder of the airways associated with increased airway hyperresponsiveness, recurrent episodes of wheezing, breathlessness, chest tightness, and coughing”. Among plantation Labours, asthma emerges as a prominent health concern, with a noteworthy 12 participants reporting symptoms of asthma, this supports the existing literature on plantation Labours facing respiratory problems [ 20 ]. This condition appears to be a consequence of their exposure to specific chemicals utilized in their workplace, as well as the unsanitary living conditions prevalent in their surroundings [ 20 ]. The term hysterectomy originated from the Greek words: “hysteron” which means uterus and “ectomy” which means removal from the human body. It is the surgical removal of the uterus. Many Female plantation Labours have undergone hysterectomy procedures. This phenomenon appears to be closely associated with the challenging and strenuous nature of their work, which often involves tightly tying sacks around their waist, leading to irregular menstruation [ 18 , 25 ]. The cumulative effects of these factors contribute to the necessity of uterus removal for affected female Labours. Respiratory problems are a prevalent issue among plantation Labours, with atopic asthma being one of the notable conditions observed. The demanding nature of their work exposes them to a myriad of environmental factors and hazardous substances, such as dust, pesticides, and airborne pollutants. Such prolonged exposure poses a significant risk of developing respiratory disorders, including chronic bronchitis and other related conditions. Hip and foot injuries of plantation Labours are indeed a matter of great concern. The repetitive movements, heavy lifting, uneven terrain, and exposure to hazardous conditions shape the occurrence of these injuries. Every participant in the study reported that they had experienced injuries. It is evident that the repetitive nature of certain tasks, such as bending, squatting, and lifting substantial loads, leads to strains and overuse injuries in the hip joints and surrounding muscles [ 2 ]. A research study conducted in the coffee plantations reveals a significant prevalence of a contingent workforce in the tea plantation industry, with a majority of these Labours being engaged in high-risk occupations associated with potential diseases and injuries [ 26 ]. In addition, the peril of slips, trips, and falls looms large, potentially resulting in traumatic hip injuries [ 27 ]. The shoulder complaints among plantation Labours, particularly women, have emerged as a significant occupational health concern. In this study, a cohort of 13 female plantation Labours were interviewed, and each participant reported experiencing shoulder problems stemming from repetitive hand movements inherent to their work activities. The repetitive nature of these tasks’ places considerable strain on their hands and muscles, leading to a range of shoulder issues, including rotator cuff injuries, tendonitis, bursitis, and shoulder impingement syndrome [ 28 ]. The broad term "dermatitis" is used to describe a typical skin irritant. It has numerous causes and manifestations but typically involves dry, itchy skin or a rash. The inherent nature of their work exposes them to various environmental factors and potentially irritant substances, elevating the risk of developing this condition. Labours frequently encounter plant materials, pesticides, and other chemicals during their tasks, further heightened skin sensitivity and potentially leading to dermatitis [ 29 , 30 ]. Such manifestations of dermatitis can cause discomfort and hinder Labours' productivity, necessitating timely and proactive intervention. Work-environmental condition The codes come under the dimension of work environmental conditions are unfair labour practices, power hierarchy, work time, pesticides and chemicals, climate, and insect bites. In interviews conducted with plantation Labours, it was revealed that they have been subjected to various unfair labour practices. One prominent issue is the inconsistent payment of wages, wherein Labours reported instances of delayed or withheld wages [ 31 ]. Historically, during the colonial era, labourers were provided with medical support and access to doctors, Presently, there is an absence of health centres and medical practitioners within the plantation premises, leaving Labours without accessible healthcare facilities. This requires labourers to undertake lengthy and arduous journeys from their residences to avail of medical services [ 6 ]. A participant in the interviews emphasized a concerning aspect of the plantation sector, indicating that power distribution is often influenced by social connections and financial leverage rather than by qualifications such as education and experience. The hierarchy in this sector typically comprises company owners at the top, followed by general managers, managers, supervisors, and labourers at the base. Correspondingly, the salary structure also exhibits significant disparities. This uneven salary distribution raises critical concerns, as it compromises the fundamental rights of individuals in the plantation sector. The reliance on supervisors to enforce regulations and directives accentuates the influence of hierarchy, potentially impacting labourers' rights, dignity, and overall working conditions. The respondents in the study reported adhering to a six-day work schedule, with some availing their weekly rest while others forgoing it. Each worker engaged in eight hours of work per day, resulting in a total of forty-eight hours of work per week. Notably, none of the respondents received their wages on the occasions when they took their weekly rest. In the plantation sector, extra pay for additional work is offered, but it comes with considerable work pressure. Despite the challenges, some participants opted to undertake extra work to earn supplemental wages due to the prevailing conditions they faced. A wide array of pesticides and chemicals are used in this sector to optimize production and safeguard against environmental threats such as insects, bacteria, and viruses. However, the handling of these pesticides and chemicals by the labour has given rise to serious health concerns [ 29 , 30 , 32 ]. Although the companies provide personal protective equipment (PPE) kits, it has come to light that they may not be entirely adequate, as Labours continue to experience health issues, including asthma and respiratory problems. The health implications arising from exposure to pesticides and chemicals warrant careful attention and mitigation measures. Climate changes in the region significantly impact the lives of plantation Labours. While the geographical conditions are critical for tea production, the area is also prone to environmental calamities, some of which have occurred in the past. The period from June to August witnessed heavy rainfall, resulting in severe damage to the lives and properties of plantation labourers [ 33 ]. The Labours face uncertainty during this time, making it challenging for them to reside in their houses amidst the rain and adverse weather conditions. Similarly, the summer months from March to May subject the Labours to intense heat and exposure to harmful UV rays, leading to various health issues, including skin problems [ 34 ]. Two participants reported experiencing major insect bites from the estates, while four others mentioned minor attacks from insects. Blood-sucking insects are prevalent in many tropical and subtropical regions, and they can transmit various diseases such as malaria, dengue, and Zika virus, among others [ 18 ]. Additionally, certain types of flies, such as stable flies or horse flies, may also bite humans, causing painful and itchy bites. Psychological Mental health is a basic human right. And it is crucial to personal, community and socio-economic development” [ 35 ]. The codes identified in the psychological dimension are job stress, anxiety, learned helplessness, sleep, job satisfaction, and job security, Job stress among plantation Labours has emerged as a significant concern, with all 18 participants interviewed reporting experiences of stress that negatively impact their overall well-being and quality of life [ 36 , 37 ]. The primary reasons cited for job stress include the demanding nature of their work and the constrained time they have to complete their tasks. The heavy workload and the lack of sufficient time for rest are major contributors to the heightened stress levels among these labours. Anxiety refers to a physiological and psychological condition that affects physical, cognitive, emotional, and behavioural aspects [ 38 ]. Among plantation Labours, anxiety is notably prevalent [ 36 , 39 ], particularly concerning the well-being and prospects of their children. Participants expressed significant concern about their children's future, especially regarding their education and the financial resources required for their betterment. The prevailing mindset among plantation Labours stems from a belief that their ancestors have been bound to this profession for generations, leaving them feeling trapped and unable to break free from its grasp. This state of learned helplessness has its origins in the period of British colonialism, during which socio-economic conditions perpetuated a sense of dependence and limited options for mobility. This mindset has been passed down through generations, contributing to a persistent sense of hopelessness and a perception that alternatives to plantation work are scarce the current generation is beginning to recognize and challenge this ingrained perspective [ 40 ]. With increased awareness and exposure to new opportunities, many individuals are choosing to explore diverse career paths outside of the plantation sector [ 41 ]. Sleep disturbances are prevalent among the Labours, with a majority of participants reporting, primarily linked to economic concerns and worries about their children's future. Additionally, the heavy work stress and physical demands of their occupation contribute to sleep disruptions [ 36 ]. Female Labours experience serious sleep issues during their menstrual cycle, and two participants disclosed a history of Polycystic Ovary Syndrome (PCOD), which impacts their sleep patterns. The feedback from the 18 participants unequivocally indicates their dissatisfaction with their current plantation work [ 42 ]. Despite their desire to shift from this occupation, the lack of suitable housing options poses an obstacle to pursuing alternative opportunities [ 43 ]. The dearth of appropriate housing facilities constrains their mobility and makes it challenging to explore other career options. Moreover, the lack of support from both the company and the trade union further exacerbates the Labours' predicament. The pervasive sense of job insecurity instils fear among the plantation Labours, prompting them to actively explore alternative employment options in pursuit of a more stable and secure livelihood [ 44 ]. The uncertainty surrounding their job stability drives their concerted efforts to secure positions that offer greater assurance and stability in their professional lives. Political The codes that are identified under politics are the Minimum Wages Act, Plantation Labour Act, plantation Labour Committee, Social exclusion, and collective bargaining. The Minimum Wage Act, of 1948 was a landmark piece of legislation that the Government of India adopted to foster a positive work environment in an industry where Labours had been abused and violated for years. During the period of British rule, there was no structured format for providing wages to the Labours. However, after independence, the government introduced the Minimum Wage Act to ensure that Labours receive a fair minimum wage and have scheduled work hours. Additionally, the law grants Labours the right to one day of rest per week. This legislation was passed in 1948 and continues to be in effect today. The current wage levels remain inadequate given the prevailing environmental conditions [ 19 ]. The increasing demands and cost of living have put a strain on Labours, and they require higher wages to meet their basic needs. The plantation labour committee (PLC) routinely discussed worker demands or governmental policies. During various discussions, trade union members, government officials, and company owners have put forth numerous arguments, some of which have potential benefits for the Labours. However, the issue of wage incrementation seems to dominate the discussions, yet the past committees' track record indicates limited progress in this regard. Consequently, the committee's activities have failed to significantly improve the Labours' quality of life. The lack of substantial wage incrementation remains a central and unresolved matter, leading to widespread dissatisfaction among the workforce. Social exclusion is a multi-dimensional process in which various forms of exclusions like participation in decision-making and political processes, access to employment and material resources, and integration into common cultural processes, are combined. Social exclusion of plantation Labours manifests in several forms, with one of the prominent issues being economic disparities. These Labours face the challenge of inadequate wages, rendering them unable to meet their basic needs. Their economic vulnerability severely limits their access to resources and opportunities that could enhance their social standing. As a result, their participation in activities that could lead to socio-economic improvement is restricted [ 45 ]. The formal negotiation process between employees, ideally through a trade union, and employers is known as collective bargaining. In the context of plantation labour, the process of collective bargaining transpires between representatives of trade unions and the management of the employing company. This intricate procedure entails a series of negotiations conducted to address diverse requisites on behalf of the labour force. The discussions undertaken during these negotiations culminate in a consensus that is mutually agreeable to both parties involved. According to insights gathered from interviewed participants, it has been noted that the collective bargaining process often manifests predominantly as a series of discussions rather than a catalyst for substantial alterations or immediate actions. Welfare measures The plantation company has instituted a range of welfare measures tailored to benefit its workforce, all of which are governed by the stipulations outlined in the Plantation Labour Act. Several salient codes have been identified among these provisions, including gratuity, bonus schemes, Kambili allowance, and provisions for maternity leave. In the context of plantation labour, gratuity is provided to Labours upon retirement. During the investigation, it was found that one respondent’s father experienced a delay in receiving his gratuity, even after three years. Such delays can create added challenges for beneficiaries, highlighting the need to streamline administrative processes to ensure timely payment of these funds [ 5 ]. Bonuses for plantation Labours depend on their involvement in extra tasks or working beyond standard hours. For the Labours in this study, their participation in additional tasks is especially high during peak crop seasons when production significantly increases. In the estates of Idukki district, where the monsoon climate is both beautiful and harsh, a longstanding tradition reflects resilience and care. Aware of the challenging weather, the company provides plantation Labours with wool jackets—a practice that began in the British era and continued after independence. These wool jackets are more than simple clothing; they serve as a thoughtful protection against the elements. The company extends a maternity leave policy to its Labours, acknowledging the importance of supporting employees during significant life events. In addition to this leave provision, the company offers a valuable benefit wherein the medical expenses related to maternity are covered, provided the relevant bills are submitted for reimbursement. Conceptualised framework The interconnected dynamics of these codes, which collectively contribute to the six identified dimensions, serve as key predictors of systemic oppression among tea plantation Labours, which is represented in Fig. 3 . The inadequate implementation and frequent violations of political and welfare measures significantly affect Labours’ socioeconomic status and overall working conditions. Key issues include the ineffective enforcement of labour laws, social exclusion, and limited opportunities for collective bargaining on wages and other essential needs during official negotiations. Delays in the disbursement of gratuity and bonuses, as well as the insufficient provision of essential benefits by employers, further exacerbate these challenges. These shortcomings hinder Labours' ability to meet fundamental societal standards, such as access to adequate housing, sanitation facilities, fair wages, and educational opportunities for their children. Furthermore, their occupational environment often entails considerable risks, including exposure to harmful chemicals and pesticides, the adverse effects of climate change, inefficiencies in administrative hierarchies, and frequent insect bites. The cumulative impact of these factors is evident in the Labours' physical and psychological well-being. Common physical health concerns include respiratory problems, dermatological conditions, hip and foot injuries, shoulder disorders, and hysterectomy. Psychological issues are equally prevalent, with Labours reporting stress, anxiety, sleep disturbances, learned helplessness, and diminished job satisfaction and security. Addressing these multifaceted challenges necessitates the robust implementation of policies, improved workplace safety standards, and timely delivery of welfare benefits Conclusion In conclusion, the analysis of the dimensions reveals a deeply rooted pattern of systemic oppression experienced by plantation Labours in this study. The complex interactions between various factors highlight the multi-dimensional nature of their challenges and point to the need for significant reforms. Using grounded theory methodology, the study developed a comprehensive framework consisting of six dimensions, by minimising or suppressing these are collectively contributed to a systemic oppression among this sample. This research offers valuable insights into the persistent struggles faced by these Labours. Limitations This study has certain limitations that should be acknowledged. First, the sample size was relatively small, comprising only 18 participants from three estates in Kerala, which may restrict the generalizability of the findings to other regions or plantation settings. Second, the framework and connections between the codes and dimensions were derived solely from the experiences of this specific sample, and these relationships may differ in other contexts or among different groups of laborers. Consequently, caution should be exercised in extending the findings beyond the immediate study context. Future Implications The findings of this study offer a foundational framework for understanding the systemic oppression faced by plantation laborers. Future research should aim to replicate and extend this work with larger and more diverse samples across different geographical locations to validate and refine the identified dimensions. Additionally, longitudinal and comparative studies could provide deeper insights into how systemic oppression evolves over time and under varying policy interventions. Importantly, the framework developed in this study can serve as a basis for designing targeted reforms and policies aimed at addressing the multi-dimensional challenges identified, thereby promoting more equitable labor conditions within the tea plantation industry. Declarations Acknowledgments The successful completion of this paper and the associated research would not have been achievable without the invaluable support and cooperation extended by the study participants. Declaration of competing interest The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper. Funding The study was not funded by any specific grant from funding afgencies in the public, commercial or not-for-profit sectors. Ethical Approval Ethical approval of this study was obtained at the department level committee from the Department of Psychology, University of Kerala. The study was conducted in accordance with the guidelines outlined in the American Psychological Association (APA). Consent to Participate Written Informed consent was obtained from all the participants prior to their involvement in the study. Consent to Publish Participants provided consent for the publication of data collected during the study, ensuring that their anonymity and confidentiality were maintained. 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Asian J Agric Ext Econ Sociol. 2018;26(1):1–9. Strauss A, Corbin JM. Basics of qualitative research: Grounded theory procedures and techniques. Basics of qualitative research. Thousand Oaks, CA, US: Sage Publications, Inc; 1990. p. 270. Charmaz K. Grounded Theory in Global Perspective - Kathy Charmaz, 2014 [Internet]. 2014 [cited 2025 Apr 26]. Available from: https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/1077800414545235 Socioeconomic status [Internet]. https://www.apa.org. [cited 2025 Apr 26]. Available from: https://www.apa.org/topics/socioeconomic-status Constitution of the World Health Organization [Internet]. [cited 2025 Apr 26]. Available from: https://www.who.int/about/governance/constitution Sarmah M, Barooah BC, REPRODUCTIVE RIGHTS OF, WOMEN IN INDIA WITH FOCUS ON TEA PLANTATION WORKERS OF SONITPUR DISTRICT OF ASSAM., INDIA. B C. 2022. Roy D. Uncovering the Silent Crisis: Occupational Health Hazards Among India’s Tea Plantation Workers. 2024. Estrada-Muñoz C, Madrid-Casaca H, Salazar-Sepúlveda G, Contreras-Barraza N, Iturra-González J, Vega-Muñoz A. Musculoskeletal Symptoms and Assessment of Ergonomic Risk Factors on a Coffee Farm. Appl Sci. 2022;12(15):7703. Masri N, Deros B, Yusof HM. Work-Related Musculoskeletal Disorders Among Tea Pluckers. 2017. Dhananjayan V, Ravichandran B. Occupational health risk of farmers exposed to pesticides in agricultural activities. Curr Opin Environ Sci Health. 2018;4:31–7. Kumar SN, Vaibhav K, Bastia B, Singh V, Ahluwalia M, Agrawal U, Borgohain D, Raisuddin S, Jain AK. Occupational exposure to pesticides in female tea garden workers and adverse birth outcomes. J Biochem Mol Toxicol. 2021;35(3):e22677. Powrel PJ, Mishra S. Job Satisfaction Level among the Tea Garden Workers in Biswanath District of Assam, India. J Exp Agric Int. 2024;46(8):570–6. Kannan R, Naveen R. Assessment of self-perceived risk and risk rating among chemical sprayers in selected tea plantations in South India. Int J Occup Saf Health. 2024;14(1):1–6. Baruah P, Handique G. Perception of climate change and adaptation strategies in tea plantations of Assam, India. Environ Monit Assess. 2021;193(4):165. Shikhamoni Gogoi*, Radha. ASSESSMENT OF THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND T, HEALTH CONDITIONS OF WOMEN TEA PLANTATION WORKERS IN NAMBORNADI TEA ESTATE. ASSAM J Res ANGRAU. 2023;51(3):174–7. Mental health [Internet]. [cited 2025 Apr 26]. Available from: https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/mental-health-strengthening-our-response Pahari S. Decoding Pandemic Stress: Analysing Mental Health of Tea Workers in India. Manag Labour Stud. 2024;0258042X241285572. Sathya Rashmi GURUGE, Joowon BAN. Analysing the Impact of Occupational Stress on Employee Performance: A Case Study on Hayleys Plantations and Tea Export PLC in Sri Lanka. 2021 Nov 23 [cited 2024 Nov 5]; Available from: https://zenodo.org/record/5722210 Anxiety [Internet]. https://www.apa.org. [cited 2025 Apr 26]. Available from: https://www.apa.org/topics/anxiety Mallick A, Roy SK. Living in sick tea plantations: socioeconomic and health conditions of indigenous tea garden workers and their survival strategies. In: Indigenous People and Nature [Internet]. Elsevier; 2022 [cited 2024 Nov 5]. pp. 217–39. Available from: https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/B978032391603500004X Roy D. Entrepreneurship-driven Migratory Behaviour Among the Tea Estate Workers in West Bengal: An Exploratory Study. Vikalpa J Decis Mak. 2023;02560909231184775. Banerjee S. Who Leaves Home If There is a Choice? Migration Decisions of Women Workers on Tea Plantations in India. Transfers. 2021;11(2):53–75. Amsaveni R, Ilavarasi J, Gomathi S. A Study on Job Satisfaction of Women Workers in Tea Estates With Special Reference to the Nilgiris District. Prabandhan Indian J Manag. 2013;6(10):28. Kamaruddin R, Abdullah N, Ayob MA. Determinants of job satisfaction among Malaysian youth working in the oil palm plantation sector. J Agribus Dev Emerg Econ. 2018;8(4):678–92. Srinivasan MG. A Study on Problems of Tea Plantation Workers in Nilgiris District, Tamilnadu, India. 2016;5. Zaman MO, Abir TM. The Process of Social Exclusion of Tea Garden Workers: A Study on Sylhet City Corporation, Bangladesh. Asian J Humanity Art Lit. 2018;5(2):101–8. Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Cite Share Download PDF Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-6557758","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":462939360,"identity":"c2ac785b-3fa7-4318-858a-d0bd0ea9bdfc","order_by":0,"name":"Aswin Rajeev","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAABBklEQVRIie2PMUsDMRTHWwLtcnJrRNCv8G7JdOQ+iEtK4Fws6myhJw5dCl37JQQnJ4cngXM5zRpw8IrQ+cC1g4m03dLrWGh+8Mgb/r/8eZ1OIHCgoB3ipm4gtW/3AfdVesn8NndK0apsOYsatf3ESzyrEnX3yvtxfwoQgeZPE2VbRumlT6HmGtR8KcnptIKawpd8qQZWKfNh4XPMybOKkBAwuQCwCkOrdAvlVS70h1PGJPteCirgUzK92K0ADp2iCFCCFAE5My0tiblprPJOaCXLpAApmLEtYsct57qUvxHey3jy9vizWvGM6atF3YxS//lr5GYZ/CdFS9zBN0u2RzgQCASOjD+/hGg2dx2O0gAAAABJRU5ErkJggg==","orcid":"","institution":"University of Kerala","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Aswin","middleName":"","lastName":"Rajeev","suffix":""},{"id":462939361,"identity":"48ba08d9-c8e0-4042-8951-29cb7fadd610","order_by":1,"name":"Ganesh Anil Kumar Vijaya","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"University of Kerala","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Ganesh","middleName":"Anil Kumar","lastName":"Vijaya","suffix":""},{"id":462939362,"identity":"0a48498c-0e8e-40eb-b636-c7ed5e319640","order_by":2,"name":"Dr. Jasseer Jabbar","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"University of Kerala","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"Dr.","firstName":"Jasseer","middleName":"","lastName":"Jabbar","suffix":""},{"id":462939363,"identity":"e68608f8-41ff-49d2-9d96-8b138c51442b","order_by":3,"name":"Dr. Jayan C","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"University of Kerala","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"Dr.","firstName":"Jayan","middleName":"","lastName":"C","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2025-04-29 15:08:33","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6557758/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-6557758/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":83606660,"identity":"b6641a98-abd5-4838-987a-1d25ddd26d94","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-05-29 10:58:26","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":81032,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eStudy design framework\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6557758/v1/9eb88fadc6c80040b78ed95a.png"},{"id":83606167,"identity":"282291ad-3123-4ca5-a80f-0c1867a7a416","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-05-29 10:50:26","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":88184,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eRepresents the Initial coding, intermediate cording, and selective core category.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6557758/v1/ecafbebd9d09000b56868393.png"},{"id":83605890,"identity":"7d40e146-a2d9-4708-8269-da611500bb12","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-05-29 10:42:26","extension":"png","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":50392,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eRepresents Conceptualised framework\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"3.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6557758/v1/937ecd7017e042523803f5be.png"},{"id":101383669,"identity":"b406bba8-fe57-4214-9585-12c687c109c6","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-01-29 06:43:07","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":803951,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6557758/v1/0fc18c31-db34-42c2-af8e-f9336656130c.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Psychosocial exploration on systemic oppression of tea plantation labours in Kerala, India","fulltext":[{"header":"1. Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eTea originated in China and is disseminated globally, including in India, Indonesia, Sri Lanka, Kenya, and South America [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e]. India is the second-largest tea producer in the world, next to China, with a production of 1267\u0026nbsp;million kilograms annually [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e]. The first tea plantations were established by British colonialists in the Indian state of Assam in the 1830s, with tea plants brought from China [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e]. These large-scale plantations are spread over South India, specifically within the states of Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, and Kerala. The tea industry remains heavily reliant on a manual labour force, with workers primarily responsible for the plucking of green tea leaves in the plantations[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e]. These labourers, along with their families, typically reside on the estates where they are employed, depending on the plantation infrastructure for access to basic necessities such as food, healthcare, and education, provisions that have been managed by plantation owners[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTea plantation Laborers have historically faced significant challenges, including low wages, limited opportunities for upward mobility, marked unfair labour conditions, lack of social security benefits, and perpetuating poverty [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e]. In the post-colonial period, the Indian government acknowledged the challenges faced by tea plantation labourers and implemented significant legislative reforms: In 1951, the Plantations Labour Act was passed to ensure the wellbeing of plantation workers, by regulating the working conditions on plantations [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e]. The State of Jammu \u0026amp; Kashmir is exempt from the Act's coverage to the entire nation. The Minimum Wage Act, 1948 was a landmark piece of legislation that the Government of India adopted with the express purpose of fostering a positive work environment in an industry where workers had been abused and violated for years [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e]. The formation of Plantation Labour Committee (PLC), The PLC made decisions regarding bonuses, wage fixation and revision, the hiring of temporary workers, a gratuity programme for plantation workers, allowances and other benefits, a charter of demands for workers in the plantation industry, and other matters pertaining to the general welfare of plantation workers. These laws and initiatives marked a significant departure from the exploitative practices of the colonial period and sought to provide relief and protection to the labour force within the tea plantations. However, the challenges faced by tea plantation Labours did not evaporate with independence. Instead, they evolved, giving rise to a new set of problems, including the government's trade liberalisation strategy, low productivity, declining auction prices, high production costs, a lack of value-added products, and poor management are the key causes of the crisis in tea plantation business [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e], and that have impacted the labours daily living contributed to a sense of oppression within this demographic [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e]. Michel Foucault has truly said, \u0026ldquo;Power is everywhere; is not because it embraces everything, but because it comes from everywhere\u0026rdquo; [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e]. Oppression is the experience of repeated, widespread, systemic injustice [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e]. Iris Marion Young (2014) has described five aspects of oppression: violence, exploitation, marginalization, powerlessness, and cultural imperialism [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTea plantation labours are subjected to systemic oppression, perpetuated by a complex interplay of institutional practices, legal frameworks, and deeply ingrained cultural norms. The current Labours on many tea plantations in India are fourth or fifth-generation plantation Labours [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e15\u003c/span\u003e]. Since the post-independence era, the tea plantation industry has been declining, which has mostly had an impact on the livelihood of the plantation Labours [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e]. Within the confines of the settlement area, the lives of the Labours on tea plantations have been severely constrained. Within the plantation, the majority of the labours are located in outlying and desolate areas [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e]. The labourers were unable to fulfil their necessities, such as adequate shelter, access to quality education, and proper sanitation facilities, within the constraints of their wages [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e]. Repeated exposure to health-damaging conditions, including frequent contact with chemicals and pesticides, excessive workloads, and the resulting hip and foot injuries, increases the risk of various health complications among Labours [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e]. The unresponsiveness from the legislative boards and authorities toward this issue is the critical element for them to be underrepresented in the basic needs.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study seeks to examine the challenges and hardships faced by tea plantation Labours, encompassing issues such as low wages, poor working conditions, limited access to essential resources, and deprivation of fundamental rights. These adversities are explored in the context of their potential contribution to systemic oppression within this demographic. By providing insights into the lived experiences of these Labours, the research aims to inform interventions addressing their basic needs and offer recommendations to policymakers for actions that promote equitable and sustainable improvements in their living and working conditions. The research questions of the study are follows:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003col\u003e \u003cspan\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eWhat are the socio-economic challenges and experiences of systemic oppression faced by tea plantation labours?\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eWhat physical and psychological issues do tea plantation labours experience as a result of their work condition?\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eHow effectively do tea plantation owners and companies address these challenges, and what support systems or interventions are in place to help the labours?\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/span\u003e \u003c/ol\u003e \u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"2. Method","content":"\u003cp\u003eAn exploratory study is essential for examining the research question. The objective was to comprehend people's experiences and current situation that they are facing in the plantation sector. A grounded theory approach was employed to investigate the factors contributing to the systematic oppression of tea plantation Labours [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eParticipants\u003c/b\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePurposeful sampling was used to select participants who were tea plantation Labours aged 18 and above with over three years of experience. Inclusion was limited to Labours currently employed and residing in company-owned housing. Additionally, theoretical sampling [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e] was applied to ensure participants' firsthand experience with the phenomenon, enhancing data richness. The data was collected from the plantation workers of Idukki district of Kerala. A total of 18 plantation workers were taken from the 3 estates of Idukki. Participant details are given in the Table \u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDemographic details of the participants.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"4\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eParticipants\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAge\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGender\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eExperience\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eKP\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e49\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFemale\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e27 years\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePH\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e51\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFemale\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e31 years\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRV\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e46\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMale\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e25 years\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eJR\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e44\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFemale\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e18 years\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSB\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e47\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFemale\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12 years\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAJ\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e52\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMale\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e30 years\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e29\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMale\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8 years\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSN\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e52\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMale\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e32 years\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBN\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e31\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFemale\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7 years\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eER\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e32\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFemale\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6 years\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eJY\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e39\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFemale\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11 years\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSI\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e45\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFemale\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e19 years\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVT\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e46\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMale\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e17 years\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAR\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e32\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMale\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10 years\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSB\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e40\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFemale\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12 years\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBV\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e43\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMale\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e22 years\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e49\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFemale\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e28 years\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSM\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e38\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFemale\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10 years\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eProcedure\u003c/b\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe interviews were conducted using a semi-structured schedule consisting of 13 open-ended questions and related sub-questions. The researcher contacted participants directly, explaining the study's purpose and significance, and obtained their consent. While some individuals declined to participate, others agreed. Each interview lasted between 15 and 120 minutes and was transcribed verbatim by the researcher. Data collection ended when no new insights emerged, indicating that saturation had been reached. Figure\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e is a framework summarising methods and processes that underpin the generation of Grounded theory. All participants signed a consent form from the start that they were willing to participate in the interview while also ensuring confidentiality and anonymity throughout the process.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eEthical consideration\u003c/b\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWhile conducting this study, the researcher ensured Informed consent from all participants. The participants were given advance notice prior to the interview, a broad outline of the subject to be discussed, an indication of the type of information that was required for the participant. Prior to the commencement of each interview the participants were told the length of time involved with the interview and sufficient time was allowed before and after for the participant to ask any questions related to the research topic. All participants signed a consent form from the start that they were willing to participate in the interview while also ensuring confidentiality and anonymity throughout the process.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"3. Results and Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe study encompasses the systemic oppression of tea plantation Labours in Kerala. The Initial coding is the first step of the grounded theory approach, defined as the process of breaking down, examining, comparing, conceptualizing, and categorizing data [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e]. Codes are systematically generated by conducting a line-by-line analysis of the data. These codes serve as concise, descriptive labels that capture the essential content of each data item, providing a clear and vivid representation of the underlying information [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e22\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe codes derived from the initial coding process exhibit common characteristics; based on the shared characteristics, codes are systematically organized into specific dimensions. This procedural step is referred to as intermediate coding. After the intermediate coding, six dimensions are formed: socioeconomic, health, work environment, psychological, political, and welfare measures.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eSocio-economic dimension\u003c/b\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSocioeconomic status (SES) encompasses income, educational achievement, occupational prestige, and subjective social position [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e23\u003c/span\u003e]. Codes that come under the socio-economic dimension are education, house, wage, and toilet. Plantation Labours have long been marginalized in the educational sector since the British invasion of India. Over the years, government officials have made several attempts to improve the academic standard of plantation Labours [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e]. The current investigation confirms that educational backwardness continues with insufficient resources and financial constraints which hindered the academic pursuits of their children, despite their strong interest in acquiring knowledge. The quality of education provided to children is insufficient, and they are required to travel for over an hour to access educational institutions [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e]. This prevailing issue persists for future generations, compelling them to seek better education opportunities elsewhere, leading to migration. A research study conducted by Saikia (2017) found that estate management has consistently withheld basic education, both for the Labours and their offspring. Saikia's findings indicate a significant gender disparity in literacy rates, with female Labours lagging behind their male counterparts.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe houses where plantation Labours live, provided by plantation companies since the British colonial period, have not been renovated and are in poor condition. Many of these houses are small and lack space, with a large number of them suffering from unsanitary conditions [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e]. This has led to various health problems for the residents. Despite their desire to construct new houses, most plantation Labours face financial constraints that prevent them from doing so independently. The wage for plantation Labours is determined by the Plantation Labour Committee, an assembly consisting of government officials, plantation owners, and trade union representatives. This committee establishes a uniform wage rate applicable to all estates. It is important to note that salary increments are implemented at intervals of 4 to 5 years. The prevailing wage for plantation labour stands at 470 rupees per day, a figure that proves grossly inadequate for meeting their necessities [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e]. Among the 18 participants interviewed, it was evident that many of them have accumulated substantial bank loans to cover essential expenses such as education for their children and other fundamental needs. As a consequence, this situation has had a severe impact on the livelihood and well-being of plantation Labours.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAmong the challenges encountered by plantation Labours, one of the most prominent issues is the lack of adequate toilet facilities. In their living quarters, several families are accommodated within a single building, each occupying their respective cubicles. Unfortunately, some Labours are forced to share communal toilets, which not only poses hygiene concerns but also gives rise to various health-related problems for the Labours.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eHealth\u003c/b\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cem\u003e\u0026ldquo;If you want to learn about the health of a population, look at the air they breathe, the water they drink, and the places where they live.\u003c/em\u003e\" \u0026ndash; \u003cem\u003eHippocrates\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eHealth is a state of complete physical, mental, and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e24\u003c/span\u003e]. The codes identified under the dimension of health are atopic asthma, hysterectomy, respiratory problems \u0026amp; lung disease, hip \u0026amp; foot injury, shoulder complaints, and dermatitis.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e The Global Strategy for Asthma Management and Prevention Guidelines define asthma as \u0026ldquo;a chronic inflammatory disorder of the airways associated with increased airway hyperresponsiveness, recurrent episodes of wheezing, breathlessness, chest tightness, and coughing\u0026rdquo;. Among plantation Labours, asthma emerges as a prominent health concern, with a noteworthy 12 participants reporting symptoms of asthma, this supports the existing literature on plantation Labours facing respiratory problems [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e]. This condition appears to be a consequence of their exposure to specific chemicals utilized in their workplace, as well as the unsanitary living conditions prevalent in their surroundings [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe term hysterectomy originated from the Greek words: \u0026ldquo;hysteron\u0026rdquo; which means uterus and \u0026ldquo;ectomy\u0026rdquo; which means removal from the human body. It is the surgical removal of the uterus. Many Female plantation Labours have undergone hysterectomy procedures. This phenomenon appears to be closely associated with the challenging and strenuous nature of their work, which often involves tightly tying sacks around their waist, leading to irregular menstruation [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e25\u003c/span\u003e]. The cumulative effects of these factors contribute to the necessity of uterus removal for affected female Labours. Respiratory problems are a prevalent issue among plantation Labours, with atopic asthma being one of the notable conditions observed. The demanding nature of their work exposes them to a myriad of environmental factors and hazardous substances, such as dust, pesticides, and airborne pollutants. Such prolonged exposure poses a significant risk of developing respiratory disorders, including chronic bronchitis and other related conditions.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eHip and foot injuries of plantation Labours are indeed a matter of great concern. The repetitive movements, heavy lifting, uneven terrain, and exposure to hazardous conditions shape the occurrence of these injuries. Every participant in the study reported that they had experienced injuries. It is evident that the repetitive nature of certain tasks, such as bending, squatting, and lifting substantial loads, leads to strains and overuse injuries in the hip joints and surrounding muscles [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e]. A research study conducted in the coffee plantations reveals a significant prevalence of a contingent workforce in the tea plantation industry, with a majority of these Labours being engaged in high-risk occupations associated with potential diseases and injuries [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e26\u003c/span\u003e]. In addition, the peril of slips, trips, and falls looms large, potentially resulting in traumatic hip injuries [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e27\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe shoulder complaints among plantation Labours, particularly women, have emerged as a significant occupational health concern. In this study, a cohort of 13 female plantation Labours were interviewed, and each participant reported experiencing shoulder problems stemming from repetitive hand movements inherent to their work activities. The repetitive nature of these tasks\u0026rsquo; places considerable strain on their hands and muscles, leading to a range of shoulder issues, including rotator cuff injuries, tendonitis, bursitis, and shoulder impingement syndrome [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e28\u003c/span\u003e]. The broad term \"dermatitis\" is used to describe a typical skin irritant. It has numerous causes and manifestations but typically involves dry, itchy skin or a rash. The inherent nature of their work exposes them to various environmental factors and potentially irritant substances, elevating the risk of developing this condition. Labours frequently encounter plant materials, pesticides, and other chemicals during their tasks, further heightened skin sensitivity and potentially leading to dermatitis [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e29\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e30\u003c/span\u003e]. Such manifestations of dermatitis can cause discomfort and hinder Labours' productivity, necessitating timely and proactive intervention.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eWork-environmental condition\u003c/b\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe codes come under the dimension of work environmental conditions are unfair labour practices, power hierarchy, work time, pesticides and chemicals, climate, and insect bites.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn interviews conducted with plantation Labours, it was revealed that they have been subjected to various unfair labour practices. One prominent issue is the inconsistent payment of wages, wherein Labours reported instances of delayed or withheld wages [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e31\u003c/span\u003e]. Historically, during the colonial era, labourers were provided with medical support and access to doctors, Presently, there is an absence of health centres and medical practitioners within the plantation premises, leaving Labours without accessible healthcare facilities. This requires labourers to undertake lengthy and arduous journeys from their residences to avail of medical services [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e]. A participant in the interviews emphasized a concerning aspect of the plantation sector, indicating that power distribution is often influenced by social connections and financial leverage rather than by qualifications such as education and experience. The hierarchy in this sector typically comprises company owners at the top, followed by general managers, managers, supervisors, and labourers at the base. Correspondingly, the salary structure also exhibits significant disparities. This uneven salary distribution raises critical concerns, as it compromises the fundamental rights of individuals in the plantation sector. The reliance on supervisors to enforce regulations and directives accentuates the influence of hierarchy, potentially impacting labourers' rights, dignity, and overall working conditions.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe respondents in the study reported adhering to a six-day work schedule, with some availing their weekly rest while others forgoing it. Each worker engaged in eight hours of work per day, resulting in a total of forty-eight hours of work per week. Notably, none of the respondents received their wages on the occasions when they took their weekly rest. In the plantation sector, extra pay for additional work is offered, but it comes with considerable work pressure. Despite the challenges, some participants opted to undertake extra work to earn supplemental wages due to the prevailing conditions they faced. A wide array of pesticides and chemicals are used in this sector to optimize production and safeguard against environmental threats such as insects, bacteria, and viruses. However, the handling of these pesticides and chemicals by the labour has given rise to serious health concerns [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e29\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e30\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e32\u003c/span\u003e]. Although the companies provide personal protective equipment (PPE) kits, it has come to light that they may not be entirely adequate, as Labours continue to experience health issues, including asthma and respiratory problems. The health implications arising from exposure to pesticides and chemicals warrant careful attention and mitigation measures.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eClimate changes in the region significantly impact the lives of plantation Labours. While the geographical conditions are critical for tea production, the area is also prone to environmental calamities, some of which have occurred in the past. The period from June to August witnessed heavy rainfall, resulting in severe damage to the lives and properties of plantation labourers [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e33\u003c/span\u003e]. The Labours face uncertainty during this time, making it challenging for them to reside in their houses amidst the rain and adverse weather conditions. Similarly, the summer months from March to May subject the Labours to intense heat and exposure to harmful UV rays, leading to various health issues, including skin problems [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e34\u003c/span\u003e]. Two participants reported experiencing major insect bites from the estates, while four others mentioned minor attacks from insects. Blood-sucking insects are prevalent in many tropical and subtropical regions, and they can transmit various diseases such as malaria, dengue, and Zika virus, among others [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e]. Additionally, certain types of flies, such as stable flies or horse flies, may also bite humans, causing painful and itchy bites.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003ePsychological\u003c/b\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMental health is a basic human right. And it is crucial to personal, community and socio-economic development\u0026rdquo; [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e35\u003c/span\u003e]. The codes identified in the psychological dimension are job stress, anxiety, learned helplessness, sleep, job satisfaction, and job security,\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eJob stress among plantation Labours has emerged as a significant concern, with all 18 participants interviewed reporting experiences of stress that negatively impact their overall well-being and quality of life [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e36\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e37\u003c/span\u003e]. The primary reasons cited for job stress include the demanding nature of their work and the constrained time they have to complete their tasks. The heavy workload and the lack of sufficient time for rest are major contributors to the heightened stress levels among these labours. Anxiety refers to a physiological and psychological condition that affects physical, cognitive, emotional, and behavioural aspects [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e38\u003c/span\u003e]. Among plantation Labours, anxiety is notably prevalent [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e36\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e39\u003c/span\u003e], particularly concerning the well-being and prospects of their children. Participants expressed significant concern about their children's future, especially regarding their education and the financial resources required for their betterment.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe prevailing mindset among plantation Labours stems from a belief that their ancestors have been bound to this profession for generations, leaving them feeling trapped and unable to break free from its grasp. This state of learned helplessness has its origins in the period of British colonialism, during which socio-economic conditions perpetuated a sense of dependence and limited options for mobility. This mindset has been passed down through generations, contributing to a persistent sense of hopelessness and a perception that alternatives to plantation work are scarce the current generation is beginning to recognize and challenge this ingrained perspective [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e40\u003c/span\u003e]. With increased awareness and exposure to new opportunities, many individuals are choosing to explore diverse career paths outside of the plantation sector [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e41\u003c/span\u003e]. Sleep disturbances are prevalent among the Labours, with a majority of participants reporting, primarily linked to economic concerns and worries about their children's future. Additionally, the heavy work stress and physical demands of their occupation contribute to sleep disruptions [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e36\u003c/span\u003e]. Female Labours experience serious sleep issues during their menstrual cycle, and two participants disclosed a history of Polycystic Ovary Syndrome (PCOD), which impacts their sleep patterns.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe feedback from the 18 participants unequivocally indicates their dissatisfaction with their current plantation work [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e42\u003c/span\u003e]. Despite their desire to shift from this occupation, the lack of suitable housing options poses an obstacle to pursuing alternative opportunities [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e43\u003c/span\u003e]. The dearth of appropriate housing facilities constrains their mobility and makes it challenging to explore other career options. Moreover, the lack of support from both the company and the trade union further exacerbates the Labours' predicament. The pervasive sense of job insecurity instils fear among the plantation Labours, prompting them to actively explore alternative employment options in pursuit of a more stable and secure livelihood [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e44\u003c/span\u003e]. The uncertainty surrounding their job stability drives their concerted efforts to secure positions that offer greater assurance and stability in their professional lives.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003ePolitical\u003c/b\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe codes that are identified under politics are the Minimum Wages Act, Plantation Labour Act, plantation Labour Committee, Social exclusion, and collective bargaining.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe Minimum Wage Act, of 1948 was a landmark piece of legislation that the Government of India adopted to foster a positive work environment in an industry where Labours had been abused and violated for years. During the period of British rule, there was no structured format for providing wages to the Labours. However, after independence, the government introduced the Minimum Wage Act to ensure that Labours receive a fair minimum wage and have scheduled work hours. Additionally, the law grants Labours the right to one day of rest per week. This legislation was passed in 1948 and continues to be in effect today. The current wage levels remain inadequate given the prevailing environmental conditions [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e]. The increasing demands and cost of living have put a strain on Labours, and they require higher wages to meet their basic needs.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe plantation labour committee (PLC) routinely discussed worker demands or governmental policies. During various discussions, trade union members, government officials, and company owners have put forth numerous arguments, some of which have potential benefits for the Labours. However, the issue of wage incrementation seems to dominate the discussions, yet the past committees' track record indicates limited progress in this regard. Consequently, the committee's activities have failed to significantly improve the Labours' quality of life. The lack of substantial wage incrementation remains a central and unresolved matter, leading to widespread dissatisfaction among the workforce. Social exclusion is a multi-dimensional process in which various forms of exclusions like participation in decision-making and political processes, access to employment and material resources, and integration into common cultural processes, are combined. Social exclusion of plantation Labours manifests in several forms, with one of the prominent issues being economic disparities. These Labours face the challenge of inadequate wages, rendering them unable to meet their basic needs. Their economic vulnerability severely limits their access to resources and opportunities that could enhance their social standing. As a result, their participation in activities that could lead to socio-economic improvement is restricted [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e45\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe formal negotiation process between employees, ideally through a trade union, and employers is known as collective bargaining. In the context of plantation labour, the process of collective bargaining transpires between representatives of trade unions and the management of the employing company. This intricate procedure entails a series of negotiations conducted to address diverse requisites on behalf of the labour force. The discussions undertaken during these negotiations culminate in a consensus that is mutually agreeable to both parties involved. According to insights gathered from interviewed participants, it has been noted that the collective bargaining process often manifests predominantly as a series of discussions rather than a catalyst for substantial alterations or immediate actions.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eWelfare measures\u003c/b\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe plantation company has instituted a range of welfare measures tailored to benefit its workforce, all of which are governed by the stipulations outlined in the Plantation Labour Act. Several salient codes have been identified among these provisions, including gratuity, bonus schemes, Kambili allowance, and provisions for maternity leave.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn the context of plantation labour, gratuity is provided to Labours upon retirement. During the investigation, it was found that one respondent\u0026rsquo;s father experienced a delay in receiving his gratuity, even after three years. Such delays can create added challenges for beneficiaries, highlighting the need to streamline administrative processes to ensure timely payment of these funds [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e]. Bonuses for plantation Labours depend on their involvement in extra tasks or working beyond standard hours. For the Labours in this study, their participation in additional tasks is especially high during peak crop seasons when production significantly increases. In the estates of Idukki district, where the monsoon climate is both beautiful and harsh, a longstanding tradition reflects resilience and care. Aware of the challenging weather, the company provides plantation Labours with wool jackets\u0026mdash;a practice that began in the British era and continued after independence. These wool jackets are more than simple clothing; they serve as a thoughtful protection against the elements. The company extends a maternity leave policy to its Labours, acknowledging the importance of supporting employees during significant life events. In addition to this leave provision, the company offers a valuable benefit wherein the medical expenses related to maternity are covered, provided the relevant bills are submitted for reimbursement.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eConceptualised framework\u003c/b\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe interconnected dynamics of these codes, which collectively contribute to the six identified dimensions, serve as key predictors of systemic oppression among tea plantation Labours, which is represented in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe inadequate implementation and frequent violations of political and welfare measures significantly affect Labours\u0026rsquo; socioeconomic status and overall working conditions. Key issues include the ineffective enforcement of labour laws, social exclusion, and limited opportunities for collective bargaining on wages and other essential needs during official negotiations. Delays in the disbursement of gratuity and bonuses, as well as the insufficient provision of essential benefits by employers, further exacerbate these challenges.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThese shortcomings hinder Labours' ability to meet fundamental societal standards, such as access to adequate housing, sanitation facilities, fair wages, and educational opportunities for their children. Furthermore, their occupational environment often entails considerable risks, including exposure to harmful chemicals and pesticides, the adverse effects of climate change, inefficiencies in administrative hierarchies, and frequent insect bites.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe cumulative impact of these factors is evident in the Labours' physical and psychological well-being. Common physical health concerns include respiratory problems, dermatological conditions, hip and foot injuries, shoulder disorders, and hysterectomy. Psychological issues are equally prevalent, with Labours reporting stress, anxiety, sleep disturbances, learned helplessness, and diminished job satisfaction and security. Addressing these multifaceted challenges necessitates the robust implementation of policies, improved workplace safety standards, and timely delivery of welfare benefits\u003c/p\u003e "},{"header":"Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eIn conclusion, the analysis of the dimensions reveals a deeply rooted pattern of systemic oppression experienced by plantation Labours in this study. The complex interactions between various factors highlight the multi-dimensional nature of their challenges and point to the need for significant reforms. Using grounded theory methodology, the study developed a comprehensive framework consisting of six dimensions, by minimising or suppressing these are collectively contributed to a systemic oppression among this sample. This research offers valuable insights into the persistent struggles faced by these Labours.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eLimitations\u003c/b\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study has certain limitations that should be acknowledged. First, the sample size was relatively small, comprising only 18 participants from three estates in Kerala, which may restrict the generalizability of the findings to other regions or plantation settings. Second, the framework and connections between the codes and dimensions were derived solely from the experiences of this specific sample, and these relationships may differ in other contexts or among different groups of laborers. Consequently, caution should be exercised in extending the findings beyond the immediate study context.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eFuture Implications\u003c/b\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe findings of this study offer a foundational framework for understanding the systemic oppression faced by plantation laborers. Future research should aim to replicate and extend this work with larger and more diverse samples across different geographical locations to validate and refine the identified dimensions. Additionally, longitudinal and comparative studies could provide deeper insights into how systemic oppression evolves over time and under varying policy interventions. Importantly, the framework developed in this study can serve as a basis for designing targeted reforms and policies aimed at addressing the multi-dimensional challenges identified, thereby promoting more equitable labor conditions within the tea plantation industry.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAcknowledgments\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe successful completion of this paper and the associated research would not have been achievable without the invaluable support and cooperation extended by the study participants.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eDeclaration of competing interest\u003c/strong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFunding\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe study was not funded by any specific grant from funding afgencies in the public, commercial or not-for-profit sectors.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEthical Approval\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eEthical approval of this study was obtained at the department level committee from the Department of Psychology, University of Kerala. The study was conducted in accordance with the guidelines outlined in the American Psychological Association (APA).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConsent to Participate\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWritten Informed consent was obtained from all the participants prior to their involvement in the study.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConsent to Publish\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eParticipants provided consent for the publication of data collected during the study, ensuring that their anonymity and confidentiality were maintained.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eClinical trial number:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eNot applicable\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAuthor Contribution\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAuthor Contributions:All authors contributed significantly to the development of this study. Author 1- AR conceptualized the study, designed the methodology, and led the data collection. Author 2- G.AV assisted in data analysis, interpretation, and contributed to the writing of the manuscript. Author 3- J.J provided critical revisions, supervised the overall project. Author 4- J.C critically evaluate and give suggestions for the data analysis, interpretation and contributed to the finalization of the manuscript. All authors reviewed and approved the final version of the manuscript.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eParida BR, Mahato T, Ghosh S. Monitoring tea plantations during 1990\u0026ndash;2022 using multi-temporal satellite data in Assam (India). Trop Ecol. 2024;65(3):387\u0026ndash;98.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eRamesh N, Kannan R. Work-related musculoskeletal disorders among pesticide sprayers of tea plantations in South India. 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Available from: \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/B978032391603500004X\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/B978032391603500004X\" targettype=\"URL\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eRoy D. Entrepreneurship-driven Migratory Behaviour Among the Tea Estate Workers in West Bengal: An Exploratory Study. Vikalpa J Decis Mak. 2023;02560909231184775.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eBanerjee S. Who Leaves Home If There is a Choice? Migration Decisions of Women Workers on Tea Plantations in India. Transfers. 2021;11(2):53\u0026ndash;75.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAmsaveni R, Ilavarasi J, Gomathi S. A Study on Job Satisfaction of Women Workers in Tea Estates With Special Reference to the Nilgiris District. Prabandhan Indian J Manag. 2013;6(10):28.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eKamaruddin R, Abdullah N, Ayob MA. Determinants of job satisfaction among Malaysian youth working in the oil palm plantation sector. J Agribus Dev Emerg Econ. 2018;8(4):678\u0026ndash;92.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eSrinivasan MG. A Study on Problems of Tea Plantation Workers in Nilgiris District, Tamilnadu, India. 2016;5.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eZaman MO, Abir TM. The Process of Social Exclusion of Tea Garden Workers: A Study on Sylhet City Corporation, Bangladesh. Asian J Humanity Art Lit. 2018;5(2):101\u0026ndash;8.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Tea plantation Labours, Systemic oppression, India, Grounded theory","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6557758/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-6557758/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003ch2\u003eBackground\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe tea plantation industry plays a crucial role in the socio-economic development of many countries, heavily relying on the manual labor of plantation workers. Despite their critical contributions, tea plantation laborers face persistent challenges that impact their livelihoods and well-being. Although governmental interventions have introduced legislation to improve their conditions, the effectiveness of these measures remains questionable.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eObjective\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study aimed to explore the systemic oppression experienced by plantation labourers, focusing on the complex, multidimensional factors that sustain their lives.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eMethods\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eA qualitative methodology was employed, utilizing a classical grounded theory approach. The study was conducted in Kerala, India, and semi-structured interviews were carried out with 18 plantation labourers to capture in-depth accounts of to capture the depth and complexity of the challenges faced by the labourers.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eResults\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eData analysis led to the identification of several codes, which were categorized into six major dimensions: socioeconomic determinants, health, working environment conditions, psychological factors, political influences, and welfare provisions. Together, these dimensions form a comprehensive framework labelled \"systemic oppression,\" highlighting the complex interplay of factors contributing to the ongoing struggles of plantation labourers.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eConclusion\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe analysis reveals a deeply rooted pattern of systemic oppression affecting plantation labourers, emphasizing the multidimensional nature of their challenges and the urgent need for significant reforms. This research offers valuable insights into the persistent struggles faced by these Labours and also calls for further research and government actions.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Psychosocial exploration on systemic oppression of tea plantation labours in Kerala, India","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-05-29 10:42:21","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6557758/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"1f2ecdae-801b-443e-82f2-f71020efdb43","owner":[],"postedDate":"May 29th, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-01-29T06:42:47+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2025-05-29 10:42:21","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-6557758","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-6557758","identity":"rs-6557758","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}