Geochemistry Investigation of Basaltic Rock for Developing the First Thailand Mars Simulant (TMS-01)

Geochemistry Investigation of Basaltic Rock for Developing the First Thailand Mars Simulant (TMS-01) | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Geochemistry Investigation of Basaltic Rock for Developing the First Thailand Mars Simulant (TMS-01) Naphat Apisuk, Wares Chancharoen, Chatree Saiyasombat, Sarinya Paisarnsombat This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-6976872/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Under Review Version 1 posted 5 You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Terrestrial materials can be used to manufacture Mars simulants, which have chemical and geotechnical properties similar to Martian soil. Mars simulants are essential resources for research in Mars exploration programs. Volcanic rocks from the Loei-Phetchabun and Sa Kaeo volcanic belts in Thailand are widely distributed and suitable for developing a Thailand Mars Simulant (TMS-01) based on the raw materials of volcanic rocks from Lopburi, Phetchabun, Chanthaburi, and Trat provinces. In the current study, these samples were mechanically crushed using a Los Angeles abrasion machine, jaw crusher, and disc mill. The sample properties, including chemical and mineralogical composition, were analyzed using polarized light microscopy, X-ray diffraction, and X-ray fluorescence. X-ray absorption spectroscopy (XAS) was used to focus on the Fe K -edge X-ray absorption near-edge structure spectra of iron oxide minerals in the volcanic rocks. Compared to Martian soil, these volcanic rocks have higher SiO 2 , Al 2 O 3 , and TiO 2 , and lower FeO t . They also have lower FeO t compared to other Mars simulants. Some volcanic rocks have a higher MgO content than JSC Mars-1, while others contain less MgO than MGS-1. The mineral composition of these volcanic rocks mainly consists of plagioclase, pyroxene, and olivine, which is comparable to the Mojave Mars Stimulant. The XAS results indicated that the Fe in these volcanic rocks has an oxidation state between ferrous (Fe 2+ ) and ferric (Fe 3+ ) ions. Thus, basaltic rocks from Sa Kaeo province are potential raw materials for developing TMS-01. The process of its production is comparable to the physical weathering processes on Mars. The addition of iron oxide minerals should improve the chemical properties. For mass production, additional basaltic rocks were sourced from a mine in Nakhon Ratchasima province. Iron oxide minerals, including magnetite and hematite, along with gypsum, were added to Nakhon Ratchasima basaltic rocks at a 5 wt.% ratio of iron oxide to rock samples in two different recipes. This will allow the manufacturing of three raw materials for TMS-01. Further study on the physical and geotechnical properties is recommended to advance the development of TMS-01. Fe oxidation state Martian soil Mars simulant Thailand volcanic rock Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 Figure 6 Figure 7 Figure 8 Figure 9 Figure 10 Figure 11 Figure 12 1. Introduction Mars exploration missions have long been a goal of mankind. Interest started in the late 20th century, focusing on remote sensing by space probes sent from Earth with the goal of understanding the geology and human settlement potential of Mars (Grotzinger et al. 2014 ). Discoveries on Mars have increased interest in studying and exploring this planet. However, to date, none of the missions have been able to bring samples back from Mars. Therefore, to effectively prepare instruments for Mars exploration programs, it is essential to develop Mars simulants with characteristics similar to Martian dust, rock, regolith, or soil. Mars simulants are terrestrial materials developed to have chemical and geotechnical properties similar to Martian soil. Due to limited resources available for Mars research, Mars simulants have a variety of applications for experiments and prototype testing in research laboratories with scientific instruments before their actual deployment on Mars missions (Beaty et al. 2005 ; Scott et al. 2017 ). The Martian simulants are used to simulate the surface of Mars for mission planning purposes, including testing landing and mobility systems to ensure they operate effectively on the Martian surface. In addition, simulants are used to test the performance, durability, and resilience of hardware and materials used in Mars missions against the planet's harsh conditions, such as dust storms and extreme temperatures. In-situ resource utilization (ISRU) is the fundamental principle in reducing the expenses associated with space exploration (Karl et al. 2022 ), involving testing methods to extract water and other resources from Martian soil. Additionally, simulants are used to study the feasibility of growing crops on Mars. Researchers can determine which crops are best suited for Martian agriculture by simulating the Martian soil. Furthermore, Mars simulants are being explored as a potential construction material for future missions. The idea is to use locally available materials, such as Mars simulants, to build habitats, shelters, and other structures that will potentially be constructed on Mars (Karl et al. 2022 ). Therefore, many agencies have developed Mars simulants composed of natural and artificial materials (Fig. 1 ). For example, JSC Mars-1 was initially constructed using a cinder cone and a fragment of weathered volcanic ash from the Pu'u Nene area on Hawaii Island, USA with a grain size of less than 1 mm (Allen et al. 1998 ). The reflectance spectral characteristics were much closer to the regolith of the bright regions on Mars. In addition, Mojave Mars Simulant (MMS) using whole rocks from a volcanic formation in the western Mojave Desert, close to Boron, CA, USA, has been widely recognized (Beegle et al. 2007 ). The development of the Jining Martian Soil Simulant (JMSS-1) included the mechanical crushing of Jining basalt obtained from the North China Craton. Processed amounts of magnetite and hematite obtained from Hebei province in China were added. The mixture showed comparable chemical and mineral compositions (and other characteristics) to Martian soil (Zeng et al. 2015 ). The University of Canterbury Mars 1 (UC Mars 1) developed using a variety of rocks collected from the Banks Peninsula in the South Island of New Zealand (Scott et al. 2017 ). Basalt rock mined riverside on the Hantangang River in Yeoncheon-gun was used to make Korea Mars Simulant (KMS-1) (Lee 2017 ), which was used t create Mars-crete as the raw material for Mars Village. Mars Global Simulant (MGS-1) produced by precisely blending pure minerals corresponding to a grain size distribution from Curiosity mission data (Cannon et al. 2019 ). Northeastern University Mars-1 (NEU Mars-1) has a mass ratio of 77.6:22.4 for Fe 2+ to Fe 3+ contents. It was developed from basalts obtained from the Chahar volcanic group located in Wulanchabu, Inner Mongolia, China (Guan et al. 2020 ). Field samples of basalts in Winder Nai, Pakistan were used to produce Winder Nai Mars Simulant (WNMS) (Rahim et al. 2023 ). The current database suggests that Martian soil simulants are based on volcanic ash, basalt, and volcanic cinders. The chemical and mineralogical composition analysis performed by the Curiosity Rover revealed that the Martian surface is mostly composed of basaltic soil and includes felspar, pyroxene, and olivine (Bish et al. 2013 ; Blake et al. 2013 ; Meslin et al. 2013 ). However, while the Mars simulants cannot represent the entire planet in detail, they can be used as an average. The distribution of Pre-Cenozoic volcanic rocks in Thailand is broad, especially in Loei (Panjasawatwong et al. 2006 ), Phetchabun (Boonsoong et al. 2011 ), Nakhon Sawan, Saraburi and Sa Kaeo (Jungyusuk and Khositanont 1992 ), Chanthaburi and Trat (Boonsoong 2007 ). The Cenozoic basalt and Tertiary volcanic rocks in Thailand, shown in Fig. 2 , often appears in the mountain ranges of northern Thailand. In the central region, they appear in the Loei-Phetchabun volcanic belt as a low hill along the Khao Yai mountain range and the eastern shoreline. These rock types are rare on the Khorat Plateau. Late Cenozoic basalts have been identified in southern regions of the Khorat Plateau in Trat, Nakhon Ratchasima, Buriram, Surin, Sisaket, and Ubon Ratchathani provinces, ranging from alkali olivine basalt to hawaiite and mugearite. Typically, volcanic rocks in Thailand have chemical compositions that vary from felsic to mafic, with a predominant presence of tholeiite and calc-alkaline volcanic rocks (Department of Mineral Resources 1997 ). The diverse range of volcanic rock types includes basalt, hawaiite, mugearite, bentonite, trachyte, and andesite, together with rhyolite (Irvine and Baragar 1971 ). The selection of basaltic rocks as the raw material for the development of TMS-01 is based on the discoveries made during the Curiosity mission, which identified basaltic soil on Mars with a mineral composition similar to that of basalts (Guan et al. 2020 ). Geological events indicate that basaltic rocks in Lop Buri, Phetchabun, Chanthaburi, Sa Kaeo, and Trat provinces during the Cenozoic Era have diverse chemical and mineral compositions. While basaltic rocks are found in various areas, numerous research studies have focused on classifying rocks based on their chemical and mineral compositions (Sriwichai et al. 2021 ). However, there has been a lack of comparisons regarding their suitability as raw materials for Mars simulants. In addition, there are several basalt mines in the southern regions of the Khorat Plateau that supply construction materials. Hence, additional samples from the mine in Nakhon Ratchasima province will also be used to develop TMS-01 for mass production in the future. Therefore, this research focused on the chemical and mineral composition, as well as the oxidation state of iron oxides in basaltic rocks from Lopburi, Phetchabun, Chanthaburi, Sa Kaeo, Trat, and Nakhon Ratchasima provinces as the source rock. They will be a part of the development of basaltic rocks to manufacture Thailand Mars Simulants (TMS-01) that have similar chemical and mineral composition according to the databases of Martian soil and other Mars simulants. 2. Materials and methods 2.1 Study sites Based on past geological events, the Loei-Phetchabun and Sa Kaeo volcanic belts consist of diverse volcanic rocks. By consulting relevant information from previous research on Thailand's basalt-rich areas (Boonsoong 2007), study sites were identified within the volcanic belts in Lopburi, Phetchabun, Chanthaburi, Sa Kaeo, Trat and Nakhon Ratchasima provinces, Thailand, according to WGS-84 (World Geodetic System 1984) co-ordinates, as shown in Fig. 2. Volcanic rock samples were collected from 18 sites in six provinces. 2.2 Materials The representative volcanic rock samples, as shown in Fig. 3(a), were collected during fieldwork in Lopburi, Phetchabun, Chanthaburi, Sa Kaeo, and Trat provinces, Thailand. Additional basaltic rock samples in Fig. 3(b) were obtained from Chok Chai Quarry Co., Ltd. in Nakhon Ratchasima province. The iron oxide minerals as additives were sourced from P.T.K. Mining Co. Ltd in Loei province, Thailand (samples PTK1 and PTK2), as shown in Fig. 3(c–d). 2.3 Methods 2.3.1 Preliminary production of the raw materials All volcanic rock samples collected during the fieldwork consisted of fresh, homogeneous, basaltic and volcanic rocks to prevent sampling error. Subsequently, all superficial weathering crust was removed and the samples were divided into two sections. Samples were cut into small pieces and then fed into a Los Angeles (LA) abrasion machine for mechanically coarse crushing (Chancharoen et al. 2022), as shown in Fig. 4(a). Then the crushed rock samples (Fig. 4(b)) were fed into the jaw crusher and disc mill for fine crushing. Samples were ground into powder and sieved through sizes ranging from less than 1 mm to less than 74 µm (200 mesh), as shown in Fig. 4(c–d)) and divided into three samples for analysis using X-ray diffraction (XRD), X-ray fluorescence (XRF), and X-ray absorption spectroscopy (XAS). The rock samples were cut into slabs for petrographic analysis and then prepared as thin sections using a PetroThin Thin Section Machine. These sections were mounted on glass slides and polished to a thickness of approximately 30 µm. 2.3.1.1 Rock Sample Properties Petrographic analysis A polarized light microscope was used to study and identify the mineral components in the thin sections. Each rock sample contained the mineral components of basalts and other volcanic rocks at the collection sites. The petrographic observations have been integrated with XRD analysis to enhance understanding of the mineral composition. Geochemical analysis The powdered rock samples were pressed into mounts for mineral phase analysis. The analysis was conducted using XRD (BRUKER model D8 Advance), with X-ray diffraction at 2θ angles between 5° and 60°, a step size of 0.020449°, and a step time of 96 seconds. The resulting 2θ-intensity graphs were used to identify the different mineral types based on matching the peak data from the 2θ graphs. The chemical composition of the whole rock, including major oxides and trace elements, was determined using the XRF technique based on 12 g of powdered rock in a 4 mm diameter sample holder. A BRUKER S2 PUMA Series II model was used for the energy-dispersive X-ray fluorescence (EDXRF) analysis. The oxidation state of Fe in the samples was determined by analyzing the Fe K -edge X-ray Absorption Near Edge Structure (XANES) spectra obtained from X-ray absorption spectroscopy (XAS) using synchrotron light, which offers highly intense and tunable X-ray beams. The oxidation state was identified primarily through pre-edge analysis by fitting the spectral features of the rock samples to those of standard compounds such as ferrous oxide (FeO) and ferric oxide (Fe 2 O 3 ). Energy calibration was achieved using the first derivative of Fe foil standards at 7112 eV. Binding energy was calculated based on the first derivative of the normalized XANES absorption spectra using the Athena software (Ravel and Newville 2005). Pre-edge peaks in the XANES spectra were further analyzed by pre-edge fitting with the Larch software (Newville 2013). The major element component results were compared with the Average Martian soil (Table 1) and the Mars Regolith Simulants (Table 2) databases to identify which sample could be considered as potential raw material. Table 1 Chemical composition of Martian soil (in wt.%). Data obtained from Viking 1, Viking 2, Pathfinder, Spirit, Opportunity, and Curiosity landing sites and Average Martian Soil Martian Soil Viking 1 a Viking 2 a Pathfinder b Spirit c Opportunity d Curiosity e Average f SiO 2 43.00 43.00 42.00 45.80 43.80 42.88 45.41 TiO 2 0.66 0.56 0.80 0.81 1.08 1.19 0.91 Al 2 O 3 7.30 - 10.30 10.00 8.55 9.43 9.71 Cr 2 O 3 - - 0.30 0.35 0.46 0.49 0.36 Fe 2 O 3 18.50 17.80 21.70 FeO 15.80 22.33 19.19 g 16.73 MnO - - 0.30 0.31 0.36 0.41 0.33 MgO 6.00 - 7.30 9.30 7.05 8.69 8.35 CaO 5.90 5.70 6.10 6.10 6.67 7.28 6.37 Na 2 O - - 2.80 3.30 1.60 2.72 2.73 K 2 O < 0.15 < 0.15 0.60 0.41 0.44 0.49 0.44 P 2 O 5 - - 0.70 0.84 0.83 0.94 0.83 SO 3 6.60 8.10 6.00 5.82 5.57 5.45 6.16 Cl 0.70 0.50 0.90 0.53 0.44 0.69 0.68 LOI - - - - - - - Total 88.81 75.81 99.80 99.37 99.18 99.85 99.01 “-” not analyzed a Banin et al. (1992) b Foley et al. (2003) c Gellert et al. (2004) d Rieder et al. (2004) e Blake et al. (2013) f Taylor and McLennan (2009) g Sum of Fe 2 O 3 and FeO. For Viking Landers and Pathfinder soil, total Fe is expressed as Fe 2 O 3 . For Spirit and Opportunity, average soil total Fe expressed as FeO. Table 2 Major elemental components (in wt.%) of Mars Simulants. Data obtained from JSC Mars-1, MMS, JMSS-1, KMS-1, MGS-1, NEU Mars-1, and WNMS. Mars Regolith Simulants JSC Mars-1 h MMS i JMSS-1 j KMS-1 k MGS-1 l NEU Mars-1 m WNMS n SiO 2 43.48 49.40 49.28 ± 0.24 45.40 50.8 43.94 47.62 TiO 2 3.62 1.09 1.78 ± 0.01 1.80 0.30 2.70 3.31 Al 2 O 3 22.09 17.10 13.64 ± 0.33 21.86 8.90 17.80 12.15 Cr 2 O 3 0.03 0.05 - 0.06 0.10 - - Fe 2 O 3 16.08 10.87 16.00 ± 0.07 13.30 15.61 18.88 FeO 12.51 o MnO 0.26 0.17 0.14 ± 0.01 0.11 0.10 0.18 - MgO 4.22 6.08 6.35 ± 0.08 3.41 16.70 2.13 4.14 CaO 6.05 10.45 7.56 ± 0.06 9.17 3.70 7.82 11.41 Na 2 O 2.34 3.28 2.92 ± 0.09 2.74 3.40 5.58 2.14 K 2 O 0.70 0.48 1.02 ± 0.03 2.12 0.30 2.96 0.37 P 2 O 5 0.78 0.17 0.30 ± 0.01 0.54 0.40 0.99 - SO 3 0.31 0.10 - 0.03 2.10 0.06 - Cl - - - - - 0.07 - LOI 17.36 3.39 0.48 ± 0.17 - - - - Total 99.70 99.40 99.47 99.74 100.00 99.84 100.2 “-” not analyzed h Allen et al. (1998) i Peters et al. (2008) j Zeng et al. (2015) k Lee (2017) l Cannon et al. (2019) m Guan et al. (2020) n Rahim et al. (2023) o Sum of Fe 2 O 3 and FeO. For JSC Mars-1, MMS, JMSS-1, MGS-1, NEU Mars-1 and WNMS total Fe expressed as Fe 2 O 3 . 2.3.2 Simulant Preparation The basaltic rock samples from Lopburi, Phetchabun, Chanthaburi, Sa Kaeo, and Trat provinces, along with additional basaltic samples from Nakhon Ratchasima province, were collected by removing the weathered surfaces and cutting the rocks into small pieces. Then, these samples were processed using an LA abrasion machine and subsequently crushed into fine powder, with a particle size of less than 200 mesh (74 µm), achieving a grain size distribution similar to that of Martian soil and Mars simulant. The Fe oxide minerals, PTK1 and PTK2, were analyzed to identify possible iron oxide phases and to determine the presence of any associated minerals, as presented in Table 3. Based on the XRD analysis, the dominant crystalline phase in PTK1 was a spinel-structured mineral, primarily magnetite, along with hematite, while PTK2 consisted of magnetite and gypsum. The composition of PTK1 reflects a non-stoichiometric form of magnetite, in which Fe 2+ and Fe 3+ are partially substituted by Mg 2+ , Al 3+ , and Ti 4+ . The deviation from the ideal magnetite formula (FeO·Fe 2 O 3 or Fe 3 O 4 ) in PTK2 suggests PTK1 magnetite has a solid solution phase transition of the spinel phase (Nadoll et al. 2014). Gypsum, identified in PTK2, is of particular interest due to its occurrence as a surface deposit on Mars, as reported by Langevin et al. (2005). Based on their mineralogical characteristics and potential relevance as Martian analog materials, both PTK1 and PTK2 were selected to be added to the raw material. Table 3 Possible phases in PTK1 and PTK2 Sample No. Possible phase Formula % Compound PTK1 Magnetite Hematite Fe 0.65 Fe 1.81 Mg 0.42 Al 0.1 Ti 0.03 O 4 Fe 2 O 3 81.61 18.39 PTK2 Magnetite Gypsum FeO·Fe 2 O 3 CaSO 4 (H 2 O) 2 82.62 17.38 An experimental design, detailed in Table 4, was developed to study the ratios of additive minerals in the simulant. Based on previous data, volcanic rocks in Thailand have a FeO content of around 11–12 wt.%. Therefore, additional amounts of 5 wt.% of PTK1 and PTK2 were planned to be added. Basaltic rocks were mixed with PTK1 and PTK2 to create Nakhon Ratchasima Recipe 1 (NMA-r1) and Nakhon Ratchasima Recipe 2 (NMA-r2), respectively, as shown in Fig. 7, compared with Sa Kaeo basaltic rock without any additive mineral (SK). The chemical composition of both recipes and SK was analyzed using XRF to determine their chemical composition. Table 4 Experimental design of rocks and additive mineral ratios Basaltic rocks (wt. %) Fe oxide minerals (wt. %) PTK1 (c) PTK2 (d) SK 100 - - NMA 95 5 5 “-” not added 3. Results 3.1 X-ray Fluorescence The major oxides of the rock samples from Lopburi, Phetchabun, Chanthaburi, Sa Kaeo Trat, and Nakhon Ratchasima provinces were analyzed using the XRF method and presented as the weight percentage of the whole-rock chemical composition. The rock samples had an SiO 2 content of 43.33–64.48, an alkali oxides content (Na 2 O + K 2 O) of 2.49–10.83, an FeO(total) content of 2.63–16.64, and an Al 2 O 3 content of 12.38–24.71. The TiO 2 and MgO contents were 0.45–2.56, and 1.14–13.97, respectively. The major oxide contents of the volcanic rock were plotted against the silicon dioxide (SiO 2 ) content in variation diagrams to compare with the composition of the average Martian soil from the Viking, Pathfinder, Spirit, Opportunity, and Curiosity landing sites, as well as other Mars simulants, as shown in Fig. 8 . The major oxide content values of the rock samples were within the scatter range of the database. However, the iron oxide content values were considerably lower than the average Martian soil and Mars simulants such as JSC Mars-1, JMSS-1, and MGS-1. Therefore, adding iron components was necessary for the future production of the Thailand Mars Simulant (TMS-01). After adding PTK1 and PTK2 to Nakhon Ratchasima basaltic rocks, the iron oxide content increased to 17.08 wt.% and 17.32 wt.%, respectively, as shown in Fig. 9 . Other major oxide contents changed only slightly. A plot of total alkalis (Na 2 O + K 2 O) versus silica (SiO 2 ), modified from Cox et al. ( 1993 ) and shown in Fig. 9 (a), was used to classify the rock types. According to the TAS plot, the chemical composition of average Martian soil and the other Mars simulants could be classified as basalt and nephelinite. This classification was used to compare the volcanic rock types with rock samples from each province. The chemical plot in Fig. 9 (a) indicates that the volcanic rock samples can be categorized into nine types: basanite, tephrite, benmoreite, trachyte, trachyandesite, dacite, andesite, basalt, mugearite, and hawaiite. Both recipes, NMA-r1 and NMA-r2, were classified as basalt, as illustrated in Fig. 9 (b). 3.2 X-ray Diffraction The diffraction patterns of rock samples were used to identify mineral phases by the corresponding Rietveld fit. The main phases in the rock samples were composed of plagioclase, pyroxene, olivine, quartz, amphibole, feldspathoid, alkali feldspar, chlorite, and zeolite. Plagioclase is the primary aluminum-bearing mineral in mafic rocks which forms a continuous solid solution between Albite and Anorthite. The plagioclase in rock samples includes Albite and Labradorite. Pyroxene minerals include Augite (Al 3+ bearing) and Diopside (Fe 3+ bearing). Possible mineral phases in NMA basaltic rocks, which are used as raw material, are shown in Table 5 . The olivine in the rock samples is Forsterite (Fe 2+ bearing). The amphibole group includes Actinolite and Magnesio-hornblende (Fe 2+ bearing). There are Nepheline and Leucite in the feldspathoid group. The alkali feldspars include Orthoclase and Sanidine. Chlorite includes Clinochlore (Fe 2+ bearing) and Nimite. Zeolite includes Analcime. Quartz, Sodalite, Nitratine, and Pumpellyite as minor minerals. Table 5 Possible mineral phases in NMA Sample Possible phase Formula % Compound NMA Plagioclase Ca 0.64 Na 0.32 (Si 2.275 Al 1.775 )O 8 50.9 Labradorite (An52) Ca 0.52 Na 0.48 (Si,Al) 4 O 8 35.5 Diopside CaMg(SiO 3 ) 2 13.6 3.3 X-ray Absorption Spectroscopy The XAS results guided the modification of the raw material using an additive mineral. The spectra obtained at the Fe K -edge of the Fe standards analyzed in this investigation are normalized XANES spectra. The pre-edge feature can be observed in all spectra near 7112 eV. The Fe K -edge XANES spectra of 18 rock samples from 17 sites in five provinces, excluding Nakhon Ratchasima basaltic rocks (NMA), indicate that all samples have comparable spectra with very similar absorption edges. The absorption edges fall within the energy range 7120.21–7124.29 eV, which corresponds to the absorption edges of the FeO and Fe 2 O 3 standards (7119.07 eV and 7123.41 eV, respectively). A more precise analysis of iron oxidation was conducted using pre-edge analysis. Pre-edge peak analysis involves the selected normalized pre-edge spectra (specifically, the Fe K -edge) and the best model computed using the Larch software. The pre-edge peaks were fitted with the Gaussian peak function and a baseline function (line and Lorentzian function). In the summary of the pre-edge data, there is separation between the Fe 2+ and Fe 3+ centroids of 1.4 eV, as presented in Fig. 10 , consistent with the result reported by Galoisy et al. ( 2001 ), which indicated a separation of 1.5 eV. Although no contribution from the Fe 3+ iron could be identified, the relatively large deviation for grandidierite (up-pointing triangles), gillespite (down-pointing triangles), and Fe 2+ -oxides in these samples may be attributable to trace contents of Fe 3+ . The pre-edge intensities, as estimated by the least-squares fit, have standard errors of approximately ± 0.001. In contrast, the precision of the measurements of pre-edge energy positions is ± 0.05 eV, based on the repeatability of monochromator positions within multiple measurements. The polygons show the results for rock samples, while the light blue hexagons are the FeO and Fe 2 O 3 standards in different ratios. The centroid position between the samples and the standards, as shown in Fig. 10 , confirms that the Fe total in the rock samples appears between Fe 2+ and Fe 3+ . The linear interpolation between the FeO-Fe 2 O 3 mixing line standards from Wilke et al. ( 2001 ) and the position of samples on the centroid versus the pre-edge intensity plot suggests a mixed oxidation state between the 74:26 (Fe 2+ :Fe 3+ ) and 23:77 (Fe 2+ :Fe 3+ ) standards. An exception is one LRI sample, which displays an oxidation state of approximately 0:100 (Fe 2+ :Fe 3+ ). In addition, the pre-edge characteristics for Fe in binary mixtures of IV Fe 2+ , VI Fe 2+ , IV Fe 3+ , and VI Fe 3+ , as well as in Fe-bearing minerals, are plotted with standard errors of approximately ± 0.001. The precision of the pre-edge energy position measurements is ± 0.05 eV. This diagram considers the possibility of 4-coordinated Fe 2+ /Fe 3+ and 6-coordinated Fe 2+ /Fe 3+ environments, shown in Fig. 11 . The rock samples plot along the IV Fe 2+ / VI Fe 3+ join, near the region corresponding to 60–80% of VI Fe 3+ and 20–40% IV Fe 2+ , a composition similar to that of vesuvianite. 3.4 Petrographic analysis As a part of compiling detailed identification, the rock types in the rock samples are described in terms of the minerals and textural relationships. Volcanic rock samples from Lopburi, Phetchabun, Chanthaburi and Sa Kaeo were studied based on mineral assemblage and texture. From the photomicrographs under plane-polarized light (PPL) and cross-polarized light (XPL), the rock samples are mainly composed of plagioclase, olivine, and pyroxene, as well as opaque minerals. The following classes can be recognized: 1. Plagioclase and olivine crystals in a pilotassitic groundmass; 2. Plagioclase-olivine basalt; 3. Olivine-clinopyroxene basalt within a fine-grained groundmass; and 4. Plagioclase-olivine-clinopyroxene basalt (Fig. 12 ). 3.4.1 Plagioclase and olivine crystals in pilotassitic groundmass The groundmass of the Lopburi rock samples is dominated by a pilotassitic texture, characterized by small, dispersed olivine crystals within a fine-grained matrix (Fig. 12 (a)). The groundmass consists primarily of feldspar microlites, which are arranged in a sub-parallel alignment. The samples have been classified chemically and petrographically into benmoreite and trachyandesite. 3.4.2 Plagioclase-olivine basalt The porphyritic texture of the Phetchabun rock samples is dominated by plagioclase and olivine phenocryst (Fig. 12 (b)). The olivine phenocrysts are typically subhedral to euhedral. The samples have been classified chemically and petrographically into hawaiite and mugearite. 3.4.3 Olivine-clinopyroxene basalt within fine-grained groundmass The rock samples from Chanthaburi province have a porphyritic texture (Fig. 12 (c)). The phenocrysts comprise olivine and clinopyroxene in the groundmass, which is mainly composed of plagioclase. These phenocrysts often display characteristic high relief and first-order interference colors under crossed polars. The samples have been classified chemically and petrographically into hawaiite, basanite, and tephrite. 3.4.4 Plagioclase-olivine-clinopyroxene basalt The rock samples from Sa Kaeo province are composed of plagioclase and fewer clinopyroxene and olivine. The groundmass contains an intergranular composition and comprises plagioclase (euhedral) and opaque minerals (Fig. 12 (d)). The samples have been classified chemically and petrographically into basalt. 4. Discussion Comparison with Martian Soil The Martian surface appears to be covered by loose, unconsolidated materials, as well as extremely cohesive sediments, along with rocks or bedrock. The majority of the soil appears to have formed through a sequence of impact events, thermal cycles, and eolian processes of intermediate to mafic igneous rocks. A component of the regolith is presumably carried by the wind and distributed over the planet. The rock samples have undergone a mechanical crushing process, which aims to closely simulate the physical weathering processes occurring on Mars. The LA abrasion machine was used to replicate Martian soil particles characteristic of grain distribution. Chemical alterations occur when sulfate and/or ferric phases combine with salts and water distributed over long periods through daily moisture fluctuations or other speculative sources of water (Bishop et al. 2002 ; Blake et al. 2013 ). In situ measurements revealed that the main chemical components of Martian soil were 37.8–61.2 wt% SiO 2 , 16–22 wt% FeO t , 6.9–10.88 wt% Al 2 O 3 , 6–10 wt% MgO, 5–8 wt% CaO, 0.7–0.9 wt% P 2 O 5 , and 5–8 wt% SO 3 (Banin et al. 1992 ; Blake et al. 2013 ; Foley et al. 2003 ; Gellert et al. 2004 ; Rieder et al. 2004 ; Taylor and McLennan 2009 ). Based on the analysis of the current samples, they have higher amounts of SiO 2 and Al 2 O 3 than Martian soil, while FeO t is less abundant. Additionally, the TiO 2 and MgO levels are comparable to those in Martian soil. Based on these results, rock samples from Sa Kaeo province can be classified as basalt, consistent with the database. NMA-r1 and NMA-r2, which are used as raw materials for mass production, have higher contents of FeO t , Al 2 O 3 , and TiO 2 , but lower MgO than the average Martian soil. Data collected from the Mars Rovers (Spirit, Opportunity, and Curiosity) indicates that the main composition of the Martian surface soil is plagioclase feldspar, pyroxene, and olivine. Fe and Ti oxides, such as magnetite, ilmenite, and hematite, as well as alteration minerals including carbonate, sulfates, and phyllosilicates, are also found in Martian soil (Bish et al. 2013 ; McSween Jr. et al. 2010 ; Yen et al. 2006 ). The mineral phase composition of the soil at the Spirit, Opportunity, and Curiosity landing sites on Mars reveals that the composition of plagioclase is primarily rich in sodium to an intermediate degree (< An57), which corresponds to Albite, the sodium-rich end member of the plagioclase solid solution series. Olivine in Martian soil is forsteritic olivine (~ Fo62) related to Forsterite in the XRD pattern. Typically, the rock samples contain Ca-rich pyroxene, such as augite, which pyroxene tends to favor. However, large amounts of calcium-poor pyroxene, such as pigeonite—commonly found in Martian soil—are absent from the rock samples (Bish et al. 2013 ; Christensen et al. 2004 ). These results demonstrate that the rock samples from Sa Kaeo province are good sources of raw materials with properties similar to real Martian soil. However, the samples lack the secondary alteration minerals found in Martian soil and are limited in quantity due to the absence of active mines in the province. To manufacture Thailand Mars Simulant (TMS-01), NMA-r1 and NMA-r2 should be used for future mass production. Comparison with Mars Simulants Compared to Mars simulants, the rock samples from Lopburi, Phetchabun, Chanthaburi, Sa Kaeo, and Trat provinces generally have lower FeO t contents,except for one study site in Sa Kaeo province. Some samples have higher MgO, Al 2 O 3 , and TiO 2 compared to other Mars simulants. The mineral composition of these samples mainly consists of plagioclase, pyroxene, and olivine, which is comparable to the MMS. However, there are notable from JSC Mars-1 in terms of occurrence, texture, and crystalline size, as JSC Mars-1 is developed from altered volcanic ash (Allen et al. 1998 ). JSC Mars-1 is composed primarily of plagioclase and Ca-rich pyroxene, whereas the rock samples from the current study contain Augite (Al 3+ -bearing) and Diopside (Fe 3+ -bearing). Nonetheless, most Mars simulants, which are developed from basalts, have a similar mineral composition to the current rock samples. Compared to Mars simulants, NMA-r1 and NMA-r2 have higher FeO t contents and can be classified as basalt in a TAS plot, similar to other Mars simulants. The Al 2 O 3 contents of NMA-r1 and NMA-r2 are comparable to MMS, TiO 2 is comparable to JMSS-1, and MgO is comparable to KMS-1. However, NMA-r1 and NMA-r2 have higher Al 2 O 3 and TiO 2 and lower MgO contents than MGS-1, which is a developed prototype simulant using mineral standards. Oxidation state of FeO total in rock samples The Fe content in Martian soil is as high as 16–22 wt% (Guan et al., 2020 ) while the magnetic phase is estimated at 1–7 wt%, based on the Viking and Pathfinder missions (Hargraves et al., 1977; Madsen et al., 1999). The spectrum measurements primarily show ferric oxide, which limits the knowledge of the mineralogy of Mars' bright regions. It appears as a red surface as a result of hematite formation on Mars (Jiang et al. 2022 ). The intensity of pre-edge features prior to the absorption edge is strongly influenced by the coordination geometry of the central atom. As the intensity of the pre-edge peak increases, the distortion of the Fe 3+ octahedral coordination tends to decrease. In contrast, when Fe transitions to a tetrahedral coordination as Fe 2+ , the pre-edge peak appears at higher energy values. The results indicate an intermediate coordination environment, potentially a mixture of distorted octahedral Fe 3+ and tetrahedral Fe 2+ . The XAS results indicate that Fe in the samples has an oxidation state between ferrous (Fe 2+ ) and ferric (Fe 3+ ) ions. It refers to the information that the main magnetic phase is magnetite, which has the f chemical formula Fe 2+ Fe 3 + 2 O 4 . 5. Conclusion Identified basaltic rocks and other volcanic rocks from six provinces in Thailand are potential raw materials for developing a Thailand Mars Simulant. Rock crushing is comparable to the physical weathering processes that occur on Mars. Due to the chemical composition of Sa Kaeo basalts being similar to that of real Martian soil and Mars simulants, Sa Kaeo province was selected as a source of basaltic rock for the production of the simulants. Adding amounts of magnetite and hematite improved the chemical properties of the simulant to be similar to the Martian soil. However, due to limitations in basaltic rock availability in Sa Kaeo province, Nakhon Ratchasima basaltic rocks should be considered for future mass production. The results for NMA-r1 and NMA-r2 show comparable chemical compositions to Martian soil and Mars simulants. However, further studies are recommended of Sa Kaeo basalts, NMA-r1 and NMA-r2 regarding their physical and geotechnical properties such as grain size distribution, bulk density, specific gravity, and direct shear for developing Thailand Mars Simulant (TMS-01). Abbreviations NMA-r1: Nakhon Ratchasima Recipe 1 NMA-r2: Nakhon Ratchasima Recipe 2 SK: Sa Kaeo basaltic rock without any additive mineral TMS-01: Thailand Mars Simulant Declarations Ethics approval and consent to participate Not applicable Consent for publication Not applicable Availability of data and materials The prototype recipe of Thailand Mars Simulant (TMS-01) and datasets used, supported and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request and available to share for scientific research. Competing interests The authors declare that they have no competing interests. Funding This work was funded by the Development and Promotion of Science and Technology Talents Project (DPST) Scholarship from the Institute for the Promotion of Teaching Science and Technology (IPST). The funding body had no role in the design of the study, data collection, analysis, interpretation of data, or in writing the manuscript. Authors' contributions NA collected the rock samples during fieldwork, prepared the samples for geochemical and petrographic analysis, carried out the chemical and mineral composition measurements, and drafted the manuscript under supervision of SP. WC conceived the study and helped in preparing mechanical crushing of the rock samples. NA, WC and SP participated in experimental design. CS helped to carry out the oxidation state measurement using synchrotron light radiation. All authors helped to edit the manuscript and have read and approved the final manuscript. Acknowledgements This work was supported by the Development and Promotion of Science and Technology Talents Project (DPST) and the Institute for the Promotion of Teaching Science and Technology (IPST). We especially thank P.T.K. Mining Co. Ltd. for donating the iron oxide minerals and Chok Chai Quarry Co., Ltd. for donating the Nakhon Ratchasima basaltic rocks. In addition, we gratefully acknowledge the Department of Earth Sciences and Science Equipment Center, Faculty of Science, Kasetsart University, Bangkok, Thailand and the Synchrotron Light Research Institute (Public Organization) for their equipment, valuable comments, and advice. 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Earth, Planets and Space 67(1):72. doi: 10.1186/s40623-015-0248-5 Supplementary Files TMS01GraphicalAbstract.png Cite Share Download PDF Status: Under Review Version 1 posted Editorial decision: Major Revision 13 Nov, 2025 Reviewers agreed at journal 21 Aug, 2025 Reviewers invited by journal 09 Jul, 2025 Editor assigned by journal 26 Jun, 2025 First submitted to journal 25 Jun, 2025 You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. Our growing team is made up of researchers and industry professionals working together to solve the most critical problems facing scientific publishing. Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-6976872","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":482786445,"identity":"d4141105-5558-4295-b4be-75f899569da6","order_by":0,"name":"Naphat Apisuk","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Kasetsart University Faculty of Science","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Naphat","middleName":"","lastName":"Apisuk","suffix":""},{"id":482786446,"identity":"58659203-c307-4433-9aa2-ecba1d61cc7d","order_by":1,"name":"Wares Chancharoen","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Chulabhorn Royal Academy","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Wares","middleName":"","lastName":"Chancharoen","suffix":""},{"id":482786447,"identity":"1cba1ddd-56f3-4701-8e9c-4f19b8e26e2a","order_by":2,"name":"Chatree Saiyasombat","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Synchrotron Light Research Institute","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Chatree","middleName":"","lastName":"Saiyasombat","suffix":""},{"id":482786448,"identity":"27b4f85d-2e7d-4510-bb4d-c1e0eae0e8f4","order_by":3,"name":"Sarinya Paisarnsombat","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAAyElEQVRIiWNgGAWjYJCCAxCKsfFhA5AyIEVLsyFQiwRRWmCATZIoLfLtZx8eLmyzYzBnP9xWObONoc6ckBaDM+kGh2e2JTNY9iS23dzYxiBh2UBIC0Maw2HeNmYGgwNALQ+BWgwOEHJY/zOQlnoGg/MP2wqJ0sJwA2zLYQaDG4ltjBuJ0WJwA2gLz7njPJYzHjZLzjgnIbmBsMPSmD/zlFXLmfOnP/zYU2bDT9hhIMDIxsADjQ4JYtSDwB8i08koGAWjYBSMTAAAGwpA23ABWuwAAAAASUVORK5CYII=","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5179-3205","institution":"Kasetsart University","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Sarinya","middleName":"","lastName":"Paisarnsombat","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2025-06-25 17:04:58","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6976872/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-6976872/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":86533797,"identity":"ba479acf-5ef8-4282-832b-b6db0e69604a","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-07-11 17:59:23","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":1514188,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eMartian soil and Mars simulant. a) MAHLI image of scoop marks in sand at Rocknest; image credit NASA/JPL-Caltech/MSSS b) Photograph of Mars Global Polyhydrated Sulfate (MGS-1S) (Cannon et al. 2019)\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Figure1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6976872/v1/5e0f917db324d50753a61901.png"},{"id":86534591,"identity":"bcaa3d2b-eeef-4b41-b1ba-9b12d192cee5","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-07-11 18:07:23","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":486737,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eStudy sites and distribution of Thailand Cenozoic basalt and Tertiary volcanic rocks (modified after Barr and Cooper (2013)).\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Figure2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6976872/v1/0c7a25874f08201bf82da030.png"},{"id":86535205,"identity":"fbbe45db-a529-4886-9664-0e692903074d","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-07-11 18:15:23","extension":"png","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":1118048,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eMaterials in this study. a) basaltic rocks from Sa Kaeo province; b) basaltic rocks from Nakhon Ratchasima province; c) PTK1; d) PTK2\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Figure3.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6976872/v1/aef1dfd90e3ab2f5b75d86a3.png"},{"id":86533802,"identity":"0cbe73cd-cff7-48fe-b23d-fa52c676e4a2","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-07-11 17:59:23","extension":"png","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":1885288,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eSample preparation. a) Los Angeles abrasion machine at Department of Earth Science, Faculty of Science, Kasetsart University, Bangkok, Thailand;\u003cstrong\u003e \u003c/strong\u003eb) Crushed rock samples; c) sieve size 200 mesh (74 µm) at Synchrotron Light Research Institute (Public Organization), Thailand; d) Powdered rock samples from Sa Kaeo province using vibratory disc mill\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Figure4.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6976872/v1/3bceda52f5c75120d461a616.png"},{"id":86534593,"identity":"6e7e1aa7-e0f2-46b2-95d1-4ad509b056ac","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-07-11 18:07:23","extension":"png","order_by":5,"title":"Figure 5","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":929314,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eOxidation state measurement. a) X-ray absorption spectroscopy setup at BL1.1W station of the Synchrotron Light Research Institute (Public Organization), Thailand; b) Powdered rock samples in Kapton tape attached to sample holder\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Figure5.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6976872/v1/5d795dff55b3b91712e4f306.png"},{"id":86535206,"identity":"33d75155-26d0-4c4a-9066-fb5ff24fab15","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-07-11 18:15:23","extension":"png","order_by":6,"title":"Figure 6","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":460721,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eProcessing of TMS-01 prototype recipes. a) NMA-r1, composed of basalt from Nakhon Ratchasima (NMA), magnetite, and hematite; b) NMA-r2, composed of basalt from NMA, magnetite, and gypsum\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Figure6.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6976872/v1/aad21910c71f5a3f71ca940f.png"},{"id":86533805,"identity":"bc4dd132-7934-48a0-b301-79599e1827c3","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-07-11 17:59:23","extension":"png","order_by":7,"title":"Figure 7","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":810613,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eVariation diagrams of major oxide content of volcanic rocks, average Martian soil, and Mars simulants. a) silicon dioxide-iron oxide; b) silicon dioxide-aluminum oxide; c) silicon dioxide- titanium dioxide; d) silicon dioxide-magnesium oxide\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Figure7.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6976872/v1/690b2aed1bd59e0ffe1af515.png"},{"id":86533808,"identity":"66f93909-49ff-4052-ad90-b5e7c30d8c8c","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-07-11 17:59:23","extension":"png","order_by":8,"title":"Figure 8","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":685238,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eVariation diagrams of major oxide content of NMA-r1, NMA-r2, average Martian soil, and Mars simulants. a) silicon dioxide-iron oxide; b) silicon dioxide-aluminum oxide; c) silicon dioxide-titanium dioxide; d) silicon dioxide-magnesium oxide\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Figure8.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6976872/v1/c8980eafea1b93b082eea1a3.png"},{"id":86535207,"identity":"12688223-7054-49e9-8079-d571c604240e","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-07-11 18:15:23","extension":"png","order_by":9,"title":"Figure 9","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":837149,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eGeochemical plot using total alkalis versus silica (TAS). a) plot of volcanic rocks as raw material; b) plot of TMS-01 prototype recipes (modified from Cox et al. (1993))\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Figure9.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6976872/v1/d302518b8cf760662ba1e953.png"},{"id":86533811,"identity":"cbcad8c7-1464-4e66-bc34-748bac9f916d","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-07-11 17:59:23","extension":"png","order_by":10,"title":"Figure 10","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":1431247,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eSummary of pre-edge information (Fe \u003cem\u003eK\u003c/em\u003e-edge) of rock samples. Colored polygons are rock samples from Lopburi (LRI), Phetchabun (PNB), Chantaburi (CTI), Sa Kaeo (SK), and Trat (TRT) provinces compared with FeO:Fe\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e standards in different ratios (light blue hexagons) (modified from Wilke et al. (2001))\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Figure10.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6976872/v1/b7021c805da3459bceca1b8c.png"},{"id":86533819,"identity":"bbf05181-ae17-45b7-a2aa-b8fd533146cd","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-07-11 17:59:23","extension":"png","order_by":11,"title":"Figure 11","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":618530,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eSummary of pre-edge characteristics (Fe \u003cem\u003eK\u003c/em\u003e-edge) of rock samples. Compared with binary mixtures between \u003csup\u003eIV\u003c/sup\u003eFe\u003csup\u003e2+\u003c/sup\u003e, \u003csup\u003eVI\u003c/sup\u003eFe\u003csup\u003e2+\u003c/sup\u003e, \u003csup\u003eIV\u003c/sup\u003eFe\u003csup\u003e3+\u003c/sup\u003e, and \u003csup\u003eVI\u003c/sup\u003eFe\u003csup\u003e3+ \u003c/sup\u003eand Fe-bearing minerals (black circles); 1 humite; 2-3 rhodonite; 4 dumortierite; 5 potassian kaersutite; 6 kaersutite; 7–8 vesuvianite; 9 franklinite, 10 magnetite; 11 labradorite; 12 maghemite (modified from Wilke et al. (2001))\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Figure11.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6976872/v1/cea16f2d0b2301bbff035838.png"},{"id":86535208,"identity":"61fb5944-04df-44f2-8021-87f54f23ba82","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-07-11 18:15:23","extension":"png","order_by":12,"title":"Figure 12","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":3634922,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003ePhotomicrographs under cross-polarized light showing mineral assemblages and textures. a) Plagioclase and olivine crystals in pilotassitic groundmass b) Plagioclase-olivine basalt c) Olivine-clinopyroxene basalt within fine-grained groundmass d) Plagioclase-olivine-clinopyroxene basalt (Pl: Plagioclase, Ol: Olivine, Cpx: Clinopyroxene)\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Figure12.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6976872/v1/ed4cec7894c9a9ee9b779797.png"},{"id":86535822,"identity":"62cc13df-a4fb-487b-9497-b7d4ec98093d","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-07-11 18:23:31","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":15763372,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6976872/v1/302e499c-0e9c-462a-8c09-ca5186108852.pdf"},{"id":86533821,"identity":"f0640463-48d0-4715-ba28-6ddc8da00e39","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-07-11 17:59:24","extension":"png","order_by":16,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":225558,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"TMS01GraphicalAbstract.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6976872/v1/be23517321a0ef7de4a553cf.png"}],"financialInterests":"","formattedTitle":"Geochemistry Investigation of Basaltic Rock for Developing the First Thailand Mars Simulant (TMS-01)","fulltext":[{"header":"1. Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eMars exploration missions have long been a goal of mankind. Interest started in the late 20th century, focusing on remote sensing by space probes sent from Earth with the goal of understanding the geology and human settlement potential of Mars (Grotzinger et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e). Discoveries on Mars have increased interest in studying and exploring this planet. However, to date, none of the missions have been able to bring samples back from Mars. Therefore, to effectively prepare instruments for Mars exploration programs, it is essential to develop Mars simulants with characteristics similar to Martian dust, rock, regolith, or soil.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eMars simulants are terrestrial materials developed to have chemical and geotechnical properties similar to Martian soil. Due to limited resources available for Mars research, Mars simulants have a variety of applications for experiments and prototype testing in research laboratories with scientific instruments before their actual deployment on Mars missions (Beaty et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e; Scott et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). The Martian simulants are used to simulate the surface of Mars for mission planning purposes, including testing landing and mobility systems to ensure they operate effectively on the Martian surface. In addition, simulants are used to test the performance, durability, and resilience of hardware and materials used in Mars missions against the planet's harsh conditions, such as dust storms and extreme temperatures. \u003cem\u003eIn-situ\u003c/em\u003e resource utilization (ISRU) is the fundamental principle in reducing the expenses associated with space exploration (Karl et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e), involving testing methods to extract water and other resources from Martian soil. Additionally, simulants are used to study the feasibility of growing crops on Mars. Researchers can determine which crops are best suited for Martian agriculture by simulating the Martian soil. Furthermore, Mars simulants are being explored as a potential construction material for future missions. The idea is to use locally available materials, such as Mars simulants, to build habitats, shelters, and other structures that will potentially be constructed on Mars (Karl et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eTherefore, many agencies have developed Mars simulants composed of natural and artificial materials (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e). For example, JSC Mars-1 was initially constructed using a cinder cone and a fragment of weathered volcanic ash from the Pu'u Nene area on Hawaii Island, USA with a grain size of less than 1 mm (Allen et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1998\u003c/span\u003e). The reflectance spectral characteristics were much closer to the regolith of the bright regions on Mars. In addition, Mojave Mars Simulant (MMS) using whole rocks from a volcanic formation in the western Mojave Desert, close to Boron, CA, USA, has been widely recognized (Beegle et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2007\u003c/span\u003e). The development of the Jining Martian Soil Simulant (JMSS-1) included the mechanical crushing of Jining basalt obtained from the North China Craton. Processed amounts of magnetite and hematite obtained from Hebei province in China were added. The mixture showed comparable chemical and mineral compositions (and other characteristics) to Martian soil (Zeng et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e). The University of Canterbury Mars 1 (UC Mars 1) developed using a variety of rocks collected from the Banks Peninsula in the South Island of New Zealand (Scott et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). Basalt rock mined riverside on the Hantangang River in Yeoncheon-gun was used to make Korea Mars Simulant (KMS-1) (Lee \u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e), which was used t create Mars-crete as the raw material for Mars Village. Mars Global Simulant (MGS-1) produced by precisely blending pure minerals corresponding to a grain size distribution from Curiosity mission data (Cannon et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). Northeastern University Mars-1 (NEU Mars-1) has a mass ratio of 77.6:22.4 for Fe\u003csup\u003e2+\u003c/sup\u003e to Fe\u003csup\u003e3+\u003c/sup\u003e contents. It was developed from basalts obtained from the Chahar volcanic group located in Wulanchabu, Inner Mongolia, China (Guan et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). Field samples of basalts in Winder Nai, Pakistan were used to produce Winder Nai Mars Simulant (WNMS) (Rahim et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). The current database suggests that Martian soil simulants are based on volcanic ash, basalt, and volcanic cinders. The chemical and mineralogical composition analysis performed by the Curiosity Rover revealed that the Martian surface is mostly composed of basaltic soil and includes felspar, pyroxene, and olivine (Bish et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e; Blake et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e; Meslin et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e). However, while the Mars simulants cannot represent the entire planet in detail, they can be used as an average.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe distribution of Pre-Cenozoic volcanic rocks in Thailand is broad, especially in Loei (Panjasawatwong et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e), Phetchabun (Boonsoong et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e), Nakhon Sawan, Saraburi and Sa Kaeo (Jungyusuk and Khositanont \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1992\u003c/span\u003e), Chanthaburi and Trat (Boonsoong \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2007\u003c/span\u003e). The Cenozoic basalt and Tertiary volcanic rocks in Thailand, shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e, often appears in the mountain ranges of northern Thailand. In the central region, they appear in the Loei-Phetchabun volcanic belt as a low hill along the Khao Yai mountain range and the eastern shoreline. These rock types are rare on the Khorat Plateau. Late Cenozoic basalts have been identified in southern regions of the Khorat Plateau in Trat, Nakhon Ratchasima, Buriram, Surin, Sisaket, and Ubon Ratchathani provinces, ranging from alkali olivine basalt to hawaiite and mugearite. Typically, volcanic rocks in Thailand have chemical compositions that vary from felsic to mafic, with a predominant presence of tholeiite and calc-alkaline volcanic rocks (Department of Mineral Resources \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1997\u003c/span\u003e). The diverse range of volcanic rock types includes basalt, hawaiite, mugearite, bentonite, trachyte, and andesite, together with rhyolite (Irvine and Baragar \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1971\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe selection of basaltic rocks as the raw material for the development of TMS-01 is based on the discoveries made during the Curiosity mission, which identified basaltic soil on Mars with a mineral composition similar to that of basalts (Guan et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). Geological events indicate that basaltic rocks in Lop Buri, Phetchabun, Chanthaburi, Sa Kaeo, and Trat provinces during the Cenozoic Era have diverse chemical and mineral compositions. While basaltic rocks are found in various areas, numerous research studies have focused on classifying rocks based on their chemical and mineral compositions (Sriwichai et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). However, there has been a lack of comparisons regarding their suitability as raw materials for Mars simulants. In addition, there are several basalt mines in the southern regions of the Khorat Plateau that supply construction materials. Hence, additional samples from the mine in Nakhon Ratchasima province will also be used to develop TMS-01 for mass production in the future.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eTherefore, this research focused on the chemical and mineral composition, as well as the oxidation state of iron oxides in basaltic rocks from Lopburi, Phetchabun, Chanthaburi, Sa Kaeo, Trat, and Nakhon Ratchasima provinces as the source rock. They will be a part of the development of basaltic rocks to manufacture Thailand Mars Simulants (TMS-01) that have similar chemical and mineral composition according to the databases of Martian soil and other Mars simulants.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"2. Materials and methods","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e2.1 Study sites\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBased on past geological events, the Loei-Phetchabun and Sa Kaeo volcanic belts consist of diverse volcanic rocks. By consulting relevant information from previous research on Thailand's basalt-rich areas (Boonsoong 2007), study sites were identified within the volcanic belts in Lopburi, Phetchabun, Chanthaburi, Sa Kaeo, Trat and Nakhon Ratchasima provinces, Thailand, according to WGS-84 (World Geodetic System 1984) co-ordinates, as shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;2. Volcanic rock samples were collected from 18 sites in six provinces.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec4\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e2.2 Materials\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe representative volcanic rock samples, as shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;3(a), were collected during fieldwork in Lopburi, Phetchabun, Chanthaburi, Sa Kaeo, and Trat provinces, Thailand. Additional basaltic rock samples in Fig.\u0026nbsp;3(b) were obtained from Chok Chai Quarry Co., Ltd. in Nakhon Ratchasima province. The iron oxide minerals as additives were sourced from P.T.K. Mining Co. Ltd in Loei province, Thailand (samples PTK1 and PTK2), as shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;3(c–d).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec5\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e2.3 Methods\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cdiv id=\"Sec6\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e2.3.1 Preliminary production of the raw materials\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAll volcanic rock samples collected during the fieldwork consisted of fresh, homogeneous, basaltic and volcanic rocks to prevent sampling error. Subsequently, all superficial weathering crust was removed and the samples were divided into two sections. Samples were cut into small pieces and then fed into a Los Angeles (LA) abrasion machine for mechanically coarse crushing (Chancharoen et al. 2022), as shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;4(a). Then the crushed rock samples (Fig.\u0026nbsp;4(b)) were fed into the jaw crusher and disc mill for fine crushing. Samples were ground into powder and sieved through sizes ranging from less than 1 mm to less than 74 µm (200 mesh), as shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;4(c–d)) and divided into three samples for analysis using X-ray diffraction (XRD), X-ray fluorescence (XRF), and X-ray absorption spectroscopy (XAS). The rock samples were cut into slabs for petrographic analysis and then prepared as thin sections using a PetroThin Thin Section Machine. These sections were mounted on glass slides and polished to a thickness of approximately 30 µm.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cdiv id=\"Sec7\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e2.3.1.1 Rock Sample Properties\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003ePetrographic analysis\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eA polarized light microscope was used to study and identify the mineral components in the thin sections. Each rock sample contained the mineral components of basalts and other volcanic rocks at the collection sites. The petrographic observations have been integrated with XRD analysis to enhance understanding of the mineral composition.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eGeochemical analysis\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe powdered rock samples were pressed into mounts for mineral phase analysis. The analysis was conducted using XRD (BRUKER model D8 Advance), with X-ray diffraction at 2θ angles between 5° and 60°, a step size of 0.020449°, and a step time of 96 seconds. The resulting 2θ-intensity graphs were used to identify the different mineral types based on matching the peak data from the 2θ graphs.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe chemical composition of the whole rock, including major oxides and trace elements, was determined using the XRF technique based on 12 g of powdered rock in a 4 mm diameter sample holder. A BRUKER S2 PUMA Series II model was used for the energy-dispersive X-ray fluorescence (EDXRF) analysis.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe oxidation state of Fe in the samples was determined by analyzing the Fe \u003cem\u003eK\u003c/em\u003e-edge X-ray Absorption Near Edge Structure (XANES) spectra obtained from X-ray absorption spectroscopy (XAS) using synchrotron light, which offers highly intense and tunable X-ray beams. The oxidation state was identified primarily through pre-edge analysis by fitting the spectral features of the rock samples to those of standard compounds such as ferrous oxide (FeO) and ferric oxide (Fe\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e). Energy calibration was achieved using the first derivative of Fe foil standards at 7112 eV. Binding energy was calculated based on the first derivative of the normalized XANES absorption spectra using the Athena software (Ravel and Newville 2005). Pre-edge peaks in the XANES spectra were further analyzed by pre-edge fitting with the Larch software (Newville 2013).\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe major element component results were compared with the Average Martian soil (Table\u0026nbsp;1) and the Mars Regolith Simulants (Table\u0026nbsp;2) databases to identify which sample could be considered as potential raw material.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cdiv\u003e\n \u003cdiv align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cdiv align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cdiv align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cdiv align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cdiv align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cdiv align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cdiv align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cdiv align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n \u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\n \u003cdiv\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cdiv\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eChemical composition of Martian soil (in wt.%). Data obtained from Viking 1, Viking 2, Pathfinder, Spirit, Opportunity, and Curiosity landing sites and Average Martian Soil\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003c/caption\u003e\n \u003ccolgroup cols=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\n \u003cthead\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"7\" nameend=\"c8\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMartian Soil\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eViking 1\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eViking 2\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePathfinder\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSpirit\u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eOpportunity\u003csup\u003ed\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCuriosity\u003csup\u003ee\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAverage\u003csup\u003ef\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/thead\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eSiO\u003c/b\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cb\u003e2\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e43.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e43.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e42.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e45.80\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e43.80\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e42.88\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e45.41\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eTiO\u003c/b\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cb\u003e2\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.66\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.56\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.80\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.81\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.08\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.19\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.91\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eAl\u003c/b\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cb\u003e2\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e\u003cb\u003eO\u003c/b\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cb\u003e3\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7.30\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10.30\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8.55\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e9.43\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e9.71\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eCr\u003c/b\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cb\u003e2\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e\u003cb\u003eO\u003c/b\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cb\u003e3\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.30\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.35\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.46\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.49\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.36\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eFe\u003c/b\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cb\u003e2\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e\u003cb\u003eO\u003c/b\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cb\u003e3\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e18.50\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e17.80\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e21.70\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eFeO\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e15.80\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e22.33\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e19.19\u003csup\u003eg\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e16.73\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eMnO\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.30\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.31\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.36\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.41\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.33\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eMgO\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7.30\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e9.30\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7.05\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8.69\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8.35\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eCaO\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5.90\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5.70\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6.10\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6.10\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6.67\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7.28\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6.37\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eNa\u003c/b\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cb\u003e2\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e\u003cb\u003eO\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.80\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.30\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.60\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.72\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.73\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eK\u003c/b\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cb\u003e2\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e\u003cb\u003eO\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt; 0.15\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt; 0.15\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.60\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.41\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.44\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.49\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.44\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eP\u003c/b\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cb\u003e2\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e\u003cb\u003eO\u003c/b\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cb\u003e5\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.70\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.84\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.83\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.94\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.83\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eSO\u003c/b\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cb\u003e3\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6.60\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8.10\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5.82\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5.57\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5.45\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6.16\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eCl\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.70\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.50\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.90\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.53\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.44\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.69\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.68\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eLOI\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eTotal\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e88.81\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e75.81\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e99.80\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e99.37\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e99.18\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e99.85\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e99.01\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n \u003ctfoot\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"8\"\u003e“-” not analyzed\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"8\"\u003e\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003eBanin et al. (1992)\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"8\"\u003e\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003eFoley et al. (2003)\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"8\"\u003e\u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003eGellert et al. (2004)\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"8\"\u003e\u003csup\u003ed\u003c/sup\u003eRieder et al. (2004)\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"8\"\u003e\u003csup\u003ee\u003c/sup\u003eBlake et al. (2013)\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"8\"\u003e\u003csup\u003ef\u003c/sup\u003eTaylor and McLennan (2009)\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tfoot\u003e\n \u003c/table\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003csup\u003eg\u003c/sup\u003eSum of Fe\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e and FeO. For Viking Landers and Pathfinder soil, total Fe is expressed as Fe\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e. For Spirit and Opportunity, average soil total Fe expressed as FeO.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cdiv\u003e\n \u003cdiv align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cdiv align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cdiv align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cdiv align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cdiv align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cdiv align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cdiv align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cdiv align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n \u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\n \u003cdiv\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cdiv\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMajor elemental components (in wt.%) of Mars Simulants. Data obtained from JSC Mars-1, MMS, JMSS-1, KMS-1, MGS-1, NEU Mars-1, and WNMS.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003c/caption\u003e\n \u003ccolgroup cols=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\n \u003cthead\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"8\" nameend=\"c8\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMars Regolith Simulants\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eJSC Mars-1\u003csup\u003eh\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMMS\u003csup\u003ei\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eJMSS-1\u003csup\u003ej\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eKMS-1\u003csup\u003ek\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMGS-1\u003csup\u003el\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNEU Mars-1\u003csup\u003em\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWNMS\u003csup\u003en\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/thead\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eSiO\u003c/b\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cb\u003e2\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e43.48\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e49.40\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e49.28 ± 0.24\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e45.40\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e50.8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e43.94\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e47.62\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eTiO\u003c/b\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cb\u003e2\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.62\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.09\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.78 ± 0.01\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.80\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.30\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.70\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.31\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eAl\u003c/b\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cb\u003e2\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e\u003cb\u003eO\u003c/b\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cb\u003e3\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e22.09\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e17.10\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e13.64 ± 0.33\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e21.86\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8.90\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e17.80\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12.15\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eCr\u003c/b\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cb\u003e2\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e\u003cb\u003eO\u003c/b\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cb\u003e3\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.03\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.05\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.06\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.10\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eFe\u003c/b\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cb\u003e2\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e\u003cb\u003eO\u003c/b\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cb\u003e3\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e16.08\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10.87\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e16.00 ± 0.07\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e13.30\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e15.61\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e18.88\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eFeO\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12.51\u003csup\u003eo\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eMnO\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.26\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.17\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.14 ± 0.01\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.11\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.10\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.18\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eMgO\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.22\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6.08\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6.35 ± 0.08\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.41\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e16.70\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.13\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.14\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eCaO\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6.05\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10.45\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7.56 ± 0.06\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e9.17\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.70\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7.82\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e11.41\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eNa\u003c/b\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cb\u003e2\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e\u003cb\u003eO\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.34\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.28\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.92 ± 0.09\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.74\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.40\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5.58\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.14\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eK\u003c/b\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cb\u003e2\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e\u003cb\u003eO\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.70\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.48\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.02 ± 0.03\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.12\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.30\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.96\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.37\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eP\u003c/b\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cb\u003e2\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e\u003cb\u003eO\u003c/b\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cb\u003e5\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.78\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.17\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.30 ± 0.01\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.54\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.40\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.99\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eSO\u003c/b\u003e\u003csub\u003e\u003cb\u003e3\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.31\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.10\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.03\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.10\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.06\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eCl\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.07\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eLOI\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e17.36\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.39\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.48 ± 0.17\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eTotal\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e99.70\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e99.40\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e99.47\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e99.74\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e100.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e99.84\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e100.2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n \u003ctfoot\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"8\"\u003e“-” not analyzed\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"8\"\u003e\u003csup\u003eh\u003c/sup\u003eAllen et al. (1998)\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"8\"\u003e\u003csup\u003ei\u003c/sup\u003ePeters et al. (2008)\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"8\"\u003e\u003csup\u003ej\u003c/sup\u003eZeng et al. (2015)\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"8\"\u003e\u003csup\u003ek\u003c/sup\u003eLee (2017)\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"8\"\u003e\u003csup\u003el\u003c/sup\u003eCannon et al. (2019)\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"8\"\u003e\u003csup\u003em\u003c/sup\u003eGuan et al. (2020)\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"8\"\u003e\u003csup\u003en\u003c/sup\u003eRahim et al. (2023)\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tfoot\u003e\n \u003c/table\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003csup\u003eo\u003c/sup\u003eSum of Fe\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e and FeO. For JSC Mars-1, MMS, JMSS-1, MGS-1, NEU Mars-1 and WNMS total Fe expressed as Fe\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\"\u003e\n \u003ch2\u003e2.3.2 Simulant Preparation\u003c/h2\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe basaltic rock samples from Lopburi, Phetchabun, Chanthaburi, Sa Kaeo, and Trat provinces, along with additional basaltic samples from Nakhon Ratchasima province, were collected by removing the weathered surfaces and cutting the rocks into small pieces. Then, these samples were processed using an LA abrasion machine and subsequently crushed into fine powder, with a particle size of less than 200 mesh (74 µm), achieving a grain size distribution similar to that of Martian soil and Mars simulant.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe Fe oxide minerals, PTK1 and PTK2, were analyzed to identify possible iron oxide phases and to determine the presence of any associated minerals, as presented in Table\u0026nbsp;3. Based on the XRD analysis, the dominant crystalline phase in PTK1 was a spinel-structured mineral, primarily magnetite, along with hematite, while PTK2 consisted of magnetite and gypsum. The composition of PTK1 reflects a non-stoichiometric form of magnetite, in which Fe\u003csup\u003e2+\u003c/sup\u003e and Fe\u003csup\u003e3+\u003c/sup\u003e are partially substituted by Mg\u003csup\u003e2+\u003c/sup\u003e, Al\u003csup\u003e3+\u003c/sup\u003e, and Ti\u003csup\u003e4+\u003c/sup\u003e. The deviation from the ideal magnetite formula (FeO·Fe\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e or Fe\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003eO\u003csub\u003e4\u003c/sub\u003e) in PTK2 suggests PTK1 magnetite has a solid solution phase transition of the spinel phase (Nadoll et al. 2014). Gypsum, identified in PTK2, is of particular interest due to its occurrence as a surface deposit on Mars, as reported by Langevin et al. (2005). Based on their mineralogical characteristics and potential relevance as Martian analog materials, both PTK1 and PTK2 were selected to be added to the raw material.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cdiv\u003e\n \u003cdiv align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cdiv align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cdiv align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cdiv align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n \u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\n \u003cdiv\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cdiv\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePossible phases in PTK1 and PTK2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003c/caption\u003e\n \u003ccolgroup cols=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\n \u003cthead\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSample No.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePossible phase\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFormula\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e% Compound\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/thead\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePTK1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMagnetite\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHematite\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFe\u003csub\u003e0.65\u003c/sub\u003eFe\u003csub\u003e1.81\u003c/sub\u003eMg\u003csub\u003e0.42\u003c/sub\u003eAl\u003csub\u003e0.1\u003c/sub\u003eTi\u003csub\u003e0.03\u003c/sub\u003eO\u003csub\u003e4\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFe\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e81.61\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e18.39\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePTK2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMagnetite\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eGypsum\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFeO·Fe\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCaSO\u003csub\u003e4\u003c/sub\u003e(H\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eO)\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e82.62\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e17.38\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n \u003c/table\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAn experimental design, detailed in Table\u0026nbsp;4, was developed to study the ratios of additive minerals in the simulant. Based on previous data, volcanic rocks in Thailand have a FeO content of around 11–12 wt.%. Therefore, additional amounts of 5 wt.% of PTK1 and PTK2 were planned to be added. Basaltic rocks were mixed with PTK1 and PTK2 to create Nakhon Ratchasima Recipe 1 (NMA-r1) and Nakhon Ratchasima Recipe 2 (NMA-r2), respectively, as shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;7, compared with Sa Kaeo basaltic rock without any additive mineral (SK). The chemical composition of both recipes and SK was analyzed using XRF to determine their chemical composition.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cdiv\u003e\n \u003cdiv align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cdiv align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cdiv align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n \u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab4\" border=\"1\"\u003e\n \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\n \u003cdiv\u003eTable 4\u003c/div\u003e\n \u003cdiv\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eExperimental design of rocks and additive mineral ratios\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003c/caption\u003e\n \u003ccolgroup cols=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\n \u003cthead\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" morerows=\"1\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBasaltic rocks (wt. %)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFe oxide minerals (wt. %)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePTK1 (c)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePTK2 (d)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/th\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/thead\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSK\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e100\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNMA\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e95\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n \u003ctfoot\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"4\"\u003e“-” not added\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tfoot\u003e\n \u003c/table\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"3. Results","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec10\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.1 X-ray Fluorescence\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe major oxides of the rock samples from Lopburi, Phetchabun, Chanthaburi, Sa Kaeo Trat, and Nakhon Ratchasima provinces were analyzed using the XRF method and presented as the weight percentage of the whole-rock chemical composition. The rock samples had an SiO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e content of 43.33\u0026ndash;64.48, an alkali oxides content (Na\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eO\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;K\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eO) of 2.49\u0026ndash;10.83, an FeO(total) content of 2.63\u0026ndash;16.64, and an Al\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e content of 12.38\u0026ndash;24.71. The TiO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e and MgO contents were 0.45\u0026ndash;2.56, and 1.14\u0026ndash;13.97, respectively.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe major oxide contents of the volcanic rock were plotted against the silicon dioxide (SiO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e) content in variation diagrams to compare with the composition of the average Martian soil from the Viking, Pathfinder, Spirit, Opportunity, and Curiosity landing sites, as well as other Mars simulants, as shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig8\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e. The major oxide content values of the rock samples were within the scatter range of the database. However, the iron oxide content values were considerably lower than the average Martian soil and Mars simulants such as JSC Mars-1, JMSS-1, and MGS-1. Therefore, adding iron components was necessary for the future production of the Thailand Mars Simulant (TMS-01).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAfter adding PTK1 and PTK2 to Nakhon Ratchasima basaltic rocks, the iron oxide content increased to 17.08 wt.% and 17.32 wt.%, respectively, as shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig9\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e. Other major oxide contents changed only slightly. A plot of total alkalis (Na\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eO\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;K\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eO) versus silica (SiO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e), modified from Cox et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1993\u003c/span\u003e) and shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig9\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e(a), was used to classify the rock types. According to the TAS plot, the chemical composition of average Martian soil and the other Mars simulants could be classified as basalt and nephelinite. This classification was used to compare the volcanic rock types with rock samples from each province. The chemical plot in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig9\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e(a) indicates that the volcanic rock samples can be categorized into nine types: basanite, tephrite, benmoreite, trachyte, trachyandesite, dacite, andesite, basalt, mugearite, and hawaiite. Both recipes, NMA-r1 and NMA-r2, were classified as basalt, as illustrated in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig9\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e(b).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.2 X-ray Diffraction\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe diffraction patterns of rock samples were used to identify mineral phases by the corresponding Rietveld fit. The main phases in the rock samples were composed of plagioclase, pyroxene, olivine, quartz, amphibole, feldspathoid, alkali feldspar, chlorite, and zeolite. Plagioclase is the primary aluminum-bearing mineral in mafic rocks which forms a continuous solid solution between Albite and Anorthite. The plagioclase in rock samples includes Albite and Labradorite. Pyroxene minerals include Augite (Al\u003csup\u003e3+\u003c/sup\u003e bearing) and Diopside (Fe\u003csup\u003e3+\u003c/sup\u003e bearing). Possible mineral phases in NMA basaltic rocks, which are used as raw material, are shown in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e. The olivine in the rock samples is Forsterite (Fe\u003csup\u003e2+\u003c/sup\u003e bearing). The amphibole group includes Actinolite and Magnesio-hornblende (Fe\u003csup\u003e2+\u003c/sup\u003e bearing). There are Nepheline and Leucite in the feldspathoid group. The alkali feldspars include Orthoclase and Sanidine. Chlorite includes Clinochlore (Fe\u003csup\u003e2+\u003c/sup\u003e bearing) and Nimite. Zeolite includes Analcime. Quartz, Sodalite, Nitratine, and Pumpellyite as minor minerals.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab5\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 5\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePossible mineral phases in NMA\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"4\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSample\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePossible phase\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFormula\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e% Compound\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNMA\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePlagioclase\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCa\u003csub\u003e0.64\u003c/sub\u003eNa\u003csub\u003e0.32\u003c/sub\u003e(Si\u003csub\u003e2.275\u003c/sub\u003eAl\u003csub\u003e1.775\u003c/sub\u003e)O\u003csub\u003e8\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e50.9\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLabradorite (An52)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCa\u003csub\u003e0.52\u003c/sub\u003eNa\u003csub\u003e0.48\u003c/sub\u003e(Si,Al)\u003csub\u003e4\u003c/sub\u003eO\u003csub\u003e8\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e35.5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDiopside\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCaMg(SiO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e)\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e13.6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.3 X-ray Absorption Spectroscopy\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe XAS results guided the modification of the raw material using an additive mineral. The spectra obtained at the Fe \u003cem\u003eK\u003c/em\u003e-edge of the Fe standards analyzed in this investigation are normalized XANES spectra. The pre-edge feature can be observed in all spectra near 7112 eV. The Fe \u003cem\u003eK\u003c/em\u003e-edge XANES spectra of 18 rock samples from 17 sites in five provinces, excluding Nakhon Ratchasima basaltic rocks (NMA), indicate that all samples have comparable spectra with very similar absorption edges. The absorption edges fall within the energy range 7120.21\u0026ndash;7124.29 eV, which corresponds to the absorption edges of the FeO and Fe\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e standards (7119.07 eV and 7123.41 eV, respectively).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eA more precise analysis of iron oxidation was conducted using pre-edge analysis. Pre-edge peak analysis involves the selected normalized pre-edge spectra (specifically, the Fe \u003cem\u003eK\u003c/em\u003e-edge) and the best model computed using the Larch software. The pre-edge peaks were fitted with the Gaussian peak function and a baseline function (line and Lorentzian function).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn the summary of the pre-edge data, there is separation between the Fe\u003csup\u003e2+\u003c/sup\u003e and Fe\u003csup\u003e3+\u003c/sup\u003e centroids of 1.4 eV, as presented in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig10\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e, consistent with the result reported by Galoisy et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2001\u003c/span\u003e), which indicated a separation of 1.5 eV. Although no contribution from the Fe\u003csup\u003e3+\u003c/sup\u003e iron could be identified, the relatively large deviation for grandidierite (up-pointing triangles), gillespite (down-pointing triangles), and Fe\u003csup\u003e2+\u003c/sup\u003e-oxides in these samples may be attributable to trace contents of Fe\u003csup\u003e3+\u003c/sup\u003e. The pre-edge intensities, as estimated by the least-squares fit, have standard errors of approximately\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.001. In contrast, the precision of the measurements of pre-edge energy positions is \u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.05 eV, based on the repeatability of monochromator positions within multiple measurements. The polygons show the results for rock samples, while the light blue hexagons are the FeO and Fe\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e standards in different ratios. The centroid position between the samples and the standards, as shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig10\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e, confirms that the Fe total in the rock samples appears between Fe\u003csup\u003e2+\u003c/sup\u003e and Fe\u003csup\u003e3+\u003c/sup\u003e. The linear interpolation between the FeO-Fe\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e mixing line standards from Wilke et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2001\u003c/span\u003e) and the position of samples on the centroid versus the pre-edge intensity plot suggests a mixed oxidation state between the 74:26 (Fe\u003csup\u003e2+\u003c/sup\u003e:Fe\u003csup\u003e3+\u003c/sup\u003e) and 23:77 (Fe\u003csup\u003e2+\u003c/sup\u003e:Fe\u003csup\u003e3+\u003c/sup\u003e) standards. An exception is one LRI sample, which displays an oxidation state of approximately 0:100 (Fe\u003csup\u003e2+\u003c/sup\u003e:Fe\u003csup\u003e3+\u003c/sup\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn addition, the pre-edge characteristics for Fe in binary mixtures of \u003csup\u003eIV\u003c/sup\u003eFe\u003csup\u003e2+\u003c/sup\u003e, \u003csup\u003eVI\u003c/sup\u003eFe\u003csup\u003e2+\u003c/sup\u003e, \u003csup\u003eIV\u003c/sup\u003eFe\u003csup\u003e3+\u003c/sup\u003e, and \u003csup\u003eVI\u003c/sup\u003eFe\u003csup\u003e3+\u003c/sup\u003e, as well as in Fe-bearing minerals, are plotted with standard errors of approximately\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.001. The precision of the pre-edge energy position measurements is \u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.05 eV. This diagram considers the possibility of 4-coordinated Fe\u003csup\u003e2+\u003c/sup\u003e/Fe\u003csup\u003e3+\u003c/sup\u003e and 6-coordinated Fe\u003csup\u003e2+\u003c/sup\u003e/Fe\u003csup\u003e3+\u003c/sup\u003e environments, shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig11\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e. The rock samples plot along the \u003csup\u003eIV\u003c/sup\u003eFe\u003csup\u003e2+\u003c/sup\u003e/\u003csup\u003eVI\u003c/sup\u003eFe\u003csup\u003e3+\u003c/sup\u003e join, near the region corresponding to 60\u0026ndash;80% of \u003csup\u003eVI\u003c/sup\u003eFe\u003csup\u003e3+\u003c/sup\u003e and 20\u0026ndash;40% \u003csup\u003eIV\u003c/sup\u003eFe\u003csup\u003e2+\u003c/sup\u003e, a composition similar to that of vesuvianite.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec13\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.4 Petrographic analysis\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eAs a part of compiling detailed identification, the rock types in the rock samples are described in terms of the minerals and textural relationships. Volcanic rock samples from Lopburi, Phetchabun, Chanthaburi and Sa Kaeo were studied based on mineral assemblage and texture. From the photomicrographs under plane-polarized light (PPL) and cross-polarized light (XPL), the rock samples are mainly composed of plagioclase, olivine, and pyroxene, as well as opaque minerals. The following classes can be recognized: 1. Plagioclase and olivine crystals in a pilotassitic groundmass; 2. Plagioclase-olivine basalt; 3. Olivine-clinopyroxene basalt within a fine-grained groundmass; and 4. Plagioclase-olivine-clinopyroxene basalt (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig12\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec14\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.4.1 Plagioclase and olivine crystals in pilotassitic groundmass\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe groundmass of the Lopburi rock samples is dominated by a pilotassitic texture, characterized by small, dispersed olivine crystals within a fine-grained matrix (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig12\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e(a)). The groundmass consists primarily of feldspar microlites, which are arranged in a sub-parallel alignment. The samples have been classified chemically and petrographically into benmoreite and trachyandesite.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec15\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.4.2 Plagioclase-olivine basalt\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe porphyritic texture of the Phetchabun rock samples is dominated by plagioclase and olivine phenocryst (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig12\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e(b)). The olivine phenocrysts are typically subhedral to euhedral. The samples have been classified chemically and petrographically into hawaiite and mugearite.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec16\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.4.3 Olivine-clinopyroxene basalt within fine-grained groundmass\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe rock samples from Chanthaburi province have a porphyritic texture (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig12\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e(c)). The phenocrysts comprise olivine and clinopyroxene in the groundmass, which is mainly composed of plagioclase. These phenocrysts often display characteristic high relief and first-order interference colors under crossed polars. The samples have been classified chemically and petrographically into hawaiite, basanite, and tephrite.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec17\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.4.4 Plagioclase-olivine-clinopyroxene basalt\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe rock samples from Sa Kaeo province are composed of plagioclase and fewer clinopyroxene and olivine. The groundmass contains an intergranular composition and comprises plagioclase (euhedral) and opaque minerals (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig12\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e(d)). The samples have been classified chemically and petrographically into basalt.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"4. Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eComparison with Martian Soil\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe Martian surface appears to be covered by loose, unconsolidated materials, as well as extremely cohesive sediments, along with rocks or bedrock. The majority of the soil appears to have formed through a sequence of impact events, thermal cycles, and eolian processes of intermediate to mafic igneous rocks. A component of the regolith is presumably carried by the wind and distributed over the planet. The rock samples have undergone a mechanical crushing process, which aims to closely simulate the physical weathering processes occurring on Mars. The LA abrasion machine was used to replicate Martian soil particles characteristic of grain distribution. Chemical alterations occur when sulfate and/or ferric phases combine with salts and water distributed over long periods through daily moisture fluctuations or other speculative sources of water (Bishop et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2002\u003c/span\u003e; Blake et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eIn situ\u003c/em\u003e measurements revealed that the main chemical components of Martian soil were 37.8\u0026ndash;61.2 wt% SiO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e, 16\u0026ndash;22 wt% FeO\u003csub\u003et\u003c/sub\u003e, 6.9\u0026ndash;10.88 wt% Al\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e, 6\u0026ndash;10 wt% MgO, 5\u0026ndash;8 wt% CaO, 0.7\u0026ndash;0.9 wt% P\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eO\u003csub\u003e5\u003c/sub\u003e, and 5\u0026ndash;8 wt% SO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e (Banin et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1992\u003c/span\u003e; Blake et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e; Foley et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2003\u003c/span\u003e; Gellert et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2004\u003c/span\u003e; Rieder et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2004\u003c/span\u003e; Taylor and McLennan \u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e). Based on the analysis of the current samples, they have higher amounts of SiO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e and Al\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e than Martian soil, while FeO\u003csub\u003et\u003c/sub\u003e is less abundant. Additionally, the TiO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e and MgO levels are comparable to those in Martian soil. Based on these results, rock samples from Sa Kaeo province can be classified as basalt, consistent with the database. NMA-r1 and NMA-r2, which are used as raw materials for mass production, have higher contents of FeO\u003csub\u003et\u003c/sub\u003e, Al\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e, and TiO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e, but lower MgO than the average Martian soil.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eData collected from the Mars Rovers (Spirit, Opportunity, and Curiosity) indicates that the main composition of the Martian surface soil is plagioclase feldspar, pyroxene, and olivine. Fe and Ti oxides, such as magnetite, ilmenite, and hematite, as well as alteration minerals including carbonate, sulfates, and phyllosilicates, are also found in Martian soil (Bish et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e; McSween Jr. et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e; Yen et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e). The mineral phase composition of the soil at the Spirit, Opportunity, and Curiosity landing sites on Mars reveals that the composition of plagioclase is primarily rich in sodium to an intermediate degree (\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;An57), which corresponds to Albite, the sodium-rich end member of the plagioclase solid solution series. Olivine in Martian soil is forsteritic olivine (~\u0026thinsp;Fo62) related to Forsterite in the XRD pattern. Typically, the rock samples contain Ca-rich pyroxene, such as augite, which pyroxene tends to favor. However, large amounts of calcium-poor pyroxene, such as pigeonite\u0026mdash;commonly found in Martian soil\u0026mdash;are absent from the rock samples (Bish et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e; Christensen et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2004\u003c/span\u003e). These results demonstrate that the rock samples from Sa Kaeo province are good sources of raw materials with properties similar to real Martian soil. However, the samples lack the secondary alteration minerals found in Martian soil and are limited in quantity due to the absence of active mines in the province. To manufacture Thailand Mars Simulant (TMS-01), NMA-r1 and NMA-r2 should be used for future mass production.\u003cdiv class=\"BlockQuote\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eComparison with Mars Simulants\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eCompared to Mars simulants, the rock samples from Lopburi, Phetchabun, Chanthaburi, Sa Kaeo, and Trat provinces generally have lower FeO\u003csub\u003et\u003c/sub\u003e contents,except for one study site in Sa Kaeo province. Some samples have higher MgO, Al\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e, and TiO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e compared to other Mars simulants. The mineral composition of these samples mainly consists of plagioclase, pyroxene, and olivine, which is comparable to the MMS. However, there are notable from JSC Mars-1 in terms of occurrence, texture, and crystalline size, as JSC Mars-1 is developed from altered volcanic ash (Allen et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1998\u003c/span\u003e). JSC Mars-1 is composed primarily of plagioclase and Ca-rich pyroxene, whereas the rock samples from the current study contain Augite (Al\u003csup\u003e3+\u003c/sup\u003e-bearing) and Diopside (Fe\u003csup\u003e3+\u003c/sup\u003e-bearing). Nonetheless, most Mars simulants, which are developed from basalts, have a similar mineral composition to the current rock samples.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eCompared to Mars simulants, NMA-r1 and NMA-r2 have higher FeO\u003csub\u003et\u003c/sub\u003e contents and can be classified as basalt in a TAS plot, similar to other Mars simulants. The Al\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e contents of NMA-r1 and NMA-r2 are comparable to MMS, TiO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e is comparable to JMSS-1, and MgO is comparable to KMS-1. However, NMA-r1 and NMA-r2 have higher Al\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e and TiO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e and lower MgO contents than MGS-1, which is a developed prototype simulant using mineral standards.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eOxidation state of FeO total in rock samples\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe Fe content in Martian soil is as high as 16\u0026ndash;22 wt% (Guan et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e) while the magnetic phase is estimated at 1\u0026ndash;7 wt%, based on the Viking and Pathfinder missions (Hargraves et al., 1977; Madsen et al., 1999). The spectrum measurements primarily show ferric oxide, which limits the knowledge of the mineralogy of Mars' bright regions. It appears as a red surface as a result of hematite formation on Mars (Jiang et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe intensity of pre-edge features prior to the absorption edge is strongly influenced by the coordination geometry of the central atom. As the intensity of the pre-edge peak increases, the distortion of the Fe\u003csup\u003e3+\u003c/sup\u003e octahedral coordination tends to decrease. In contrast, when Fe transitions to a tetrahedral coordination as Fe\u003csup\u003e2+\u003c/sup\u003e, the pre-edge peak appears at higher energy values. The results indicate an intermediate coordination environment, potentially a mixture of distorted octahedral Fe\u003csup\u003e3+\u003c/sup\u003e and tetrahedral Fe\u003csup\u003e2+\u003c/sup\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe XAS results indicate that Fe in the samples has an oxidation state between ferrous (Fe\u003csup\u003e2+\u003c/sup\u003e) and ferric (Fe\u003csup\u003e3+\u003c/sup\u003e) ions. It refers to the information that the main magnetic phase is magnetite, which has the f chemical formula Fe\u003csup\u003e2+\u003c/sup\u003eFe\u003csup\u003e3\u0026thinsp;+\u003c/sup\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eO\u003csub\u003e4\u003c/sub\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"5. Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eIdentified basaltic rocks and other volcanic rocks from six provinces in Thailand are potential raw materials for developing a Thailand Mars Simulant. Rock crushing is comparable to the physical weathering processes that occur on Mars. Due to the chemical composition of Sa Kaeo basalts being similar to that of real Martian soil and Mars simulants, Sa Kaeo province was selected as a source of basaltic rock for the production of the simulants. Adding amounts of magnetite and hematite improved the chemical properties of the simulant to be similar to the Martian soil. However, due to limitations in basaltic rock availability in Sa Kaeo province, Nakhon Ratchasima basaltic rocks should be considered for future mass production. The results for NMA-r1 and NMA-r2 show comparable chemical compositions to Martian soil and Mars simulants. However, further studies are recommended of Sa Kaeo basalts, NMA-r1 and NMA-r2 regarding their physical and geotechnical properties such as grain size distribution, bulk density, specific gravity, and direct shear for developing Thailand Mars Simulant (TMS-01).\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Abbreviations","content":"\u003cp\u003eNMA-r1: Nakhon Ratchasima Recipe 1\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNMA-r2: Nakhon Ratchasima Recipe 2\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSK: Sa Kaeo basaltic rock without any additive mineral\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTMS-01: Thailand Mars Simulant\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEthics approval and consent to participate\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNot applicable\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;Consent for publication\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNot applicable\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAvailability of data and materials\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe prototype recipe of Thailand Mars Simulant (TMS-01) and datasets used, supported and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request and available to share for scientific research.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\n\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCompeting interests\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors declare that they have no competing interests.\u003c/p\u003e\n\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFunding\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis work was funded by the Development and Promotion of Science and Technology Talents Project (DPST) Scholarship from the Institute for the Promotion of Teaching Science and Technology (IPST). The funding body had no role in the design of the study, data collection, analysis, interpretation of data, or in writing the manuscript.\u003c/p\u003e\n\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAuthors\u0026apos; contributions\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNA collected the rock samples during fieldwork, prepared the samples for geochemical and petrographic analysis, carried out the chemical and mineral composition measurements, and drafted the manuscript under supervision of SP. WC conceived the study and helped in preparing mechanical crushing of the rock samples. NA, WC and SP participated in experimental design. CS helped to\u0026nbsp;carry out the oxidation state measurement using synchrotron light radiation. All authors helped to edit the manuscript and have read and approved the final manuscript.\u003c/p\u003e\n\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAcknowledgements\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis work was supported by the Development and Promotion of Science and Technology Talents Project (DPST) and the Institute for the Promotion of Teaching Science and Technology (IPST). We especially thank P.T.K. Mining Co. Ltd. for donating the iron oxide minerals and Chok Chai Quarry Co., Ltd.\u0026nbsp;for donating the Nakhon Ratchasima basaltic rocks. In addition, we gratefully acknowledge the Department of Earth Sciences and Science Equipment Center, Faculty of Science, Kasetsart University, Bangkok, Thailand and the Synchrotron Light Research Institute (Public Organization) for their equipment, valuable comments, and advice.\u003c/p\u003e\n\n\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAuthors\u0026apos; information\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003csup\u003e1\u003c/sup\u003eDepartment of Earth Sciences, Faculty of Science, Kasetsart University, Bangkok 10900, Thailand. \u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003eLaboratory of Artificial Intelligence and Innovation in Medicine (AIIM), Princess Srisavangavadhana Faculty of Medicine, Chulabhorn Royal Academy, Bangkok 10210, Thailand. \u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003eSynchrotron Light Research Institute (Public Organization), Nakhon Ratchasima 30000, Thailand.\u003c/p\u003e\n\n"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAllen CC, Morris RV, Jager KM, Golden DC, Lindstrom DJ, Lindstrom MM, Lockwood JP (1998) Martian regolith simulant JSC Mars-1. 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Earth, Planets and Space 67(1):72. doi: 10.1186/s40623-015-0248-5\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":true,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"earth-planets-and-space","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"epsp","sideBox":"Learn more about [Earth, Planets and Space](http://earth-planets-space.springeropen.com)","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"https://www.editorialmanager.com/epsp/default.aspx","title":"Earth, Planets and Space","twitterHandle":"@SpringerOpen","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"BMC/SO AJ","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Fe oxidation state, Martian soil, Mars simulant, Thailand volcanic rock","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6976872/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-6976872/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eTerrestrial materials can be used to manufacture Mars simulants, which have chemical and geotechnical properties similar to Martian soil. Mars simulants are essential resources for research in Mars exploration programs. Volcanic rocks from the Loei-Phetchabun and Sa Kaeo volcanic belts in Thailand are widely distributed and suitable for developing a Thailand Mars Simulant (TMS-01) based on the raw materials of volcanic rocks from Lopburi, Phetchabun, Chanthaburi, and Trat provinces. In the current study, these samples were mechanically crushed using a Los Angeles abrasion machine, jaw crusher, and disc mill. The sample properties, including chemical and mineralogical composition, were analyzed using polarized light microscopy, X-ray diffraction, and X-ray fluorescence. X-ray absorption spectroscopy (XAS) was used to focus on the Fe \u003cem\u003eK\u003c/em\u003e-edge X-ray absorption near-edge structure spectra of iron oxide minerals in the volcanic rocks. Compared to Martian soil, these volcanic rocks have higher SiO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e, Al\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eO\u003csub\u003e3\u003c/sub\u003e, and TiO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e, and lower FeO\u003csub\u003et\u003c/sub\u003e. They also have lower FeO\u003csub\u003et\u003c/sub\u003e compared to other Mars simulants. Some volcanic rocks have a higher MgO content than JSC Mars-1, while others contain less MgO than MGS-1. The mineral composition of these volcanic rocks mainly consists of plagioclase, pyroxene, and olivine, which is comparable to the Mojave Mars Stimulant. The XAS results indicated that the Fe in these volcanic rocks has an oxidation state between ferrous (Fe\u003csup\u003e2+\u003c/sup\u003e) and ferric (Fe\u003csup\u003e3+\u003c/sup\u003e) ions. Thus, basaltic rocks from Sa Kaeo province are potential raw materials for developing TMS-01. The process of its production is comparable to the physical weathering processes on Mars. The addition of iron oxide minerals should improve the chemical properties. For mass production, additional basaltic rocks were sourced from a mine in Nakhon Ratchasima province. Iron oxide minerals, including magnetite and hematite, along with gypsum, were added to Nakhon Ratchasima basaltic rocks at a 5 wt.% ratio of iron oxide to rock samples in two different recipes. This will allow the manufacturing of three raw materials for TMS-01. Further study on the physical and geotechnical properties is recommended to advance the development of TMS-01.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Geochemistry Investigation of Basaltic Rock for Developing the First Thailand Mars Simulant (TMS-01)","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-07-11 17:59:18","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6976872/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"decision","content":"Major Revision","date":"2025-11-14T00:51:12+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"","date":"2025-08-21T05:29:30+00:00","index":0,"fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2025-07-09T07:33:56+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2025-06-26T14:23:12+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"Earth, Planets and Space","date":"2025-06-25T13:03:48+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"earth-planets-and-space","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"epsp","sideBox":"Learn more about [Earth, Planets and Space](http://earth-planets-space.springeropen.com)","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"https://www.editorialmanager.com/epsp/default.aspx","title":"Earth, Planets and Space","twitterHandle":"@SpringerOpen","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"BMC/SO AJ","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"49d37b43-f11a-4a22-a68e-7b5f9cb1dc74","owner":[],"postedDate":"July 11th, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"under-review","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-04-22T03:32:12+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2025-07-11 17:59:18","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-6976872","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-6976872","identity":"rs-6976872","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}