Coastal Physical Vulnerability to Sea Level Rise in the active Ecuadorian margin for Integrated Coastal Zone Management, case study: Santa Elena Bay

Coastal Physical Vulnerability to Sea Level Rise in the active Ecuadorian margin for Integrated Coastal Zone Management, case study: Santa Elena Bay | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Coastal Physical Vulnerability to Sea Level Rise in the active Ecuadorian margin for Integrated Coastal Zone Management, case study: Santa Elena Bay Elvis Espinoza Villacís, Jacqueline Rivas-Oviedo, Carlos Martillo-Bustamante, and 6 more This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-5784157/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Published Journal Publication published 25 Aug, 2025 Read the published version in Natural Hazards → Version 1 posted 5 You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Coastal areas face increasing threats from extreme weather and rising sea levels, exposing both human populations and delicate ecosystems. This study evaluates the physical vulnerability in the Santa Elena Bay (SEB) coastline, which is setting in the active margin of Ecuador, which is highly influenced by geological vertical movements. The results of this study permit us to give some recommendations to coastal management. Employing the Coastal Vulnerability Index (CVI), we analyze variables such as lithology, geomorphology, beach slope, coastal indentation, shoreline displacement, and wave height. The CVI categorized the coast into four vulnerability ranks: Low, Moderate, High, and Very High. Results indicate that low-lying beaches, especially in the Northern zone, where there are higher waves, are the most vulnerable. The Northern zone of SEB exhibits substantially higher vulnerability, with 15.80% of the coast classified as High and 41.76% as Very High. Key factors contributing to Very High vulnerability include low indentation (63.96%), high wave heights (58.69%), and quaternary sediments (57.41%). Conversely, the Southern zone primarily demonstrates High and Low vulnerability, however critical areas can be found which have some important infrastructure to tourism, i.e. Monteverde, San Pablo, Punta Barandúa, Ballenita, and Salinas. The findings highlight the urgency of implementing mitigation measures and integrating adaptive management strategies into urban development policies to reduce the vulnerability of coastal communities and protect local ecosystems. coastal vulnerability index shoreline change coastal geomorphology geographic information system (GIS) coastal management sea level rise Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 Figure 6 Figure 7 Figure 8 Introduction The coastal zone, hosting nearly 2 billion of the world’s population, faces a heightened risk due to ongoing coastal processes and the impact of rising sea levels (Luijendijk et al. 2018; McGranahan et al. 2007; Reimann et al. 2023). Sea level rise poses significant threats to both biophysical and socio-economic aspects by affecting coastal environments, human migration, population dynamics, and infrastructure integrity (Hauer et al. 2020; Neumann et al. 2015). Global warming-induced sea level rise contributes to a constant threat of erosion and flooding, permanently altering ecosystems and sedimentary balance along coasts, often exacerbated by anthropogenic pressures (Griggs & Reguero, 2021; Jayappa & Deepika, 2018; Magoon et al. 2001; Shadrick et al. 2022). Insufficient knowledge regarding the interaction of the physical variables in coastal zones also increases vulnerability, hindering effective prevention, mitigation, or management an adverse events or disasters. Integrated coastal zone management (ICZM), guided by the evaluation of natural processes, is important for preventing disaster risks and building resilient coastal populations (Hauer et al. 2021; Rocha et al. 2020). The coastal zone represents a geographical area shaped by the influence of various ocean-atmospheric factors, including waves, tides, currents, winds, humidity, temperature, among others. Nevertheless, the underlying morphological structure is defined by geological characteristics like lithology, tectonics, and ongoing sedimentary processes (Bird, 2008). The interplay between geological features and oceanographic conditions along a coastline will define its geographic features, i.e. forms, environments, and ecosystems. Coastal areas subjected to the influence of waves and tides may undergo erosion through local hydrodynamic processes, or conversely, they might expand through sedimentary accretion into adjacent areas (Vargas-T. et al. 2016). A rocky coast featuring cliffs may experience persistent abrasion due to wave action and sea level rise, leading to the formation of coastal notches and cliff collapse. (Fullin et al. 2023). Given the complex interaction between rising sea levels, increasingly extreme weather events, and a growing coastal population driven by economic factors and migration, flexible coastal management policies are important to ensure the sustainability of our coastlines (Cruz-Ramírez et al. 2024; Lin & Singh, 2024; Reimann et al. 2023). Coastal vulnerability assessments are crucial to support coastal management initiatives (Cruz-Ramírez et al. 2024). In the literature, there are different approaches and methodologies for assessing vulnerability and risk due to different types of hazards, such as those related to climate change. These include index-based methods such as the CVI, which relates hydrodynamical factors and geological characteristics within a local framework to determine high-risk coastal segments by sea level rise (Gornitz et al. 1990; Ramieri et al. 2011) . The CVI, widely employed for assessing vulnerability to erosion and/or inundation, has undergone various modifications and adaptations by several authors. Initially developed for the United States coasts, its comprehensive approach has made it applicable to diverse coastal regions worldwide (Arun Kumar & Kunte, 2012; Mani Murali et al. 2013; McLaughlin et al. 2010; Osilieri et al. 2020; Pantusa et al. 2018; Pendleton et al. 2004a; Robert Thieler & Hammar-Klose, 1999, 2000; Ružić et al. 2019; Sallaye et al. 2022; Shaw et al. 1998; Szlafsztein & Sterr, 2007; Wang et al. 2013; Yahia Meddah et al. 2023). The Ecuadorian coast, located at the Western Pacific Coast of South America (Figure 1A), covers an approximate length of 1017.5 km (Ayón, 1988), and because it is in an active subduction margin, its coastline shows marked geographical irregularities looked at the plain or in a vertical direction (Pedoja et al. 2015) (Cantalamessa & Di Celma, 2004). Into these geographical irregularities, there is a predominant morphological entrance, the Santa Elena Bay (SEB). The study zone, the Santa Elena Bay, spans approximately 115 km and encompasses at least 68 communities (Scazza, 2016) with an estimated population of 385.735 inhabitants (INEC, 2023). Dominated by the principal economic activities of sun and beach tourism and fishing. These activities have driven the development of significant coastal infrastructure, including the construction of one of Ecuador’s most important coastal highways, the Spondylus route, and port infrastructures. Despite the growing concern over coastal erosion and wave dynamics, research efforts on Ecuador’s coastline remain sparse. Among these studies (Vera et al. (2009) carried out a descriptive analysis of waves on the central Ecuadorian coast based on data collection over 10 years, finding significant mean wave heights between 0.33 m and 1.92 m on different beaches along the central Ecuadorian coast between Punta El Morro and Jaramijó. Saltos-Andrade et al. 2020 analyzed the spatial behavior of the coastline of San Pedro, Santa Elena, and estimated a retreat rate of -0.68 m/year. Nativí et al. 2021 analyzed, similarly, the behavior of the coastline of Libertador Bolívar, Santa Elena, and estimated a retreat rate of -0.64 m/year. Espinoza et al. (2023) simulated wave conditions in Santa Elena Bay. Results suggest that the predominant direction range of wave arrival to the coast is from the southwest between 221.1° and 270.1°, with a height range of 0.60 m and 0.93 m and a period range of 11.5s to 16.0s. These studies provide valuable insights into the behavior of physical variables in the Santa Elena coastal zone. However, It is crucial to highlight that these studies do not analyze the interaction between the geological and hydrodynamic variables that impact the coastal environment. This type of analysis is essential to understanding the relationships between variables and identifying the critical factors that contribute to coastal physical vulnerability. To further contribute to ICZM, a vulnerability assessment should be conducted to quantify the impact or contribution of each variable. This paper aims to analyze the relationship between hydrodynamical and geological variables for the application of the CVI to identify areas most susceptible to coastal hazards. The analysis applied to Santa Elena could be adapted in other regions of Ecuador, South America, and potentially even worldwide, aiding in the development of coastal management plans, risk reduction strategies, and sustainable development initiatives. Study area: SEB 2.1. Geological Settings The morphology of the Ecuadorian margin is controlled by the subduction of the Nazca plate beneath the South American plate, which results in different types of asperities, such as the Carnegie Ridge (400 km-long, 200 Km-width and 2 km-high) and seamounts (20 km-with, 30 km-long and 0.6 Km-height) (Marcaillou et al. 2016; Michaud et al. 2009; Proust et al. 2016). This subduction process leads to uplifts along the coastal zone, giving rise to landforms such as marine terraces, rocky coasts, and cliffs (Blanco-Chao et al. 2014; Dumont et al. 2014; Pedoja, Ortlieb, et al. 2006). These features intersperse with low coasts of coastal ranges, beaches, and sandy barriers, as well as areas with the formation of deltas and estuaries (Ayón, 1988). The geological conditions contribute to a highly irregular coastal morphology, marked by five significant headlands from North to South: Galera, Cabo Pasado, Manta, Salango and Salinas, which define extensive inlets or bays (Figure 1A). The Santa Elena Bay is located along the central Ecuadorian margin and is delimited by Salango at the north and Salinas to the south (Figure 1B). Within the Santa Elena Bay, two distinct regional geomorphological zones are identified: the Northern Zone between Punta Salango and Ayangue shows a N20W sub-rectilinear geoform along approximately 66 km; the Southern Zone between Ayangue and Salinas displays a N50ºE concave geoform with a parabolic adjustment and extends approximate 74 km (Figure 1B). Outcrops on the coastal cliffs of the bay exhibit different geological formations (Figure 1B) spanning from the Cretaceous to the Quaternary (Baldock, 1982; Reyes & Michaud, 2012). The diverse lithological and structural properties of formations influence their resistance to physical weathering caused by waves. As the rocks undergo weathering on the cliffs, the resulting sediments are transported and deposited along nearby barrier beaches, serving as significant sediment sources in the coastal dynamics of the bay. The Upper Cretaceous sequences from the Piñón and Cayo Formations are interpreted as the underlying basement of the Ecuadorian Coast. Piñon Fm. is characterized by a basaltic igneous complex composed of tholeiitic basalts, pillow lavas, and gabbros. The geochemical signatures of these rocks support an oceanic plateau interpretation (Jaillard et al., 1995; Kerr et al., 2002; Mamberti et al., n.d.; Reynaud et al., 1999). In the Northern Zone, outcrops of the Piñón Formation are visible on Salango Island and along the cliffs between Ayampe and La Rinconada. These rocks exhibit high hardness and high compaction. The deep-marine volcanoclastic deposits of Cayo Fm. show tens of meter-thick sequences of coarse-grained sandstones intercalated with decimeter-thick layers of shales (Jaillard et al., 1995; Kerr et al., 2002; Mamberti et al., n.d.; Reynaud et al., 1999).. The outcrops are visible in some coastal capes, mainly between Salinas and La Libertad in the Southern Zone, including Punta Santa Elena, Chipipe, San Lorenzo, and La Libertad. As outlined by Baldock (1982); Bristow et al. (1977); Núñez & Dugas (1987); and Sheppard (1937), the interplay with other formations from the Tertiary sedimentary rocks also influences the coastal morphology and landscape dynamics within the study area: The Ancon Group from the Eocene, characterized by conglomerates, sandstones, siltstones, and limestones of medium to low consolidation. Outcrops are observed locally in Punta Murciélago, south of Ballenita, and the sector between La Entrada and La Rinconada. A very large outcrop is located to the south of Puerto López facing Salango. The Zapotal Formation, from Upper Eocene to Lower Oligocene is characterized by thick and compact sandstones intercalated with conglomerates and shale, with medium to high consolidation. Extensive outcrops of the Zapotal formation are visible along the coastline, i.e. Ballenita, Punta Barandúa, Punta Blanca, Punta del Morro, and in the mountainous sector between Montañita and Olón. The Tosagua Formation from Upper Oligocene-Lower Miocene is lithologically composed of chocolate-brown clays exposed in decimeter to centimeter layers, with intercalations of gypsum lenses. Outcrops are exposed in the cliffs that form in the Southern sector of San Pedro-Valdivia, as well as locally in the south of Libertador Bolívar. The Quaternary rocks are composed of sandstones, conglomerates, and biogenic calcareous banks from the Tablazo Formation, whose name is derived from a platform morphology that forms stepped raised plains. The topography results from the Plio-Pleistocene uplift of the Ecuadorian Coast (Pedoja, et al. 2006a; Pedoja et al. 2011; Pedoja, et al. 2006b). This formation is mainly visible between Salinas and La Libertad, and it also outcrops on the edges of the Ayangue inlet, north of Palmar, between Palmar and Punta San Antonio. The coastline of the Santa Elena Bay features extensive areas with Quaternary sedimentary deposits, formed through erosion-transport-deposition processes, mainly influenced by oceanographic and hydrographic activity during the Holocene highstand. These deposits are distributed along various sections of the coastline (Figura 1B): 1) between Ballenita and Punta Barandúa along 4 km; 2) between San Pablo and Palmar along 17 km; 3) local occurrences on Ayangue and Punta San Antonio; 4) along 7 km north from San Pedro in the Southern area of Libertador Bolívar; 5) along 8.5 km north from Simón Bolívar to Punta Montañita; 6) between Olón and La Entrada along 9 Km. 2.2 Coastal Geomorphology In Ecuador, the formation of coastline morphology has been significantly influenced by geological processes (Boye & Fiadonu, 2020). However, oceanographic processes are the primary drivers that determine the coastal dynamics shaping the coastline morphology. Few studies on the Santa Elena Bay attempt to establish a morphological classification; Boothroyd et al. (1994) define a regional classification at a 1:50000 scale; and Ayón & Zapata, 1988 provides a description of the Ecuadorian coast considering ecological zoning, wave climate, currents, and tides. However, neither of these classifications allows for the evaluation or quantification of accretion/erosion dynamics applicable to coastal management. According to these studies, the bay features two principal types of coasts based on their position relative to the current sea level: 1) low coasts characterized by the presence of barrier beaches or coastal plains and, 2) high or emerged coasts characterized by the presence of active cliffs (Figure 4B). Low coastal areas correspond to littoral zones whose heights are near the current sea level. They have a sub-classification based on parameters related to their genesis, or erosion/accretion processes. The sub-classifications include a) coastal plain, b) barrier beach, c) raised barrier, lagoon, or coastal plain. The strandplain corresponds to a coastal sector with a wide sandy plain built by the action of waves, overflow of storms, and the action of the wind, which may have a width greater than 1 km with many areas of barrier dunes and post plains (e.g. barriers in Figure 4B1). The barrier beach corresponds to sandy islands or peninsulas parallel to the coast, built by waves, storm overflows, and wind action (Figure 4B2). The sand bars are separated from adjacent terrain by aquatic habitat and may or may not be joined at one end. When they are attached to one of the ends, they are called littoral arrows. The construction or erosion of coastal barriers is closely linked to the direction of the waves and coastal processes, as well as the source of the sediments that form them. The uplifted barrier, lagoon, strandplain is a wide-low plain, elevated a few meters, with no visible cliff on the coastal margin. Some evidence of the original system (barrier, lagoon, or coastal plain) may be visible but is not already active. They may be an intermediate state between the types of low coasts and low cliffs and are evidence of the active uplift that has the coast of Ecuador. Active cliffs correspond to escarpments of rocks very close to the coast, rising between 2 and 60 meters above sea level (Figures 4B3 and 4B4). Some of them have developed sand or gravel beach in proximity, caused by the weathering of waves at the base that produce the crumble and retreat of cliffs. Their erosion rate is related to the mechanical and chemical properties of the rock that constitutes them, as well as the hydrodynamic process present in the area. 2.3 Coastal Processes The Ecuadorian coast experiences two seasons determined by rainfall: a wet season from December to May and a dry season from June to November. The prevailing wind flow on the Ecuadorian coast comes from the south, with a westerly component (Gálvez & Regalado, 2007). The waves that reach the Ecuadorian coast are of the swell type and their characteristics are influenced by seasonal variations (Allauca & Cardin, 1987; Vera, 2000b). Generally, Pacific Ocean waves generated in the north and south travel southeast and northeast, respectively. They spread to low latitudes, encountering near the equator, and propagate eastward towards the eastern Pacific Ocean (Liu & Zhao, 2019). The Ecuadorian coast experiences a prevalence of northeastward swells from the South Pacific between April to October, peaking from June to August. This increase is caused by stronger South Pacific westerlies, which push waves southeastward that can reach as far north as 40 degrees latitude. January brings a different pattern, where the wind speed and wave conditions in the North Pacific intensify. These waves propagate to the southeast having a considerable influence in the equator, meeting the northeastward waves from the South Pacific and arriving from the west to the Ecuadorian coast (Li, 2016; Liu & Zhao, 2019). Wave diagrams for the Santa Elena Bay are shown in Figure 2. We obtained data from the CMEMS reanalysis product, WAVERYS. (Law-Chune et al. 2021). The virtual buoys from which we obtained the data are shown in Figure 2A. To illustrate the seasonal variations, we collected data for two dissimilar months: February (wet season), and September (dry season), spanning data from 2014 to 2023. In February, waves arrive primarily from the southwest and west, with directions ranging from 219.63° to 295.21°. Significant wave heights typically fall between 0.41 and 1.16 meters, with periods between 10.12s and 22.71s (Figure 2B and Table 1). In contrast, September presents waves predominantly approaching from 214.52° to 243.44°, with significant wave heights varying between 0.51m and 1.48m, and periods between 4.95s and 23.48s (Figure 2B and Table 1). Sea level monitoring along the Ecuadorian coast is equipped with a network of tide gauges operated by the Navy Oceanographic and Antarctic Institute (INOCAR, https://www.inocar.mil.ec/web/index.php). La Libertad hosts the country’s oldest and most historically significant tide station (location in Figure 2A). The Ecuadorian tide cycle is semidiurnal, comprising two high tides and two low tides of equal height in an approximately 24-hour period (Vera, 2000a; Wong, 2011). The analysis of a 45-day tide record from the La Libertad station between February and March 1995 revealed a spring tide amplitude of 2.5 m and a neap tide amplitude of 1.4m (Vera, 2000a).Another analysis of the tide records from the same station, spanning 1948-2009, showed a tidal range of 2.5 m, classifying the regime as mesotidal (<3.0 m tidal range). This analysis further identified that the M2 (principal lunar semidiurnal) constituent had the highest amplitude, followed by S2 (principal solar semidiurnal), N2 (a larger lunar elliptic semidiurnal constituent), and K1 (a lunar diurnal constituent) (Wong, 2011). We downloaded the data with the use of the DELFT Dashboard, which shows the amplitude and phase of the principal tide components (Figure 2B - Table 2) (van Ormondt et al., 2020). We chose the International Hydrographic Organization (IHO) station of La Libertad. Similar to the wave data, we focused on February and September of 2023 to represent the wet and dry seasons. The regime is mesotidal. Seasonal variation does not significantly impact tidal ranges, as seen from the data for February (2.50 m) and September (2.57 m) in 2023. The primary astronomical components influencing the tide are the lunar semidiurnal (M2) and solar semidiurnal (S2). 3. Data and Methods: Coastal Vulnerability Index variables and calculation Coastal vulnerability assessments employ various methods, including indexes, indicators, Geographical Information Systems (GIS), and dynamic models (Noor & Abdul Maulud, 2022; Oloyede et al., 2021). Index-based methods are commonly used for their simplicity, incorporating diverse factors present in natural systems and facilitating comprehension for non-specialists. These methods express vulnerability through the combination and evaluation of different variables (Roukounis & Tsihrintzis, 2022, Hamid et al. 2019, Ramieri et al. 2011). The CVI method simplifies the complex interplay between the physical features of a coastline. It expresses the vulnerability as a one-dimensional variable, allowing the coastline to be divided into segments, with each one assigned a vulnerability value depending on local parameters. The result provides a straightforward quantitative measure for classifying coastal areas at different scales, according to their susceptibility to a particular hazard (Canul Turriza et al. 2024). Its seamless integration with GIS facilitates easy application, enabling abstract concepts like vulnerability to be visualized or expressed as a combination of a set of variables. This derives in a simpler way to communicate results (McIntosh & Becker, 2019; Ramieri et al. 2011; Rocha et al. 2023). The physical vulnerability assessment involved five steps (Figure 3): i) selection of variables; ii) data processing methods for each variable; iii) assignation of a vulnerability score to each variable using a scale from 1 to 4 (with 1 indicating the least contribution to vulnerability and 4 the most), based on its influence in physical coastal changes; iv) the index calculation; and v) generation of physical vulnerability maps. The results directly support the ICZM of the study area and can be integrated into coastal planning initiatives. To ensure optimal effectiveness, the entire process should be monitored and reviewed throughout implementation. At the end of the cycle, it may be necessary to re-evaluate the initial variables to refine the analysis, thereby initiating the process anew. Originally, the CVI considered 7 variables: relief (elevation), lithology (rock type), morphology (coastal landform), sea level changes, shoreline changes (erosion or accretion), tidal ranges, and wave heights. The CVI is calculated by the square root of the geometric mean of the vulnerability values (Equation 1) (Gornitz et al., 1990). In this study, we applied the formulation proposed by Gornitz et al. (1990) with modifications considering 6 variables based on the local geological and coastal context, which are: 1) lithology, 2) geomorphology, 3) indentation grade, 4) beach slope, 5) shoreline displacement, and 6) wave height. In addition to these variables, we will also evaluate the tidal range and relative sea level change within the study area. However, due to limited data availability (with only punctual measurements recorded), the analysis of these factors will be qualitative. This means we will assess their overall impact on coastal vulnerability rather than incorporating them quantitatively into the CVI itself. The range of physical vulnerability for each variable is shown in Table 3. With the application of these ranks, we generated a map for each variable. Each rank is assigned a different color: Low (value 1) in green, Moderate (value 2) in yellow, High (value 3) in orange, and Very High (value 4) in red. Once CVI is calculated, these values are classified in the same 4 categories, using quantiles as limits (Figures 4 to 8). 3.1 Variables Processing and Analysis 3.1.1 Lithology: Provides a measurement of the erodability, depending on chemical and physical breakdown processes (Gornitz & Kanciruk, 1989). Considering the exposed lithology in the study zone, classification is based on rock hardness. Well-consolidated igneous and volcano-sedimentary rocks are considered to have a low level of erodability, while most sedimentary rocks are considered to have a medium to high level of erodibility. Thus, the geological formations described above, in item 2.1), were classified as: Piñon and Cayo Formations assigned as low level of erodability; rocks from the Ancón Group, Zapotal and Tosagua Formations classified as medium level erodability, and Tablazos Formation was assigned a high level of erodibility. The Quaternary sedimentary deposits along the coast were classified as very high erodability level (Table 3). The map of erodability based on lithology (Figure 4A), shows that low and medium levels of erodability are present in Salango, La Rinconada, Punta Montañita, Ayangue, Chipipe, San Lorenzo and Punta Santa Elena. High and very high erodability levels are observed in all beaches along the coastal zone, such as Las Tunas, Curia, Olón, Montañita, Libertador Bolívar, Valdivia, Ayangue, Palmar, Monteverde, San Pablo, Ballenita, San Lorenzo and Chipipe. 3.1.2 Geomorphology (Coastal Height): Determined by the height and landform of the littoral. Classification is based on coastal elevation areas, mainly referring to the work realized by Ayón & Zapata (1988). Littoral with high cliffs as low vulnerability, low cliffs as moderate vulnerability, littoral with uplifted beaches as high vulnerability, and areas with barrier beaches or strandplains as very high vulnerability (Table 3). The geomorphological map (Figure 4B) depicts the lowest coast highlighted in red, slightly more prevalent in the Northern than the Southern zone of the SEB. The areas with the highest vulnerability in the Northern zone encompass Las Tunas-Ayampe, La Curia-Olón, South of Montañita, and Libertador Bolivar; while in the Southern zone include Monteverde, San Pablo, Punta Blanca, San Lorenzo and Chipipe. The Northern zone shows prominent points characterized by cliffs, featuring the high cliffs of Salango and the low cliffs of Ayangue. The area between these points exhibits high cliffs along La Rinconada, Montañita, and south of Libertador Bolívar. Uplifted barrier beaches are observed in Valdivia and Libertador Bolivar-Montañita, along with strandplains in Olón-Curia and Las Tunas-Ayampe. In the Southern zone, prominent points; like Salinas, Punta Blanca, and Ayangue, are characterized by low cliffs. The area between Salinas and Punta Blanca features the presence of an uplifted barrier beach around Ballenita. Moving Northern between Punta Blanca and Ayangue, there are uplifted barrier beaches near San Pablo, barrier beaches between San Pablo and Monteverde, and strandplains around Monteverde. 3.1.3 Beach slope: An indicator of vulnerability to inundation and erosion, where a steeper slope increases the waves’ ability to climb the slope and erode the beach (Fu et al. 2022; Pantusa et al. 2022). Backshore slope values are used from Athanasiou et al. 2023. The backshore slope is defined as the vertical difference between the first peak elevation landwards of the shoreline position, divided by their horizontal difference. Applying quantile classification, the slope dataset is divided into four ranges: slopes higher than 0.18 are classified as low vulnerability, between 0.18 and 0.08 as moderate vulnerability, between 0.08 and 0.04 as high vulnerability, and lower than 0.04 as very high vulnerability (Table 3). The Northern zone shows several areas marked by high and very high vulnerability such as the beaches Valdivia, La Entrada, Libertador Bolívar, Montañita, Olón, Curia, Ayampe and Las Tunas. For the Southern zone, areas with high and very high vulnerability are highlighted along the stretch between San Pablo and Monteverde, as well as in the beaches Chipipe, Salinas, and Ballenita (Figure 5A). 3.1.4 Indentation: Defined as the ratio between the real length of a coast and its Euclidean length (Spagnolo et al., 2008). The analysis of indentation for this work considers the following factors: including the total length of the coast segment (S1), the opening (Ro), the entrance (a), the presence of a beach, and the width of the beach if present (Bowman et al. 2009). These variables are essential in determining the linearity of the coast, as it is considered a suitable approximation of the stability reached by a coastline, with less indented coasts being more balanced with the coastal forces and closer to an equilibrium state. (Maracchione et al. 2001; Spagnolo et al. 2008). Straightened coasts are classified as highly vulnerable compared to indented coasts, considering that indented coasts offer a more extensive frontage for wave dissipation and offer protection against waves, resulting in greater stability (Kovaleva et al. 2022; Marco-Peretó et al. 2024). For detailed morphological analysis, the study area is divided into 47 coastal stretches limited by rocky outcrops. Applying quantile classification, each stretch is classified based on the indentation relationship a/Ro, leading to four proposed indentation categories: Highly-indented coasts (a/Ro > 0.33) are classified as low vulnerabilty, Medium-indented coasts (0.23 ≤ a/Ro < 0.33) as moderate vulnerability, Low-indented coasts (0.16 ≤ a/Ro < 0.23) as high vulnerability, and Unindented coasts (a/Ro < 0.16) are classified as very highly vulnerability (Table 3). Each coastal stretch and its corresponding indentation relationship value is detailed in Table 4. High and very high vulnerability zones are shown along most of the coast of the study area, with some exceptions, i.e. coastal areas of medium and low vulnerability in the north include Punta La Cabezona and the stretch between Ayampe and La Rinconada, and between San Pedro and Ayangue. In the sout, Punta Blanca, Ballenita, Salinas and Chipipe (Figure 5B). 3.1.5 Shoreline displacement (Coastal sediment dynamics) To assess the recession or advance of the coastline at SEB, we used the CoastSat v1.0.4 and DSAS 5.0 tools (Himmelstoss et al., 2018; Vos et al., 2019). This freely available software enables the detection and extraction of the coastline from satellite images. CoastSat defines the coastline as an instantaneous interface between sand and water captured at the time of image acquisition. The process can be summarized in the following steps: Image selection Using Coastsat and the Google Earth Engine API, images from Landsat 5, 7, 8, and Sentinel-2 are downloaded. Specifically, images corresponding to the dates 2003/05/08, 2016/12/21, 2018/05/10, and 2019/04/26 are selected from the available repository. Image correction or normalization CoastSat does not apply any post-processing correction after that made by the provider of each image. For this reason, before the extraction of the coastline, the geometric correction of the images is performed using control points using GIS. As the study area has a mesotidal nature, it was essential to filter images to acquire data with a similar tide level. To carry out this step, the methodology applied by (Yu et al. 2011) was used as a reference. The study of coastline variability requires the consideration of images captured at similar tidal heights. The first step involves obtaining a record of the slopes near the coast within the study area. The beach slope component's characterization relies on the lowest recorded slope value from the dataset, with 1% identified as the minimum slope value. Therefore, considering the lowest value of slope (1%), and a tide variation of ±10 cm, the apparent coastline can shift seaward or landward by approximately 10 m (spatial resolution of Sentinel 2). The selected images for analysis are chosen to ensure that the tidal height variation falls within a range of 10 cm to maintain consistency in the data. Shoreline detection and extraction Shoreline detection and extraction involved the following steps using the CoastSat tool: 1) We obtained Landsat 5, 7, 8, and Sentinel-2 images via Google Earth Engine. Then, Coastsat applies pre-processing techniques such as cloud masking, pansharpening, and raster resampling to enhance image quality. 2) Coastsat classified each pre-processed image into four distinct classes: 'Water', 'Foam', 'Sand', and 'Others' using a pre-trained neural network. 3) Coastsat extracts the coastline at sub-pixel resolution using the Modified Normalized Difference Water Index (MNDWI) and applies the Marching Squares algorithm to delineate the coastal edge accurately. Shoreline variability analysis After extracting the coastlines from different dates, we used the DSAS 5.0 plugin to calculate the annual rates of coastline variability. The DSAS 5.0 plugin facilitated the digitization of transects along which distances from the berm to the baseline or reference line are measured. Parameters such as the maximum distance that the coastline varies, the net variation, or the linear regression of the coastline variability are calculated based on the digitized transects. The regression line, determined as the best fit between the cloud of points representing shoreline positions, considers all positions regardless of any changes in the trend. The derived equation is used to calculate the slope, which represents the Linear Regression Rate (LRR), indicating the annual rate of coastline change. Based on this analysis, the results of the shoreline displacement are presented in Figure 6 to provide detailed insights into the erosion/accretion rate along the study zone. The distribution of vulnerability along the shoreline based on displacement rates are shown in Figure 6A. The detailed shoreline displacement profiles were categorized into four subzones: NZ-1, NZ-2, SZ-1, and SZ-2 (Figure 6B). Each subzone is further divided into sections, marked by breaks indicating changes in shoreline displacement behavior (erosion, neutral, or accretion). The Table 5 summarizes the average, minimum, and maximum shoreline displacement rates for each section within these subzones. Subzone NZ-1: Salango - Curia NZ-1 predominantly exhibits erosive coastline behavior. Section A is relatively stable, with an average displacement rate of 0.06 m/year. In contrast, Section B, encompassing various beaches, shows significant erosion with an average rate of -1.40 m/year. The minimum displacement rate for the entire subzone is -7.04 m/year, observed between Las Tunas and Ayampe, indicating extreme erosion. The maximum rate is 0.79 m/year, found in a low accretion area between Punta Piedra Verde and Punta La Cabezona. Subzone NZ-2: Curia - Valdivia The coastline behavior in NZ-2 is variable, though erosion predominates. Sections D, F, and H show average erosion rates of -1.25 m/year, -0.97 m/year, and -1.86 m/year, respectively. Sections C and G display neutral patterns with average rates of 0.06 m/year and 0.11 m/year, respectively. Section E exhibits accretion, with an average rate of 0.95 m/year. The minimum rate for NZ-2 is -2.99 m/year, found in Section F near Libertador Bolívar, while the maximum rate is 2.45 m/year, located in Section E around Montañita. Subzone SZ-1: Valdivia - Punta Blanca SZ-1 features a mix of stable and accretive behaviors, alongside some erosion. Sections K and M show erosion with average rates of -0.40 m/year and -1.96 m/year, respectively. Accretion is significant in Sections J and L, with average rates of 1.35 m/year and 0.47 m/year, respectively. The minimum rate for SZ-1 is -3.48 m/year, observed in Section M north of Punta Blanca. The maximum rate is 3.39 m/year, found in Section J in Monteverde. Section N shows mixed behavior, with minor erosion and accretion due to coastal infrastructure in Punta Blanca, averaging 0.09 m/year. Subzone SZ-2: Punta Blanca - Salinas SZ-2 presents mixed patterns with less pronounced trends compared to other subzones. Erosion is observed in Sections P, R, and T, with average rates of -0.11 m/year, -0.42 m/year, and -0.28 m/year, respectively. The subzone's minimum rate is -1.37 m/year, found in Section R in Salinas. Accretion occurs in Sections O, Q, and S, with average rates of 0.54 m/year, 0.49 m/year, and 0.2 m/year, respectively. The maximum rate for SZ-2 is 3.21 m/year in Section O, between Punta Blanca and Punta Barandúa. Section P shows mixed behavior with an average rate of -0.11 m/year. The shoreline displacement vulnerability classification is assigned as follows: Low vulnerability corresponds to areas experiencing accretion, where the LRR is more than or equal to 0 (LRR>0). Moderate vulnerability encompasses areas where erosion is minimal, with rates between 0 and -1 m/year. High vulnerability includes areas experiencing retreat rates between -1 and -2 m/year. Very high corresponds areas experiencing significant erosion with rates exceeding 2 m/y (Figure 7A -Table 3). 3.1.6 Wave height: The wave energy which drives the sediment budget along coastlines, considering that wave height is directly proportional to wave energy. The breaker height is represented as the significant wave height (Pendleton et al. 2004) . Wave breaking induces currents and turbulence in the surf zone, facilitating the alongshore sediment transport, both in suspension and along the bed (Sorensen, 2006). A numerical model is performed to obtain a significant wave height in a year with normal or average conditions (data obtained every 300m from Espinoza et al. (2023)). Using quantile classification in GIS, we divided the heights into four ranges as denoted in Table 3. We classified heights lower than 0.43m as low vulnerability, between 0.43m and 0.65m as moderate vulnerability, between 0.65m and 0.81m as high vulnerability, and higher than 0.81m as very high vulnerability (Figure 7B). The Northern coastline exhibits high to very high vulnerability, with wave heights exceeding 0.60 meters. Valdivia is an exception, showing moderate vulnerability. In contrast, the Southern coast shows mostly low to medium vulnerability, with wave heights at or below 0.60 meters. Punta Santa Elena is the exception here, with very high vulnerability. 3.1.7 Tidal range : Defined as the vertical difference between high and low tide (Kantamaneni et al. 2019). Coasts with higher tidal ranges typically experience stronger tidal currents, making high intertidal environments more susceptible to increased flooding frequency with rising mean water levels. Microtidal coasts, on the other hand, are less resilient to sea level rise. Thus, coasts with a higher tidal range are assumed to have a higher degree of vulnerability (Gornitz, 1991; Koroglu et al., 2019; Shaw et al., 1998). To assess the tidal range along SEB, we obtained data from La Libertad station in the DELFT Dashboard for the period 2011-2020. The average tidal range in SEB for this period is 1.69m, with a maximum value of 2.77m, classifying it as a mesotidal regime dominated by wave and tidal energy (Hayes, 1979; Passeri et al., 2015). As explained above, this variable is not considered in the index calculation. 3.1.8 Sea level rise: Sea level rise poses significant threats to low-lying coastal areas, leading to natural consequences such as flooding, wetland loss (or change), saltwater intrusion, erosion, and impeded drainage systems. Some of its recent impacts on coasts include reduced return periods of extreme sea levels, regular chronic flooding and an increased erosive tendency. (Nicholls, 2018). Risk related to sea level rise is expected to increase significantly along low-lying coasts around the world by the end of the century (Oppenheimer et al., 2019). Sea level rise data is typically derived from tide gauge observations or altimetry measurements. The DUACS DT2021 altimetry data from AVISO is used, providing a 29-year reference period with a spatial resolution of approximately ¼° (~28 km) and a temporal resolution of one day (Sánchez-Román et al., 2023). (Cedeño, 2015) evaluated the reliability of altimetry data by calculating the correlation coefficient between these data and sea level measurements from the La Libertad tide gauge, resulting in a coefficient of 0.74. This correlation is established through a linear regression analysis between the tide station data and the altimetry observations obtained from the nearest grid point. Thus, we estimated the rate of sea level rise along the Ecuadorian coast, based on linear regression of sea level anomaly data from 1993 to 2019 (26 years), smoothed using a 5-point moving average filter, obtaining the result of 2.33 mm/year. Based on the current trend, we expect approximately 10cm of sea level rise within the next 50 years. As explained above, this variable is not considered in the index calculation. Results and CVI analysis 4.1 Influence of CVI Variables on SEB This study assessed the influence and contribution of each Coastal Vulnerability Index (CVI) variable. The results highlight low-lying beach areas, especially in the north with higher waves, as the most vulnerable regions (Figure 8A). In this section, we analyze the results and discuss the interaction and contribution of the geological and hydrodynamic variables to SEB’s physical vulnerability. CVI values range from 0.58 to 26.13, with an average of 6.41, a median of 4.62, a mode of 2.83, and a standard deviation of 5.13. The 25 th , 50 th, and 75 th percentiles are 2.83, 4.62, and 8.49, respectively. These percentiles are used to classify CVI values into four vulnerability ranks (Figure 8A): Low, (0.58 to 2.83); Medium (2.83 to 4.62); High (4.62 to 8.49); and Very High (8.49 to 26.13). From the vulnerability distribution for Santa Elena in Figure 8B1 and Table 6, we observe the ranks are evenly distributed, with each rank encompassing between 19% and 30% of the coastline. The coastline sections classified as Low vulnerability is relatively large, accounting for 30.85% (43.32km), followed by High, Very High and Moderate vulnerability sections with 25.96% (36.14km), 15.80%(33.77km) and 19.24% (26.79km), respectively. Geological variables significantly impact coastal form and erodibility. Lithology is one of the primary contributors to Very High vulnerability, with 45.31% of beaches composed of loose quaternary sediments. This variable's connection to Geomorphology (32.12% of Very High vulnerability) is evident since low-elevation coastal stretches are composed of the same lithology class. These areas are also the most susceptible to erosion, as shown in Figure 7A. Beaches in Ayampe, Libertador Bolívar, Valdivia, and the area between Punta Blanca and San Pablo exhibit the highest erosion rates. Wave Height is another important factor for Very High vulnerability sections, accounting for 30.56%. As mentioned earlier, the north experiences higher waves compared to the south. Since waves primarily approach from the west-southwest, refraction becomes crucial when studying wave heights along the coast. Wave crests bend more sharply in the south, leading to lower wave energy arriving in this zone compared to the north (Espinoza et al. 2023). Coastal indentation impacts significantly, contributing 48.14% to Very High vulnerability. The Northern zone has a less indented shape compared to the south. These differences likely arise from underlying geological features. Figure 5B exemplifies this concept. Highly vulnerable Northern segments (with minimal indentation) represent barrier beaches or strandplains. Highly indented segments coincide with areas having sedimentary or volcanic rock cliffs. The south exhibits a similar pattern, where low indentation segments correspond to cliff areas. For instance, Ayangue, one of the highly indented beaches in Santa Elena, is a bay surrounded by unconsolidated sedimentary rock cliffs. However, low-indentation barrier beaches situated between cliffs are also present, like the Monteverde-Punta Blanca segment or La Libertad. These zonal differences might also be explained by seabed configuration and wave approach direction. As discussed earlier, with waves predominantly arriving from the south-southwest, refraction is minimal in the north. Consequently, the wave front strikes the Northern coastline nearly parallel. Additionally, the 20m depth contour lies closer to the Northern shore (Figure 2A), indicating shallower waters compared to the south. This shallower depth causes waves in the south to break closer to the coast, possibly exerting pressure on the local geology and influencing its shape. (Spagnolo et al. 2008). Beach Slope displays a variable contribution along the coastline. While 29.25% of low slopes contribute to High vulnerability, particularly in sandy beaches, a significant 28.72% of high slopes contribute to the Low vulnerability of SEB. The latter belong to the elevated coastal cliffs and promontories. Shoreline Displacement primarily contributes to the Low vulnerability of the coastline (46.34%), with the Southern Zone showing significantly lower vulnerability areas compared to the north (Figures 8B2 and 8B3). This difference can likely be attributed to the varying wave energy reaching each zone, with the north experiencing higher waves. Low vulnerability areas represent coastal stretches in equilibrium or experiencing accretion. These areas are found mainly in the Southern rocky zones or sandy beaches south of rocky cliffs. Conversely, some stretches north of rocky cliffs exhibit erosion. Examples include Salango (accretion) and Ayampe (erosion), Monteverde (accretion) and Punta Blanca (erosion), or Montañita (accretion) and Valdivia (erosion). This suggests longshore drift as an important factor in SEB's sediment balance. Although Sea Level Rise and Tidal Amplitude were not included in the CVI calculation, they are crucial for understanding the broader context of coastal vulnerability. Mesotidal conditions have a moderate impact on the physical vulnerability of coastal areas and can influence the distribution of wave energy, as high tides allow waves to reach further inland. Specifically, during spring tides, particularly perigean spring tides with extreme highs, low-lying coastal areas such as strandplains and barrier beaches are susceptible to flooding. Rising sea levels can exacerbate this situation by affecting tidal ranges and disrupting the balance of coastal environments. This disruption can lead to changes in circulation patterns and substantial sediment redistribution, potentially reshaping entire ecosystems (Jiang et al. 2020; Passeri et al. 2015). Despite the fact that a sea level rise of 2.33 mm/year may not seem significant, low-lying coastal areas remain susceptible, especially during El Niño events that occur periodically every 3 to 7 years (Trenberth, 2019). These events can elevate sea levels by as much as 42 cm (CAF, 2000). 4.2 Differential CVI behavior by zone A clear difference emerges when comparing zonal vulnerability from the Northern and Southern zones, and they provide valuable insights for coastal management. The analysis provides a detailed breakdown of vulnerability distribution of CVI results along SEB, with higher vulnerability areas appearing in red hues, and statistical bars of the relative presence of the variables of CVI for each zone (Figure 8B-Table 7). This allowed us to evaluate the degree of influence of each variable into the vunerability by zone. We observe in the overall CVI distribution (Figures 8B2 and 8B3 – Table 6), that the Northern Zone has a significantly larger portion of the coastline classified as High (15.80%) and Very High (41.76%) vulnerability compared to the Southern Zone (High-34.98%, and Very High-8.14%). Three key variables contribute most significantly to the Very High vulnerability in the Northern Zone (Figure 8B2): Indentation (63.96%) Wave Height (58.69%) Lithology (57.41%) Along the Northern Zone, the most critical areas (Very High vulnerability) correspond (Figure 8A): From Las Tunas to Ayampe, La Entrada to Olón, Montañita to Libertador Bolívar, and Valdivia. These areas share specific characteristics such as 1) Low elevation strandplains or barrier beaches with quaternary sediments. 2) Variable beach slopes, with the lowest at Olón, Montañita, and Valdivia. 3) Variable shoreline displacement, with high erosion at Las Tunas-Ayampe, Olón, Libertador Bolívar, and Valdivia. Furthermore, since these are unindented areas, the shore is exposed directly to the wave’s arrival. In the Southern Zone, the High and Low values of CVI prevail. In the case of the High vulnerability rank, three variables contribute significantly (Figure 8B3): Indentation (43.06%) Beach Slope (38.12%) Lithology (34.71%) Critical areas in the Southern Zone are located between Monteverde and San Pablo, between Punta Barandúa and Ballenita, and Salinas (east of Punta Murciélago) (Figure 8A). Similar to the Northern Zone, these areas are composed of low-elevation, unindented, or low-indented strandplains and beach barriers with low slopes and quaternary sediments. However, the Southern Zone experiences considerably lower wave heights, except for the area of Punta Santa Elena. Erosion patterns are generally low, except for the coastal stretch between San Pablo and Punta Blanca, which shows an important section with very high vulnerability undergoing erosion rates reaching -3.48m/year. The areas in SEB that exhibit Low Vulnerability correspond to zones with high cliffs with igneous or well-consolidated sedimentary rocks and steep coastal slopes. Examples in the Northern Zone include Salango, La Rinconada, Punta Montañita, and the stretch between Valdivia and Punta Brava. In the Southern Zone, these areas are located between Ayangue and Palmar, and in some rocky parts of the coasts of Punta Blanca, La Libertad, and Salinas. Coastal Management Suggestions Over half of the Northern zone's coastline faces extreme vulnerability. Low-elevation, unsheltered beaches with loose sediments and high waves present a grave situation. Specific locations demand immediate attention. In the North, Ayampe, La Rinconada, Libertador Bolívar, and Valdivia experience extreme erosion, with displacement rates exceeding -2.0 m/year. These areas, particularly vulnerable to high waves and potential storm surges, require urgent intervention. The barrier beach between Punta Blanca and San Pablo in the south faces a similar plight, although the Southern zone is at lower risk due to its more sheltered position and the significantly reduced wave heights compared to the Northern zone. Prioritizing the reinforcement of coastal defenses in highly vulnerable areas, particularly in the Northern zone, is essential. Hard engineering solutions such as sea walls and groins could protect against erosion and flooding. Soft engineering approaches, like beach nourishment and dune restoration, may strengthen natural defenses and provide long-term resilience. The southern coastlines exhibit mainly high vulnerability areas with a significant percentage of low vulnerability areas, protected by low cliffs of well-consolidated rocks as in Salinas, Ballenita, and Punta Blanca. Barrier beaches in this region are either benefiting from accretion or undergoing mild erosion. San Pablo and Monteverde, despite their elevation, hold significant potential for sustainable tourism development, aided by their sheltered location and the arrival of gentler waves compared to barrier beaches in the north. However, coastal monitoring remains crucial, as even low-lying areas remain vulnerable to future sea level changes and storm surges. Contributions to ICZM The generated vulnerability maps along SEB offer a valuable tool for prioritizing resource and funding allocation by both government and stakeholders. This paves the way for effective planning and strategic interventions. Communities within High to Very High vulnerable areas can consider several approaches, including retreat strategies like relocation or accommodation strategies like elevating infrastructure or developing flood-proof buildings. Additionally, governments can explore land acquisition in at-risk areas or implement various defense mechanisms, such as seawall construction or dune restoration. However, public awareness and education also play a crucial role in building long-term resilience. By integrating CVI variables into the ICZM and decision-making processes, stakeholders can develop more informed and effective strategies. This approach offers insight into regional vulnerability and supports the development of targeted actions to address challenges along Santa Elena Bay. Emphasizing the improvement of resilience, the safeguarding of coastal communities and the sustainable management of coastal ecosystems stakeholders can work towards lessening the impacts of environmental shifts and risks, along the coastline. The results expose the inherent vulnerability of sandy beaches. Loose sediments, low elevation, and gentle slopes make them highly susceptible to sea level rise. Authorities must enforce strict land-use regulations, including prohibiting dune removal, to protect these fragile ecosystems and the communities nestled near them. However, the study also highlights portions of the coast with low vulnerability, primarily rocky cliffs. These areas present opportunities for communities to leverage their unique ecosystem beauty and cultural heritage to attract responsible tourism through low-impact activities like hiking, mountain biking, and kayaking. Such sustainable ventures can generate economic benefits while preserving the natural environment. Conclusions The CVI is an effective tool to help in coastal risk management. By simplifying complex physical parameters into an easy-to-understand index and considering the local context, it provides a meaningful basis for managing coastal risks, particularly concerning sea level rise. The applied physical assessment generates a baseline of coastal vulnerability through various geological and hydrodynamical parameters. Therefore, we quantified the magnitude of six physical variables and analyzed their relationship to identify the physical vulnerability of the SEB, located in the Ecuadorian Active margin. These variables encompass: 1) lithology, 2) geomorphology, 3) indentation grade, 4) beach slope, 5) shoreline displacement, and 6) wave height, but we analyzed the influence of tides and sea level rise. This analysis reveals the highest vulnerability zones of SEB, corresponding to the Northern bayside, characterized by low-elevation sandy beaches and where over half the coast exhibits high or very high vulnerability. Notably, these vulnerable areas coincide with populated stretches with significant infrastructure and socioeconomic activities. We suggest paying attention to Ayampe, La Rinconada, Libertador Bolívar, and Valdivia experience extreme erosion, with displacement rates exceeding -2.0 m/year, along the Northern Zone. Along the Southern Zone, the coastal stretch between San Pablo and Punta Blanca also needs to be considered for futures plans of coastal development. Finally, however the CVI calculated in this study gives a resume of variables, we recommend to local authorities or stakeholders, to analyze with more detail scale or improving the knowledge of the characteristic of each variable, with High to Very High classification along of SEB, for taking better decisions tending to protect the people and lend towards to sustainable coastal development. It is also suggested that the CVI adopts a dynamic nature, with local communities and institutions actively participating in the collection of relevant variables. This process could turn the index into a valuable tool for resilience building by encouraging cooperation and strengthening local capacities to monitor environmental threats and changes, safeguarding both natural resources and human communities that depend on them. Declarations Funding The authors declare that no funds, grants, or other support were received during the preparation of this manuscript. Competing Interests The authors have no relevant financial or non-financial interests to disclose. Author Contributions All authors contributed to the design and implementation of the research. Carlos Martillo, Jacqueline Rivas and Elvis Espinoza drafted the manuscript with support from Mishelle Muthre and Iván Saltos, who supervised the findings of this work. Mishelle Muthre designed the figures with support from Jacqueline Rivas. All authors contributed to the revision and commented on the manuscript, with significant contributions from Kervin Chunga in the ‘Geological Settings’ item, from Jonathan Cedeño to ‘Sea level rise’, and from Gina Andrade and Eduardo Cervantes to ‘Coastal Management Suggestions’. 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Component Amplitude Phase M2 0.7860 251.72 S2 0.2310 299.20 N2 0.1749 223.19 K1 0.1140 421.05 MSF 0.0700 277.67 K2 0.0630 296.91 SA 0.0480 177.05 P1 0.0329 395.94 NU2 0.0320 227.46 O1 0.0289 881.51 MU2 0.0260 224.74 SSA 0.0260 332.11 2N2 0.0230 191.17 L2 0.0179 270.94 T2 0.0149 300.69 MM 0.0149 349.62 MF 0.0089 222.90 J1 0.0080 638.27 MNS2 0.0080 188.31 S1 0.0070 152.10 OO1 0.0060 878.95 LABDA2 0.0049 266.07 Table 2. Principal tide components - La Libertad (van Ormondt et al. 2020). Variable Low 1 Moderate 2 High 3 Very high 4 Lithology Igneous rocks (Green) Piñón Sedimentary well-consolidated rocks (Green) Cayo & Piñón Most sedimentary rocks (Brown) Tosagua, Zapotal y Ancon Sedimentary non-consolidated Quaternary rocks (Orange) Tablazo Quaternary sediments (Yellow) Sedimentary deposits Geomorphology High Cliffs ( > 10 m) Low cliffs (≤ 10 m) Uplifted strandplains or barrier beaches ( 0.19 0.19-0.09 0.09 – 0.04 0.33 0.23-0.33 0.16-0.23 1.0 1.0 - -1.0 -1.0 - -2.0 < -2.0 Wave Height (m) 0.83 Table 3. Range of physical vulnerability per variable. Classification based on indentation index a/Ro Stretch N° Stretch Beginning Stretch Ending S1/Ro a/Ro Classification 1 -80.854°E, -1.600°N -80.846°E, -1.616°N 1.25 0.22 Low - indented 2 -80.846°E, -1.616°N -80.844°E, -1.623°N 1.68 0.43 Highly - indented 3 -80.844°E, -1.623°N -80.845°E, -1.626°N 1.83 0.63 Highly - indented 4 -80.845°E, -1.626°N -80.841°E, -1.628°N 1.65 0.37 Highly - indented 5 -80.841°E, -1.628°N -80.838°E, -1.631°N 1.49 0.30 Medium - indented 6 -80.838°E, -1.631°N -80.812°E, -1.684°N 1.05 0.05 Unindented 7 -80.812°E, -1.684°N -80.813°E, -1.693°N 1.42 0.25 Medium - indented 8 -80.813°E, -1.693°N -80,810°E, -1,697°N 1.35 0.22 Low - indented 9 -80.810°E, -1.697°N -80.808°E, -1.701°N 1.19 0.23 Medium - indented 10 -80.808°E, -1.701°N -80.807°E, -1.707°N 1.41 0.35 Highly - indented 11 -80.807°E, -1.707°N -80.805°E, -1.709°N 1.45 0.44 Highly - indented 12 -80.805°E, -1.709°N -80.803°E, -1.711°N 1.37 0.21 Low - indented 13 -80.803°E, -1.711°N -80.802°E, -1.713°N 1.66 0.52 Highly - indented 14 -80.802°E, -1.713°N -80.800°E, -1.716°N 1.43 0.28 Medium-indented 15 -80.800°E, -1.716°N -80.761°E, -1.819°N 1.10 0.11 Unindented 16 -80.761°E, -1.819°N -80.739°E, -1.965°N 1.09 0.12 Unindented 17 -80.739°E, -1.965°N -80.748°E, -1.968°N 1.36 0.37 Highly - indented 18 -80.748°E, -1.968°N -80.751°E, -1.968°N 1.17 0.28 Medium - indented 19 -80.751°E, -1.968°N -80.755°E, -1.969°N 1.34 0.36 Highly - indented 20 -80.751°E, -1.969°N -80.760°E, -1.971°N 1.15 0.22 Low - indented 21 -80.760°E, -1.971°N -80.763°E, -1.976°N 1.24 0.25 Medium - indented 22 -80.763°E, -1.976°N -80.761°E, -1.981°N 1.35 0.21 Low - indented 23 -80.761°E, -1.981°N -80.760°E, -1.983°N 1.04 0.13 Unindented 24 -80.760°E, -1.983°N -80.758°E, -1.989°N 3.74 1.24 Highly - indented 25 -80.758°E, -1.989°N -80.757°E, -1.993°N 1.46 0.32 Medium - indented 26 -80.757°E, -1.993°N -80.753°E, -1.997°N 1.38 0.32 Medium - indented 27 -80.753°E, -1.997°N -80.751°E, -2.010°N 1.19 0.15 Unindented 28 -80.751°E, -2.010°N -80.742°E, -2.021°N 1.26 0.12 Unindented 29 -80.742°E, -2.021°N -80.792°E, -2.152°N 1.14 0.18 Low - indented 30 -80.792°E, -2.152°N -80.803°E, -2.157°N 1.14 0.12 Unindented 31 -80.803°E, -2.157°N -80.810°E, -2.156°N 1.28 0.28 Medium - indented 32 -80.810°E, -2.156°N -80.817°E, -2.156°N 1.23 0.21 Low - indented 33 -80.817°E, -2.156°N -80.829°E, -2.167°N 1.10 0.12 Unindented 34 -80.829°E, -2.167°N -80.871°E, -2.200°N 1.07 0.15 Unindented 35 -80.871°E, -2.200°N -80.883°E, -2.207°N 1.20 0.23 Medium - indented 36 -80.883°E, -2.207°N -80.922°E, -2.218°N 1.08 0.12 Unindented 37 -80.922°E, -2.218°N -80.944°E, -2.214°N 1.23 0.20 Low - indented 38 -80.944°E, -2.214°N -80.946°E, -2.211°N 1.56 0.34 Highly - indented 39 -80.946°E, -2.211°N -80.949°E, -2.205°N 1.42 0.45 Highly - indented 40 -80.949°E, -2.205°N -80.956°E, -2.201°N 1.22 0.23 Medium - indented 41 -80.956°E, -2.201°N -80.975°E, -2.200°N 1.20 0.20 Low - indented 42 -80.975°E, -2.200°N -80.984°E, -2.190°N 1.49 0.34 Highly - indented 43 -80.984°E, -2.190°N -80.989°E, -2.185°N 1.22 0.23 Medium - indented 44 -80.989°E, -2.185°N -80.993°E, -2.184°N 1.34 0.13 Unindented 45 -80.993°E, -2.184°N -80.998°E, -2.184°N 1.50 0.13 Unindented 46 -80.998°E, -2.184°N -81.002°E, -2.185°N 1.07 0.12 Unindented 47 -81.002°E, -2.185°N -81.009°E, -2.187°N 1.54 0.18 Low - indented Table 4. Degree of indentation based on a/Ro. Northern Zone Subzone Section Average Rate (m/year) Minimum Rate (m/year) Maximum Rate (m/year) NZ-1 A 0.06 -0.8 0.79 NZ-1 B -1.4 -7.04 0.68 NZ-2 C 0.11 -0.29 0.54 NZ-2 D -1.25 -2.84 0.28 NZ-2 E 0.95 -0.46 2.45 NZ-2 F -0.97 -2.99 0.12 NZ-2 G 0.06 -0.9 1.24 NZ-2 H -1.86 -2.67 0.08 Southern Zone Subzone Section Average Rate (m/year) Minimum Rate (m/year) Maximum Rate (m/year) SZ-1 I 0.15 -1 1.31 SZ-1 J 1.35 0.09 3.39 SZ-1 K -0.4 -1.14 1.49 SZ-1 L 0.47 -0.2 1.27 SZ-1 M -1.96 -3.48 -0.08 SZ-1 N 0.09 -1.2 1.03 SZ-2 O 0.54 -1.16 3.21 SZ-2 P -0.11 -1.16 0.64 SZ-2 Q 0.49 -0.24 1.91 SZ-2 R -0.42 -1.37 2.82 SZ-2 S 0.62 -0.23 1.37 SZ-2 T -0.28 -1.06 0.47 Table 5. Shoreline Displacement Rates in m/year for the Northern and Southern Zones. General Northern Zone Southern Zone % Km % Km % Km Low 30.85 43.32 28.82 19.16 32.64 24.16 Moderate 19.24 26.79 13.62 9.00 24.23 17.79 High 25.96 36.14 15.80 10.38 34.98 25.76 Very High 23.95 33.77 41.76 27.71 8.14 6.06 Table 6. CVI results in Santa Elena Bay. The results of each vulnerability rank are expressed in percentage and length of the coastline in km. Santa Elena Bay General (%) Variable Low Moderate High Very High Lithology 13.19 23.06 18.43 45.31 Geomorphology 19.81 31.69 16.38 32.12 Beach Slope 28.72 25.15 29.25 16.87 Identation 11.04 9.44 31.38 48.14 Shoreline Displacement 46.34 38.34 7.78 7.53 Wave Height 23.42 24.34 21.68 30.56 Northern Zone (%) Variable Low Moderate High Very High Lithology 10.84 31.68 0.10 57.41 Geomorphology 42.14 1.88 20.69 35.29 Beach Slope 44.24 21.29 19.26 15.20 Indentation 9.10 8.73 18.21 63.96 Shoreline displacement 33.26 38.38 14.45 13.92 Wave Height 0 7.52 33.78 58.69 Southern Zone (%) Variable Low Moderate High Very High Lithology 15.29 15.42 34.71 34.58 Geomorphology 0 58.14 12.55 29.31 Beach Slope 14.95 28.57 38.12 18.36 Identation 12.75 10.08 43.06 34.11 Shoreline displacement 57.94 38.32 1.87 1.87 Wave Height 44.19 39.25 10.95 5.61 Table 7. Contribution of each variable to the physical vulnerability of Santa Elena Bay expressed as a percentage. Supplementary Files Highlights.docx Graphicalabstract1.pdf Cite Share Download PDF Status: Published Journal Publication published 25 Aug, 2025 Read the published version in Natural Hazards → Version 1 posted Editorial decision: Major revisions 25 Mar, 2025 Reviewers agreed at journal 22 Jan, 2025 Reviewers invited by journal 22 Jan, 2025 Editor assigned by journal 14 Jan, 2025 First submitted to journal 07 Jan, 2025 You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-5784157","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":405632416,"identity":"1e9ba363-8a0e-43ea-ba35-99293a1c3e94","order_by":0,"name":"Elvis Espinoza Villacís","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAA6klEQVRIiWNgGAWjYNACAwYGfjCjAIgPEKtFsgHKIFILSPEBYrXwsx8+/Lmg4I6c8fH2Zw8+GDDI8d1IYHzwA48WyZ60NOkZBs+Mzc6cMTecYcBgLHkjgdmwB697csyYeQwOJ267kcMmzWPAkLjhRgKbND6H2Z9///kzSMvm+c+fgbTUA7Ww/8anxUAih0EapGWDBIMZSEuCAdAWZnxaJG48MwP65bCxxJkckF8kDGeeedgsic8v/P3Jjz8X/Dksx99+HBhiFTbyfMeTD37AF2IgAHMGG8hWIGZsIKABVcsoGAWjYBSMAkwAAHBvS6SoJM+hAAAAAElFTkSuQmCC","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4278-7414","institution":"ESPOL: Escuela Superior Politecnica del Litoral","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Elvis","middleName":"Espinoza","lastName":"Villacís","suffix":""},{"id":405632417,"identity":"51668950-4320-4649-9207-77a58210fa69","order_by":1,"name":"Jacqueline Rivas-Oviedo","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"ESPOL: Escuela Superior Politecnica del Litoral","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Jacqueline","middleName":"","lastName":"Rivas-Oviedo","suffix":""},{"id":405632418,"identity":"dd1dc850-cb9b-4a73-852c-37401cfab994","order_by":2,"name":"Carlos Martillo-Bustamante","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"ESPOL: Escuela Superior Politecnica del Litoral","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Carlos","middleName":"","lastName":"Martillo-Bustamante","suffix":""},{"id":405632419,"identity":"3d72d77c-4a78-420e-913a-00717fc58b5c","order_by":3,"name":"M. Muthre","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Universitat Innsbruck","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"M.","middleName":"","lastName":"Muthre","suffix":""},{"id":405632420,"identity":"f7eb6a81-7940-4134-a8a1-967f7453bcec","order_by":4,"name":"Iván Saltos-Andrade","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"ESPOL: Escuela Superior Politecnica del Litoral","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Iván","middleName":"","lastName":"Saltos-Andrade","suffix":""},{"id":405632421,"identity":"a5ca34ec-fc55-4b2f-9567-c1ad2a337007","order_by":5,"name":"Gina Andrade-García","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"ESPOL: Escuela Superior Politecnica del Litoral","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Gina","middleName":"","lastName":"Andrade-García","suffix":""},{"id":405632422,"identity":"3e295965-9b96-423e-acca-6f1632cf6a2e","order_by":6,"name":"Jonathan Cedeño-Oviedo","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"ESPOL: Escuela Superior Politecnica del Litoral","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Jonathan","middleName":"","lastName":"Cedeño-Oviedo","suffix":""},{"id":405632423,"identity":"41245474-7638-4f09-83e8-2ad5ce05247d","order_by":7,"name":"Eduardo Cervantes-Bernabé","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"ESPOL: Escuela Superior Politecnica del Litoral","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Eduardo","middleName":"","lastName":"Cervantes-Bernabé","suffix":""},{"id":405632424,"identity":"166987df-7d8f-4a88-bdc6-7cbf631bee4b","order_by":8,"name":"Kervin Chunga-Morán","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Universidad Técnica de Manabí: Universidad Tecnica de Manabi","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Kervin","middleName":"","lastName":"Chunga-Morán","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2025-01-07 20:55:35","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-5784157/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-5784157/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[{"content":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s11069-025-07556-x","type":"published","date":"2025-08-25T15:58:23+00:00"}],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":74692065,"identity":"bcad6813-6236-446d-9286-1507bc603df3","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-01-24 18:50:49","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":6882705,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eStudy area location. A) Geographic Map. B) Geologic Map\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Figure1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5784157/v1/cab12593c47896617c2f9a22.png"},{"id":74691673,"identity":"eb1ca866-8184-48e5-a211-e5ca7ba3d411","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-01-24 18:42:49","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":3290590,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eA) Bathymetric map showing the locations of virtual buoys and La Libertad tide gauge. B) Buoys and Tide Gauge measurements.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"figure2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5784157/v1/3edaf232dac79c9d8d9b6e62.png"},{"id":74691668,"identity":"1245750f-b24d-474f-a25c-d7c0733bb24a","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-01-24 18:42:49","extension":"png","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":485974,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eMethodology flow chart.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"Figure3.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5784157/v1/3cb4ae4110606fa487802e2a.png"},{"id":74691672,"identity":"a9d7964f-87e2-4c11-a245-9df519f8ae29","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-01-24 18:42:49","extension":"png","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":5117620,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eA) Lithology map. B) Geomorphology map with photos of different coastal landforms along Santa Elena Bay.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"figure4.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5784157/v1/8439430cacc3d64f25f1af1e.png"},{"id":74691679,"identity":"dd2e939f-6560-439d-8816-591ae7c7ad9d","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-01-24 18:42:50","extension":"png","order_by":5,"title":"Figure 5","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":3789837,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eA) Beach Slope map. B) Indentation map showing a scheme of the parameters considered for the indentation analysis\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"figure5.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5784157/v1/f5bc93f05285df8eb251af30.png"},{"id":74691682,"identity":"5ef290e1-f2ab-4448-a743-3b9c46a34b3a","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-01-24 18:42:50","extension":"png","order_by":6,"title":"Figure 6","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":3434437,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eA) Shoreline displacement rates quantified by LRR (m/year). B) Schemes of shoreline displacement in four coastal segments: Salango to Curia (NZ-1), Curia to Valdivia (NZ-2), Valdivia to Punta Blanca (SZ-1), and Punta Blanca to Salinas (NZ-2).\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"figure6.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5784157/v1/dc2c83e7ec6fd21dadfea829.png"},{"id":74691681,"identity":"b010b219-b157-4ce4-bd93-96cf9bcaa770","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-01-24 18:42:50","extension":"png","order_by":7,"title":"Figure 7","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":3754801,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eA) Wave height map. B) Shoreline displacement map.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"figure7.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5784157/v1/f83838522a6c7f6cdb6410a7.png"},{"id":74691683,"identity":"f92d7900-befb-48d6-9ba0-20c691bed864","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-01-24 18:42:50","extension":"png","order_by":8,"title":"Figure 8","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":2411943,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eA) Coastal Vulnerability Index (CVI) map. B) Vulnerability distribution per variable and overall CVI distribution for the entire Santa Elena Bay (B1), the Northern Zone (B2), and the Southern Zone (B3).\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"figure8.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5784157/v1/88446e16bad46363ff790fb4.png"},{"id":90345049,"identity":"92e62978-2c60-4e47-b835-d8903f22ca02","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-09-01 16:09:48","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":33686875,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5784157/v1/90ac5c64-7106-4367-a03c-b1e7a58b5fb0.pdf"},{"id":74691669,"identity":"4c84590e-906b-47f6-84df-f032ea5a756c","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-01-24 18:42:49","extension":"docx","order_by":1,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":15010,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Highlights.docx","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5784157/v1/cc9c3e8fa77714bea164205e.docx"},{"id":74691676,"identity":"42e4ef2d-480f-4d80-b600-babb6f313f84","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-01-24 18:42:49","extension":"pdf","order_by":3,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":3132950,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Graphicalabstract1.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5784157/v1/d3033c2a6a99ac25b11d9ef0.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"","formattedTitle":"\u003cp\u003eCoastal Physical Vulnerability to Sea Level Rise in the active Ecuadorian margin for Integrated Coastal Zone Management, case study: Santa Elena Bay\u003c/p\u003e","fulltext":[{"header":"Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe coastal zone, hosting nearly 2 billion of the world\u0026rsquo;s population, faces a heightened risk due to ongoing coastal processes and the impact of rising sea levels (Luijendijk et al. 2018; McGranahan et al. 2007; Reimann et al. 2023). Sea level rise poses significant threats to both biophysical and socio-economic aspects by affecting coastal environments, human migration, population dynamics, and infrastructure integrity (Hauer et al. 2020; Neumann et al. 2015). Global warming-induced sea level rise contributes to a constant threat of erosion and flooding, permanently altering ecosystems and sedimentary balance along coasts, often exacerbated by anthropogenic pressures (Griggs \u0026amp; Reguero, 2021; Jayappa \u0026amp; Deepika, 2018; Magoon et al. 2001; Shadrick et al. 2022). Insufficient knowledge regarding the interaction of the physical variables in coastal zones also increases vulnerability, hindering effective prevention, mitigation, or management an adverse events or disasters.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIntegrated coastal zone management (ICZM), guided by the evaluation of natural processes, is important for preventing disaster risks and building resilient coastal populations (Hauer et al. 2021; Rocha et al. 2020). \u0026nbsp;The coastal zone represents a geographical area shaped by the influence of various ocean-atmospheric factors, including waves, tides, currents, winds, humidity, temperature, among others. Nevertheless, the underlying morphological structure is defined by geological characteristics like lithology, tectonics, and ongoing sedimentary processes (Bird, 2008). The interplay between geological features and oceanographic conditions along a coastline will define its geographic features, i.e. forms, environments, and ecosystems. Coastal areas subjected to the influence of waves and tides may undergo erosion through local hydrodynamic processes, or conversely, they might expand through sedimentary accretion into adjacent areas (Vargas-T. et al. 2016). A rocky coast featuring cliffs may experience persistent abrasion due to wave action and sea level rise, leading to the formation of coastal notches and cliff collapse. (Fullin et al. 2023).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eGiven the complex interaction between rising sea levels, increasingly extreme weather events, and a growing coastal population driven by economic factors and migration, flexible coastal management policies are important to ensure the sustainability of our coastlines\u003c/strong\u003e (Cruz-Ram\u0026iacute;rez et al. 2024; Lin \u0026amp; Singh, 2024; Reimann et al. 2023).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eCoastal vulnerability assessments are crucial to support coastal management initiatives (Cruz-Ram\u0026iacute;rez et al. 2024). In the literature, there are different approaches and methodologies for assessing vulnerability and risk due to different types of hazards, such as those related to climate change. These include index-based methods such as the CVI, which relates hydrodynamical factors and geological characteristics within a local framework to determine high-risk coastal segments by sea level rise (Gornitz et al. 1990; Ramieri et al. 2011) . The CVI, widely employed for assessing vulnerability to erosion and/or inundation, has undergone various modifications and adaptations by several authors. Initially developed for the United States coasts, its comprehensive approach has made it applicable to diverse coastal regions worldwide (Arun Kumar \u0026amp; Kunte, 2012; Mani Murali et al. 2013; McLaughlin et al. 2010; Osilieri et al. 2020; Pantusa et al. 2018; Pendleton et al. 2004a; Robert Thieler \u0026amp; Hammar-Klose, 1999, 2000; Ružić et al. 2019; Sallaye et al. 2022; Shaw et al. 1998; Szlafsztein \u0026amp; Sterr, 2007; Wang et al. 2013; Yahia Meddah et al. 2023).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe Ecuadorian coast, located at the Western Pacific Coast of South America (Figure 1A), covers an approximate length of 1017.5 km (Ayón, 1988), and because it is in an active subduction margin, its coastline shows marked geographical irregularities looked at the plain or in a vertical direction (Pedoja et al. 2015) (Cantalamessa \u0026amp; Di Celma, 2004). Into these geographical irregularities, there is a predominant morphological entrance, the Santa Elena Bay (SEB).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe study zone, the Santa Elena Bay, spans approximately 115 km and encompasses at least 68 communities (Scazza, 2016) with an estimated population of 385.735 inhabitants (INEC, 2023). Dominated by the principal economic activities of sun and beach tourism and fishing. These activities have driven the development of significant coastal infrastructure, including the construction of one of Ecuador\u0026rsquo;s most important coastal highways, the Spondylus route, and port infrastructures.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDespite the growing concern over coastal erosion and wave dynamics, research efforts on Ecuador\u0026rsquo;s coastline remain sparse.\u0026nbsp;Among these studies (Vera et al. (2009) carried out a descriptive analysis of waves on the central Ecuadorian coast based on data collection over 10 years, finding significant mean wave heights between 0.33 m and 1.92 m on different beaches along the central Ecuadorian coast between Punta El Morro and Jaramij\u0026oacute;. Saltos-Andrade et al. 2020 analyzed the spatial behavior of the coastline of San Pedro, Santa Elena, and estimated a retreat rate of -0.68 m/year. Nativ\u0026iacute; et al. 2021 analyzed, similarly, the behavior of the coastline of Libertador Bol\u0026iacute;var, Santa Elena, and estimated a retreat rate of -0.64 m/year.\u0026nbsp;Espinoza et al. (2023) simulated wave conditions in Santa Elena Bay. Results suggest that the predominant direction range of wave arrival to the coast is from the southwest between 221.1\u0026deg; and 270.1\u0026deg;, with a height range of 0.60 m and 0.93 m and a period range of 11.5s to 16.0s. \u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThese studies provide valuable insights into the behavior of physical variables in the Santa Elena coastal zone. However, It is crucial to highlight that these studies do not analyze the interaction between the geological and hydrodynamic variables that impact the coastal environment. This type of analysis is essential to understanding the relationships between variables and identifying the critical factors that contribute to coastal physical vulnerability. To further contribute to ICZM, a vulnerability assessment should be conducted to quantify the impact or contribution of each variable. This paper aims to analyze the relationship between hydrodynamical and geological variables for the application of the CVI to identify areas most susceptible to coastal hazards. The analysis applied to Santa Elena could be adapted in other regions of Ecuador, South America, and potentially even worldwide, aiding in the development of coastal management plans, risk reduction strategies, and sustainable development initiatives.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Study area: SEB","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e2.1.\u0026nbsp;\u0026nbsp;Geological Settings\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe morphology of the Ecuadorian margin is controlled by the subduction of the Nazca plate beneath the South American plate, which results in different types of asperities, such as the Carnegie Ridge (400 km-long, 200 Km-width and 2 km-high) and seamounts (20 km-with, 30 km-long and 0.6 Km-height) (Marcaillou et al. 2016; Michaud et al. 2009; Proust et al. 2016). \u0026nbsp;This subduction process leads to uplifts along the coastal zone, giving rise to landforms such as marine terraces, rocky coasts, and cliffs (Blanco-Chao et al. 2014; Dumont et al. 2014; Pedoja, Ortlieb, et al. 2006). These features intersperse with low coasts of coastal ranges, beaches, and sandy barriers, as well as areas with the formation of deltas and estuaries (Ayón, 1988). The geological conditions contribute to a highly irregular coastal morphology, marked by five significant headlands from North to South: Galera, Cabo Pasado, Manta, Salango and Salinas, which define extensive inlets or bays (Figure 1A).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe Santa Elena Bay is located along the central Ecuadorian margin and is delimited by Salango at the north and Salinas to the south (Figure 1B). Within the Santa Elena Bay, two distinct regional geomorphological zones are identified: the Northern Zone between Punta Salango and Ayangue shows a N20W sub-rectilinear geoform along approximately 66 km; the Southern Zone between Ayangue and Salinas displays a N50\u0026ordm;E concave geoform with a parabolic adjustment and extends approximate 74 km (Figure 1B).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOutcrops on the coastal cliffs of the bay exhibit different geological formations (Figure 1B) spanning from the Cretaceous to the Quaternary (Baldock, 1982; Reyes \u0026amp; Michaud, 2012). The diverse lithological and structural properties of formations influence their resistance to physical weathering caused by waves. As the rocks undergo weathering on the cliffs, the resulting sediments are transported and deposited along nearby barrier beaches, serving as significant sediment sources in the coastal dynamics of the bay.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe Upper Cretaceous sequences from the Pi\u0026ntilde;\u0026oacute;n and Cayo Formations are interpreted as the underlying basement of the Ecuadorian Coast. Pi\u0026ntilde;on Fm. is characterized by a basaltic igneous complex composed of tholeiitic basalts, pillow lavas, and gabbros. The geochemical signatures of these rocks support an oceanic plateau interpretation (Jaillard et al., 1995; Kerr et al., 2002; Mamberti et al., n.d.; Reynaud et al., 1999).\u0026nbsp; In the Northern Zone, outcrops of the Pi\u0026ntilde;\u0026oacute;n Formation are visible on Salango Island and along the cliffs between Ayampe and La Rinconada. These rocks exhibit high hardness and high compaction.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe deep-marine volcanoclastic deposits of Cayo Fm. show tens of meter-thick sequences of coarse-grained sandstones intercalated with decimeter-thick layers of shales (Jaillard et al., 1995; Kerr et al., 2002; Mamberti et al., n.d.; Reynaud et al., 1999).. The outcrops are visible in some coastal capes, mainly between Salinas and La Libertad in the Southern Zone, including Punta Santa Elena, Chipipe, San Lorenzo, and La Libertad.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAs outlined by Baldock (1982); Bristow et al. (1977); N\u0026uacute;\u0026ntilde;ez \u0026amp; Dugas (1987); and Sheppard (1937), the interplay with other formations from the Tertiary sedimentary rocks also influences the coastal morphology and landscape dynamics within the study area: The Ancon Group from the Eocene, characterized by conglomerates, sandstones, siltstones, and limestones of medium to low consolidation. Outcrops are observed locally in Punta Murci\u0026eacute;lago, south of Ballenita, and the sector between La Entrada and La Rinconada. A very large outcrop is located to the south of Puerto L\u0026oacute;pez facing Salango. The Zapotal Formation, from Upper Eocene to Lower Oligocene is characterized by thick and compact sandstones intercalated with conglomerates and shale, with medium to high consolidation. Extensive outcrops of the Zapotal formation are visible along the coastline, i.e. Ballenita, Punta Barand\u0026uacute;a, Punta Blanca, Punta del Morro, and in the mountainous sector between Monta\u0026ntilde;ita and Ol\u0026oacute;n. The Tosagua Formation from Upper Oligocene-Lower Miocene is lithologically composed of chocolate-brown clays exposed in decimeter to centimeter layers, with intercalations of gypsum lenses. Outcrops are exposed in the cliffs that form in the Southern sector of San Pedro-Valdivia, as well as locally in the south of Libertador Bol\u0026iacute;var.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe Quaternary rocks are composed of sandstones, conglomerates, and biogenic calcareous banks from the Tablazo Formation, whose name is derived from a platform morphology that forms stepped raised plains. The topography results from the Plio-Pleistocene uplift of the Ecuadorian Coast (Pedoja, et al. 2006a; Pedoja et al. 2011; Pedoja, et al. 2006b). This formation is mainly visible between Salinas and La Libertad, and it also outcrops on the edges of the Ayangue inlet, north of Palmar, between Palmar and Punta San Antonio.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe coastline of the Santa Elena Bay features extensive areas with Quaternary sedimentary deposits, formed through erosion-transport-deposition processes, mainly influenced by oceanographic and hydrographic activity during the Holocene highstand. These deposits are distributed along various sections of the coastline (Figura 1B): 1) between Ballenita and Punta Barand\u0026uacute;a along 4 km; \u0026nbsp;2) between San Pablo and Palmar along 17 km; 3) local occurrences on Ayangue and Punta San Antonio; 4) along 7 km north from San Pedro in the Southern area of Libertador Bol\u0026iacute;var; 5) along 8.5 km north from Sim\u0026oacute;n Bol\u0026iacute;var to Punta Monta\u0026ntilde;ita; 6) between Ol\u0026oacute;n and La Entrada along 9 Km.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e2.2 Coastal Geomorphology\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn Ecuador, the formation of coastline morphology has been significantly influenced by geological processes (Boye \u0026amp; Fiadonu, 2020). However, oceanographic processes are the primary drivers that determine the coastal dynamics shaping the coastline morphology. Few studies on the Santa Elena Bay attempt to establish a morphological classification; Boothroyd et al. (1994) define a regional classification at a 1:50000 scale; and Ayón \u0026amp; Zapata, 1988 provides a description of the Ecuadorian coast considering ecological zoning, wave climate, currents, and tides. However, neither of these classifications allows for the evaluation or quantification of accretion/erosion dynamics applicable to coastal management. According to these studies, the bay features two principal types of coasts based on their position relative to the current sea level: 1) low coasts characterized by the presence of barrier beaches or coastal plains and, \u0026nbsp;2) high or emerged coasts characterized by the presence of active cliffs (Figure 4B).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eLow coastal areas correspond to littoral zones whose heights are near the current sea level. \u0026nbsp;They have a sub-classification based on parameters related to their genesis, or erosion/accretion processes. The sub-classifications include a) coastal plain, b) barrier beach, c) raised barrier, lagoon, or coastal plain.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003col\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eThe strandplain corresponds to a coastal sector with a wide sandy plain built by the action of waves, overflow of storms, and the action of the wind, which may have a width greater than 1 km with many areas of barrier dunes and post plains (e.g. barriers in Figure 4B1).\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eThe barrier beach corresponds to sandy islands or peninsulas parallel to the coast, built by waves, storm overflows, and wind action (Figure 4B2). The sand bars are separated from adjacent terrain by aquatic habitat and may or may not be joined at one end. When they are attached to one of the ends, they are called littoral arrows. The construction or erosion of coastal barriers is closely linked to the direction of the waves and coastal processes, as well as the source of the sediments that form them.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eThe uplifted barrier, lagoon, strandplain is a wide-low plain, elevated a few meters, with no visible cliff on the coastal margin. Some evidence of the original system (barrier, lagoon, or coastal plain) may be visible but is not already active. They may be an intermediate state between the types of low coasts and low cliffs and are evidence of the active uplift that has the coast of Ecuador.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eActive cliffs correspond to escarpments of rocks very close to the coast, rising between 2 and 60 meters above sea level (Figures 4B3 and 4B4). \u0026nbsp;Some of them have developed sand or gravel beach in proximity, caused by the weathering of waves at the base that produce the crumble and retreat of cliffs. Their erosion rate is related to the mechanical and chemical properties of the rock that constitutes them, as well as the hydrodynamic process present in the area.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e2.3 Coastal Processes\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe Ecuadorian coast experiences two seasons determined by rainfall: a wet season from December to May and a dry season from June to November. The prevailing wind flow on the Ecuadorian coast comes from the south, with a westerly component (G\u0026aacute;lvez \u0026amp; Regalado, 2007).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe waves that reach the Ecuadorian coast are of the swell type and their characteristics are influenced by seasonal variations (Allauca \u0026amp; Cardin, 1987; Vera, 2000b). Generally, Pacific Ocean waves generated in the north and south travel southeast and northeast, respectively. They spread to low latitudes, encountering near the equator, and propagate eastward towards the eastern Pacific Ocean (Liu \u0026amp; Zhao, 2019).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe Ecuadorian coast experiences a prevalence of northeastward swells from the South Pacific between April to October, peaking from June to August. This increase is caused by stronger South Pacific westerlies, which push waves southeastward that can reach as far north as 40 degrees latitude. January brings a different pattern, where the wind speed and wave conditions in the North Pacific intensify. These waves propagate to the southeast having a considerable influence in the equator, meeting the northeastward waves from the South Pacific and arriving from the west to the Ecuadorian coast (Li, 2016; Liu \u0026amp; Zhao, 2019).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWave diagrams for the Santa Elena Bay are shown in Figure 2. We obtained data from the CMEMS reanalysis product, WAVERYS. (Law-Chune et al. 2021). The virtual buoys from which we obtained the data are shown in Figure 2A. To illustrate the seasonal variations, we collected data for two dissimilar months: February (wet season), and September (dry season), spanning data from 2014 to 2023. In February, waves arrive primarily from the southwest and west, with directions ranging from 219.63\u0026deg; to 295.21\u0026deg;. Significant wave heights typically fall between 0.41 and 1.16 meters, with periods between 10.12s and 22.71s (Figure 2B and Table 1). In contrast, September presents waves predominantly approaching from 214.52\u0026deg; to 243.44\u0026deg;, with significant wave heights varying between 0.51m and 1.48m, and periods between 4.95s and 23.48s (Figure 2B and Table 1).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSea level monitoring along the Ecuadorian coast is equipped with a network of tide gauges operated by the Navy Oceanographic and Antarctic Institute (INOCAR, https://www.inocar.mil.ec/web/index.php). La Libertad hosts the country\u0026rsquo;s oldest and most historically significant tide station (location in Figure 2A). The Ecuadorian tide cycle is semidiurnal, comprising two high tides and two low tides of equal height in an approximately 24-hour period (Vera, 2000a; Wong, 2011).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe analysis of a 45-day tide record from the La Libertad station between February and March \u0026nbsp;1995 revealed a spring tide amplitude of 2.5 m and a neap tide amplitude of 1.4m (Vera, 2000a).Another analysis of the tide records from the same station, spanning 1948-2009, showed a tidal range of 2.5 m, classifying the regime as mesotidal (\u0026lt;3.0 m tidal range). This analysis further identified that the M2 (principal lunar semidiurnal) constituent had the highest amplitude, followed by S2 (principal solar semidiurnal), N2 (a larger lunar elliptic semidiurnal constituent), and K1 (a lunar diurnal constituent) (Wong, 2011).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWe downloaded the data with the use of the DELFT Dashboard, which shows the amplitude and phase of the principal tide components (Figure 2B - Table 2) (van Ormondt et al., 2020). We chose the International Hydrographic Organization (IHO) station of La Libertad. Similar to the wave data, we focused on February and September of 2023 to represent the wet and dry seasons. The regime is mesotidal. Seasonal variation does not significantly impact tidal ranges, as seen from the data for February (2.50 m) and September (2.57 m) in 2023. The primary astronomical components influencing the tide are the lunar semidiurnal (M2) and solar semidiurnal (S2).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e3.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eData and Methods: Coastal Vulnerability Index variables and calculation\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eCoastal vulnerability assessments employ various methods, including indexes, indicators, Geographical Information Systems (GIS), and dynamic models (Noor \u0026amp; Abdul Maulud, 2022; Oloyede et al., 2021). Index-based methods\u0026nbsp;are commonly used for their simplicity, incorporating diverse factors present in natural systems and facilitating comprehension for non-specialists. These methods express vulnerability through the combination and evaluation of different variables (Roukounis \u0026amp; Tsihrintzis, 2022, Hamid et al. 2019, Ramieri et al. 2011).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe CVI method simplifies the complex interplay between the physical features of a coastline. It expresses the vulnerability as a one-dimensional variable, allowing the coastline to be divided into segments, with each one assigned a vulnerability value depending on local parameters. The result provides a straightforward quantitative measure for classifying coastal areas at different scales, according to their susceptibility to a particular hazard (Canul Turriza et al. 2024). Its seamless integration with GIS facilitates easy application, enabling abstract concepts like vulnerability to be visualized or expressed as a combination of a set of variables. This derives in a simpler way to communicate results (McIntosh \u0026amp; Becker, 2019; Ramieri et al. 2011; Rocha et al. 2023).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe physical vulnerability assessment\u0026nbsp;involved five steps (Figure 3): i) selection of variables; ii) data processing methods for each variable; iii) assignation of a vulnerability score to each variable using a scale from 1 to 4 (with 1 indicating the least contribution to vulnerability and 4 the most), based on its influence in physical coastal changes; iv) the index calculation; and v) generation of physical vulnerability maps. The results directly support the ICZM of the study area and can be integrated into coastal planning initiatives. To ensure optimal effectiveness, the entire process should be monitored and reviewed throughout implementation. At the end of the cycle, it may be necessary to re-evaluate the initial variables to refine the analysis, thereby initiating the process anew.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOriginally, the CVI considered 7 variables: relief (elevation), lithology (rock type), morphology (coastal landform), sea level changes, shoreline changes (erosion or accretion), tidal ranges, and wave heights. The CVI is calculated by the square root of the geometric mean of the vulnerability values (Equation 1) (Gornitz et al., 1990).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cimg src=\"https://myfiles.space/user_files/122228_c8a1650c59388082/122228_custom_files/img1737719096.png\"\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn this study, we applied the formulation proposed by Gornitz et al. (1990) with modifications considering 6 variables based on the local geological and coastal context, which are: 1) lithology, 2) geomorphology, 3) indentation grade, 4) beach slope, 5) shoreline displacement, and 6) wave height. In addition to these variables, we will also evaluate the tidal range and relative sea level change within the study area. However, due to limited data availability (with only punctual measurements recorded), the analysis of these factors will be qualitative. This means we will assess their overall impact on coastal vulnerability rather than incorporating them quantitatively into the CVI itself.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe range of physical vulnerability for each variable is shown in Table 3. With the application of these ranks, we generated a map for each variable. Each rank is assigned a different color: Low (value 1) in green, Moderate (value 2) in yellow, High (value 3) in orange, and Very High (value 4) in red. Once CVI is calculated, these values are classified in the same 4 categories, using quantiles as limits (Figures 4 to 8).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e3.1 Variables Processing and Analysis\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e3.1.1\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eLithology:\u003c/strong\u003e Provides a measurement of the erodability, depending on chemical and physical breakdown processes (Gornitz \u0026amp; Kanciruk, 1989). Considering the exposed lithology in the study zone, classification is based on rock hardness. \u0026nbsp;Well-consolidated igneous and volcano-sedimentary rocks are considered to have a low level of erodability, while most sedimentary rocks are considered to have a medium to high level of erodibility. \u0026nbsp;Thus, the geological formations described above, in item 2.1), were classified as: Pi\u0026ntilde;on and Cayo Formations assigned as low level of erodability; rocks from the Anc\u0026oacute;n Group, Zapotal and Tosagua Formations classified as medium level erodability, and Tablazos Formation was assigned a high level of erodibility. \u0026nbsp;The Quaternary sedimentary deposits along the coast were classified as very high erodability level (Table 3).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe map of erodability based on lithology (Figure 4A), shows that low and medium levels of erodability are present in Salango, La Rinconada, Punta Monta\u0026ntilde;ita, Ayangue, Chipipe, San Lorenzo and Punta Santa Elena. High and very high erodability levels are observed in all beaches along the coastal zone, such as Las Tunas, Curia, Ol\u0026oacute;n, Monta\u0026ntilde;ita, Libertador Bol\u0026iacute;var, Valdivia, Ayangue, Palmar, Monteverde, San Pablo, Ballenita, San Lorenzo and Chipipe.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e3.1.2 Geomorphology (Coastal Height):\u003c/strong\u003e Determined by the height and landform of the littoral. Classification is based on coastal elevation areas, mainly referring to the work realized by\u0026nbsp;Ayón \u0026amp; Zapata (1988).\u0026nbsp;Littoral with high cliffs as low vulnerability, low cliffs as moderate vulnerability, littoral with uplifted beaches as high vulnerability, and areas with barrier beaches or strandplains as very high vulnerability (Table 3). \u0026nbsp;The geomorphological map (Figure 4B) depicts the lowest coast highlighted in red, slightly more prevalent in the Northern than the Southern zone of the SEB. \u0026nbsp;The areas with the highest vulnerability in the Northern zone encompass Las Tunas-Ayampe, La Curia-Ol\u0026oacute;n, South of Monta\u0026ntilde;ita, and Libertador Bolivar; while in the Southern zone include Monteverde, San Pablo, Punta Blanca, San Lorenzo and Chipipe.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe Northern zone shows prominent points characterized by cliffs, featuring the high cliffs of Salango and the low cliffs of Ayangue. The area between these points exhibits high cliffs along La Rinconada, Monta\u0026ntilde;ita, and south of Libertador Bol\u0026iacute;var. Uplifted barrier beaches are observed in Valdivia and Libertador Bolivar-Monta\u0026ntilde;ita, along with strandplains in Ol\u0026oacute;n-Curia and Las Tunas-Ayampe. In the Southern zone, prominent points; like Salinas, Punta Blanca, and Ayangue, are characterized by low cliffs. The area between Salinas and Punta Blanca features the presence of an uplifted barrier beach around Ballenita. Moving Northern between Punta Blanca and Ayangue, there are uplifted barrier beaches near San Pablo, barrier beaches between San Pablo and Monteverde, and strandplains around Monteverde.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e3.1.3\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;Beach slope:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eAn indicator of vulnerability to inundation and erosion, where a steeper slope increases the waves\u0026rsquo; ability to climb the slope and erode the beach\u0026nbsp;(Fu et al. 2022; Pantusa et al. 2022).\u0026nbsp;Backshore slope values are used from Athanasiou et al. 2023. The backshore slope is defined as the vertical difference between the first peak elevation landwards of the shoreline position, divided by their horizontal difference. Applying quantile classification, the slope dataset is divided into four ranges: slopes higher than 0.18 are classified as low vulnerability, between 0.18 and 0.08 as moderate vulnerability, between 0.08 and 0.04 as high vulnerability, and lower than 0.04 as very high vulnerability (Table 3).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe Northern zone shows several areas marked by high and very high vulnerability such as the beaches Valdivia, La Entrada, Libertador Bol\u0026iacute;var, Monta\u0026ntilde;ita, Ol\u0026oacute;n, Curia, Ayampe and Las Tunas. For the Southern zone, areas with high and very high vulnerability are highlighted along the stretch between San Pablo and Monteverde, as well as in the beaches Chipipe, Salinas, and Ballenita (Figure 5A).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e3.1.4\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eIndentation:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eDefined as the ratio between the real length of a coast and its Euclidean length\u0026nbsp;(Spagnolo et al., 2008). The analysis of indentation for this work considers the following factors: including the total length of the coast segment (S1), the opening (Ro), the entrance (a), the presence of a beach, and the width of the beach if present\u0026nbsp;(Bowman et al. 2009).\u0026nbsp;These variables are essential in determining the linearity of the coast, as it is considered a suitable approximation of the stability reached by a coastline, with less indented coasts being more balanced with the coastal forces and closer to an equilibrium state.\u0026nbsp;(Maracchione et al. 2001; Spagnolo et al. 2008). Straightened coasts are classified as highly vulnerable compared to indented coasts, considering that indented coasts offer a more extensive frontage for wave dissipation and offer protection against waves, resulting in greater stability\u0026nbsp;(Kovaleva et al. 2022; Marco-Peret\u0026oacute; et al. 2024).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFor detailed morphological analysis, the study area is divided into 47 coastal stretches limited by rocky outcrops. Applying quantile classification, each stretch is classified based on the indentation relationship a/Ro, leading to four proposed indentation categories: Highly-indented coasts (a/Ro \u0026nbsp;\u0026gt; 0.33) are classified as low vulnerabilty, Medium-indented coasts (0.23 \u0026le; a/Ro \u0026lt; 0.33) as\u0026nbsp; moderate vulnerability, Low-indented coasts (0.16 \u0026le; a/Ro \u0026lt; 0.23) as high vulnerability, and Unindented coasts (a/Ro \u0026lt; 0.16) are classified as very highly vulnerability (Table 3). Each coastal stretch and its corresponding indentation relationship value is detailed in Table 4.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHigh and very high vulnerability zones are shown along most of the coast of the study area, with some exceptions, i.e. coastal areas of medium and low vulnerability in the north include Punta La Cabezona and the stretch between Ayampe and La Rinconada, and between San Pedro and Ayangue. In the sout, Punta Blanca, Ballenita, Salinas and Chipipe (Figure 5B).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e3.1.5 Shoreline displacement (Coastal sediment dynamics)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTo assess the recession or advance of the coastline at SEB, we used the CoastSat v1.0.4 and DSAS 5.0 tools (Himmelstoss et al., 2018; Vos et al., 2019). This freely available software enables the detection and extraction of the coastline from satellite images. CoastSat defines the coastline as an instantaneous interface between sand and water captured at the time of image acquisition.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe process can be summarized in the following steps:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003col\u003e\n \u003cli\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eImage selection\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eUsing Coastsat and the Google Earth Engine API, images from Landsat 5, 7, 8, and Sentinel-2 are downloaded. Specifically, images corresponding to the dates 2003/05/08, 2016/12/21, 2018/05/10, and 2019/04/26 are selected from the available repository.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003col start=\"2\"\u003e\n \u003cli\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eImage correction or normalization\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eCoastSat does not apply any post-processing correction after that made by the provider of each image. For this reason, before the extraction of the coastline, the geometric correction of the images is performed using control points using GIS.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAs the study area has a mesotidal nature, it was essential to filter images to acquire data with a similar tide level. To carry out this step, the methodology applied by (Yu et al. 2011) was used as a reference. The study of coastline variability requires the consideration of images captured at similar tidal heights. The first step involves obtaining a record of the slopes near the coast within the study area. The beach slope component\u0026apos;s characterization relies on the lowest recorded slope value from the dataset, with 1% identified as the minimum slope value. Therefore, considering the lowest value of slope (1%), and a tide variation of \u0026plusmn;10 cm, the apparent coastline can shift seaward or landward by approximately 10 m (spatial resolution of Sentinel 2). The selected images for analysis are chosen to ensure that the tidal height variation falls within a range of 10 cm to maintain consistency in the data.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003col start=\"3\"\u003e\n \u003cli\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eShoreline detection and extraction\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eShoreline detection and extraction involved the following steps using the CoastSat tool:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e1) We obtained Landsat 5, 7, 8, and Sentinel-2 images via Google Earth Engine. Then, Coastsat applies pre-processing techniques such as cloud masking, pansharpening, and raster resampling to enhance image quality.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e2) Coastsat classified each pre-processed image into four distinct classes: \u0026apos;Water\u0026apos;, \u0026apos;Foam\u0026apos;, \u0026apos;Sand\u0026apos;, and \u0026apos;Others\u0026apos; using a pre-trained neural network. 3) Coastsat extracts the coastline at sub-pixel resolution using the Modified Normalized Difference Water Index (MNDWI) and applies the Marching Squares algorithm to delineate the coastal edge accurately.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003col start=\"4\"\u003e\n \u003cli\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eShoreline variability analysis\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAfter extracting the coastlines from different dates, we used the DSAS 5.0 plugin to calculate the annual rates of coastline variability.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe DSAS 5.0 plugin facilitated the digitization of transects along which distances from the berm to the baseline or reference line are measured. Parameters such as the maximum distance that the coastline varies, the net variation, or the linear regression of the coastline variability are calculated based on the digitized transects. The regression line, determined as the best fit between the cloud of points representing shoreline positions, considers all positions regardless of any changes in the trend. The derived equation is used to calculate the slope, which represents the Linear Regression Rate (LRR), indicating the annual rate of coastline change. Based on this analysis, the results of the shoreline displacement are presented in Figure 6 to provide detailed insights into the erosion/accretion rate along the study zone.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe distribution of vulnerability along the shoreline based on displacement rates are shown in Figure 6A. The detailed shoreline displacement profiles were categorized into four subzones: NZ-1, NZ-2, SZ-1, and SZ-2 (Figure 6B). Each subzone is further divided into sections, marked by breaks indicating changes in shoreline displacement behavior (erosion, neutral, or accretion). The Table 5 summarizes the average, minimum, and maximum shoreline displacement rates for each section within these subzones.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSubzone NZ-1: Salango - Curia\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNZ-1 predominantly exhibits erosive coastline behavior. Section A is relatively stable, with an average displacement rate of 0.06 m/year. In contrast, Section B, encompassing various beaches, shows significant erosion with an average rate of -1.40 m/year. The minimum displacement rate for the entire subzone is -7.04 m/year, observed between Las Tunas and Ayampe, indicating extreme erosion. The maximum rate is 0.79 m/year, found in a low accretion area between Punta Piedra Verde and Punta La Cabezona.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSubzone NZ-2: Curia - Valdivia\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe coastline behavior in NZ-2 is variable, though erosion predominates. Sections D, F, and H show average erosion rates of -1.25 m/year, -0.97 m/year, and -1.86 m/year, respectively. Sections C and G display neutral patterns with average rates of 0.06 m/year and 0.11 m/year, respectively. Section E exhibits accretion, with an average rate of 0.95 m/year. The minimum rate for NZ-2 is -2.99 m/year, found in Section F near Libertador Bol\u0026iacute;var, while the maximum rate is 2.45 m/year, located in Section E around Monta\u0026ntilde;ita.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSubzone SZ-1: Valdivia - Punta Blanca\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSZ-1 features a mix of stable and accretive behaviors, alongside some erosion. Sections K and M show erosion with average rates of -0.40 m/year and -1.96 m/year, respectively. Accretion is significant in Sections J and L, with average rates of 1.35 m/year and 0.47 m/year, respectively. The minimum rate for SZ-1 is -3.48 m/year, observed in Section M north of Punta Blanca. The maximum rate is 3.39 m/year, found in Section J in Monteverde. Section N shows mixed behavior, with minor erosion and accretion due to coastal infrastructure in Punta Blanca, averaging 0.09 m/year.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSubzone SZ-2: Punta Blanca - Salinas\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSZ-2 presents mixed patterns with less pronounced trends compared to other subzones. Erosion is observed in Sections P, R, and T, with average rates of -0.11 m/year, -0.42 m/year, and -0.28 m/year, respectively. The subzone\u0026apos;s minimum rate is -1.37 m/year, found in Section R in Salinas. Accretion occurs in Sections O, Q, and S, with average rates of 0.54 m/year, 0.49 m/year, and 0.2 m/year, respectively. The maximum rate for SZ-2 is 3.21 m/year in Section O, between Punta Blanca and Punta Barand\u0026uacute;a. Section P shows mixed behavior with an average rate of -0.11 m/year.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe shoreline displacement vulnerability classification is assigned as follows: Low vulnerability corresponds to areas experiencing accretion, where the LRR is more than or equal to 0 (LRR\u0026gt;0). Moderate vulnerability encompasses areas where erosion is minimal, with rates between 0 and -1 m/year. High vulnerability includes areas experiencing retreat rates between -1 and -2 m/year. Very high corresponds areas experiencing significant erosion with rates exceeding 2 m/y (Figure 7A -Table 3).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e3.1.6\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eWave height:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eThe wave energy which drives the sediment budget along coastlines, considering that wave height is directly proportional to wave energy.\u0026nbsp;The breaker height is represented as the significant wave height (Pendleton et al. 2004)\u003cstrong\u003e.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eWave breaking induces currents and turbulence in the surf zone, facilitating the alongshore sediment transport, both in suspension and along the bed\u0026nbsp;(Sorensen, 2006).\u0026nbsp;A numerical model is performed to obtain a significant wave height in a year with normal or average conditions (data obtained\u0026nbsp;every 300m\u0026nbsp;from Espinoza et al. (2023)). Using quantile classification in GIS, we divided the heights into four ranges as denoted in Table 3. We classified heights lower than 0.43m as low vulnerability, between 0.43m and 0.65m as moderate vulnerability, between 0.65m and 0.81m as high vulnerability, and higher than 0.81m as very high vulnerability (Figure 7B).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe Northern coastline exhibits high to very high vulnerability, with wave heights exceeding 0.60 meters. Valdivia is an exception, showing moderate vulnerability. In contrast, the Southern coast shows mostly low to medium vulnerability, with wave heights at or below 0.60 meters. Punta Santa Elena is the exception here, with very high vulnerability.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e3.1.7\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTidal range\u003c/strong\u003e: Defined as the vertical difference between high and low tide (Kantamaneni et al. 2019). Coasts with higher tidal ranges typically experience stronger tidal currents, making high intertidal environments more susceptible to increased flooding frequency with rising mean water levels. Microtidal coasts, on the other hand, are less resilient to sea level rise. Thus, coasts with a higher tidal range are assumed to have a higher degree of vulnerability (Gornitz, 1991; Koroglu et al., 2019; Shaw et al., 1998).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTo assess the tidal range along SEB, we obtained data from La Libertad station in the DELFT Dashboard for the period 2011-2020. The average tidal range in SEB for this period is 1.69m, with a maximum value of 2.77m, classifying it as a mesotidal regime dominated by wave and tidal energy (Hayes, 1979; Passeri et al., 2015). As explained above, this variable is not considered in the index calculation.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e3.1.8\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;Sea level rise:\u003c/strong\u003e Sea level rise poses significant threats to low-lying coastal areas, leading to natural consequences such as flooding, wetland loss (or change), saltwater intrusion, erosion, and impeded drainage systems. Some of its recent impacts on coasts include reduced return periods of extreme sea levels, regular chronic flooding and an increased erosive tendency. (Nicholls, 2018). Risk related to sea level rise is expected to increase significantly along low-lying coasts around the world by the end of the century (Oppenheimer et al., 2019).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSea level rise data is typically derived from tide gauge observations or altimetry measurements. The DUACS DT2021 altimetry data from AVISO is used, providing a 29-year reference period with a spatial resolution of approximately \u0026frac14;\u0026deg; (~28 km) and a temporal resolution of one day (S\u0026aacute;nchez-Rom\u0026aacute;n et al., 2023). (Cede\u0026ntilde;o, 2015) evaluated the reliability of altimetry data by calculating the correlation coefficient between these data and sea level measurements from the La Libertad tide gauge, resulting in a coefficient of 0.74. This correlation is established through a linear regression analysis between the tide station data and the altimetry observations obtained from the nearest grid point.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThus, we estimated the rate of sea level rise along the Ecuadorian coast, based on linear regression of sea level anomaly data from 1993 to 2019 (26 years), smoothed using a 5-point moving average filter, obtaining the result of 2.33 mm/year. \u0026nbsp;Based on the current trend, we expect approximately 10cm of sea level rise within the next 50 years. As explained above, this variable is not considered in the index calculation.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Results and CVI analysis","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e4.1 Influence of CVI Variables on SEB\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis study assessed the influence and contribution of each Coastal Vulnerability Index (CVI) variable. The results highlight low-lying beach areas, especially in the north with higher waves, as the most vulnerable regions (Figure 8A). In this section, we analyze the results and discuss the interaction and contribution of the geological and hydrodynamic\u0026nbsp;variables to SEB\u0026rsquo;s physical vulnerability.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eCVI values range from 0.58 to 26.13, with an average of 6.41, a median of 4.62, a mode of 2.83, and a standard deviation of 5.13. The 25\u003csup\u003eth\u003c/sup\u003e, 50\u003csup\u003eth,\u003c/sup\u003e and 75\u003csup\u003eth\u003c/sup\u003e percentiles are 2.83, 4.62, and 8.49, respectively. These percentiles are used to classify CVI values into four vulnerability ranks (Figure 8A): Low, (0.58 to 2.83); Medium (2.83 to 4.62); High (4.62 to 8.49); and Very High (8.49 to 26.13).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFrom the vulnerability distribution for Santa Elena in Figure 8B1 and Table 6, we observe the ranks are evenly distributed, with each rank encompassing between 19% and 30% of the coastline. The coastline sections classified as Low vulnerability is relatively large, accounting for 30.85% (43.32km), followed by High, Very High and Moderate vulnerability sections with 25.96% (36.14km), 15.80%(33.77km) and 19.24% (26.79km), respectively.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eGeological variables significantly impact coastal form and erodibility. Lithology is one of the primary contributors to Very High vulnerability, with 45.31% of beaches composed of loose quaternary sediments. This variable\u0026apos;s connection to Geomorphology (32.12% of Very High vulnerability) is evident since low-elevation coastal stretches are composed of the same lithology class. These areas are also the most susceptible to erosion, as shown in Figure 7A. Beaches in Ayampe, Libertador Bol\u0026iacute;var, Valdivia, and the area between Punta Blanca and San Pablo exhibit the highest erosion rates.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWave Height is another important factor for Very High vulnerability sections, accounting for 30.56%. As mentioned earlier, the north experiences higher waves compared to the south. Since waves primarily approach from the west-southwest, refraction becomes crucial when studying wave heights along the coast. Wave crests bend more sharply in the south, leading to lower wave energy arriving in this zone compared to the north (Espinoza et al. 2023).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eCoastal indentation impacts significantly, contributing 48.14% to Very High vulnerability. The Northern zone has a less indented shape compared to the south. These differences likely arise from underlying geological features. Figure 5B exemplifies this concept. Highly vulnerable Northern segments (with minimal indentation) represent barrier beaches or strandplains. Highly indented segments coincide with areas having sedimentary or volcanic rock cliffs. The south exhibits a similar pattern, where low indentation segments correspond to cliff areas. For instance, Ayangue, one of the highly indented beaches in Santa Elena, is a bay surrounded by unconsolidated sedimentary rock cliffs. However, low-indentation barrier beaches situated between cliffs are also present, like the Monteverde-Punta Blanca segment or La Libertad. These zonal differences might also be explained by seabed configuration and wave approach direction. As discussed earlier, with waves predominantly arriving from the south-southwest, refraction is minimal in the north. Consequently, the wave front strikes the Northern coastline nearly parallel. Additionally, the 20m depth contour lies closer to the Northern shore (Figure 2A), indicating shallower waters compared to the south. This shallower depth causes waves in the south to break closer to the coast, possibly exerting pressure on the local geology and influencing its shape. (Spagnolo et al. 2008).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBeach Slope displays a variable contribution along the coastline. While 29.25% of low slopes contribute to High vulnerability, particularly in sandy beaches, a significant 28.72% of high slopes contribute to the Low vulnerability of SEB. The latter belong to the elevated coastal cliffs and promontories.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eShoreline Displacement primarily contributes to the Low vulnerability of the coastline (46.34%), with the Southern Zone showing significantly lower vulnerability areas compared to the north (Figures 8B2 and 8B3). This difference can likely be attributed to the varying wave energy reaching each zone, with the north experiencing higher waves. Low vulnerability areas represent coastal stretches in equilibrium or experiencing accretion. These areas are found mainly in the Southern rocky zones or sandy beaches south of rocky cliffs. Conversely, some stretches north of rocky cliffs exhibit erosion. Examples include Salango (accretion) and Ayampe (erosion), Monteverde (accretion) and Punta Blanca (erosion), or Monta\u0026ntilde;ita (accretion) and Valdivia (erosion). This suggests longshore drift as an important factor in SEB\u0026apos;s sediment balance.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAlthough Sea Level Rise and Tidal Amplitude were not included in the CVI calculation, they are crucial for understanding the broader context of coastal vulnerability. Mesotidal conditions have a moderate impact on the physical vulnerability of coastal areas and can influence the distribution of wave energy, as high tides allow waves to reach further inland. Specifically, during spring tides, particularly perigean spring tides with extreme highs, low-lying coastal areas such as strandplains and barrier beaches are susceptible to flooding. Rising sea levels can exacerbate this situation by affecting tidal ranges and disrupting the balance of coastal environments. This disruption can lead to changes in circulation patterns and substantial sediment redistribution, potentially reshaping entire ecosystems (Jiang et al. 2020; Passeri et al. 2015). Despite the fact that a sea level rise of 2.33 mm/year may not seem significant, low-lying coastal areas remain susceptible, especially during El Ni\u0026ntilde;o events that occur periodically every 3 to 7 years (Trenberth, 2019). These events can elevate sea levels by as much as 42 cm (CAF, 2000).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e4.2 Differential CVI behavior by zone\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eA clear difference emerges when comparing zonal vulnerability from the Northern and Southern zones, and they provide valuable insights for coastal management. The analysis provides a detailed breakdown of vulnerability distribution of CVI results along SEB, with higher vulnerability areas appearing in red hues, and statistical bars of the relative presence of the variables of CVI for each zone (Figure 8B-Table 7). This allowed us to evaluate the degree of influence of each variable into the vunerability by zone.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWe observe in the overall CVI distribution (Figures 8B2 and 8B3 \u0026ndash; Table 6), that the Northern Zone has a significantly larger portion of the coastline classified as High (15.80%) and Very High (41.76%) vulnerability compared to the Southern Zone (High-34.98%, and Very High-8.14%).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThree key variables contribute most significantly to the Very High vulnerability in the Northern Zone (Figure 8B2):\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cul class=\"decimal_type\"\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eIndentation (63.96%)\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eWave Height (58.69%)\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eLithology (57.41%)\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ul\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;Along the Northern Zone, the most critical areas (Very High vulnerability) correspond (Figure 8A): From Las Tunas to Ayampe, La Entrada to Ol\u0026oacute;n, Monta\u0026ntilde;ita to Libertador Bol\u0026iacute;var, and Valdivia. These areas share specific characteristics such as 1) Low elevation strandplains or barrier beaches with quaternary sediments. 2) Variable beach slopes, with the lowest at Ol\u0026oacute;n, Monta\u0026ntilde;ita, and Valdivia. 3) Variable shoreline displacement, with high erosion at Las Tunas-Ayampe, Ol\u0026oacute;n, Libertador Bol\u0026iacute;var, and Valdivia. Furthermore, since these are unindented areas, the shore is exposed directly to the wave\u0026rsquo;s arrival.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn the Southern Zone, the High and Low values of CVI prevail. In the case of the High vulnerability rank, three variables contribute significantly (Figure 8B3):\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cul class=\"decimal_type\"\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eIndentation (43.06%)\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eBeach Slope (38.12%)\u0026nbsp;\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eLithology (34.71%)\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ul\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;Critical areas in the Southern Zone are located between Monteverde and San Pablo, between Punta Barand\u0026uacute;a and Ballenita, and Salinas (east of Punta Murci\u0026eacute;lago) (Figure 8A). Similar to the Northern Zone, these areas are composed of low-elevation, unindented, or low-indented strandplains and beach barriers with low slopes and quaternary sediments. However, the Southern Zone experiences considerably lower wave heights, except for the area of Punta Santa Elena. Erosion patterns are generally low, except for the coastal stretch between San Pablo and Punta Blanca, which shows an important section with very high vulnerability undergoing erosion rates reaching -3.48m/year.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe areas in SEB that exhibit Low Vulnerability correspond to zones with high cliffs with igneous or well-consolidated sedimentary rocks and steep coastal slopes. Examples in the Northern Zone include Salango, La Rinconada, Punta Monta\u0026ntilde;ita, and the stretch between Valdivia and Punta Brava. In the Southern Zone, these areas are located between Ayangue and Palmar, and in some rocky parts of the coasts of Punta Blanca, La Libertad, and Salinas.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Coastal Management Suggestions","content":"\u003cp\u003eOver half of the Northern zone\u0026apos;s coastline faces extreme vulnerability. Low-elevation, unsheltered beaches with loose sediments and high waves present a grave situation. Specific locations demand immediate attention. In the North, Ayampe, La Rinconada, Libertador Bol\u0026iacute;var, and Valdivia experience extreme erosion, with displacement rates exceeding -2.0 m/year. These areas, particularly vulnerable to high waves and potential storm surges, require urgent intervention. The barrier beach between Punta Blanca and San Pablo in the south faces a similar plight, although the Southern zone is at lower risk due to its more sheltered position and the significantly reduced wave heights compared to the Northern zone.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003ePrioritizing the reinforcement of coastal defenses in highly vulnerable areas, particularly in the Northern zone, is essential. Hard engineering solutions such as sea walls and groins could protect against erosion and flooding. Soft engineering approaches, like beach nourishment and dune restoration, may strengthen natural defenses and provide long-term resilience.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe southern coastlines exhibit mainly high vulnerability areas with a significant percentage of low vulnerability areas, protected by low cliffs of well-consolidated rocks as in Salinas, Ballenita, and Punta Blanca. Barrier beaches in this region are either benefiting from accretion or undergoing mild erosion. San Pablo and Monteverde, despite their elevation, hold significant potential for sustainable tourism development, aided by their sheltered location and the arrival of gentler waves compared to barrier beaches in the north. However, coastal monitoring remains crucial, as even low-lying areas remain vulnerable to future sea level changes and storm surges.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n"},{"header":"Contributions to ICZM","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe generated vulnerability maps along SEB offer a valuable tool for prioritizing resource and funding allocation by both government and stakeholders. This paves the way for effective planning and strategic interventions.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eCommunities within High to Very High vulnerable areas can consider several approaches, including retreat strategies like relocation or accommodation strategies like elevating infrastructure or developing flood-proof buildings. Additionally, governments can explore land acquisition in at-risk areas or implement various defense mechanisms, such as seawall construction or dune restoration. \u0026nbsp;However, public awareness and education also play a crucial role in building long-term resilience.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBy integrating CVI variables into the ICZM and decision-making processes, stakeholders can develop more informed and effective strategies. This approach offers insight into regional vulnerability and supports the development of targeted actions to address challenges along Santa Elena Bay. Emphasizing the improvement of resilience, the safeguarding of coastal communities and the sustainable management of coastal ecosystems stakeholders can work towards lessening the impacts of environmental shifts and risks, along the coastline. \u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe results expose the inherent vulnerability of sandy beaches. Loose sediments, low elevation, and gentle slopes make them highly susceptible to sea level rise. Authorities must enforce strict land-use regulations, including prohibiting dune removal, to protect these fragile ecosystems and the communities nestled near them.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHowever, the study also highlights portions of the coast with low vulnerability, primarily rocky cliffs. These areas present opportunities for communities to leverage their unique ecosystem beauty and cultural heritage to attract responsible tourism through low-impact activities like hiking, mountain biking, and kayaking. Such sustainable ventures can generate economic benefits while preserving the natural environment.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Conclusions","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe CVI is an effective tool to help in coastal risk management. By simplifying complex physical parameters into an easy-to-understand index and considering the local context, it provides a meaningful basis for managing coastal risks, particularly concerning sea level rise.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe applied physical assessment generates a baseline of coastal vulnerability through various geological and hydrodynamical parameters. Therefore, we quantified the magnitude of six physical variables and analyzed their relationship to identify the physical vulnerability of the SEB, located in the Ecuadorian Active margin. These variables encompass: 1) lithology, 2) geomorphology, 3) indentation grade, 4) beach slope, 5) shoreline displacement, and 6) wave height, but we analyzed the influence of tides and sea level rise.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis analysis reveals the highest vulnerability zones of SEB, corresponding to the Northern bayside, characterized by low-elevation sandy beaches and where over half the coast exhibits high or very high vulnerability. Notably, these vulnerable areas coincide with populated stretches with significant infrastructure and socioeconomic activities. We suggest paying attention to Ayampe, La Rinconada, Libertador Bol\u0026iacute;var, and Valdivia experience extreme erosion, with displacement rates exceeding -2.0 m/year, along the Northern Zone. Along the Southern Zone, the coastal stretch between San Pablo and Punta Blanca also needs to be considered for futures plans of coastal development.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFinally, however the CVI calculated in this study gives a resume of variables, we recommend to local authorities or stakeholders, to analyze with more detail scale or improving the knowledge of the characteristic of each variable, with High to Very High classification along of SEB, for taking better decisions tending to protect the people and lend towards to sustainable coastal development.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIt is also suggested that the CVI adopts a dynamic nature, with local communities and institutions actively participating in the collection of relevant variables. This process could turn the index into a valuable tool for resilience building by encouraging cooperation and strengthening local capacities to monitor environmental threats and changes, safeguarding both natural resources and human communities that depend on them.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFunding\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors declare that no funds, grants, or other support were received during the preparation of this manuscript.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCompeting Interests\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors have no relevant financial or non-financial interests to disclose.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAuthor Contributions\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAll authors contributed to the design and implementation of the research. Carlos Martillo, Jacqueline Rivas and Elvis Espinoza drafted the manuscript with support from Mishelle Muthre and Iv\u0026aacute;n Saltos, who supervised the findings of this work. Mishelle Muthre designed the figures with support from Jacqueline Rivas. All authors contributed to the revision and commented on the manuscript, with significant contributions from Kervin Chunga in the \u0026lsquo;Geological Settings\u0026rsquo; item, from Jonathan Cede\u0026ntilde;o to \u0026lsquo;Sea level rise\u0026rsquo;, and from Gina Andrade and Eduardo Cervantes to \u0026lsquo;Coastal Management Suggestions\u0026rsquo;.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eDeclaration of interests\u003c/strong\u003e \u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.\u003c/p\u003e\n\n"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAllauca, S., \u0026amp; Cardin, V. (1987). 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Estimation of the Coastal Vulnerability Index Using Multi-Criteria Decision Making: The Coastal Social\u0026ndash;Ecological System of Rachgoun, Western Algeria. \u003cem\u003eSustainability (Switzerland)\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e15\u003c/em\u003e(17). https://doi.org/10.3390/su151712838\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eYu, K., Hu, C., Muller-Karger, F. E., Lu, D., \u0026amp; Soto, I. (2011). Shoreline changes in west-central Florida between 1987 and 2008 from Landsat observations. \u003cem\u003eInternational Journal of Remote Sensing\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e32\u003c/em\u003e(23), 8299\u0026ndash;8313. https://doi.org/10.1080/01431161.2010.535045\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"},{"header":"Tables","content":"\u003ctable border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" width=\"680\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMonth\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eData Source\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eHeight (m)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eDirection (\u0026deg;)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ePeriod (s)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"6\" style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFebruary\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"3\" style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBuoy 1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMinimum\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.41\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e224.11\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10.25\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAverage\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.68\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e255.13\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e13.94\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMaximum\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.16\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e295.31\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e22.71\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"3\" style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBuoy 2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMinimum\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.43\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e219.63\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10.12\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAverage\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.66\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e243.42\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12.68\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMaximum\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.03\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e289.93\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e20.88\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"6\" style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSeptember\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"3\" style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBuoy 1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMinimum\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.51\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e216.37\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.95\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAverage\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.82\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e226.54\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e13.70\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMaximum\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.41\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e243.44\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e23.32\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"3\" style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBuoy 2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMinimum\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.52\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e214.52\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5.28\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAverage\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.85\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e223.13\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e13.49\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMaximum\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.48\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e237.05\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e23.48\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable 1.\u003c/strong\u003e Wave height, direction and period by season. Buoy 1 (La Libertad -80.8, -2), Buoy 2 (Monteverde -80.8, -1.8).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv\u003e\n \u003ctable border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" width=\"340\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eComponent\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAmplitude\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ePhase\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eM2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.7860\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e251.72\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eS2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.2310\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e299.20\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eN2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.1749\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e223.19\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eK1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.1140\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e421.05\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMSF\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.0700\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e277.67\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eK2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.0630\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e296.91\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSA\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.0480\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e177.05\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eP1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.0329\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e395.94\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNU2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.0320\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e227.46\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eO1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.0289\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e881.51\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMU2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.0260\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e224.74\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSSA\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.0260\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e332.11\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2N2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.0230\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e191.17\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eL2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.0179\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e270.94\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eT2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.0149\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e300.69\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMM\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.0149\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e349.62\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMF\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.0089\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e222.90\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eJ1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.0080\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e638.27\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMNS2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.0080\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e188.31\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eS1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.0070\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e152.10\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eOO1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.0060\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e878.95\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLABDA2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.0049\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e266.07\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n \u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable 2.\u003c/strong\u003e Principal tide components - La Libertad (van Ormondt et al. 2020).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"0\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" width=\"567\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eVariable\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eLow\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e1\u003c/strong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eModerate\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e2\u003c/strong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eHigh\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e3\u003c/strong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eVery high\u003c/strong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e4\u003c/strong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLithology\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIgneous rocks (Green) Pi\u0026ntilde;\u0026oacute;n\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSedimentary well-consolidated rocks (Green)\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCayo \u0026amp; Pi\u0026ntilde;\u0026oacute;n\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMost sedimentary rocks\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(Brown)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTosagua, Zapotal y Ancon\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSedimentary non-consolidated Quaternary rocks\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(Orange) Tablazo\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eQuaternary sediments\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(Yellow) Sedimentary deposits\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eGeomorphology\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHigh Cliffs (\u003cem\u003e\u0026gt;\u003c/em\u003e\u003cem\u003e10\u0026nbsp;m)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLow cliffs (\u0026le;\u003cem\u003e10 m)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eUplifted strandplains or barrier beaches\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e(\u003c/em\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026lt;2 m)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eStrandplains\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBarrier beaches\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBarrier spits\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e(\u003cem\u003ecurrent MSL)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eCoastal Slope\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026gt;0.19\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.19-0.09\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.09 \u0026ndash; 0.04\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;0.04\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIdentation (a/Ro)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026gt;0.33\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.23-0.33\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.16-0.23\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;0.16\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eShoreline displacement (m/year)\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026gt; 1.0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.0 - -1.0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-1.0 - -2.0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt; -2.0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWave Height (m)\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026lt; 0.43\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.43 - 0.63\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.63-0.83\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026gt;0.83\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable 3.\u003c/strong\u003e Range of physical vulnerability per variable.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cdiv\u003e\n \u003ctable border=\"0\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" width=\"633\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"6\" style=\"width: 633px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eClassification based on indentation index a/Ro\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eStretch N\u0026deg;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 161px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eStretch Beginning\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 151px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eStretch Ending\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eS1/Ro\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ea/Ro\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 142px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eClassification\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 161px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-80.854\u0026deg;E, -1.600\u0026deg;N\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 151px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-80.846\u0026deg;E, -1.616\u0026deg;N\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.25\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.22\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 142px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLow - indented\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 161px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-80.846\u0026deg;E, -1.616\u0026deg;N\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 151px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-80.844\u0026deg;E, -1.623\u0026deg;N\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.68\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.43\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 142px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHighly - indented\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 161px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-80.844\u0026deg;E, -1.623\u0026deg;N\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 151px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-80.845\u0026deg;E, -1.626\u0026deg;N\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.83\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.63\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 142px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHighly - indented\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 161px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-80.845\u0026deg;E, -1.626\u0026deg;N\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 151px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-80.841\u0026deg;E, -1.628\u0026deg;N\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.65\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.37\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 142px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHighly - indented\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 161px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-80.841\u0026deg;E, -1.628\u0026deg;N\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 151px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-80.838\u0026deg;E, -1.631\u0026deg;N\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.49\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.30\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 142px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMedium - indented\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 161px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-80.838\u0026deg;E, -1.631\u0026deg;N\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 151px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-80.812\u0026deg;E, -1.684\u0026deg;N\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.05\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.05\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 142px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eUnindented\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 161px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-80.812\u0026deg;E, -1.684\u0026deg;N\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 151px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-80.813\u0026deg;E, -1.693\u0026deg;N\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.42\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.25\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 142px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMedium - indented\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 161px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-80.813\u0026deg;E, -1.693\u0026deg;N\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 151px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-80,810\u0026deg;E, -1,697\u0026deg;N\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.35\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.22\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 142px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLow - indented\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e9\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 161px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-80.810\u0026deg;E, -1.697\u0026deg;N\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 151px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-80.808\u0026deg;E, -1.701\u0026deg;N\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.19\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.23\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 142px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMedium - indented\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 161px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-80.808\u0026deg;E, -1.701\u0026deg;N\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n 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142px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHighly - indented\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 161px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-80.805\u0026deg;E, -1.709\u0026deg;N\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 151px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-80.803\u0026deg;E, -1.711\u0026deg;N\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.37\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.21\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 142px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLow - indented\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e13\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 161px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-80.803\u0026deg;E, -1.711\u0026deg;N\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n 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142px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMedium-indented\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e15\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 161px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-80.800\u0026deg;E, -1.716\u0026deg;N\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 151px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-80.761\u0026deg;E, -1.819\u0026deg;N\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.10\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.11\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 142px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eUnindented\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e16\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 161px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-80.761\u0026deg;E, -1.819\u0026deg;N\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 151px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-80.739\u0026deg;E, -1.965\u0026deg;N\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.09\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.12\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 142px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eUnindented\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e17\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 161px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-80.739\u0026deg;E, -1.965\u0026deg;N\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 151px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-80.748\u0026deg;E, -1.968\u0026deg;N\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.36\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.37\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 142px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHighly - indented\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e18\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 161px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-80.748\u0026deg;E, -1.968\u0026deg;N\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 151px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-80.751\u0026deg;E, -1.968\u0026deg;N\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.17\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.28\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 142px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMedium - indented\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e19\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 161px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-80.751\u0026deg;E, -1.968\u0026deg;N\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n 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142px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLow - indented\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e21\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 161px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-80.760\u0026deg;E, -1.971\u0026deg;N\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 151px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-80.763\u0026deg;E, -1.976\u0026deg;N\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.24\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.25\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 142px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMedium - indented\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e22\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 161px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-80.763\u0026deg;E, -1.976\u0026deg;N\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 151px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-80.761\u0026deg;E, -1.981\u0026deg;N\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.35\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.21\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 142px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLow - indented\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e23\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 161px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-80.761\u0026deg;E, -1.981\u0026deg;N\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 151px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-80.760\u0026deg;E, -1.983\u0026deg;N\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.04\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.13\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 142px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eUnindented\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e24\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 161px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-80.760\u0026deg;E, -1.983\u0026deg;N\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 151px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-80.758\u0026deg;E, -1.989\u0026deg;N\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.74\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.24\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 142px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHighly - indented\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e25\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 161px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-80.758\u0026deg;E, -1.989\u0026deg;N\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 151px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-80.757\u0026deg;E, -1.993\u0026deg;N\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.46\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.32\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 142px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMedium - indented\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e26\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 161px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-80.757\u0026deg;E, -1.993\u0026deg;N\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 151px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-80.753\u0026deg;E, -1.997\u0026deg;N\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.38\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.32\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 142px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMedium - indented\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e27\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 161px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-80.753\u0026deg;E, -1.997\u0026deg;N\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 151px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-80.751\u0026deg;E, -2.010\u0026deg;N\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.19\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.15\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 142px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eUnindented\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e28\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 161px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-80.751\u0026deg;E, -2.010\u0026deg;N\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 151px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-80.742\u0026deg;E, -2.021\u0026deg;N\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.26\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.12\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 142px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eUnindented\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e29\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 161px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-80.742\u0026deg;E, -2.021\u0026deg;N\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 151px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-80.792\u0026deg;E, -2.152\u0026deg;N\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.14\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.18\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 142px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLow - indented\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e30\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 161px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-80.792\u0026deg;E, -2.152\u0026deg;N\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 151px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-80.803\u0026deg;E, -2.157\u0026deg;N\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.14\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.12\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 142px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eUnindented\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e31\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 161px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-80.803\u0026deg;E, -2.157\u0026deg;N\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 151px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-80.810\u0026deg;E, -2.156\u0026deg;N\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.28\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.28\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 142px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMedium - indented\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e32\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 161px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-80.810\u0026deg;E, -2.156\u0026deg;N\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 151px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-80.817\u0026deg;E, -2.156\u0026deg;N\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.23\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.21\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 142px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLow - indented\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e33\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 161px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-80.817\u0026deg;E, -2.156\u0026deg;N\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 151px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-80.829\u0026deg;E, -2.167\u0026deg;N\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.10\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.12\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 142px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eUnindented\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e34\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 161px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-80.829\u0026deg;E, -2.167\u0026deg;N\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 151px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-80.871\u0026deg;E, -2.200\u0026deg;N\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.07\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.15\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 142px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eUnindented\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e35\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 161px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-80.871\u0026deg;E, -2.200\u0026deg;N\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 151px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-80.883\u0026deg;E, -2.207\u0026deg;N\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.20\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.23\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 142px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMedium - indented\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e36\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 161px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-80.883\u0026deg;E, -2.207\u0026deg;N\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 151px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-80.922\u0026deg;E, -2.218\u0026deg;N\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.08\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.12\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 142px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eUnindented\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e37\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 161px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-80.922\u0026deg;E, -2.218\u0026deg;N\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 151px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-80.944\u0026deg;E, -2.214\u0026deg;N\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.23\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.20\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 142px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLow - indented\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e38\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 161px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-80.944\u0026deg;E, -2.214\u0026deg;N\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 151px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-80.946\u0026deg;E, -2.211\u0026deg;N\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.56\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.34\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 142px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHighly - indented\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e39\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 161px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-80.946\u0026deg;E, -2.211\u0026deg;N\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 151px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-80.949\u0026deg;E, -2.205\u0026deg;N\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.42\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.45\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 142px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHighly - indented\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e40\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 161px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-80.949\u0026deg;E, -2.205\u0026deg;N\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 151px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-80.956\u0026deg;E, -2.201\u0026deg;N\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.22\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.23\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 142px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMedium - indented\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e41\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 161px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-80.956\u0026deg;E, -2.201\u0026deg;N\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 151px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-80.975\u0026deg;E, -2.200\u0026deg;N\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.20\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.20\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 142px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLow - indented\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e42\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 161px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-80.975\u0026deg;E, -2.200\u0026deg;N\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 151px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-80.984\u0026deg;E, -2.190\u0026deg;N\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.49\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.34\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 142px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHighly - indented\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e43\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 161px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-80.984\u0026deg;E, -2.190\u0026deg;N\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 151px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-80.989\u0026deg;E, -2.185\u0026deg;N\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.22\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.23\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 142px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMedium - indented\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e44\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 161px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-80.989\u0026deg;E, -2.185\u0026deg;N\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 151px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-80.993\u0026deg;E, -2.184\u0026deg;N\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.34\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.13\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 142px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eUnindented\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e45\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 161px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-80.993\u0026deg;E, -2.184\u0026deg;N\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 151px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-80.998\u0026deg;E, -2.184\u0026deg;N\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.50\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.13\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 142px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eUnindented\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e46\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 161px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-80.998\u0026deg;E, -2.184\u0026deg;N\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 151px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-81.002\u0026deg;E, -2.185\u0026deg;N\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.07\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.12\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 142px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eUnindented\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e47\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 161px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-81.002\u0026deg;E, -2.185\u0026deg;N\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 151px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-81.009\u0026deg;E, -2.187\u0026deg;N\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.54\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.18\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 142px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLow - indented\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n \u003c/table\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable 4.\u003c/strong\u003e Degree of indentation based on a/Ro.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" width=\"622\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"5\" style=\"width: 622px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eNorthern Zone\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 89px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSubzone\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 89px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSection\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 138px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAverage Rate (m/year)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 153px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMinimum Rate (m/year)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 152px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMaximum Rate (m/year)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 89px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNZ-1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 89px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eA\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 138px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.06\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 153px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 152px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.79\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 89px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNZ-1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 89px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eB\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 138px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-1.4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 153px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-7.04\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 152px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.68\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 89px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNZ-2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 89px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eC\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 138px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.11\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 153px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.29\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 152px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.54\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 89px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNZ-2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 89px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eD\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 138px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-1.25\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 153px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-2.84\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 152px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.28\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 89px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNZ-2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 89px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eE\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 138px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.95\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 153px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.46\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 152px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.45\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 89px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNZ-2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 89px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eF\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 138px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.97\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 153px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-2.99\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 152px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.12\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 89px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNZ-2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 89px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eG\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 138px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.06\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 153px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.9\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 152px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.24\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 89px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNZ-2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 89px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eH\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 138px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-1.86\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 153px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-2.67\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 152px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.08\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"5\" style=\"width: 622px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSouthern Zone\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 89px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSubzone\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 89px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSection\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 138px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAverage Rate (m/year)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 153px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMinimum Rate (m/year)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 152px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMaximum Rate (m/year)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 89px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSZ-1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 89px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eI\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 138px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.15\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 153px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 152px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.31\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 89px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSZ-1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 89px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eJ\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 138px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.35\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 153px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.09\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 152px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.39\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 89px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSZ-1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 89px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eK\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 138px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 153px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-1.14\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 152px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.49\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 89px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSZ-1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 89px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eL\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 138px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.47\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 153px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 152px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.27\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 89px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSZ-1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 89px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eM\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 138px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-1.96\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 153px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-3.48\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 152px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.08\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 89px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSZ-1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 89px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eN\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 138px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.09\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 153px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-1.2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 152px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.03\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 89px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSZ-2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 89px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eO\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 138px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.54\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 153px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-1.16\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 152px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.21\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 89px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSZ-2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 89px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eP\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 138px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.11\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 153px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-1.16\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 152px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.64\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 89px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSZ-2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 89px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eQ\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 138px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.49\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 153px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.24\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 152px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.91\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 89px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSZ-2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 89px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eR\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 138px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.42\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 153px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-1.37\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 152px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.82\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 89px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSZ-2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 89px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eS\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 138px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.62\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 153px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.23\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 152px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.37\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 89px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSZ-2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 89px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eT\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 138px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.28\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 153px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-1.06\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 152px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.47\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable 5.\u003c/strong\u003e Shoreline Displacement Rates in m/year for the Northern and Southern Zones.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"0\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" width=\"623\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 91px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 169px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eGeneral\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" style=\"width: 193px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eNorthern Zone\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" style=\"width: 170px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSouthern Zone\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 91px;\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e%\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eKm\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 96px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e%\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 97px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eKm\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 86px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e%\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eKm\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 91px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLow \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e30.85\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e43.32\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 96px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;28.82\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 97px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;19.16\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 86px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;32.64 \u0026nbsp;\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e24.16\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 91px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eModerate\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e19.24\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e26.79\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 96px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e13.62\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 97px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e9.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 86px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e24.23\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e17.79\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 91px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHigh\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e25.96\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e36.14\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 96px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e15.80\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 97px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10.38\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 86px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e34.98\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e25.76\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 91px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eVery High\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e23.95\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e33.77\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 96px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e41.76\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 97px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e27.71\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 86px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8.14\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 85px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6.06\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable 6.\u003c/strong\u003e CVI results in Santa Elena Bay. The results of each vulnerability rank are expressed in percentage and length of the coastline in km.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"0\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" width=\"567\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"5\" style=\"width: 567px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSanta Elena Bay\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"5\" style=\"width: 567px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eGeneral (%)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eVariable\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eLow\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eModerate\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eHigh\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eVery High\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLithology\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e13.19\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e23.06\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e18.43\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e45.31\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eGeomorphology\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e19.81\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e31.69\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e16.38\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e32.12\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBeach Slope\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e28.72\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e25.15\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e29.25\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e16.87\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIdentation\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e11.04\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e9.44\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e31.38\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e48.14\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eShoreline Displacement\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e46.34\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e38.34\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7.78\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7.53\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWave Height\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e23.42\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e24.34\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e21.68\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e30.56\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"5\" style=\"width: 567px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eNorthern Zone (%)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eVariable\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eLow\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eModerate\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eHigh\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eVery High\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLithology\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10.84 \u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e31.68\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.10\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e57.41\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eGeomorphology\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e42.14\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.88\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e20.69\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e35.29\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBeach Slope\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e44.24\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e21.29 \u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e19.26\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e15.20\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIndentation\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e9.10\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8.73\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e18.21\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e63.96\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eShoreline\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003edisplacement\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e33.26\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e38.38\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e14.45\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e13.92\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWave Height\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e7.52\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e33.78\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e58.69\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"5\" style=\"width: 567px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSouthern Zone (%)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eVariable\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eLow\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eModerate\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eHigh\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eVery High\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eLithology\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e15.29\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e15.42\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e34.71\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e34.58\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eGeomorphology\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e58.14\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12.55\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e29.31\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eBeach\u0026nbsp;Slope\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e14.95\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e28.57\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e38.12\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e18.36\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIdentation\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12.75\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10.08\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e43.06\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e34.11\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eShoreline\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003edisplacement\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e57.94\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e38.32\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.87\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.87\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWave Height\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e44.19\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e39.25\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e10.95\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 113px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5.61\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable 7.\u003c/strong\u003e Contribution of each variable to the physical vulnerability of Santa Elena Bay expressed as a percentage.\u003c/p\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":true,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":true,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"natural-hazards","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"nhaz","sideBox":"Learn more about [Natural Hazards](https://www.springer.com/journal/11069)","snPcode":"11069","submissionUrl":"https://submission.nature.com/new-submission/11069/3","title":"Natural Hazards","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"Springer Hybrid","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":false},"keywords":"coastal vulnerability index, shoreline change, coastal geomorphology, geographic information system (GIS), coastal management, sea level rise","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-5784157/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-5784157/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"Coastal areas face increasing threats from extreme weather and rising sea levels, exposing both human populations and delicate ecosystems. This study evaluates the physical vulnerability in the Santa Elena Bay (SEB) coastline, which is setting in the active margin of Ecuador, which is highly influenced by geological vertical movements. The results of this study permit us to give some recommendations to coastal management. Employing the Coastal Vulnerability Index (CVI), we analyze variables such as lithology, geomorphology, beach slope, coastal indentation, shoreline displacement, and wave height. The CVI categorized the coast into four vulnerability ranks: Low, Moderate, High, and Very High. Results indicate that low-lying beaches, especially in the Northern zone, where there are higher waves, are the most vulnerable. The Northern zone of SEB exhibits substantially higher vulnerability, with 15.80% of the coast classified as High and 41.76% as Very High. Key factors contributing to Very High vulnerability include low indentation (63.96%), high wave heights (58.69%), and quaternary sediments (57.41%). Conversely, the Southern zone primarily demonstrates High and Low vulnerability, however critical areas can be found which have some important infrastructure to tourism, i.e. Monteverde, San Pablo, Punta Barandúa, Ballenita, and Salinas. The findings highlight the urgency of implementing mitigation measures and integrating adaptive management strategies into urban development policies to reduce the vulnerability of coastal communities and protect local ecosystems.","manuscriptTitle":"Coastal Physical Vulnerability to Sea Level Rise in the active Ecuadorian margin for Integrated Coastal Zone Management, case study: Santa Elena Bay","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-01-24 18:42:44","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-5784157/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"decision","content":"Major revisions","date":"2025-03-25T07:57:33+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"","date":"2025-01-22T15:00:10+00:00","index":0,"fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2025-01-22T13:10:10+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2025-01-15T03:34:46+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"Natural Hazards","date":"2025-01-07T15:55:16+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"natural-hazards","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"nhaz","sideBox":"Learn more about [Natural Hazards](https://www.springer.com/journal/11069)","snPcode":"11069","submissionUrl":"https://submission.nature.com/new-submission/11069/3","title":"Natural Hazards","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"Springer Hybrid","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":false}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"39f69e94-ad9b-41a5-8494-c5716a43bd71","owner":[],"postedDate":"January 24th, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"published-in-journal","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2025-09-01T16:06:13+00:00","versionOfRecord":{"articleIdentity":"rs-5784157","link":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s11069-025-07556-x","journal":{"identity":"natural-hazards","isVorOnly":false,"title":"Natural Hazards"},"publishedOn":"2025-08-25 15:58:23","publishedOnDateReadable":"August 25th, 2025"},"versionCreatedAt":"2025-01-24 18:42:44","video":"","vorDoi":"10.1007/s11069-025-07556-x","vorDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s11069-025-07556-x","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-5784157","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-5784157","identity":"rs-5784157","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}