Psychosocial Correlates of Academic Stress: Evidence on Locus of Control and Coping Styles among Indian University Students

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Rising student suicide rates in India have made academic stress a critical mental health concern. The role of Locus of Control (LoC) and coping styles influencing stress responses, remain underexplored in Indian university settings. Guided by Lazarus and Folkman’s Transactional model, this study examines these variables in a culturally relevant context. Objective. The study aimed to assess academic stress, locus of control, and coping styles among Indian university students. It also aimed to examine how socio-demographic factors influence these variables. Methods and materials. A cross-sectional quantitative design was employed among 417 university students aged 18–25 years, who completed a demographic sheet followed by the Academic Stress Scale (ASS), Locus of Control Scale (LoCS) and Coping Styles Scale (CSS). Data was analyzed using IBM SPSS v21. The study was reported in accordance with STROBE guidelines for observational research. Results. Academic stress was found to be a key variable, showing a significant negative correlation with LoC and a positive correlation with coping styles. Significant group differences were observed based on academic discipline, preparation for competitive exams, and whether students were working or interning alongside their studies. Conclusions. The findings of the study indicate the importance of socio-cultural factors in the complex relationship between study variables. They point to patterns that differ from those reported in Western studies, highlighting the need for further research in the context of the Global South. The study discusses practical implications for student mental health support, outlines limitations, and suggests directions for future research. Educational Psychology academic stress locus of control coping styles university students India Introduction Academic stress has become a critical concern among university students, particularly in India, where student suicide rates remain alarmingly high (Abhijita et al., 2024 ). According to the National Crime Records Bureau (NCRB), at least one student attempts suicide every hour, with the highest incidence reported in Maharashtra (Kumar, 2020 ). The period of emerging adulthood (ages 18–25) is characterized by major developmental milestones, including financial independence, identity formation, and preparation for long-term careers (Arnett, 2000 ; Furstenberg, 2015 ). These transitions, while normative, are often accompanied by significant mental health challenges like elevated risks of anxiety, depression, substance use, and schizophrenia (Hankin et al., 1998 ; Schulenberg et al., 2004 ; Schulenberg & Zarrett, 2006 ; Johnston et al., 2010). Within the context of India’s competitive and rigid educational system, these stressors are often amplified, making academic stress a salient concern. Academic stress is defined as the body’s physiological and psychological response to academic demands that surpass a student's adaptive capacities (Wilks, 2008 ). Prolonged academic stress, like other forms of stress, has been shown to correlate with decreased motivation, reduced engagement in academic activities, and lower academic performance (Borah et al., 2025; Olivera et al., 2023 ; Ochoa-Andrade & Saldarriaga-Mera, 2024). Academic stress arises when students perceive that the demands placed upon them exceed their ability to cope. In this context, a sense of control becomes central to students’ academic outcomes. The concept of Locus of Control (LoC), introduced by Rotter in 1954, stems from social learning theory and refers to an individual's belief about whether they can control life events. Individuals with an internal LoC believe that their actions directly influence outcomes (Wang et al., 2010 ; Fatimah et al., 2019), while those with an external locus, view outcomes as the result of forces beyond their control, such as luck, fate, or external circumstances (Rotter, 1966 ; Spector, 1982 ). Locus of control, as a personality trait, has been identified as a significant determinant of how students perceive and respond to academic stress. Students with an internal LoC are more likely to adopt adaptive coping strategies, as they tend to view stressors as manageable through personal effort (Wise, 2005 ). Coping, as defined by Lazarus and Folkman ( 1984 ), in this context, refers to the behavioural and cognitive efforts employed to manage stressful situations. Prior evidence suggests that university students often resort to maladaptive coping styles under sustained academic stress (Kumar et al., 2013; Chandra, 2021 ; Teixeira et al., 2021 ). These include behaviours such as denial, withdrawal, self-blame, and substance use, which may further aggravate psychological vulnerability (Metzger et al., 2017 ; Okechukwu et al., 2022 ). Conversely, adaptive strategies such as help-seeking, problem-solving, and emotion regulation are associated with more favourable academic and psychological outcomes (Kumar, 2023 ; Sahoo et al., 2021 ). Additionally, findings by Douglas et al. ( 2015 ) suggest that self-regulation is positively associated with internal control beliefs, implying a potential pathway through which LoC influences coping efficacy. This study is conceptually grounded in the Transactional Model of Stress and Coping proposed by Lazarus and Folkman ( 1984 ). According to this model, individuals engage in a two-stage appraisal process: the primary appraisal involves evaluating whether an encounter poses a threat or challenge, and the secondary appraisal pertains to the evaluation of available coping resources and control over the situation. Within this framework, LoC operates as a dispositional factor influencing how students engage in the appraisal process, while coping styles represent the behavioural responses that emerge from this cognitive evaluation. The present study positions academic stress as a key outcome shaped by individual differences in control beliefs and coping patterns. While the Transactional Model offers a structured understanding of stress and coping, it is necessary to acknowledge the role of socio-cultural variables influencing stress (Oke & Dawson, 2012 ; Montano, 2023). In collectivist societies such as India, cultural norms, parental expectations, and academic competitiveness shape how students appraise failure and success (Deb et al., 2015 ; Ramya & Parthasarathy, 2009 ). The tendency to perceive academic failure as a source of shame, rather than an opportunity for growth, is reinforced by school environments and media representations that valorize academic excellence (Prabhu, 2015 ; Arakeri & Sunagar, 2017 ; Chaturvedi et al., 2021 ). Cultural orientation also influences control beliefs; people in individualistic cultures tend to have a stronger internal LoC, while those in collectivist cultures are more likely to attribute control to external factors, due to deference to authority and group dependence (Ng et al., 2006 ). Consequently, coping in collectivist contexts often involves seeking support from family or community networks, reflecting a normative preference for relational coping over individualistic problem-solving strategies (Triandis, 2001 ). The present study was carried out as a pilot investigation to better understand how students with internal or external LoC appraise academic stress and the coping styles they subsequently adopt based on this appraisal. By situating these variables within the Transactional Model of Stress and Coping, this study seeks to understand how dispositional control beliefs shape stress appraisal and coping responses in a culturally embedded academic context. This inquiry is particularly relevant in the field of educational psychology, given the rising incidence of student suicides and the growing need for institutions to develop strategies that promote student well-being. Methods This study aimed to assess academic stress, locus of control, and coping styles among university students in India. The objectives were to examine the associations between these variables and to understand the influence of socio-demographic factors on their relationships. Using a quantitative, cross-sectional design, data was collected through professional networking platforms (such as LinkedIn) and manual distribution in higher education institutions (HEI). Convenience sampling was used due to the pilot nature and time constraints of the study. The sample comprised 417 students aged 18–25 years, enrolled in undergraduate or postgraduate programs, majorly from Maharashtra and Kerala. Eligibility required fluency in English and current enrolment in a recognized degree program while students receiving psychiatric treatment were excluded. Since this was a pilot study, the sample size was not predetermined. The main goal was to test the study’s feasibility and evaluate the psychometric properties of the instruments. The study received ethical clearance from the Psychology Department Ethics Committee at Amity University, Maharashtra, and adhered to the ethical guidelines outlined by the American Psychological Association (APA). After obtaining informed consent, participants completed a demographic questionnaire followed by the study scales. All instruments used had been previously validated with student populations in Kerala. The Academic Stress Scale (ASS), developed by Uma and Manikandan (2013a), is a 36-item measure with high internal consistency (Cronbach’s α = .89) and adequate face validity. It assesses the intensity of academic stress, with higher scores indicating greater perceived stress. The Locus of Control Scale (LoCS) by Uma and Manikandan (2013b), comprising 22 items grounded in Rotter’s ( 1966 ) theoretical framework, has a reliability coefficient of Cronbach’s α = .67. Higher scores on this scale reflect a more external locus of control, while lower scores indicate a more internal orientation. The Brief COPE Scale, adapted by Uma and Manikandan (2014) from Carver’s (1997) original inventory, also demonstrated a Cronbach’s α = .67 and adequate face validity. Higher scores correspond to greater use of adaptive coping strategies. Data was analysed using IBM SPSS version 21 and the study was reported following the Strengthening the Reporting of Observational Studies in Epidemiology (STROBE) guidelines to ensure clarity and transparency in presenting findings (Von Elm et al., 2007 ) (See Table 1 A in Supplementary Material). Results The present study aimed to assess academic stress, locus of control, and coping styles among Indian university students. The Shapiro–Wilk test (see Table S3 in Supplementary Material) indicated that the data did not meet the normality assumptions. Therefore, descriptive statistics, group comparisons, and correlational analyses were conducted using non-parametric tests. Detailed descriptive statistics and additional analyses can be found in Supplementary Tables S1–S5. The frequency distribution of participants across key socio-demographic variables (see Table S1 in Supplementary Material) indicated that the majority of respondents resided in Maharashtra (N = 299) and fell within the 18–21 years age range (N = 324). The sample was predominantly female (N = 273), and more than half identified their socio-economic status as middle class (N = 220). A substantial proportion were in the final year of their undergraduate or postgraduate programs (N = 266). Additionally, a small portion of the participants were preparing for competitive examinations (N = 100), while very few (N = 106) were interning/working while balancing their academics. For this study, student groups were classified according to the Becher-Biglan typology (Biglan, 1973; Becher, 1989) as follows: Medical, Business/Finance, Law, Communications, and Psychology as Applied Soft; Engineering as Applied Hard; and Arts as Pure Soft. Table 1 Mean difference of participants on ASS, LoCS & CSS on the basis of Course Applied Hard Course Applied Soft Courses Pure Soft Course P-value Engineering Medical Business/ Finance Law Communications Psychology Arts N 108 75 39 25 31 118 21 Academic Stress 194.13 194.5 213.38 229.68 248.68 230.41 175.23 0.015 Locus of Control (LoC) 221.2 207.01 252.31 239.58 178.63 183.55 224.36 0.017 Coping Styles 190.29 203.22 207.68 197.02 231.84 232.48 176.95 0.120 Note. Applied Hard represents Engineering; Applied Soft includes Medical, Business/Finance, Law, Communications, and Psychology; and Pure Soft contains Arts. A Kruskal–Wallis H test revealed significant differences across academic disciplines (Table 1 ), with students from communications reporting the highest academic stress (M = 248.68) and a more internal LoC (M = 178.63), whereas business/finance students showed a more external orientation. No significant differences were found in coping styles across course types. Table 2 Mean Rank and Corresponding p-value of the scales on the basis of Competitive Exam Competitive Exam p-value Yes (N = 100) No (N = 317) Mean Rank Academic Stress 219.53 205.68 .316 LoC 174.58 219.86 .001 Coping Styles 200.81 211.81 .435 The Mann-Whitney U Test results (Table 2 ) showed a statistically significant difference in LoC (p = .001), with those preparing for competitive exams showing internal LoC. While academic stress and coping did not show substantial differences, students preparing for competitive exams had higher academic stress scores (M = 219.53) and used more negative coping styles (M = 200.81) compared to those not preparing. Table 3 Mean Rank and Corresponding p-value of the scales on the basis of Work/Intern Work/Internship p-value Yes (N = 106) No (N = 311) Mean Rank Academic Stress 230.32 201.73 .035 LoC 201.80 211.45 .475 Coping Styles 211.05 208.05 .839 Table 3 shows the Mann-Whitney U Test results for differences in the study variables based on work/internship status. A statistically significant difference was found in academic stress (p = .035), with those working or interning alongside academics reporting higher stress levels (M = 230.32). Table 4 Correlation between Academic Stress, LoC and Coping Styles Academic Stress LoC LoC − .504** Coping Styles .134** − .075 Note : «**» — Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed). Table 4 presents Spearman’s correlations among academic stress, LoC, and coping styles. Academic stress and LoC were negatively correlated (ρ = − 0.504, p < 0.01), while academic stress and coping styles showed a positive correlation (ρ = 0.134, p < 0.01). No significant correlation was found between LoC and coping styles. These results suggest that students experiencing higher academic stress also tend to exhibit a more internal LoC and employ positive coping strategies more frequently. Discussion The present study examined the interplay between academic stress, LoC, and coping styles among Indian university students across various academic disciplines. The socio-demographic analysis revealed that students from the communications discipline experienced higher levels of academic stress compared to other fields. While research shows that students in applied soft disciplines tend to report elevated academic stress (Sari, 2020; Gao, 2023 ; Santoso & Prapunoto, 2024 ), there appears to be a lack of studies specifically examining academic stress among communication students. The increased stress in applied soft courses has been attributed to demanding curricula that require deep engagement with emotionally charged topics and reflective practices. Interestingly, students pursuing business or finance-related disciplines demonstrated a strengthened external locus of control. Although research on LoC across academic disciplines is limited, existing studies indicate that students in finance-related fields may tend to have a more external locus of control, possibly due to the uncertainty and risk involved in financial decision-making (Britt et al., 2013 ; Choi & Heo, 2021 ). Unsurprisingly, students preparing for competitive exams showed greater internal LoC, suggesting that these individuals believe they can influence exam outcomes and are more likely to hold accountability over their performance (Sidola et al., 2020 ). Employed students reported higher levels of academic stress, consistent with previous studies showing that working students experience increased stress, anxiety, reduced motivation and performance, as well as challenges with attendance and assignment submission (Drăghici & Cazan, 2022 ; Paul, 2024 ). These interpretations should be used cautiously, as the present study does not attempt to provide a normative explanation for findings or imply causality. As such, these results should be viewed as observational rather than explanatory. The present study found no statistically significant differences across any of the assessed variables based on sex or year of study which diverges from several prior studies that have consistently reported higher levels of academic stress among female students compared to their male counterparts (Feingold, 1994 ; Costa et al., 2001 ; Graves et al., 2021 ). Although not statistically significant in this study, mean rank comparisons revealed that female participants reported slightly higher levels of academic stress and appeared to employ more adaptive coping styles than males. With regard to LoC(LoC), existing literature presents mixed evidence. While some studies, such as those by Mohanty ( 2021 ) and Naik ( 2015 ), report negligible sex differences in LoC, while others, like Khetmalis and Das ( 2013 ), have found sex-based differences in athletic populations rather than academic cohorts. These discrepancies warrant further investigation before general conclusions can be drawn. In contrast, literature on coping seems to be more consistent with females being more likely to engage in maladaptive or emotional coping styles, while men report using active coping styles (Saha & Deeba, 2018 ; Aragonès et al., 2023 ; Cholankeril et al., 2023 ). Sex differences in coping are often seen in health or work-related stress, influenced by gender roles (Ovsyanik et al., 2022 ). However, the lack of significant sex differences in our study might mean that academic stress is experienced similarly by all students, likely because they face common pressures and environments. In the current study, academic stress emerged as the central psychological construct, significantly correlated with both LoC and coping styles. A significant negative relationship was observed between academic stress and LoC. While this may initially appear counterintuitive, given that students with a stronger internal LoC are typically thought to perceive greater control over academic outcomes, which should reduce stress (Fatimah et al., 2019; Botha & Dahmann, 2023 ; Auliya et al., 2023 ), recent findings have documented an inverse association in high-performance contexts (e.g., Ganjoo et al., 2021 ; Holden et al., 2019 ). This deviation may stem from factors such as perfectionism or the internalization of outcomes (Kahn et al., 2023 ). For example, in collectivist societies like India or China, having an internal LoC can sometimes increase psychological distress because individuals may feel more personally responsible for their successes or failures (O’Connor & Shimizu, 2002; Kuo, 2012). These cultural differences need deeper exploration using qualitative inquiries to better understand the relationship between academic stress and LoC. In terms of coping, students who reported higher stress levels also reported greater use of adaptive coping strategies, suggesting a mobilization of coping resources under pressure (Poon et al., 2012 ; Cherkil et al., 2013 ; Ramos-Vera et al., 2024 ). Bamuhair et al. ( 2015 ) offered a plausible explanation: as stress intensifies, individuals may increasingly consolidate available coping resources, some genuinely effective, while others may provide only temporary relief. Although the direction of the stress-coping relationship is not always clearly stated, studies consistently show that coping efforts tend to increase as stress levels rise (Joseph et al., 2021 ; Thompson et al., 2022 ; Aljaffer et al., 2025 ; Ruiz-Camacho et al., 2025 ). The findings of the study align well with Lazarus and Folkman’s ( 1984 ) Transactional Model of Stress and Coping. This model explains that people first assess how stressful a situation is (appraisal) and then decide how to respond based on the resources they have. In this study, students with a stronger internal LoC may have taken more personal responsibility for academic outcomes, which could lead to higher levels of perceived stress. At the same time, students experiencing more academic stress were found to actively engage in coping, especially adaptive ones. This suggests that as stress increases, students actively draw on their coping resources, which is consistent with the theory. In summary, the present study offers novel insights into the relationship between academic stress, locus of control, and coping strategies among university students in India. The findings, while at times contradictory, highlight the need to understand these psychological constructs within collectivist cultural settings. The complex interaction observed between the three variables suggests that these dynamics are not linear or uniform, and may be better understood through in-depth qualitative approaches. Such exploration can help ground future research more firmly within India’s unique academic and socio-cultural landscape. Implications Of the three constructs, academic stress emerged as a central variable, demonstrating significant associations with both LoC and coping. This highlights its importance in understanding students’ psychological functioning and future research may benefit from examining academic stress as a mediating or moderating variable concerning outcomes such as academic performance, self-efficacy, or well-being. The findings are also highly relevant for certain sects of demographics, like students who are pursuing applied soft courses, currently preparing for competitive exams, or who are working while studying. These demographic groups might need extra attention or institutional support as they might be more vulnerable to developing psychological distress. Interestingly, the study found no direct relationship between LoC and coping styles, a finding that deviates from Western studies. This points to the possibility that personality constructs like LoC may function differently in collectivistic societies, where cultural factors often shape behavior more strongly than individual traits. Overall, this study adds to the emerging discourse on student mental health in the Global South. The findings highlight a critical need to strengthen mental health support structures for students navigating high academic stress, particularly those living away from home. Institutional efforts must include structured mental health screenings, the establishment of peer support systems, and the integration of residential counselling services. At a policy level, while India has made initial strides by introducing psychologists in private school settings, a similar commitment is largely absent at the university level. Where counselling services exist, the counsellor-to-student ratio is highly disproportionate (Batra & Pyari, 2019 ; Keremutt, 2023 ). There is a pressing need for policy implementation audits, resource reallocation, and systemic embedding of mental health services into higher education frameworks to ensure that support is both scalable and accessible. Prioritizing mental health at the tertiary education level is critical to support students as they transition into the workforce, where psychological well-being is essential for professional competence. Limitations and future directions This study, while based on a reasonably large sample (N = 417), did not use a representative sampling method. Future research should include a wider range of participants from different types of institutions (e.g., private and government universities), modes of education (such as full-time, part-time, or distance learning), and integration of AI particularly in light of increased online academic engagement after the pandemic. Although academic stress showed significant associations with both LoC(LoC) and coping styles, the relationship between LoC and coping was not statistically significant. One possible reason is the use of a coping scale that distinguishes coping into two broad categories: adaptive and maladaptive styles. Earlier research (Nogaj, 2017 ; Sahoo et al., 2021 ; Kumar, 2023 ) has shown that LoC may relate more strongly to specific types of coping, therefore future studies should use more detailed tools to capture these distinctions. Furthermore, qualitative inquiry with the course type, curriculum load, and lecture hours in mind could provide more insight into how academic stress varies across disciplines. Including the perspectives of faculty, counsellors, and parents may help in designing better support systems for students. This study excluded students receiving psychiatric treatment however, including them in future research is essential to better understand their academic stress experiences, help reduce stigma, and enhance support for students with mental health challenges. Conclusion This study investigated the associations among academic stress, LoC, and coping styles in 417 Indian university students aged 18 to 25 using a cross-sectional quantitative design. Data was collected employing culturally validated instruments and analyzed using SPSS v21. This study is reported in accordance with the Strengthening the Reporting of Observational Studies in Epidemiology (STROBE) guidelines to ensure transparency and reproducibility. Academic stress emerged as a central variable significantly related to both LoC and coping styles, while no direct association was found between LoC and coping styles. Differences were found across socio-demographic factors such as course type, competitive exam preparation, and concurrent employment. Grounded in Lazarus and Folkman’s ( 1984 ) Transactional model of stress and coping, the findings emphasize the role of cognitive appraisal in influencing perceived stress and consequent coping behaviors. Although several results align with prior research, notable deviations from Western norms suggest the influence of sociocultural factors unique to the Global South context. The paper also proposes practical recommendations for institutional practices, including the implementation of mental health screening, provision of residential counseling services, introduction of peer buddy support programs, and conducting awareness campaigns. Such measures can significantly benefit students living away from home. Additionally, policy and curriculum reforms focusing on student well-being should be prioritized alongside soft skills training, as these students will soon enter the workforce. There are inherent limitations in this study, including the use of convenience sampling and a purely quantitative approach, which may restrict a comprehensive understanding of the studied variables. Nonetheless, despite these limitations, the study provides an important foundation for future research in educational psychology from a Global South perspective, a context that remains insufficiently explored. Declarations Supplementary information. The supplementary file provides detailed statistical analyses conducted by the authors for reference. Acknowledgements. We sincerely thank Ms. Malini Roy, Ph.D. Research Scholar at VIT-AP University, for her insightful reviews that strengthened this work. Information about the authors Nidhi Kulkarni, PhD Research Scholar at VIT-AP University, Andhra Pradesh-522241, India. E-mail: [email protected] ORCID ID: 0009-0001-9548-7717 Abdul Raffie Naik (Corresponding author), Assistant Professor Senior Grade-I, at VIT-AP University, Near AP Secretariat, Andhra Pradesh-522241, India. E-mail: [email protected] ORCID ID: 0009-0001-7659-3100 Dimple Narendra Panchal, Assistant Professor at GITAM (Deemed to be University), Vishakapatnam, India. E-mail: [email protected] ORCID ID: 0009-0003-8469-4352 Declarations Funding. No funds, grants, or other support was received for this research. Conflicts of interest. The authors have no competing interests to declare that are relevant to the content of this article. Ethics approval. The study received ethical clearance from the Psychology Department Ethics Committee at Amity University, Maharashtra, and adhered to the ethical guidelines outlined by the American Psychological Association (APA). Consent to participate . All the participants were informed about the nature of this study and an informed consent was obtained from every participant. Data Availability Statement . The authors are happy to provide the SPSS data file for the project to any researchers who wish to have a copy. Please e-mail the corresponding author, Dr. Abdul Raffie Naik. Materials availability. Not applicable. Code availability. Not applicable. Consent for publication . All the authors of this manuscript provide consent to publish this manuscript. Contribution of the authors. All authors contributed to the study conception and design. Material preparation, data collection was performed by Ms. Nidhi Kulkarni. Dr. Abdul Raffie Naik and Ms Dimple Panchal, contributed in the analysis and interpretation of the data. The first draft of the manuscript was written by Ms. Nidhi Kulkarni and all authors contributed to the subsequent versions of the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript. References Abhijita B, Gnanadhas J, Kar SK, Cherian AV, Menon V (2024) The NCRB Suicide in India 2022 Report: Key time trends and implications. Indian J Psychol Med 46(6):606–607. https://doi.org/10.1177/02537176241240699 Aljaffer MA, Almazam AA, Alzahrani FG, Alsultan FM, Alrasheed AM, Almousa RM, Alsuhaibani AI (2025) The relationship between coping strategies, stress, and anxiety among King Saud University medical students. J Family Med Prim Care 14(4):1169–1173 Andrade MJO, Jaramillo OEM, Mera FBS, López MMS, Mora A, M. 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RUDN J Psychol Pedagogics 19(4):765–780 Paul I (2024) Examining Occupational Stress Influence towards Academic Achievement of Working Students: A Case Study of Students Studying in Public and Private Universities of Lahore. Open J Social Sci 12(08):258–277. https://doi.org/10.4236/jss.2024.128017 Poon JML, Liew JWL, Koh GH (2012) Academic stress and coping mechanisms among college students in Malaysia. Int J Humanit Social Sci 2(20):21–27 Prabhu J, Jain S (2015) Innovation and entrepreneurship in India: Understanding jugaad. Asia Pac J Manage 32(4):843–868. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10490-015-9445-9 Ramos-Vera C, Basauri-Delgado M, Calizaya-Milla YE, Saintila J (2024) Relationship between stressors with emotional exhaustion and coping strategies: The mediating role of academic stress symptoms in Peruvian adolescents. Int J Educational Res Open 7:100394. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijedro.2024.100394 Ramya N, Parthasarathy R (2009) A study on coping patterns of junior college students. Indian J Psychol Med 31(1):45–47 Rotter JB (1954) Social learning and clinical psychology. Prentice-Hall Inc eBooks. https://doi.org/10.1037/10788-000 Rotter JB (1966) Generalized expectancies for internal versus external control of reinforcement. Psychol Monogr 80(1):1–28. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0092976 Ruiz-Camacho C, Gozalo M, Sánchez Casado I (2025), July The Mediating Role of Active Coping Strategies in the Relationship Between Academic Stressors and Stress Responses Among University Students. In Healthcare (Vol. 13, No. 14, p. 1674). MDPI Saha AR, Deeba F (2018) Gender differences in coping styles of patients with depression: a comparative study. Dhaka Univ J Biol Sci 27(2):145–154 Sahoo S, Mishra P, Mishra S, Kar M, Padhy S (2021) Perceived stress and coping skills in the newly joined medical undergraduate students: An exploratory study from Eastern India. J Mental Health Hum Behav 26(2):122. https://doi.org/10.4103/jmhhb.jmhhb_247_21 Santoso SM, Prapunoto S (2024) The relationship between self management and academic stress of bachelor students faculty of psychology. IJORER: Int J Recent Educational Res 5(2):383–392 Sari P, Bulantika SZ, Dewantari T, Rimonda R (2020) Effects of stress coping and emotion regulation on student academic stress. Konseli: Jurnal Bimbingan Dan Konseling (E-Journal) 7(1):73–80 Schulenberg JE, Zarrett NR (2006) Mental health during Emerging Adulthood: continuity and discontinuity in courses, causes, and functions. In American Psychological Association eBooks (pp. 135–172). https://doi.org/10.1037/11381-006 Schulenberg JE, Sameroff AJ, Cicchetti D (2004) The transition to adulthood as a critical juncture in the course of psychopathology and mental health. Dev Psychopathol 16(4):799–806 Sidola S, Saini S, Kang TK (2020) LoCas correlate of self-regulation among college students. Pharma Innov J 9:116–122 Spector PE (1982) Behavior in organizations as a function of employee's LoC. Psychol Bull 91(3):482–497. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.91.3.4 Teixeira RJ, Brandão T, Dores AR (2021) Academic stress, coping, emotion regulation, affect and psychosomatic symptoms in higher education. Curr Psychol 41(11):7618–7627. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-020-01304-z Thompson MD, Draper BS, Kreitler CM (2022) The relationship between stress, coping strategies, and problem-solving skills among college students. Inquiries J, 14 (03) Triandis HC (2001) Individualism and collectivism: Past, present, and future Von Elm E, Altman DG, Egger M, Pocock SJ, Gøtzsche PC, Vandenbroucke JP (2007) Strengthening the reporting of observational studies in epidemiology (STROBE) statement: guidelines for reporting observational studies. BMJ 335(7624):806–808. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.39335.541782.ad Wang Q, Bowling NA, Eschleman KJ (2010) A meta-analytic examination of work and general LoC. J Appl Psychol 95(4):761–768. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0017707 Wilks SE (2008) Resilience amid academic stress: The moderating impact of social support among social work students. Adv Social Work 9(2):106–125. 10.18060/2253 Wise SL (2005) The influence of LoC on academic achievement in online and traditional college students. J Educational Comput Res 32(2):141–153 Additional Declarations The authors declare no competing interests. Supplementary Files SupplementaryTables.docx Cite Share Download PDF Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-7569141","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":512232317,"identity":"4e34e91b-63e2-4d28-8abf-17c39f8fee97","order_by":0,"name":"Nidhi Kulkarni","email":"","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0009-0001-9548-7717","institution":"VIT-AP University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Nidhi","middleName":"","lastName":"Kulkarni","suffix":""},{"id":512232318,"identity":"21b4c4de-dd02-4fe1-b8fa-c2546b5a93cd","order_by":1,"name":"Abdul Raffie Naik","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAABDUlEQVRIiWNgGAWjYDACCQYDhgcMDPzszSCeQYIciDrwgJCWBAYGyZ7DEC3GYC0JRGk5AOYmJDaAKTw6+Gc3b5NI3GMnwcPOfOzBj4K09Plhhx8CbbGT023AYcmdY2USCc+SJXiY2dINewxycjfeTjMAakk2NjuAw5obOWYSCQeY6+yZecwkeAwqcjfOTgBpOZC4DYcWeYiWeqAt/N8k/xhUpBvOTv+AV4sBRMthoBYeNmkeg5wEeekc/LYY3jlWbJFw4DjIL2bSMgZphhukcwoOJBjg9ovc7eaNNz4cqJbg4T/8TPLNn2R5+dnpmz98qLCTw+l9TKeCVRoQqxwE5BtIUT0KRsEoGAUjAQAA6oNei/a+JNIAAAAASUVORK5CYII=","orcid":"","institution":"VIT-AP University","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Abdul","middleName":"Raffie","lastName":"Naik","suffix":""},{"id":512232319,"identity":"a0469623-2269-47eb-b742-bf585329d603","order_by":2,"name":"Dimple Narendra Panchal","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"GITAM Deemed to be University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Dimple","middleName":"Narendra","lastName":"Panchal","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2025-09-09 04:21:38","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":{"humanSubjects":true,"vertebrateSubjects":false,"conflictsOfInterestStatement":false,"humanSubjectEthicalGuidelines":true,"humanSubjectConsent":true,"humanSubjectClinicalTrial":false,"humanSubjectCaseReport":false,"vertebrateSubjectEthicalGuidelines":false},"doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7569141/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-7569141/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":90968074,"identity":"de7fec62-5cc8-43cd-8929-a68ab50bdcbc","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-09-10 07:07:14","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":672250,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7569141/v1/32a9181e-9ca7-4651-b382-e1d29a56d5ef.pdf"},{"id":90967232,"identity":"d77abe82-8a93-4b84-8bfb-0d1686d4e9da","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-09-10 06:51:14","extension":"docx","order_by":1,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":45439,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"SupplementaryTables.docx","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7569141/v1/3eeb8058fd78c0b9ba5e91ff.docx"}],"financialInterests":"The authors declare no competing interests.","formattedTitle":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ePsychosocial Correlates of Academic Stress: Evidence on Locus of Control and Coping Styles among Indian University Students\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","fulltext":[{"header":"Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eAcademic stress has become a critical concern among university students, particularly in India, where student suicide rates remain alarmingly high (Abhijita et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). According to the National Crime Records Bureau (NCRB), at least one student attempts suicide every hour, with the highest incidence reported in Maharashtra (Kumar, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). The period of emerging adulthood (ages 18\u0026ndash;25) is characterized by major developmental milestones, including financial independence, identity formation, and preparation for long-term careers (Arnett, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2000\u003c/span\u003e; Furstenberg, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e). These transitions, while normative, are often accompanied by significant mental health challenges like elevated risks of anxiety, depression, substance use, and schizophrenia (Hankin et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1998\u003c/span\u003e; Schulenberg et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR64\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2004\u003c/span\u003e; Schulenberg \u0026amp; Zarrett, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR63\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e; Johnston et al., 2010). Within the context of India\u0026rsquo;s competitive and rigid educational system, these stressors are often amplified, making academic stress a salient concern.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAcademic stress is defined as the body\u0026rsquo;s physiological and psychological response to academic demands that surpass a student's adaptive capacities (Wilks, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR72\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e). Prolonged academic stress, like other forms of stress, has been shown to correlate with decreased motivation, reduced engagement in academic activities, and lower academic performance (Borah et al., 2025; Olivera et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR49\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Ochoa-Andrade \u0026amp; Saldarriaga-Mera, 2024). Academic stress arises when students perceive that the demands placed upon them exceed their ability to cope. In this context, a sense of control becomes central to students\u0026rsquo; academic outcomes. The concept of Locus of Control (LoC), introduced by Rotter in 1954, stems from social learning theory and refers to an individual's belief about whether they can control life events. Individuals with an internal LoC believe that their actions directly influence outcomes (Wang et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR71\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e; Fatimah et al., 2019), while those with an external locus, view outcomes as the result of forces beyond their control, such as luck, fate, or external circumstances (Rotter, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR57\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1966\u003c/span\u003e; Spector, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR66\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1982\u003c/span\u003e). Locus of control, as a personality trait, has been identified as a significant determinant of how students perceive and respond to academic stress. Students with an internal LoC are more likely to adopt adaptive coping strategies, as they tend to view stressors as manageable through personal effort (Wise, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR73\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e). Coping, as defined by Lazarus and Folkman (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1984\u003c/span\u003e), in this context, refers to the behavioural and cognitive efforts employed to manage stressful situations. Prior evidence suggests that university students often resort to maladaptive coping styles under sustained academic stress (Kumar et al., 2013; Chandra, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Teixeira et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR67\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). These include behaviours such as denial, withdrawal, self-blame, and substance use, which may further aggravate psychological vulnerability (Metzger et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e; Okechukwu et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR48\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Conversely, adaptive strategies such as help-seeking, problem-solving, and emotion regulation are associated with more favourable academic and psychological outcomes (Kumar, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Sahoo et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR60\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). Additionally, findings by Douglas et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e) suggest that self-regulation is positively associated with internal control beliefs, implying a potential pathway through which LoC influences coping efficacy.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis study is conceptually grounded in the Transactional Model of Stress and Coping proposed by Lazarus and Folkman (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1984\u003c/span\u003e). According to this model, individuals engage in a two-stage appraisal process: the primary appraisal involves evaluating whether an encounter poses a threat or challenge, and the secondary appraisal pertains to the evaluation of available coping resources and control over the situation. Within this framework, LoC operates as a dispositional factor influencing how students engage in the appraisal process, while coping styles represent the behavioural responses that emerge from this cognitive evaluation. The present study positions academic stress as a key outcome shaped by individual differences in control beliefs and coping patterns.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eWhile the Transactional Model offers a structured understanding of stress and coping, it is necessary to acknowledge the role of socio-cultural variables influencing stress (Oke \u0026amp; Dawson, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR47\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e; Montano, 2023). In collectivist societies such as India, cultural norms, parental expectations, and academic competitiveness shape how students appraise failure and success (Deb et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e; Ramya \u0026amp; Parthasarathy, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR55\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e). The tendency to perceive academic failure as a source of shame, rather than an opportunity for growth, is reinforced by school environments and media representations that valorize academic excellence (Prabhu, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR53\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e; Arakeri \u0026amp; Sunagar, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e; Chaturvedi et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). Cultural orientation also influences control beliefs; people in individualistic cultures tend to have a stronger internal LoC, while those in collectivist cultures are more likely to attribute control to external factors, due to deference to authority and group dependence (Ng et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e). Consequently, coping in collectivist contexts often involves seeking support from family or community networks, reflecting a normative preference for relational coping over individualistic problem-solving strategies (Triandis, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR69\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2001\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe present study was carried out as a pilot investigation to better understand how students with internal or external LoC appraise academic stress and the coping styles they subsequently adopt based on this appraisal. By situating these variables within the Transactional Model of Stress and Coping, this study seeks to understand how dispositional control beliefs shape stress appraisal and coping responses in a culturally embedded academic context. This inquiry is particularly relevant in the field of educational psychology, given the rising incidence of student suicides and the growing need for institutions to develop strategies that promote student well-being.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Methods","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis study aimed to assess academic stress, locus of control, and coping styles among university students in India. The objectives were to examine the associations between these variables and to understand the influence of socio-demographic factors on their relationships. Using a quantitative, cross-sectional design, data was collected through professional networking platforms (such as LinkedIn) and manual distribution in higher education institutions (HEI). Convenience sampling was used due to the pilot nature and time constraints of the study. The sample comprised 417 students aged 18\u0026ndash;25 years, enrolled in undergraduate or postgraduate programs, majorly from Maharashtra and Kerala. Eligibility required fluency in English and current enrolment in a recognized degree program while students receiving psychiatric treatment were excluded. Since this was a pilot study, the sample size was not predetermined. The main goal was to test the study\u0026rsquo;s feasibility and evaluate the psychometric properties of the instruments. The study received ethical clearance from the Psychology Department Ethics Committee at Amity University, Maharashtra, and adhered to the ethical guidelines outlined by the American Psychological Association (APA). After obtaining informed consent, participants completed a demographic questionnaire followed by the study scales. All instruments used had been previously validated with student populations in Kerala.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe Academic Stress Scale (ASS), developed by Uma and Manikandan (2013a), is a 36-item measure with high internal consistency (Cronbach\u0026rsquo;s α\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.89) and adequate face validity. It assesses the intensity of academic stress, with higher scores indicating greater perceived stress. The Locus of Control Scale (LoCS) by Uma and Manikandan (2013b), comprising 22 items grounded in Rotter\u0026rsquo;s (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR57\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1966\u003c/span\u003e) theoretical framework, has a reliability coefficient of Cronbach\u0026rsquo;s α\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.67. Higher scores on this scale reflect a more external locus of control, while lower scores indicate a more internal orientation. The Brief COPE Scale, adapted by Uma and Manikandan (2014) from Carver\u0026rsquo;s (1997) original inventory, also demonstrated a Cronbach\u0026rsquo;s α\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.67 and adequate face validity. Higher scores correspond to greater use of adaptive coping strategies. Data was analysed using IBM SPSS version 21 and the study was reported following the Strengthening the Reporting of Observational Studies in Epidemiology (STROBE) guidelines to ensure clarity and transparency in presenting findings (Von Elm et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR70\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2007\u003c/span\u003e) (See Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003eA in Supplementary Material).\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Results","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe present study aimed to assess academic stress, locus of control, and coping styles among Indian university students. The Shapiro\u0026ndash;Wilk test (see Table S3 in Supplementary Material) indicated that the data did not meet the normality assumptions. Therefore, descriptive statistics, group comparisons, and correlational analyses were conducted using non-parametric tests. Detailed descriptive statistics and additional analyses can be found in Supplementary Tables S1\u0026ndash;S5.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe frequency distribution of participants across key socio-demographic variables (see Table S1 in Supplementary Material) indicated that the majority of respondents resided in Maharashtra (N\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;299) and fell within the 18\u0026ndash;21 years age range (N\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;324). The sample was predominantly female (N\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;273), and more than half identified their socio-economic status as middle class (N\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;220). A substantial proportion were in the final year of their undergraduate or postgraduate programs (N\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;266). Additionally, a small portion of the participants were preparing for competitive examinations (N\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;100), while very few (N\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;106) were interning/working while balancing their academics. For this study, student groups were classified according to the Becher-Biglan typology (Biglan, 1973; Becher, 1989) as follows: Medical, Business/Finance, Law, Communications, and Psychology as Applied Soft; Engineering as Applied Hard; and Arts as Pure Soft.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMean difference of participants on ASS, LoCS \u0026amp; CSS on the basis of Course\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"9\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c9\" colnum=\"9\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eApplied Hard Course\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"5\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eApplied Soft Courses\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePure Soft Course\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eP-value\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEngineering\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMedical\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBusiness/\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFinance\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLaw\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCommunications\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePsychology\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eArts\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eN\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e108\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e75\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e39\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e25\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e31\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e118\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e21\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAcademic Stress\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e194.13\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e194.5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e213.38\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e229.68\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e248.68\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e230.41\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e175.23\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.015\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLocus of Control (LoC)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e221.2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e207.01\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e252.31\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e239.58\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e178.63\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e183.55\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e224.36\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e0.017\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCoping Styles\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e190.29\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e203.22\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e207.68\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e197.02\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e231.84\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e232.48\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e176.95\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.120\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003ctfoot\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"9\"\u003e\u003cem\u003eNote.\u003c/em\u003e Applied Hard represents Engineering; Applied Soft includes Medical, Business/Finance, Law, Communications, and Psychology; and Pure Soft contains Arts.\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tfoot\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eA Kruskal\u0026ndash;Wallis H test revealed significant differences across academic disciplines (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e), with students from communications reporting the highest academic stress (M\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;248.68) and a more internal LoC (M\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;178.63), whereas business/finance students showed a more external orientation. No significant differences were found in coping styles across course types.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMean Rank and Corresponding p-value of the scales on the basis of Competitive Exam\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"4\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c3\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCompetitive Exam\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ep-value\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eYes (N\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;100)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNo (N\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;317)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c3\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMean Rank\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAcademic Stress\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e219.53\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e205.68\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.316\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLoC\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e174.58\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e219.86\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e.001\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCoping Styles\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e200.81\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e211.81\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.435\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe Mann-Whitney U Test results (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e) showed a statistically significant difference in LoC (p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.001), with those preparing for competitive exams showing internal LoC. While academic stress and coping did not show substantial differences, students preparing for competitive exams had higher academic stress scores (M\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;219.53) and used more negative coping styles (M\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;200.81) compared to those not preparing.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMean Rank and Corresponding p-value of the scales on the basis of Work/Intern\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"4\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eWork/Internship\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ep-value\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eYes (N\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;106)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNo (N\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;311)\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eMean Rank\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAcademic Stress\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e230.32\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e201.73\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e.035\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLoC\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e201.80\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e211.45\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.475\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCoping Styles\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e211.05\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e208.05\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.839\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eTable\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e shows the Mann-Whitney U Test results for differences in the study variables based on work/internship status. A statistically significant difference was found in academic stress (p\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.035), with those working or interning alongside academics reporting higher stress levels (M\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;230.32).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab4\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 4\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCorrelation between Academic Stress, LoC and Coping Styles\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"4\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAcademic Stress\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLoC\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"1\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLoC\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.504**\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"1\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCoping Styles\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e.134**\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.075\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"1\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"4\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eNote\u003c/em\u003e: \u0026laquo;**\u0026raquo; \u0026mdash; Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eTable\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e presents Spearman\u0026rsquo;s correlations among academic stress, LoC, and coping styles. Academic stress and LoC were negatively correlated (ρ = \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;0.504, p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.01), while academic stress and coping styles showed a positive correlation (ρ\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.134, p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.01). No significant correlation was found between LoC and coping styles. These results suggest that students experiencing higher academic stress also tend to exhibit a more internal LoC and employ positive coping strategies more frequently.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe present study examined the interplay between academic stress, LoC, and coping styles among Indian university students across various academic disciplines. The socio-demographic analysis revealed that students from the communications discipline experienced higher levels of academic stress compared to other fields. While research shows that students in applied soft disciplines tend to report elevated academic stress (Sari, 2020; Gao, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Santoso \u0026amp; Prapunoto, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR61\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e), there appears to be a lack of studies specifically examining academic stress among communication students. The increased stress in applied soft courses has been attributed to demanding curricula that require deep engagement with emotionally charged topics and reflective practices. Interestingly, students pursuing business or finance-related disciplines demonstrated a strengthened external locus of control. Although research on LoC across academic disciplines is limited, existing studies indicate that students in finance-related fields may tend to have a more external locus of control, possibly due to the uncertainty and risk involved in financial decision-making (Britt et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e; Choi \u0026amp; Heo, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). Unsurprisingly, students preparing for competitive exams showed greater internal LoC, suggesting that these individuals believe they can influence exam outcomes and are more likely to hold accountability over their performance (Sidola et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR65\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). Employed students reported higher levels of academic stress, consistent with previous studies showing that working students experience increased stress, anxiety, reduced motivation and performance, as well as challenges with attendance and assignment submission (Drăghici \u0026amp; Cazan, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Paul, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR51\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). These interpretations should be used cautiously, as the present study does not attempt to provide a normative explanation for findings or imply causality. As such, these results should be viewed as observational rather than explanatory.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe present study found no statistically significant differences across any of the assessed variables based on sex or year of study which diverges from several prior studies that have consistently reported higher levels of academic stress among female students compared to their male counterparts (Feingold, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1994\u003c/span\u003e; Costa et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2001\u003c/span\u003e; Graves et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). Although not statistically significant in this study, mean rank comparisons revealed that female participants reported slightly higher levels of academic stress and appeared to employ more adaptive coping styles than males. With regard to LoC(LoC), existing literature presents mixed evidence. While some studies, such as those by Mohanty (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e) and Naik (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e), report negligible sex differences in LoC, while others, like Khetmalis and Das (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e), have found sex-based differences in athletic populations rather than academic cohorts. These discrepancies warrant further investigation before general conclusions can be drawn. In contrast, literature on coping seems to be more consistent with females being more likely to engage in maladaptive or emotional coping styles, while men report using active coping styles (Saha \u0026amp; Deeba, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR59\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; Aragon\u0026egrave;s et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Cholankeril et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). Sex differences in coping are often seen in health or work-related stress, influenced by gender roles (Ovsyanik et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). However, the lack of significant sex differences in our study might mean that academic stress is experienced similarly by all students, likely because they face common pressures and environments.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn the current study, academic stress emerged as the central psychological construct, significantly correlated with both LoC and coping styles. A significant negative relationship was observed between academic stress and LoC. While this may initially appear counterintuitive, given that students with a stronger internal LoC are typically thought to perceive greater control over academic outcomes, which should reduce stress (Fatimah et al., 2019; Botha \u0026amp; Dahmann, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e; Auliya et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e), recent findings have documented an inverse association in high-performance contexts (e.g., Ganjoo et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Holden et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). This deviation may stem from factors such as perfectionism or the internalization of outcomes (Kahn et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). For example, in collectivist societies like India or China, having an internal LoC can sometimes increase psychological distress because individuals may feel more personally responsible for their successes or failures (O\u0026rsquo;Connor \u0026amp; Shimizu, 2002; Kuo, 2012). These cultural differences need deeper exploration using qualitative inquiries to better understand the relationship between academic stress and LoC. In terms of coping, students who reported higher stress levels also reported greater use of adaptive coping strategies, suggesting a mobilization of coping resources under pressure (Poon et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR52\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e; Cherkil et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e; Ramos-Vera et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR54\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). Bamuhair et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e) offered a plausible explanation: as stress intensifies, individuals may increasingly consolidate available coping resources, some genuinely effective, while others may provide only temporary relief. Although the direction of the stress-coping relationship is not always clearly stated, studies consistently show that coping efforts tend to increase as stress levels rise (Joseph et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Thompson et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR68\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Aljaffer et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e; Ruiz-Camacho et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR58\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe findings of the study align well with Lazarus and Folkman\u0026rsquo;s (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1984\u003c/span\u003e) Transactional Model of Stress and Coping. This model explains that people first assess how stressful a situation is (appraisal) and then decide how to respond based on the resources they have. In this study, students with a stronger internal LoC may have taken more personal responsibility for academic outcomes, which could lead to higher levels of perceived stress. At the same time, students experiencing more academic stress were found to actively engage in coping, especially adaptive ones. This suggests that as stress increases, students actively draw on their coping resources, which is consistent with the theory.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn summary, the present study offers novel insights into the relationship between academic stress, locus of control, and coping strategies among university students in India. The findings, while at times contradictory, highlight the need to understand these psychological constructs within collectivist cultural settings. The complex interaction observed between the three variables suggests that these dynamics are not linear or uniform, and may be better understood through in-depth qualitative approaches. Such exploration can help ground future research more firmly within India\u0026rsquo;s unique academic and socio-cultural landscape.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eImplications\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOf the three constructs, academic stress emerged as a central variable, demonstrating significant associations with both LoC and coping. This highlights its importance in understanding students\u0026rsquo; psychological functioning and future research may benefit from examining academic stress as a mediating or moderating variable concerning outcomes such as academic performance, self-efficacy, or well-being. The findings are also highly relevant for certain sects of demographics, like students who are pursuing applied soft courses, currently preparing for competitive exams, or who are working while studying. These demographic groups might need extra attention or institutional support as they might be more vulnerable to developing psychological distress. Interestingly, the study found no direct relationship between LoC and coping styles, a finding that deviates from Western studies. This points to the possibility that personality constructs like LoC may function differently in collectivistic societies, where cultural factors often shape behavior more strongly than individual traits. Overall, this study adds to the emerging discourse on student mental health in the Global South.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe findings highlight a critical need to strengthen mental health support structures for students navigating high academic stress, particularly those living away from home. Institutional efforts must include structured mental health screenings, the establishment of peer support systems, and the integration of residential counselling services. At a policy level, while India has made initial strides by introducing psychologists in private school settings, a similar commitment is largely absent at the university level. Where counselling services exist, the counsellor-to-student ratio is highly disproportionate (Batra \u0026amp; Pyari, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; Keremutt, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). There is a pressing need for policy implementation audits, resource reallocation, and systemic embedding of mental health services into higher education frameworks to ensure that support is both scalable and accessible. Prioritizing mental health at the tertiary education level is critical to support students as they transition into the workforce, where psychological well-being is essential for professional competence.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eLimitations and future directions\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis study, while based on a reasonably large sample (N\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;417), did not use a representative sampling method. Future research should include a wider range of participants from different types of institutions (e.g., private and government universities), modes of education (such as full-time, part-time, or distance learning), and integration of AI particularly in light of increased online academic engagement after the pandemic.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAlthough academic stress showed significant associations with both LoC(LoC) and coping styles, the relationship between LoC and coping was not statistically significant. One possible reason is the use of a coping scale that distinguishes coping into two broad categories: adaptive and maladaptive styles. Earlier research (Nogaj, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e; Sahoo et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR60\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Kumar, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e) has shown that LoC may relate more strongly to specific types of coping, therefore future studies should use more detailed tools to capture these distinctions. Furthermore, qualitative inquiry with the course type, curriculum load, and lecture hours in mind could provide more insight into how academic stress varies across disciplines. Including the perspectives of faculty, counsellors, and parents may help in designing better support systems for students. This study excluded students receiving psychiatric treatment however, including them in future research is essential to better understand their academic stress experiences, help reduce stigma, and enhance support for students with mental health challenges.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis study investigated the associations among academic stress, LoC, and coping styles in 417 Indian university students aged 18 to 25 using a cross-sectional quantitative design. Data was collected employing culturally validated instruments and analyzed using SPSS v21. This study is reported in accordance with the Strengthening the Reporting of Observational Studies in Epidemiology (STROBE) guidelines to ensure transparency and reproducibility. Academic stress emerged as a central variable significantly related to both LoC and coping styles, while no direct association was found between LoC and coping styles. Differences were found across socio-demographic factors such as course type, competitive exam preparation, and concurrent employment. Grounded in Lazarus and Folkman\u0026rsquo;s (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1984\u003c/span\u003e) Transactional model of stress and coping, the findings emphasize the role of cognitive appraisal in influencing perceived stress and consequent coping behaviors. Although several results align with prior research, notable deviations from Western norms suggest the influence of sociocultural factors unique to the Global South context. The paper also proposes practical recommendations for institutional practices, including the implementation of mental health screening, provision of residential counseling services, introduction of peer buddy support programs, and conducting awareness campaigns. Such measures can significantly benefit students living away from home. Additionally, policy and curriculum reforms focusing on student well-being should be prioritized alongside soft skills training, as these students will soon enter the workforce. There are inherent limitations in this study, including the use of convenience sampling and a purely quantitative approach, which may restrict a comprehensive understanding of the studied variables. Nonetheless, despite these limitations, the study provides an important foundation for future research in educational psychology from a Global South perspective, a context that remains insufficiently explored.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSupplementary information.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eThe supplementary file provides detailed statistical analyses conducted by the authors for reference.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAcknowledgements.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eWe sincerely thank Ms. Malini Roy, Ph.D. Research Scholar at VIT-AP University, for her insightful reviews that strengthened this work.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eInformation about the authors\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eNidhi Kulkarni,\u003c/em\u003e PhD Research Scholar at VIT-AP University, Andhra Pradesh-522241, India.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eE-mail: [email protected] ORCID ID: 0009-0001-9548-7717\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAbdul Raffie Naik\u003c/em\u003e (Corresponding author), Assistant Professor Senior Grade-I, at VIT-AP University, Near AP Secretariat, Andhra Pradesh-522241, India. E-mail: [email protected] ORCID ID: 0009-0001-7659-3100\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eDimple Narendra Panchal,\u003c/em\u003e Assistant Professor at GITAM (Deemed to be University), Vishakapatnam, India. E-mail: [email protected] ORCID ID: 0009-0003-8469-4352\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eDeclarations\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFunding.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eNo funds, grants, or other support was received for this research.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConflicts of interest.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eThe authors have no competing interests to declare that are relevant to the content of this article.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEthics approval.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eThe study received ethical clearance from the Psychology Department Ethics Committee at Amity University, Maharashtra, and adhered to the ethical guidelines outlined by the American Psychological Association (APA).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConsent to participate\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eAll the participants were informed about the nature of this study and an informed consent was obtained from every participant.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eData Availability Statement\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eThe authors are happy to provide the SPSS data file for the project to any researchers who wish to have a copy. Please e-mail the corresponding author, Dr. Abdul Raffie Naik.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMaterials availability.\u003c/strong\u003e Not applicable.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCode availability.\u003c/strong\u003e Not applicable.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConsent for publication\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eAll the authors of this manuscript provide consent to publish this manuscript.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eContribution of the authors.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003eAll authors contributed to the study conception and design. Material preparation, data collection was performed by Ms. Nidhi Kulkarni. Dr. Abdul Raffie Naik and Ms Dimple Panchal, contributed in the analysis and interpretation of the data. The first draft of the manuscript was written by Ms. Nidhi Kulkarni and all authors contributed to the subsequent versions of the manuscript. 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J Educational Comput Res 32(2):141\u0026ndash;153\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":true,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"VIT-AP University ","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"academic stress, locus of control, coping styles, university students, India","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7569141/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-7569141/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eContext and relevance. \u003c/strong\u003eRising student suicide rates in India have made academic stress a critical mental health concern. The role of Locus of Control (LoC) and coping styles influencing stress responses, remain underexplored in Indian university settings. Guided by Lazarus and Folkman’s Transactional model, this study examines these variables in a culturally relevant context.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eObjective. \u003c/strong\u003eThe study aimed to assess academic stress, locus of control, and coping styles among Indian university students. It also aimed to examine how socio-demographic factors influence these variables.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMethods and materials. \u003c/strong\u003eA cross-sectional quantitative design was employed among 417 university students aged 18–25 years, who completed a demographic sheet \u0026nbsp;followed by the Academic Stress Scale (ASS), Locus of Control Scale (LoCS) and Coping Styles Scale (CSS). Data was analyzed using IBM SPSS v21. The study was reported in accordance with STROBE guidelines for observational research.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eResults.\u003c/strong\u003e Academic stress was found to be a key variable, showing a significant negative correlation with LoC and a positive correlation with coping styles. Significant group differences were observed based on academic discipline, preparation for competitive exams, and whether students were working or interning alongside their studies.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConclusions.\u003c/strong\u003e The findings of the study indicate the importance of socio-cultural factors in the complex relationship between study variables. They point to patterns that differ from those reported in Western studies, highlighting the need for further research in the context of the Global South. The study discusses practical implications for student mental health support, outlines limitations, and suggests directions for future research.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Psychosocial Correlates of Academic Stress: Evidence on Locus of Control and Coping Styles among Indian University Students","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-09-10 06:51:10","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7569141/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"0135a0d1-3b41-4580-83ac-b1a27871f384","owner":[],"postedDate":"September 10th, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[{"id":54405149,"name":"Educational Psychology"}],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2025-09-10T06:51:10+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2025-09-10 06:51:10","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-7569141","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-7569141","identity":"rs-7569141","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}