Trees and monoxylous canoes: results of a transdisciplinary study in the lower basin of Magdalena River (Colombia)

Trees and monoxylous canoes: results of a transdisciplinary study in the lower basin of Magdalena River (Colombia) | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Trees and monoxylous canoes: results of a transdisciplinary study in the lower basin of Magdalena River (Colombia) Daniel Miguel Nieva Sanz, Willington Barranco-Pérez, Alberto J. Gullón Abao, and 3 more This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-7265260/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Published Journal Publication published 23 Mar, 2026 Read the published version in Journal of Maritime Archaeology → Version 1 posted 9 You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract This article presents a synthesis of the results of five years of interdisciplinary and transdisciplinary research on traditional navigation in the Magdalena River water system and its adjacent swamps. Over the course multiple fieldwork campaigns, it was possible to fully record and ethnographically analyse the use of monoxylous canoes used in rivers and swamps; the location of their construction and wood supply areas; and the regional differences in the historical, common, and scientific names of the tree species traditionally used in their construction. This involved deploying an interdisciplinary methodology that combines history, ethnography, ethnoarchaeology, and botany, to move between methodological perspectives and optimize the use of documentary, material, and oral sources on the historical relationship between the amphibious cultures in the region and the largely aquatic environment that surrounds them. ethnoarchaeology nautical ethnography botany blue humanities Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 Figure 6 Figure 7 Introduction The basin of the Magdalena River has been inhabited extraordinarily dynamic human groups since the colonisation of South America. Owing to the location of its mouth in the Isthmus of Panama, the river has played a major role in the transport of people, goods, and ideas from the Caribbean to the northernmost spurs of the Andes (López 2019 ). This dynamism, which is characteristic of riverine contexts, depends to an extent on the use of nautical devices to facilitate an efficient relationship between humans and their aquatic environment (Guerrero 2009). However, research about indigenous nautical practices in the Magdalena River basin faces significant hurdles. To begin with, no archaeological remains of pre-Hispanic nautical devices is known in the region. As such, there is no direct knowledge of their material and morphology, leaving us with nothing but whatever plausible inferences we can make about their design by other means (Pomey 2011 ). In addition to archaeological and ethnographic parallels from nearby regions (Fuquen 2014; Lins & Ríos 2016 ; Lira 2021 , Londoño 2022; Alberda & Ramos 2024), the study of pre-Hispanic navigation relies on chronicles and other written records that refer to the boats used by the indigenous people “of old” (AGI, Santa Fe, 96, N.5B, ff. 456v-457r.). In this regard, in order to present a historical perspective, we need to adjust concepts and nautical perspectives to maximise the information provided by the written record, which sometimes is extremely succinct. Ther term “canoe” is a Caribe word, adopted by the earliest Spaniards to arrive in America in the late 15th century, used to refer to boats made “in a single piece”, as described by Fernández de Oviedo’s Historia General y Natural de las Indias (1852 [1535]: 170). Some of the earliest references to canoes in our region date to the first third of the 16th century, including the letters of governor García de Lerma (AGI, Patronato,197, R.6, f. 32v.) and coeval and later chronicles of the up-river expedition of Jiménez de Quesada in 1537, which are full of allusions to indigenous canoes (Nieva 2025). As an aside, it is perhaps too easy to dismiss these brief descriptions of canoes carved out of a single piece of timber or trunk as excessively generic and vague. In fact, comparisons with contemporary Castilian chronicles from other American regions, which refer to other types of canoes that have been verified archaeologically and ethnographically, confirm that these early descriptions are sufficiently accurate. As an example, in the Southern Cone, Yahgan canoes were described by Juan de Ladrillero as “tree bark canoes” (1557 [1880]: 473), illustrating that these descriptions, albeit concise, can be very informative. In our context, aside from raft-like boats, the record does not mention bark or sewn canoes similar to the dalkas from the Southern Cone, but canoes made in a single tree trunk or “dug out trunks” (Castellanos, 1589 [ 2007 ]: 268), also Pedro Simón confirms that canoe “is only made of a dug tree trunk” [1627 (1986): 59]. Once the 16th -century written evidence for indigenous approach to river navigation in the peri-contact period had been examined, we needed to explore textual and graphic evidence for later periods, up to watercolours and photographs dated to the 20th century. In this way, even before fieldwork began, we could attest the use of monoxylous canoes in the region in the 16th century, their use as an important vehicle of trade under the Spanish administration, and the development of some typologies based on this core concept (Fajardo 2009; Nieva 2024b; Nieva & Gullón 2025). These canoes continue featuring in the written record in the 17th and 18th centuries, and in 19th -century watercolours of both shores of the Magdalena River (Walhouse Mark 1846). Similarly, despite the emergence of new nautical devices like the steamboat and the subsequent deforestation of the riverbanks – recounted by popular literature (García Márquez 1985 ) –, monoxylous canoes continued travelling the Magdalena, judging by 20th -century photographs (Archivo fotográfico - Cuéllar Jiménez 1928–1955, BVBR). In consequence, it was possible to attest the continued use of the type of canoes described by the early chroniclers to today, leading to a new phase in our research programme, deploying a transdisciplinary approach to examine the extant material and immaterial record. Another of our targets was to assess the potential threats faced by this naval conception and its deep roots in the region. The first season of fieldwork was undertaken in 2022, and it involved travelling up river for a distance of approximately 1000 km, from the city of Santa Marta and through Ciénaga Grande (CGSM), to turn into the channel of Aguas Negras and up the main and secondary river courses to Barrancabermeja (ancient Tora). This allowed us to visit many riverine towns and communities, whose way of life has been historically described to happen “more on canoes than on land” (Aguado, 1906 [written in the 16th -century]: 89). The everyday life of these communities, which Fals Borda characterised in the 20th century as an amphibious culture (1979), is still strongly coloured by the river and its fluctuations. Fieldwork seasons to complement the information gathered during this initial trip were undertaken in 2023, 2024, and 2025. This fieldwork, a sort of contemporary scientific expedition, aimed to answer general and specific questions, which combined the perspective of historians, anthropologists, biologists, and botanists around traditional navigation and its determinant factors. The study, therefore, aimed for a multi-pronged approach to address the material and immaterial record of the design and construction techniques used in monoxylous canoes in the Magdalena River and its swamps, the trees used in every district, and the elements that survive today in the memory of canoe makers, carpenters, and fishermen in the region. Methodology The complexity of the issue demanded a transdisciplinary and interdisciplinary methodology, that is, the ability to travel across methodological boundaries, adopt different viewpoints, and use multiple research tools to optimise the evidence available. First, fieldwork involved recording manuscript and published primary records, using digital repositories and archive documents on both shores of the Atlantic. Concerning the topic of this article, the focus was on sources that convey a nautical perspective, examined form an ethnohistorical perspective (Jiménez 1972), to find references to indigenous canoes and their use, shapes, qualities, and raw materials. Second, in order to keep a balance between archive- and fieldwork (Platt, 2015 ), a solid ethnographic methodology was specifically designed for work in situational communities (Aguirre Baztán 1995 and Martínez Miguélez 2011 : 2). Also, classic ethnographic works with a nautical component, such as Martín Gusinde’s in Tierra del Fuego (1986 [1931–1937]) and Bronislaw Malinowski’s in Melanesia (1922), were reviewed, to gather comparable material about canoe makers, carpenters and fishermen, with particular emphasis on craft knowledge about wood selection and handling in the making of monoxylous boats (Arnold 2017 , Lira 2016 ). Third, locational and material data was collected with traditional methods and new technologies, like DJI mini 3 PRO drones and the photogrammetric modelling of monoxyle and monoxyle-based canoes, oars, and construction tools. Afterwards, these records were analysed in the laboratory to establish the nautical properties of the assemblage. The photogrammetric model of canoes recorded in the field were used to create digital models from which to draw precise morphometric data. In the post-processing stage, textured OBJ, GLB, and/or STL models were imported into the software Blender, which allows adjusting such parameters as lighting and scale, and especially working with the 3D model to generate orthophotogrammetric views. Since the priority was to study the typology-morphology of the canoes, zenithal and lateral views were rendered. Finally, the graphic models were drawn with the vectorisation software Adobe Illustrator to facilitate the comparison of the canoes’ technical features. Finally, taking into account the extraordinarily close relationship that these amphibious cultures have with water – and the consideration of landscape as a sociocultural construct, in both cognitive and physical terms, and its deep symbolic implications for the humans that inhabit it (Criado 1999:6) –, canoes were regarded as an object that makes possible the objectivation of the cultural landscape to which they also belongs (Westerdahl 1992 ), taking a sort of reflexive view on the region’s environmental history (Worster 2004 ). For this reason, research on the species used for canoe-making included examining written records; river trips to locate traditional sourcing areas; and the collection of leaves, fruits, and trunks of the species that, according to historical and local testimonies, are used to make canoes. The information collected during interviews was assessed using a descriptive specific table, including physical and mechanical traits collected from various databases (Riesco et al. 2019, Blanco 2020 , Rosales-Sólorzano 2020, Tamarit-Urias and Fuentes-Salinas 2003 , Castiblanco-Rodríguez and Torres-Vázquez 2020 ). In order to identify the tree species the botany team examined the photographic records and compared them with information in databases Trópicos (2023) and Catálogo de Plantas y Líquenes de Colombia (2019); the conservation status of these species is based on information published by the Internationnal Unión for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN 2023); the analyses also examined the geographical context and areas where these species are used most intensively. Location and record of monoxylous and monoxylous-based canoes Based on fieldwork undertaken in 2022, 2023, and 2024 two specimens of unmodified monoxylous canoes (Horno-1 & Horno-2), and two monoxylous-based modified canoes (Morro-1 and Morro-2), were recorded. The names refer to the location (toponym) and the order (1–2) of the finds. Table 1 Data compiled during fieldwork. Source : author’s own Example Length Width Functional context Location (find) Departament Repairs Modifications original design Horno-1 5.10 0.45 Yes El Horno (San Zenón) Magdalena No No Horno-2 7.05 0.65 No El Horno (San Zenón) Magdalena Yes No Morro-1 7.70 0.58 Yes El Morro (CGSM) Magdalena Yes Yes Morro-2 9.87 0.73 Yes El Morro (CGSM) Magdalena Yes Yes Recorded examples (Horno 1 and 2) They were located during fieldwork in El Horno, a hamlet of the municipality of San Zenón (Magdalena, Colombia), in 2022 and 2023. They are two monoxylous canoes without modifications or additions; they were longitudinally symmetric ( i.e . the bow and the stern are the same) and presented obvious traces of wear, especially Horno-2, which presented a very significant crack on the hull, detected in 2024. Both canoes presented a hole in one of the bows, for mooring and dragging. Recorded examples (Morro-1 and Morro-2) Located in a functional context during the first season of fieldwork (2022) in El Morro, a hamlet of the municipality of Sitio Nuevo (Magdalena, Colombia). They are two monoxylous-based canoes with structural modifications and additions, like pairs of rib-like pieces and benches at the centre and the stern, to help steering and make the boat more robust. Similarly, both canoes presented composite rodas to repair significant damage in one or both ends of the boat. Only Morro-2 presents a mooring-hole. The use of structural supports (ribs) in canoes that are initially not designed for them, raise questions about different things, for instance concerning possible alternative function, for instance, occasionally holding a mast or lending additional solidity to the hull, helping it not to bend, to the outside or the inside, as a result of external forces related to the nautical use of the device, the natural behaviour of the raw material, or the dug-out nature of the canoes, which leave a wide opening in the middle and narrow ends. Nautical analysis: canoe as a combined instrument Experimental work on the ground and the analysis of the photogrammetric models allows us to establish the nautical properties or seaworthiness of these canoes (Jobson and Hildebrandt 1980 ), including structural resistance, namely solidity and water tightness, following Pujol (2006), or the recent classification movement, floatability, stability and resistance, of Moyano Di Carlo (2018). The monoxylous nature of these canoes makes them extremely resistant, as they lack any joints or weak points that could cause leaks. Generally, these boats deteriorate at the bottom and the ends as a result of everyday wear, as illustrated by Horno-2 and can be inferred with Morro 1 and 2. Concerning movement, the line of these canoes results in optimal hydrodynamic conditions, owing to its low freeboard and sheer and its smooth finish, without forgetting the flat bottom, which makes navigation in shallow waters possible. Similarly, although the length-width ratio and the longitudinal symmetry, it is eminently suitable for moving along the narrow channels that link the Magdalena River and the swamps that connect them. In this sense, in addition to a potential use of sail inferred by the holes with cockpit function observed in Morro 2 (Fig. 4 ), the main propulsion elements related to this type of canoe are canalete and pértiga or pole. In this area the most common morphology on canalete is the oval shovel one, used from the stern to propel and steer the canoe. If we talk about the pole, may have their distal end finished in tip or fork, to nail into the bottom and turn into a driving force. On the other hand, the floatability in monoxylous canoes is a direct function of the density ratio between the canoe and fresh and salty water (998 kg/m 3 and 1026 kg/m 3 respectively), as well as expert craftsmanship keeping the bottom on centre. It must be emphasised that stability can be static or dynamic, depending on the external and internal forces that affect the vessel, as well as longitudinal and lateral, depending on the axis upon with these forces act. Typically, the most important stability variable in ships is lateral stability, as it affects the vessel’s ability to recover its centre of gravity, which directly affects the danger of capsizing. By virtue of their design, monoxylous canoes have a very high length to width ratio (> 10 − 1), resulting in good longitudinal but poor lateral stability. Although in inland bodies of water, especially swamps, the external forces that affect stability are weak, this remains the main nautical drawback of monoxylous canoes. It is with regard to this that the importance of hands-on knowledge shows its full value; canoeros can offset the functional deficiencies of their canoes with their skills; they know how to distribute the loads and crew, keep their balance as they steer the boat, and use the right force to keep it on the move steadily and surely. In this way, canoes become a composite instrument or functional system (Muckelroy 1978 ), in which the person and the object merge into one. Identification of tree species As noted in the introduction, the joint interdisciplinary work of historians, ethnographers, and botanists was deployed to identify of the tree species potentially used in the traditional construction of monoxylous canoes. Taking into account the frequently complex and confusing nomenclature of tree species, particularly in chronicles and regional uses, all three approaches were critical for the specific characterisation. The following section present the first stage of the study, about the evidences for the identification of raw materials drawn by each field, and possible links with species identified in different sections of the river. Historical nomenclature First, published and unpublished primary sources (chronicles, letters, descriptions, ordinances, etc.) were reviewed to detect the denomination of trees used in the construction of monoxylous canoes. Table 2 Tree species in the historical record about the Magdalena River and its area of influence in the Nuevo Reino de Granada ( e.g. Moporo). Source : Author’s own Source Wood Use Area Year Fol./p. J. Castellanos Ceiba Canoe Lower Magdalena 1589 441 J. Castellanos Ceiba - - 1589 182? P. Simón Ceiba General - 1627 62 y 79 P. Simón Ceiba Canoe Nueva Granada 1637 61 Letters to the Audiencia of Santa Fe Almond tree Canoe Middle Magdalena 1603 2r. Letters to the Audiencia of Santa Fe Cedar Canoe Middle Magdalena 1603 2r. Ordinances for the Swamps Ceiba Canoe Swamp 1600 s.f. Piedrahita Cedar - Nueva Granada 1688 8 Esmaile Ceiba Canoe Moporo* 1710 AGN, Caciques e indios, 4, D.22 Francisco de la Rocha Ferrer Seiba Canoe Moporo* 1714 AGN, Caciques e indios, 4, D.15 Francisco de la Rocha Ferrer Seiba Canoe Moporo* 1717 AGN, Caciques e indios, 4, D.24 Julián Cedar Canoe Santa Marta (Province) 1787 239 Julián Guacamayo Embarcaciones Santa Marta (Province) 1787 240 Acosta Ceiba - Oriental area 1800–1852 76 Gogorza Caoba Canoa Sinú basin 1862 *1205 Common denominations In 2022, 2023, and 2024, we collected abundant ethnographic information from canoeros and carpenters in various sections of the river, some of which greatly transcends the nautical field, which is of great value concerning the raw materials used. Table 3 Common nomenclature of tree species among the inhabitants of the shores of the Magdalena and nearby swamps. Source : Author’s own Source Wood Use Area Year Jairo Caracolí Canoe Tasajeras- CGSM 2022 Ahmed Gutiérrez Ceiba roja Canoe Tasajeras- CGSM 2022 Ahmed Gutiérrez Yellow ceiba Canoe Tasajeras- CGSM 2022 Ahmed Gutiérrez Campano Canoe Tasajeras- CGSM 2022 Rolando Ají-coral Canoe El Morro-CGSM 2022 Rolando Ceiba Canoe El Morro-CGSM 2022 Daniel Cervantes Caracolí Canoe El Morro-CGSM 2022 Daniel Cervantes Canelo/laurel Canoe El Morro-CGSM 2022 Bladimir Tolú Canoe Brazo de Mompox 2022 Bladimir Iguamarillo Canoe Brazo de Mompox 2022 Bladimir Yellow ceiba Canoe Brazo de Mompox 2022 Bladimir Guacamayo Canoe Brazo de Mompox 2022 Bladimir Ceiba Piñón Canoe Brazo de Mompox 2022 José Madrid Campano Canoe Lower Magdalena -El Horno 2022 José Madrid Cedar Canoe Lower Magdalena -El Horno 2022 José Madrid Ají-coral Canoe Middle Magdalena-El Banco 2022 José Madrid Carreto Canoe Lower Magdalena -El Horno 2022 Manuel Ají-coral Canoe Lower Magdalena -El Horno 2023 Manuel Ceiba Canoe Lower Magdalena -El Horno 2023 Jesús Caracolí Canoe Puebloviejo- CGSM 2024 Jesús Ceiba Canoe Puebloviejo- CGSM 2024 Bladimir Ají-coral Canoe Middle Magdalena-El Banco 2024 Alfonso Retamoso Ceiba Canoe El Jaguey-Tasajeras 2024 Alfonso Retamoso Caracolí Canoe El Jaguey-Tasajeras 2024 J. Miguel Caracoli Canoe El Caiman-Tasajeras 2025 J. Miguel Ceiba Canoe El Caiman-Tasajeras 2025 Scientific denominations Parallel to the historiographical and ethnographic work, during fieldwork, all the data required to identify tree species was collected and sourcing areas defined. A total of 24 species in ten families were identified; the most widely-represented family is that of Leguminosae , with five species, followed by the Malvaceae , with three species (Table 4 ). According to IUCN’s red list, most of the species are listed as “Least concern”, but Swietenia macrophylla King (mahogany) and Handroanthus chrysanthus (Jacq.) S.O. Grose ( Cañaguate ) are regarded as “Vulnerable” and Cariniana pyriformis Miers ( Abarco ) and Anacardium excelsum Skeels ( Caracolí ) are reported as “Near Threatened”. Most are indigenous species of the Tropical Dry Forest, and some belong to Mangrove Forest environments, also found in the riverbanks of the Magdalena (Table 2 ). Table 4 Habitat of the tree species. Type of forest Number of species Dry tropical forest 21 Humid tropical forest 1 Mangrove forest 2 Table 5 Classification of wood types according to density based on Riesco et al. , (2019) Density of the wood Rank Very light 0.30–0.50 g/cm 3 Light 0.51–0.65 g/cm 3 Medium 0.66–0.80 g/cm 3 Heavy 0.81–0.95 g/cm 3 Very heavy > 0.95 g/cm 3 The following table presents the ten species mentioned in historical records and ethnographic interviews and found on the ground. The physical qualities of these ten species are informative not only in terms of identification, but also regarding the use life of monoxylous canoes made with them. Table 6 Physical and mechanical properties of wood types used to make canoes in the lower and part of the middle Magdalena regions. Based on Francis, ( 2000 ), Tamarit-Urias and Fuentes-Salinas ( 2003 ), Benítez et al., 2013 , Riesco et al. , (2019), Blanco ( 2020 ), Rosales-Sólorzano (2020), Peralta ( 2022 ). The properties of some of the species could not be found Scientific name Comon name Density (g/cm 3 ) Humidity (%) Volumetric contraction (%) Hardness (Kgf) Albizia niopoides (Spruce ex Benth.) Burkart Guacamayo 0.55 8–18 -- -- Anacardium excelsum Skeels Caracolí 0.41 18.5 7.70 210 Aspidosperma polyneuron (Müll. Arg.) Carreto 0.77 7.1 1329 Bombacopsis quinata Dugand Tolú 0.39 -- 8.0 -- Cedrela odorata L. Cedar 0.42 55.2 10.2 265 Ceiba pentandra (L.) Gaertn. Red ceiba 0.41 -- 9.30 -- Hura crepitans L. Yellow ceiba 0.39 -- 9 -- Morella pubescens (Humb. & Bonpl. ex Willd.) Wilbur Canelo or laurel 0.57 86.20 0.84 -- Samanea saman (Jacq.) Merr. Campano 0.46 -- 6.55 409 Terminalia catappa L. Walnut tree 0.43 -- -- 440 Phyllanthus elsiae Urb. Ají-coral 0.59 -- -- -- In terms of density, the wood used to make canoes ranges from 0.30 to 0.77 g/cm 3 ; humidity ranged from 8 to 87%, volumetric contraction from 0.8 to 10.0%; and, finally, hardness from 210 to 1329 Kgf (Table 3 ). According to the literature, woods that are reported as from very light to light present the following physical properties: Anacardium excelsum ( Caracolí ): density 0.41g/cm 3 ; humidity: 18.5%: volumetric contraction: 7.7%; hardness 210 Kgf; Cedrela odorata (Cedar): density: 0.42 g/cm 3 ; humidity: 55.2%: volumetric contraction:10,2%; hardness: 265 Kgf; Ceiba pentandra (Red ceiba): density: 0.41 g/cm 3 ; volumetric contraction: 9.30%; Morella pubescens : density: 0.57 g/cm 3 ; humidity: 86.20%: volumetric contraction: 0.84%. We cannot forget the use of mangroves for certain propulsion elements or structural elements in cases of re-mining after breaks, especially in the swamps of the Magdalena River Estuarine Delta System. Mangrove ecosystems range from small patches made up of low-growing individuals to large expanses of specimens exceeding 40 m in height (Calderón et al. 2009 ). They are composed of tree-like and shrub-like species and a wide variety of associated vegetation, which overcome the stressors of the marine-coastal environment (Milena Agudelo et al., 2015 ). The most representative mangrove species in the Ciénaga are Avicennia germinans (salt mangrove), Laguncularia racemosa (yellow mangrove), Rhizophora mangle (red mangrove), and, to a lesser extent, Conocarpus erectus (loggerhead mangrove) (INVEMAR, 2014). As with other tree species mentioned, pressure on mangrove forests is also permanent. These forests are in danger due to port activity in the area, sewage pollution, tree felling, livestock farming, agriculture and mainly due to the alteration of the natural exchange and flow of water through the Lagoon Complex due to the execution of civil works. (Vides, J. J. M. 2022). Canoe design and construction In terms of canoe construction, we need to take into account design and manufacturing techniques (Pomey 2011 : 28) to establish possible continuities and change over time. In this regard, it was possible to determine that, in the Magdalena River, there is significant continuity, despite the fluctuation between conditioning factors (Adams 2001 ), especially concerning raw materials and tools. However, although the design of canoes has changed little, the introduction of metal tools has considerably affected canoe manufacture (Castellanos 1589 [ 2007 ]: 182). However, taking into account historical records, iconographic representations and examples of monoxylous canoes kept in museums such as the Museo Naval de Madrid (15 m long), which are morphologically similar and have connections with the region, a gradual reduction in length is attested, likely as a result of deforestation, which has made trees with long trunks harder to come by, as well as other historical factors. In areas where the memory of former monoxylous canoes remains, metal tools respond to Spanish typologies and nomenclatures (López, J. ET AL. 2014 , Silva López 2019 and Nieva 2023), particularly axes and adzes. There are also differences in technique by region, therefore deserves more room that we can dedicate it here, but essentially coinciding with other continental parallels (Lira 2016 y Trejo 2022). In general terms, the chaîne opératoire before optimal use and subsequent discard, consists of at least three phases and six steps, from design to launch, passing through roughing, dug out, finishing and curing (Nieva, 2024a: 104). From a historical perspective, continuities in design not only allow us to attest the conservation of secular construction techniques and designs in dug-out canoes (Rieth 1998 ), but also of a whole panoply of traditional practices in the relationship between carpenters and raw materials. This includes a deep knowledge of trees, for the selection of the right species and trunks; the felling of trees, during a waning moon period, to avoid infection by xylophages; and wood seasoning methods (traditional carpenters in Brazo de Mompox, El Horno, Tasajeras, and Puebloviejo, pers. comm. 2022, 2023, and 2024). All of this greatly affects the nautical qualities of the boats, which totally rely on those of a single piece of wood. Final considerations The recording and description of the last monoxylous canoes in the region improve our understanding of navigation in the Magdalena River basin, while attesting the sharp drop in this practice, which is today virtually extinct. In addition, the combination of fieldwork in the river and the swamps and nautical analysis based on photogrammetric processing, has made it possible to examine the nautical properties of these traditional vessels, their resilience in a landscape that has remained extraordinarily dynamic in naval terms for centuries, flagging again that their design is a direct function of the uses and demands for which it was conceived. On the other hand, our interdisciplinary work has allowed for the crossing of historical, ethnographic, and botanic data concerning tree species used to build canoes, creating a valuable baseline for future research in the region and a guide for the search of more examples in the future. This will allow for a broader historical, ethnographic and botanic characterisation of the type, which could be complemented with the dendrochronological analysis of known specimens. In addition, our results raise new questions concerning deforestation in the lower Magdalena and how this may have affected canoe construction, both in terms of the number of specimens and of their reduction in length. Finally, this study underlines the need for interdisciplinary approaches, capable of generating a holistic knowledge of historical, environmental, and cultural processes pertaining to the relationship between humans and their aquatic medium. Declarations Funding This research was undertaken within the framework of project FPU20/01462, funded by Ministerio de Universidades (Spain), “Proyecto Connexa Mundi PID2021-126850NB-I00, funded by MCIN/ AEI/10.13039/501100011033/ and FEDER”, and with the support of Vicerrectoría de Investigación de la Universidad del Magdalena and Plan Propio, Universidad de Cádiz. Archives Archivo General de Indias – AGI (Sevilla, España) Santa Fe Patronato Archivo General de la Nación - AGN (Bogotá, Colombia) Caciques e indios Biblioteca Virtual del Banco de la República – BVBR (Bogotá, Colombia) Archivo fotográfico de Gumersindo Cuéllar Jiménez 1928-1955 Impresiones de un viaje por Gutiérrez de Alba 1870-1884 Author Contribution Daniel M. Nieva SanzDesign and development of archival work and fieldwork;Researchers Coordination;Wrote the main manuscript text;Development of nautical analysis and ethnographic work.Willington Barranco-PérezCoordination and development of the entire tree species identification process by region, based on field records;Wrote the botanical parts of main manuscript text.Alberto J. Gullón AbaoCo-coordination of archiving work and historic perspective.Michelle V. Soto-AvendañoDevelopment of the entire tree species identification process by region, based on field records;Wrote the botanical parts of main manuscript text;Preparation of tables related to botanical work.José Luis Portillo-SoteloProcessing of the photogrammetric record and generate 3D model for orthophotogrammetric views; Drawn with the vectorisation software Adobe Illustrator.M. Viviana Granados LeónDevelopment of specific work about mangrove.All authors reviewed the manuscript. Acknowledgement We wish to thank carpenters and fishermen, who lend their unconditional support to the project during fieldwork along the river: Jairo and family; Ángel López and son; Bladimir Madrid and family; Rolando and family; Jesús Suárez; Cristobal Manuel Pallares; Daniel Cervantes and brother; María de la Hoz; Ahmed Gutiérrez; José Madrid and sons, among many local people, without whose support this research would not have been possible. We must also thank colleagues from different scientific disciplines who also provided their collaboration in different phases of the field work, such as biologists and scientific communicators Ignacio Galán, Santiago de Narváez and Fabio Bolívar, the anthropologist Luis C. Álvarez, the historians Jorge Enrique Elías Caro and Edgar Rey Sinning, Elsa López Manjarrés on graphic support and logistics staff Angie Montero . References Adams, J. (2001) Ships and boats as archaeological source material. World Archaeology 32.3: 292-310. Aguado, Fray Pedro de (1906-written 16th century) Recopilación Historial . Imprenta Nacional, Bogotá. Agudelo, Claudia M.; Bolívar, Jhoanata; Polanía, Jaime; Urrego, Ligia E.; Yepes, Adriana; Sierra, Andrés (2015) Estructura y composición florística de los manglares de la bahía de Cispatá, Caribe colombiano, Revista de Biología Tropical, vol. 63, núm. 4: 1137-1147 Aguirre Baztán, A. (Ed.) (1995) Etnografía Metodología cualitativa en la investigación sociocultural . Editorial Boixareu universitaria, Barcelona. Aguirre Cauhé, S. (1995) Entrevistas y cuestionarios, en Aguirre Baztán, A. (Ed.), Etnografía Metodología cualitativa en la investigación sociocultural . Editorial Boixareu universitaria, Barcelona, pp 171-180. Arnold, B. (2017) Les canoës en écorce d'Amérique du Sud: de l'Amazonie à la Terre de Feu. Ed. G d'Encre, Le Locle. Alberda, A., & Ramos Pérez, R. L. (2024) The Jãba: Dugout Canoes of the Emberá – An Ethnoarchaeological Analysis in Darién and the Emberá–Wounaan Territory in Panama. International Journal of Nautical Archaeology 53(2): 430–455. Benítez, D., Velásquez, C., & Cogollo, Á. (2013) Densidad básica del fuste de árboles del bosque seco en la costa Caribe de Colombia. Intropica: Revista del Instituto de Investigaciones Tropicales , 8 (1): 17-28. Bernal, R., S.R. Gradstein & M. Celis (eds.) (2019) Catálogo de plantas y líquenes de Colombia. Instituto de Ciencias Naturales. Universidad Nacional de Colombia, Bogotá. http://catalogoplantasdecolombia.unal.edu.co. Blanco, J. (2020) Caracterización de las 30 especies forestales maderables más movilizadas en Colombia provenientes del bosque natural. Organización de las Naciones Unidas para la Alimentación y la Agricultura, Ministerio de Ambiente y Desarrollo Sostenible y Unión Europea, Bogotá. Calderón, C., Aburto, O., & Ezcurra, E. (2009) El valor de los manglares. CONABIO, Biodiversitas, 82: 1-6. Castellanos, J. (2007 [1589]) Elegías de varones ilustres de Indias compuestas por Juan Castellanos, Tomo I, Biblioteca Virtual Miguel de Cervantes. Castiblanco-Rodríguez, L. F. & Torres-Vázquez, H. O. (2020) Análisis de las propiedades físicas y mecánicas del culmo de Guadua angustifolia en la construcción y estudio de un método de protección a la intemperie. Trabajo de Grado. Universidad Católica de Colombia . Facultad de Ingeniería. Programa de Ingeniería Civil, Bogotá. Fals Borda, Orlando (1979) Historia doble de la costa: Mompox y Loba. Carlos Valencia editores, Bogotá. Felipe Criado Boado (1999) Del terreno al espacio: planteamientos y perspectivas para la arqueología del paisaje, Criterios y convenciones en Arqueología del paisaje 6, Grupo de investigaciones en Arqueología del paisaje, Santiago de Compostela. Francis, J. K. (2000) Bioecología de Arboles Nativos y Exóticos de Puerto Rico y las Indias Occidentales. International Institute of Tropical Forestry, Puerto Rico. Fuquen Gomez, C. (2014) Logboats of Coquí: an ethnographic approach to maritime material culture (Doctoral dissertation, University of Southampton). García Márquez, G. (1985) El amor en los tiempos del cólera. Editorial Oveja Negra, Bogotá. Guerrero Ayuso, Víctor M. (2009) Prehistoria de la navegación . Oxford BAR International Series, Oxford. Gusinde, M. (1986) Los indios de Tierra del Fuego: resultado de mis cuatro expediciones en los años 1918 hasta 1924 , vols. I, II y III, Editorial CONICET, Buenos Aires. Gogorza, Andrés Anthoine de, Gran canoa colombiana de Cartagena de Indias (c 1862), Museo Naval de Madrid, nº de inventario 1205. Jiménez Núñez, A. (1972) El método etnohistórico y su contribución a la antropología americana. Revista española de antropología americana, 7: 163-196. Jobson, Robert W. y Hildebrandt, William R., (1980) “The distribution of oceangoing canoes on the north coast of California”, Journal of California and Great Basin Anthropology 2.2: 165-174. Ladrillero, Juan de, (1880) Relación del viaje al Estrecho de Magallanes 1557-1559, In: Anuario Hidrográfico de la Marina de Chile. Instituto Hidrográfico de la Armada de Chile, Valparaíso, pp. 456-525. Lins, Marcelo & Ríos, Carlos (2016) Canoas monóxilas da Lagoa de Extremoz, RN, Brasil, Fumdhamentos , 13: 94-107. Lira, Nicolás (2021) Hallazgo de Tres Canoas Monóxilas de Tradición Indígena en el río Hueninca, Lago Pullinque, región de Los Ríos, Boletín de la Sociedad Chilena de Arqueología, Special issue:413-424. Lira, Nicolás (2016) “Cadena operativa de manufactura y uso de las canoas monóxilas de la Patagonia Septentrional”, en Arqueología de la Patagonia: de mar a mar, Francisco Mena, ed., pp 200-211, Andros Impresores, Santiago de Chile. Londoño Díaz, W. (2021) Hallazgos recientes sobre la navegación tradicional en el norte de Colombia. Arqueología Iberoamericana 48: 3-7. López, Carlos Eduardo (2019) Arqueología del Bajo y Medio Río Magdalena: Apuntes sobre Procesos de Poblamiento Prehispánico de las Tierras Bajas Tropicales Interandinas de Colombia. Revista del Museo de La Plata , 4(2): 275-340. López, J., Moreno, F., & Mejías, J. C. (2014) Libreta de notas de un Carpintero de Ribera. Un oficio y una vida en el Cabanyal , Editorial Alfa Delta Digital, Valencia. Muckelroy, Keiht (1978) Maritime Archaeology, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. Malinowski, B. (1922) Argonauts of the Western Pacific; An account of native enterprise and adventure in the archipelagoes of Melanesian New Guinea. Routledge & Kegan Paul LTD. https://philpapers.org/archive/MALAOT-2. Marcel Pujol i Hamelink (2006) “La terminologia de construcció naval i el seu origen: mediterrani/atlàntic”, Drassana 14: 84-102. Martínez Miguélez, M. (2011) El método etnográfico de investigación. Etnografía 16: 1-16. Moyano Di Carlo, J. (2018) Mucho más que barcos. Una aproximación teórica a las funciones, capacidades náuticas, bases materiales y dimensión social de la tecnología naval prehistórica . BAR International Series 2901. Nieva Sanz, D. M. & Gullón Abao, A. J. (2025) La navegación en el río Magdalena: ayer y hoy (ss. XVI-XXI), Editorial UniMagdalena, Santa Marta. Nieva Sanz, D. M. (2025) Bergantines y canoas en los ríos Magdalena y Paraná: Un modelo de análisis transdisciplinar para expediciones fluviales en América (siglo XVI), Editorial Aconcagua, Sevilla. Nieva Sanz, D. M. (2024a) La canoa monóxila y el saber inmaterial de sus últimos carpinteros: trabajo de campo en El Horno (Magdalena, Colombia). Revista Española de Antropología Americana 54(1): 101-113. Nieva Sanz, D. M. (2024b). Una aproximación integral al origen del champán en el Río Magdalena (Siglos XVI-XIX). Naveg@mérica. Revista electrónica editada por la Asociación Española de Americanistas, (33): 1-19. Nieva Sanz, D. M. (2023) Astilleros y canoas en la Ciénaga Grande: etnografía náutica sobre la cultura anfibia del Morro/Nueva Venecia (Colombia). Cuadernos de antropología: Revista Digital del Laboratorio de Etnología" María Eugenia Bozzoli Vargas",33.2: 1-18. Peralta, K. M. C. (2022) Caracterización de la madera de 95 especies forestales del sur de Ecuador con base a sus propiedades físicas, organolépticas y anatómicas (Doctoral dissertation, Universidad Nacional de Loja). Platt, T. (2015) Entre la rutina y la ruptura: el archivo como acontecimiento de terreno. Diálogo andino , 46: 39-54. Pomey, Patrice (2011) Defining a Shio: Architecture, Function, and Human Space. In: The Oxford Handbook of Maritime Archaeology, Alexis Catsambis, Den Ford y Donny L., Hamilton, (eds.), Oxford University press, Oxford, pp 25-46. Riesco Muñoz, G., Imaña Encinas, J., & Elías de Paula, J. (2019) Densidad de la madera de 59 especies del orden Sapindales procedentes de bosques naturales brasileños. Madera y bosques , 25 (2): 1-12. Rieth, E. (1998) Des bateaux et des fleuves, archéologie de la batellerie du Néolithique aux temps modernes en France . Editions Erance, Rennes. Rosales-Solórzano, E. R. (2020) Ecuaciones de niveles de humedad relacionada a la densidad básica de la madera de especies forestales tropicales en Madre de Dios, Perú. Revista Forestal Mesoamericana Kurú, 17(40): 33-43. Silva Fajardo, Germán (2009) Champanes, vapores y remolcadores, Historia de la navegación y la ingenieria fluvial Colombiana. Academia Colombiana de Historia de la Ingeniería y las Obras Públicas, Bogotá. Silva López, N. (2019) Carpinteros de ribera, maestros de azuela y calafates: del arte y la técnica a la ciencia. La Arquitectura Naval ilustrada en el Marqués de la Victoria”, en Cuadernos del Instituto de Historia de la Lengua , 12:157-176. Simón, Pedro (1627) Noticias Historiales de la conquista de Tierra Firme en las Indias occidentales, Cuenca: en casa de Domingo de la Iglesia. Simón, Pedro, [1627 (1986)] “Tabla para la inteligencia de algunos vocablos” de las Noticias Historiales, en: Mantilla Ruiz, Luis Carlos, Fray Pedro Simón y su vocabulario de americanismos, Bogotá: Instituto Caro y Cuervo. Tamarit-Urias, J. C., & Fuentes-Salinas, M. (2003) Parámetros de humedad de 63 maderas latifoliadas mexicanas en función de su densidad básica. Revista Chapingo, Serie ciencias forestales y del ambiente, 9(2): 155-164. Trejo Rivera, Flor (2022) Notas náuticas a orillas del río: construcción de un cayuco en Tabasco, Arqueología Mexicana 174: 52-57. Tropicos.org. Missouri Botanical Garden. 29 May (2023). https://tropicos.org. Vides, J. J. M. (2022) Estructura y diversidad del bosque de manglar de las áreas protegidas santuario de flora y fauna ciénaga grande de Santa Marta y vía parque Isla de Salamanca, tesis en bilogía, Universidad del Magdalena. Walhouse Mark, Edward (1846) Colección de arte del Banco de la República, Colombia. Westerdahl, Christer (1992) The Maritime Cultural Landscape”, The International Journal of Nautical Archaeology , 21: 5-14. Worster, Donald, (2004) ¿Por qué necesitamos de la historia ambiental?, Revista Tareas 117: 119-130. Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Cite Share Download PDF Status: Published Journal Publication published 23 Mar, 2026 Read the published version in Journal of Maritime Archaeology → Version 1 posted Editorial decision: Revision requested 30 Sep, 2025 Reviews received at journal 29 Sep, 2025 Reviews received at journal 22 Aug, 2025 Reviewers agreed at journal 19 Aug, 2025 Reviewers agreed at journal 19 Aug, 2025 Reviewers invited by journal 11 Aug, 2025 Editor assigned by journal 01 Aug, 2025 Submission checks completed at journal 01 Aug, 2025 First submitted to journal 31 Jul, 2025 You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-7265260","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":499012285,"identity":"82bb39a5-7de5-4ac7-8b69-e569ad0ebb0d","order_by":0,"name":"Daniel Miguel Nieva Sanz","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAA4ElEQVRIie3OMQuCQBTA8SeCLofzSYNf4YVTkPVVkoMmiyCIRiE4F6G1ra9yItRitTo21dIgtAg15FXQdjg23I8b7uD+vAegaf9IyDMDsOSjap/gJzE2bROQiWSSNoWzP2SiQpg6dtq9B3zggZ2clYlbTEfZBmFukcLvTDjrxqRAZYIiwpwghJyOR00ijJhG6sXwdMP8KRPvwh49Loaxd1UvhmUzBd5TzF3H4CKMKagXc8sbZinSkBO266VHxjiJ1IlzivyqXvbDbZKtynoxCNb2Xr3YF/1drTb/NU3TNLUX/SFF7LXimlMAAAAASUVORK5CYII=","orcid":"","institution":"University of Cádiz","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Daniel","middleName":"Miguel Nieva","lastName":"Sanz","suffix":""},{"id":499012287,"identity":"d1a02de0-b6cd-43e3-87e4-3e7b03a19058","order_by":1,"name":"Willington Barranco-Pérez","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"University of Magdalena","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Willington","middleName":"","lastName":"Barranco-Pérez","suffix":""},{"id":499012289,"identity":"f659238b-3830-4eb4-80a9-44bc8315284b","order_by":2,"name":"Alberto J. Gullón Abao","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"University of Cádiz","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Alberto","middleName":"J. Gullón","lastName":"Abao","suffix":""},{"id":499012291,"identity":"e0e5aa56-2f8b-4d2f-9e38-2bb23fb15629","order_by":3,"name":"Michelle V. Soto-Avendaño","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"University of Magdalena","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Michelle","middleName":"V.","lastName":"Soto-Avendaño","suffix":""},{"id":499012292,"identity":"f191a6dd-2b4c-45a5-a612-ab04f2603d7f","order_by":4,"name":"José Luis Portillo-Sotelo","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"University of Cádiz","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"José","middleName":"Luis","lastName":"Portillo-Sotelo","suffix":""},{"id":499012293,"identity":"d73e5f25-727d-484c-9e44-e2e8ea449e68","order_by":5,"name":"M. Viviana Granados León","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Universidad del Rosario","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"M.","middleName":"Viviana Granados","lastName":"León","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2025-07-31 19:38:16","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7265260/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-7265260/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[{"content":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s11457-026-09502-9","type":"published","date":"2026-03-23T16:12:27+00:00"}],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":89413415,"identity":"9820c362-2bae-4d4a-bed9-e832a0d45e3f","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-08-19 16:42:53","extension":"jpg","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":408925,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eCanoes in the Ambalema harbour (Magdalena River). \u003cstrong\u003eSource:\u003c/strong\u003e Edward Walhouse, 1846\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"image1.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7265260/v1/82a713e72a6ba080ffdb6690.jpg"},{"id":89413414,"identity":"0b6e67cd-0bcc-41c1-b6ad-edca075f5404","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-08-19 16:42:53","extension":"jpg","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":329178,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eMaps, GPS record points and photographs of the 2022 field season. \u003cstrong\u003eSource:\u003c/strong\u003e author’s own\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"image2.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7265260/v1/be116b63b0c5aee8b08e6021.jpg"},{"id":89413418,"identity":"5e506382-876b-4cb0-88ed-43df750b2935","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-08-19 16:42:53","extension":"jpeg","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":196971,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eHorno-1 (left) and Morro-1 (right). Zenithal and lateral photogrammetric views based on fieldwork records. \u003cstrong\u003eSource:\u003c/strong\u003e author’s own\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"image3.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7265260/v1/5bbd2b7f899bb6c582cef50f.jpeg"},{"id":89413412,"identity":"5895cb90-8ba9-4457-b98b-2640cfff9154","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-08-19 16:42:53","extension":"png","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":1072297,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eThe four examples of monoxylous canoes found in the lower Magdalena and CGSM. \u003cstrong\u003eSource:\u003c/strong\u003e author’s own\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"image4.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7265260/v1/73a302a6d64f4f5e2a9c4de8.png"},{"id":89413748,"identity":"218c8346-fce7-4661-a657-0f1937440a06","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-08-19 16:50:53","extension":"jpeg","order_by":5,"title":"Figure 5","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":471709,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eTraditional \u003cem\u003ecanalete\u003c/em\u003e in \u003cem\u003eguayacán\u003c/em\u003e wood (left). \u003cem\u003eCanoero\u003c/em\u003e steering/rowing with pole (centre), and detail of the bottom end of a pole (right). (Down) Parts of\u003cem\u003e canalete\u003c/em\u003e (Pala-Blade; Cuello-Throat; Caña-Shaft; Pomo-Grip). \u003cstrong\u003eSource:\u003c/strong\u003eAuthor’s own (taken during fieldwork in 2022 and 2024)\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"image5.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7265260/v1/96f7838a0df2915b731180c5.jpeg"},{"id":89413422,"identity":"cb23e8ae-226a-4c88-9e71-318d431ec08f","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-08-19 16:42:53","extension":"jpg","order_by":6,"title":"Figure 6","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":324086,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eMap with the itinerary of expMag_22, GPS locations of the points where the canoes were found, illustrative tree specimens and wood sourcing areas. The map also reflects the division of the basin used in this study, and their most characteristic tree species. \u003cstrong\u003eSource: \u003c/strong\u003eauthor’s own\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"image6.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7265260/v1/3dbfe6f36f95cda03ee30596.jpg"},{"id":89413750,"identity":"dfdf8c21-6590-4697-9cdf-39e1d8838571","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-08-19 16:50:53","extension":"jpg","order_by":7,"title":"Figure 7","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":385567,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eIllustration of the use of tools (axes and adzes), and examples found during fieldwork (2024) \u003cstrong\u003eSource:\u003c/strong\u003eauthor’s own\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"image7.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7265260/v1/e3639d6bc8a0f7def662c0dd.jpg"},{"id":105755882,"identity":"30e23106-0c83-4492-a46f-8fcd0cb9d0e2","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-03-30 16:32:16","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":4395060,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7265260/v1/e7c122c4-a67b-455e-8e7a-e8af077a54c6.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Trees and monoxylous canoes: results of a transdisciplinary study in the lower basin of Magdalena River (Colombia)","fulltext":[{"header":"Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe basin of the Magdalena River has been inhabited extraordinarily dynamic human groups since the colonisation of South America. Owing to the location of its mouth in the Isthmus of Panama, the river has played a major role in the transport of people, goods, and ideas from the Caribbean to the northernmost spurs of the Andes (L\u0026oacute;pez \u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). This dynamism, which is characteristic of riverine contexts, depends to an extent on the use of nautical devices to facilitate an efficient relationship between humans and their aquatic environment (Guerrero 2009). However, research about indigenous nautical practices in the Magdalena River basin faces significant hurdles. To begin with, no archaeological remains of pre-Hispanic nautical devices is known in the region. As such, there is no direct knowledge of their material and morphology, leaving us with nothing but whatever plausible inferences we can make about their design by other means (Pomey \u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e). In addition to archaeological and ethnographic parallels from nearby regions (Fuquen 2014; Lins \u0026amp; R\u0026iacute;os \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e; Lira \u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e, Londo\u0026ntilde;o 2022; Alberda \u0026amp; Ramos 2024), the study of pre-Hispanic navigation relies on chronicles and other written records that refer to the boats used by the indigenous people \u0026ldquo;of old\u0026rdquo; (AGI, Santa Fe, 96, N.5B, ff. 456v-457r.). In this regard, in order to present a historical perspective, we need to adjust concepts and nautical perspectives to maximise the information provided by the written record, which sometimes is extremely succinct.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eTher term \u0026ldquo;canoe\u0026rdquo; is a Caribe word, adopted by the earliest Spaniards to arrive in America in the late 15th century, used to refer to boats made \u0026ldquo;in a single piece\u0026rdquo;, as described by Fern\u0026aacute;ndez de Oviedo\u0026rsquo;s \u003cem\u003eHistoria General y Natural de las Indias\u003c/em\u003e (1852 [1535]: 170). Some of the earliest references to canoes in our region date to the first third of the 16th century, including the letters of governor Garc\u0026iacute;a de Lerma (AGI, Patronato,197, R.6, f. 32v.) and coeval and later chronicles of the up-river expedition of Jim\u0026eacute;nez de Quesada in 1537, which are full of allusions to indigenous canoes (Nieva 2025). As an aside, it is perhaps too easy to dismiss these brief descriptions of canoes carved out of a single piece of timber or trunk as excessively generic and vague. In fact, comparisons with contemporary Castilian chronicles from other American regions, which refer to other types of canoes that have been verified archaeologically and ethnographically, confirm that these early descriptions are sufficiently accurate. As an example, in the Southern Cone, Yahgan canoes were described by Juan de Ladrillero as \u0026ldquo;tree bark canoes\u0026rdquo; (1557 [1880]: 473), illustrating that these descriptions, albeit concise, can be very informative.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn our context, aside from raft-like boats, the record does not mention bark or sewn canoes similar to the \u003cem\u003edalkas\u003c/em\u003e from the Southern Cone, but canoes made in a single tree trunk or \u0026ldquo;dug out trunks\u0026rdquo; (Castellanos, 1589 [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2007\u003c/span\u003e]: 268), also Pedro Sim\u0026oacute;n confirms that canoe \u0026ldquo;is only made of a dug tree trunk\u0026rdquo; [1627 (1986): 59]. Once the 16th -century written evidence for indigenous approach to river navigation in the peri-contact period had been examined, we needed to explore textual and graphic evidence for later periods, up to watercolours and photographs dated to the 20th century. In this way, even before fieldwork began, we could attest the use of monoxylous canoes in the region in the 16th century, their use as an important vehicle of trade under the Spanish administration, and the development of some typologies based on this core concept (Fajardo 2009; Nieva 2024b; Nieva \u0026amp; Gull\u0026oacute;n 2025). These canoes continue featuring in the written record in the 17th and 18th centuries, and in 19th -century watercolours of both shores of the Magdalena River (Walhouse Mark 1846). Similarly, despite the emergence of new nautical devices like the steamboat and the subsequent deforestation of the riverbanks \u0026ndash; recounted by popular literature (Garc\u0026iacute;a M\u0026aacute;rquez \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1985\u003c/span\u003e) \u0026ndash;, monoxylous canoes continued travelling the Magdalena, judging by 20th -century photographs (Archivo fotogr\u0026aacute;fico - Cu\u0026eacute;llar Jim\u0026eacute;nez 1928\u0026ndash;1955, BVBR). In consequence, it was possible to attest the continued use of the type of canoes described by the early chroniclers to today, leading to a new phase in our research programme, deploying a transdisciplinary approach to examine the extant material and immaterial record. Another of our targets was to assess the potential threats faced by this naval conception and its deep roots in the region.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe first season of fieldwork was undertaken in 2022, and it involved travelling up river for a distance of approximately 1000 km, from the city of Santa Marta and through Ci\u0026eacute;naga Grande (CGSM), to turn into the channel of \u003cem\u003eAguas Negras\u003c/em\u003e and up the main and secondary river courses to Barrancabermeja (ancient Tora). This allowed us to visit many riverine towns and communities, whose way of life has been historically described to happen \u0026ldquo;more on canoes than on land\u0026rdquo; (Aguado, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1906\u003c/span\u003e [written in the 16th -century]: 89). The everyday life of these communities, which Fals Borda characterised in the 20th century as an amphibious culture (1979), is still strongly coloured by the river and its fluctuations. Fieldwork seasons to complement the information gathered during this initial trip were undertaken in 2023, 2024, and 2025. This fieldwork, a sort of contemporary scientific expedition, aimed to answer general and specific questions, which combined the perspective of historians, anthropologists, biologists, and botanists around traditional navigation and its determinant factors. The study, therefore, aimed for a multi-pronged approach to address the material and immaterial record of the design and construction techniques used in monoxylous canoes in the Magdalena River and its swamps, the trees used in every district, and the elements that survive today in the memory of canoe makers, carpenters, and fishermen in the region.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Methodology","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe complexity of the issue demanded a transdisciplinary and interdisciplinary methodology, that is, the ability to travel across methodological boundaries, adopt different viewpoints, and use multiple research tools to optimise the evidence available. First, fieldwork involved recording manuscript and published primary records, using digital repositories and archive documents on both shores of the Atlantic. Concerning the topic of this article, the focus was on sources that convey a nautical perspective, examined form an ethnohistorical perspective (Jim\u0026eacute;nez 1972), to find references to indigenous canoes and their use, shapes, qualities, and raw materials.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eSecond, in order to keep a balance between archive- and fieldwork (Platt, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e), a solid ethnographic methodology was specifically designed for work in situational communities (Aguirre Bazt\u0026aacute;n \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1995\u003c/span\u003e and Mart\u0026iacute;nez Migu\u0026eacute;lez \u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e: 2). Also, classic ethnographic works with a nautical component, such as Mart\u0026iacute;n Gusinde\u0026rsquo;s in Tierra del Fuego (1986 [1931\u0026ndash;1937]) and Bronislaw Malinowski\u0026rsquo;s in Melanesia (1922), were reviewed, to gather comparable material about canoe makers, carpenters and fishermen, with particular emphasis on craft knowledge about wood selection and handling in the making of monoxylous boats (Arnold \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e, Lira \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThird, locational and material data was collected with traditional methods and new technologies, like DJI mini 3 PRO drones and the photogrammetric modelling of monoxyle and monoxyle-based canoes, oars, and construction tools. Afterwards, these records were analysed in the laboratory to establish the nautical properties of the assemblage. The photogrammetric model of canoes recorded in the field were used to create digital models from which to draw precise morphometric data. In the post-processing stage, textured OBJ, GLB, and/or STL models were imported into the software Blender, which allows adjusting such parameters as lighting and scale, and especially working with the 3D model to generate orthophotogrammetric views. Since the priority was to study the typology-morphology of the canoes, zenithal and lateral views were rendered. Finally, the graphic models were drawn with the vectorisation software Adobe Illustrator to facilitate the comparison of the canoes\u0026rsquo; technical features.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFinally, taking into account the extraordinarily close relationship that these amphibious cultures have with water \u0026ndash; and the consideration of landscape as a sociocultural construct, in both cognitive and physical terms, and its deep symbolic implications for the humans that inhabit it (Criado 1999:6) \u0026ndash;, canoes were regarded as an object that makes possible the objectivation of the cultural landscape to which they also belongs (Westerdahl \u003cspan citationid=\"CR56\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1992\u003c/span\u003e), taking a sort of reflexive view on the region\u0026rsquo;s environmental history (Worster \u003cspan citationid=\"CR57\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2004\u003c/span\u003e). For this reason, research on the species used for canoe-making included examining written records; river trips to locate traditional sourcing areas; and the collection of leaves, fruits, and trunks of the species that, according to historical and local testimonies, are used to make canoes. The information collected during interviews was assessed using a descriptive specific table, including physical and mechanical traits collected from various databases (Riesco \u003cem\u003eet al.\u003c/em\u003e 2019, Blanco \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e, Rosales-S\u0026oacute;lorzano 2020, Tamarit-Urias and Fuentes-Salinas \u003cspan citationid=\"CR51\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2003\u003c/span\u003e, Castiblanco-Rodr\u0026iacute;guez and Torres-V\u0026aacute;zquez \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). In order to identify the tree species the botany team examined the photographic records and compared them with information in databases Tr\u0026oacute;picos (2023) and Cat\u0026aacute;logo de Plantas y L\u0026iacute;quenes de Colombia (2019); the conservation status of these species is based on information published by the Internationnal Uni\u0026oacute;n for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN 2023); the analyses also examined the geographical context and areas where these species are used most intensively.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eLocation and record of monoxylous and monoxylous-based canoes\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eBased on fieldwork undertaken in 2022, 2023, and 2024 two specimens of unmodified monoxylous canoes (Horno-1 \u0026amp; Horno-2), and two monoxylous-based modified canoes (Morro-1 and Morro-2), were recorded. The names refer to the location (toponym) and the order (1\u0026ndash;2) of the finds.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eTable 1\u003c/b\u003e Data compiled during fieldwork. \u003cb\u003eSource\u003c/b\u003e: author\u0026rsquo;s own\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"No\" id=\"Taba\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"8\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eExample\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLength\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eWidth\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFunctional context\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLocation (find)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDepartament\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eRepairs\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eModifications original design\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eHorno-1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5.10\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.45\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEl Horno (San Zen\u0026oacute;n)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMagdalena\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eHorno-2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7.05\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.65\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEl Horno (San Zen\u0026oacute;n)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMagdalena\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMorro-1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7.70\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.58\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEl Morro (CGSM)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMagdalena\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMorro-2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e9.87\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.73\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEl Morro (CGSM)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMagdalena\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eRecorded examples (Horno 1 and 2)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThey were located during fieldwork in El Horno, a hamlet of the municipality of San Zen\u0026oacute;n (Magdalena, Colombia), in 2022 and 2023. They are two monoxylous canoes without modifications or additions; they were longitudinally symmetric (\u003cem\u003ei.e\u003c/em\u003e. the bow and the stern are the same) and presented obvious traces of wear, especially Horno-2, which presented a very significant crack on the hull, detected in 2024. Both canoes presented a hole in one of the bows, for mooring and dragging.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eRecorded examples (Morro-1 and Morro-2)\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eLocated in a functional context during the first season of fieldwork (2022) in El Morro, a hamlet of the municipality of Sitio Nuevo (Magdalena, Colombia). They are two monoxylous-based canoes with structural modifications and additions, like pairs of rib-like pieces and benches at the centre and the stern, to help steering and make the boat more robust. Similarly, both canoes presented composite \u003cem\u003erodas\u003c/em\u003e to repair significant damage in one or both ends of the boat. Only Morro-2 presents a mooring-hole. The use of structural supports (ribs) in canoes that are initially not designed for them, raise questions about different things, for instance concerning possible alternative function, for instance, occasionally holding a mast or lending additional solidity to the hull, helping it not to bend, to the outside or the inside, as a result of external forces related to the nautical use of the device, the natural behaviour of the raw material, or the dug-out nature of the canoes, which leave a wide opening in the middle and narrow ends.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eNautical analysis: canoe as a combined instrument\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eExperimental work on the ground and the analysis of the photogrammetric models allows us to establish the nautical properties or seaworthiness of these canoes (Jobson and Hildebrandt \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1980\u003c/span\u003e), including structural resistance, namely solidity and water tightness, following Pujol (2006), or the recent classification movement, floatability, stability and resistance, of Moyano Di Carlo (2018).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe monoxylous nature of these canoes makes them extremely resistant, as they lack any joints or weak points that could cause leaks. Generally, these boats deteriorate at the bottom and the ends as a result of everyday wear, as illustrated by Horno-2 and can be inferred with Morro 1 and 2. Concerning movement, the line of these canoes results in optimal hydrodynamic conditions, owing to its low freeboard and sheer and its smooth finish, without forgetting the flat bottom, which makes navigation in shallow waters possible. Similarly, although the length-width ratio and the longitudinal symmetry, it is eminently suitable for moving along the narrow channels that link the Magdalena River and the swamps that connect them. In this sense, in addition to a potential use of sail inferred by the holes with cockpit function observed in Morro 2 (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e), the main propulsion elements related to this type of canoe are \u003cem\u003ecanalete\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003ep\u0026eacute;rtiga\u003c/em\u003e or pole. In this area the most common morphology on \u003cem\u003ecanalete\u003c/em\u003e is the oval shovel one, used from the stern to propel and steer the canoe. If we talk about the pole, may have their distal end finished in tip or fork, to nail into the bottom and turn into a driving force.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eOn the other hand, the floatability in monoxylous canoes is a direct function of the density ratio between the canoe and fresh and salty water (998 kg/m\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e and 1026 kg/m\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e respectively), as well as expert craftsmanship keeping the bottom on centre. It must be emphasised that stability can be static or dynamic, depending on the external and internal forces that affect the vessel, as well as longitudinal and lateral, depending on the axis upon with these forces act. Typically, the most important stability variable in ships is lateral stability, as it affects the vessel\u0026rsquo;s ability to recover its centre of gravity, which directly affects the danger of capsizing. By virtue of their design, monoxylous canoes have a very high length to width ratio (\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;10\u0026thinsp;\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1), resulting in good longitudinal but poor lateral stability. Although in inland bodies of water, especially swamps, the external forces that affect stability are weak, this remains the main nautical drawback of monoxylous canoes. It is with regard to this that the importance of hands-on knowledge shows its full value; \u003cem\u003ecanoeros\u003c/em\u003e can offset the functional deficiencies of their canoes with their skills; they know how to distribute the loads and crew, keep their balance as they steer the boat, and use the right force to keep it on the move steadily and surely. In this way, canoes become a composite instrument or functional system (Muckelroy \u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1978\u003c/span\u003e), in which the person and the object merge into one.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eIdentification of tree species\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAs noted in the introduction, the joint interdisciplinary work of historians, ethnographers, and botanists was deployed to identify of the tree species potentially used in the traditional construction of monoxylous canoes. Taking into account the frequently complex and confusing nomenclature of tree species, particularly in chronicles and regional uses, all three approaches were critical for the specific characterisation. The following section present the first stage of the study, about the evidences for the identification of raw materials drawn by each field, and possible links with species identified in different sections of the river.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eHistorical nomenclature\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFirst, published and unpublished primary sources (chronicles, letters, descriptions, ordinances, etc.) were reviewed to detect the denomination of trees used in the construction of monoxylous canoes.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTree species in the historical record about the Magdalena River and its area of influence in the Nuevo Reino de Granada (\u003cem\u003ee.g.\u003c/em\u003e Moporo).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Credit\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eSource\u003c/b\u003e: Author\u0026rsquo;s own\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"6\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSource\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eWood\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eUse\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eArea\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eYear\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFol./p.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eJ. Castellanos\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCeiba\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCanoe\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLower Magdalena\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1589\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e441\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eJ. Castellanos\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCeiba\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1589\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e182?\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eP. Sim\u0026oacute;n\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCeiba\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eGeneral\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1627\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e62 y 79\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eP. Sim\u0026oacute;n\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCeiba\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCanoe\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNueva Granada\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1637\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e61\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLetters to the \u003cem\u003eAudiencia\u003c/em\u003e of Santa Fe\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAlmond tree\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCanoe\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMiddle Magdalena\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1603\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2r.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLetters to the \u003cem\u003eAudiencia\u003c/em\u003e of Santa Fe\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCedar\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCanoe\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMiddle Magdalena\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1603\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2r.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eOrdinances for the Swamps\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCeiba\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCanoe\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSwamp\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1600\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003es.f.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePiedrahita\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCedar\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNueva Granada\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1688\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEsmaile\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCeiba\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCanoe\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMoporo*\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1710\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAGN, Caciques e indios, 4, D.22\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFrancisco de la Rocha Ferrer\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSeiba\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCanoe\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMoporo*\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1714\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAGN, Caciques e indios, 4, D.15\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFrancisco de la Rocha Ferrer\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSeiba\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCanoe\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMoporo*\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1717\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAGN, Caciques e indios, 4, D.24\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eJuli\u0026aacute;n\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCedar\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCanoe\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSanta Marta (Province)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1787\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e239\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eJuli\u0026aacute;n\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eGuacamayo\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEmbarcaciones\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSanta Marta\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(Province)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1787\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e240\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAcosta\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCeiba\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eOriental area\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1800\u0026ndash;1852\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e76\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eGogorza\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCaoba\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCanoa\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSin\u0026uacute; basin\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1862\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e*1205\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eCommon denominations\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn 2022, 2023, and 2024, we collected abundant ethnographic information from \u003cem\u003ecanoeros\u003c/em\u003e and carpenters in various sections of the river, some of which greatly transcends the nautical field, which is of great value concerning the raw materials used.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCommon nomenclature of tree species among the inhabitants of the shores of the Magdalena and nearby swamps.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"Credit\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eSource\u003c/b\u003e: Author\u0026rsquo;s own\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"5\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSource\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eWood\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eUse\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eArea\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eYear\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eJairo\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eCaracol\u0026iacute;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCanoe\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTasajeras- CGSM\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2022\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAhmed Guti\u0026eacute;rrez\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCeiba roja\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCanoe\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTasajeras- CGSM\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2022\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAhmed Guti\u0026eacute;rrez\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eYellow ceiba\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCanoe\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTasajeras- CGSM\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2022\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAhmed Guti\u0026eacute;rrez\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eCampano\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCanoe\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTasajeras- CGSM\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2022\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eRolando\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAj\u0026iacute;-coral\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCanoe\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEl Morro-CGSM\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2022\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eRolando\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCeiba\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCanoe\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEl Morro-CGSM\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2022\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDaniel Cervantes\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eCaracol\u0026iacute;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCanoe\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEl Morro-CGSM\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2022\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDaniel Cervantes\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCanelo/laurel\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCanoe\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEl Morro-CGSM\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2022\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBladimir\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eTol\u0026uacute;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCanoe\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBrazo de Mompox\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2022\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBladimir\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eIguamarillo\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCanoe\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBrazo de Mompox\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2022\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBladimir\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eYellow ceiba\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCanoe\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBrazo de Mompox\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2022\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBladimir\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eGuacamayo\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCanoe\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBrazo de Mompox\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2022\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBladimir\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eCeiba Pi\u0026ntilde;\u0026oacute;n\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCanoe\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBrazo de Mompox\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2022\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eJos\u0026eacute; Madrid\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eCampano\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCanoe\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLower Magdalena -El Horno\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2022\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eJos\u0026eacute; Madrid\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCedar\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCanoe\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLower Magdalena -El Horno\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2022\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eJos\u0026eacute; Madrid\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAj\u0026iacute;-coral\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCanoe\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMiddle Magdalena-El Banco\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2022\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eJos\u0026eacute; Madrid\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eCarreto\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCanoe\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLower Magdalena -El Horno\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2022\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eManuel\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAj\u0026iacute;-coral\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCanoe\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLower Magdalena -El Horno\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2023\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eManuel\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCeiba\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCanoe\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLower Magdalena -El Horno\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2023\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eJes\u0026uacute;s\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eCaracol\u0026iacute;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCanoe\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePuebloviejo- CGSM\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2024\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eJes\u0026uacute;s\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCeiba\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCanoe\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePuebloviejo- CGSM\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2024\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBladimir\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAj\u0026iacute;-coral\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCanoe\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMiddle Magdalena-El Banco\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2024\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAlfonso Retamoso\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCeiba\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCanoe\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEl Jaguey-Tasajeras\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2024\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAlfonso Retamoso\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eCaracol\u0026iacute;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCanoe\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEl Jaguey-Tasajeras\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2024\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eJ. Miguel\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eCaracoli\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCanoe\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEl Caiman-Tasajeras\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2025\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eJ. Miguel\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCeiba\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCanoe\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEl Caiman-Tasajeras\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2025\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eScientific denominations\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eParallel to the historiographical and ethnographic work, during fieldwork, all the data required to identify tree species was collected and sourcing areas defined. A total of 24 species in ten families were identified; the most widely-represented family is that of \u003cem\u003eLeguminosae\u003c/em\u003e, with five species, followed by the \u003cem\u003eMalvaceae\u003c/em\u003e, with three species (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e). According to IUCN\u0026rsquo;s red list, most of the species are listed as \u0026ldquo;Least concern\u0026rdquo;, but \u003cem\u003eSwietenia macrophylla\u003c/em\u003e King (mahogany) and \u003cem\u003eHandroanthus chrysanthus\u003c/em\u003e (Jacq.) S.O. Grose (\u003cem\u003eCa\u0026ntilde;aguate\u003c/em\u003e) are regarded as \u0026ldquo;Vulnerable\u0026rdquo; and \u003cem\u003eCariniana pyriformis\u003c/em\u003e Miers (\u003cem\u003eAbarco\u003c/em\u003e) and \u003cem\u003eAnacardium excelsum\u003c/em\u003e Skeels (\u003cem\u003eCaracol\u0026iacute;\u003c/em\u003e) are reported as \u0026ldquo;Near Threatened\u0026rdquo;. Most are indigenous species of the Tropical Dry Forest, and some belong to Mangrove Forest environments, also found in the riverbanks of the Magdalena (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 4\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eHabitat of the tree species.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"2\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eType of forest\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNumber of species\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDry tropical forest\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e21\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eHumid tropical forest\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMangrove forest\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab4\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 5\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eClassification of wood types according to density based on Riesco \u003cem\u003eet al.\u003c/em\u003e, (2019)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"2\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDensity of the wood\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eRank\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eVery light\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.30\u0026ndash;0.50 g/cm\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eLight\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.51\u0026ndash;0.65 g/cm\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMedium\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.66\u0026ndash;0.80 g/cm\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eHeavy\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.81\u0026ndash;0.95 g/cm\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eVery heavy\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;0.95 g/cm\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e The following table presents the ten species mentioned in historical records and ethnographic interviews and found on the ground. The physical qualities of these ten species are informative not only in terms of identification, but also regarding the use life of monoxylous canoes made with them.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab5\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 6\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003ePhysical and mechanical properties of wood types used to make canoes in the lower and part of the middle Magdalena regions. Based on Francis, (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2000\u003c/span\u003e), Tamarit-Urias and Fuentes-Salinas (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR51\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2003\u003c/span\u003e), Ben\u0026iacute;tez et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e, Riesco \u003cem\u003eet al.\u003c/em\u003e, (2019), Blanco (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e), Rosales-S\u0026oacute;lorzano (2020), Peralta (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). The properties of some of the species could not be found\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"6\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eScientific name\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eComon name\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDensity (g/cm\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eHumidity (%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eVolumetric contraction (%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eHardness (Kgf)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAlbizia niopoides\u003c/em\u003e (Spruce ex Benth.) Burkart\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eGuacamayo\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.55\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e8\u0026ndash;18\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e--\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e--\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAnacardium excelsum\u003c/em\u003e Skeels\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eCaracol\u0026iacute;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.41\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e18.5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7.70\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e210\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAspidosperma polyneuron\u003c/em\u003e (M\u0026uuml;ll. Arg.)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eCarreto\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.77\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7.1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1329\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eBombacopsis quinata\u003c/em\u003e Dugand\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eTol\u0026uacute;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.39\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e--\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e8.0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e--\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eCedrela odorata\u003c/em\u003e L.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCedar\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.42\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e55.2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e10.2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e265\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eCeiba pentandra\u003c/em\u003e\u0026nbsp;(L.) Gaertn.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eRed ceiba\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.41\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e--\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e9.30\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e--\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eHura crepitans\u003c/em\u003e L.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eYellow ceiba\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.39\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e--\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e9\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e--\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eMorella pubescens\u003c/em\u003e (Humb. \u0026amp; Bonpl. ex Willd.) Wilbur\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eCanelo\u003c/em\u003e or laurel\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.57\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e86.20\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.84\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e--\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSamanea saman\u003c/em\u003e (Jacq.) Merr.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eCampano\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.46\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e--\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6.55\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e409\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eTerminalia catappa\u003c/em\u003e L.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eWalnut tree\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.43\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e--\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e--\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e440\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ePhyllanthus elsiae\u003c/em\u003e Urb.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAj\u0026iacute;-coral\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.59\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e--\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e--\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e--\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn terms of density, the wood used to make canoes ranges from 0.30 to 0.77 g/cm\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e; humidity ranged from 8 to 87%, volumetric contraction from 0.8 to 10.0%; and, finally, hardness from 210 to 1329 Kgf (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e). According to the literature, woods that are reported as from very light to light present the following physical properties: \u003cem\u003eAnacardium excelsum\u003c/em\u003e (\u003cem\u003eCaracol\u0026iacute;\u003c/em\u003e): density 0.41g/cm\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e; humidity: 18.5%: volumetric contraction: 7.7%; hardness 210 Kgf; \u003cem\u003eCedrela odorata\u003c/em\u003e (Cedar): density: 0.42 g/cm\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e; humidity: 55.2%: volumetric contraction:10,2%; hardness: 265 Kgf; \u003cem\u003eCeiba pentandra\u003c/em\u003e (Red ceiba): density: 0.41 g/cm\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e; volumetric contraction: 9.30%; \u003cem\u003eMorella pubescens\u003c/em\u003e: density: 0.57 g/cm\u003csup\u003e3\u003c/sup\u003e; humidity: 86.20%: volumetric contraction: 0.84%.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eWe cannot forget the use of mangroves for certain propulsion elements or structural elements in cases of re-mining after breaks, especially in the swamps of the Magdalena River Estuarine Delta System. Mangrove ecosystems range from small patches made up of low-growing individuals to large expanses of specimens exceeding 40 m in height (Calder\u0026oacute;n et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e). They are composed of tree-like and shrub-like species and a wide variety of associated vegetation, which overcome the stressors of the marine-coastal environment (Milena Agudelo et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e). The most representative mangrove species in the Ci\u0026eacute;naga are Avicennia germinans (salt mangrove), Laguncularia racemosa (yellow mangrove), Rhizophora mangle (red mangrove), and, to a lesser extent, Conocarpus erectus (loggerhead mangrove) (INVEMAR, 2014). As with other tree species mentioned, pressure on mangrove forests is also permanent. These forests are in danger due to port activity in the area, sewage pollution, tree felling, livestock farming, agriculture and mainly due to the alteration of the natural exchange and flow of water through the Lagoon Complex due to the execution of civil works. (Vides, J. J. M. 2022).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eCanoe design and construction\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn terms of canoe construction, we need to take into account design and manufacturing techniques (Pomey \u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e: 28) to establish possible continuities and change over time. In this regard, it was possible to determine that, in the Magdalena River, there is significant continuity, despite the fluctuation between conditioning factors (Adams \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2001\u003c/span\u003e), especially concerning raw materials and tools. However, although the design of canoes has changed little, the introduction of metal tools has considerably affected canoe manufacture (Castellanos 1589 [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2007\u003c/span\u003e]: 182). However, taking into account historical records, iconographic representations and examples of monoxylous canoes kept in museums such as the Museo Naval de Madrid (15 m long), which are morphologically similar and have connections with the region, a gradual reduction in length is attested, likely as a result of deforestation, which has made trees with long trunks harder to come by, as well as other historical factors.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn areas where the memory of former monoxylous canoes remains, metal tools respond to Spanish typologies and nomenclatures (L\u0026oacute;pez, J. ET AL. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e, Silva L\u0026oacute;pez \u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e and Nieva 2023), particularly axes and adzes. There are also differences in technique by region, therefore deserves more room that we can dedicate it here, but essentially coinciding with other continental parallels (Lira \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e y Trejo 2022). In general terms, the \u003cem\u003echa\u0026icirc;ne op\u0026eacute;ratoire\u003c/em\u003e before optimal use and subsequent discard, consists of at least three phases and six steps, from design to launch, passing through roughing, dug out, finishing and curing (Nieva, 2024a: 104). From a historical perspective, continuities in design not only allow us to attest the conservation of secular construction techniques and designs in dug-out canoes (Rieth \u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1998\u003c/span\u003e), but also of a whole panoply of traditional practices in the relationship between carpenters and raw materials. This includes a deep knowledge of trees, for the selection of the right species and trunks; the felling of trees, during a waning moon period, to avoid infection by xylophages; and wood seasoning methods (traditional carpenters in Brazo de Mompox, El Horno, Tasajeras, and Puebloviejo, pers. comm. 2022, 2023, and 2024). All of this greatly affects the nautical qualities of the boats, which totally rely on those of a single piece of wood.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eFinal considerations\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe recording and description of the last monoxylous canoes in the region improve our understanding of navigation in the Magdalena River basin, while attesting the sharp drop in this practice, which is today virtually extinct. In addition, the combination of fieldwork in the river and the swamps and nautical analysis based on photogrammetric processing, has made it possible to examine the nautical properties of these traditional vessels, their resilience in a landscape that has remained extraordinarily dynamic in naval terms for centuries, flagging again that their design is a direct function of the uses and demands for which it was conceived. On the other hand, our interdisciplinary work has allowed for the crossing of historical, ethnographic, and botanic data concerning tree species used to build canoes, creating a valuable baseline for future research in the region and a guide for the search of more examples in the future. This will allow for a broader historical, ethnographic and botanic characterisation of the type, which could be complemented with the dendrochronological analysis of known specimens. In addition, our results raise new questions concerning deforestation in the lower Magdalena and how this may have affected canoe construction, both in terms of the number of specimens and of their reduction in length. Finally, this study underlines the need for interdisciplinary approaches, capable of generating a holistic knowledge of historical, environmental, and cultural processes pertaining to the relationship between humans and their aquatic medium.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003ch2\u003eFunding\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis research was undertaken within the framework of project FPU20/01462, funded by Ministerio de Universidades (Spain), \u0026ldquo;Proyecto \u003cem\u003eConnexa Mundi\u003c/em\u003e PID2021-126850NB-I00, funded by MCIN/ AEI/10.13039/501100011033/ and FEDER\u0026rdquo;, and with the support of Vicerrector\u0026iacute;a de Investigaci\u0026oacute;n de la Universidad del Magdalena and Plan Propio, Universidad de C\u0026aacute;diz.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eArchives\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eArchivo General de Indias \u0026ndash; AGI (Sevilla, Espa\u0026ntilde;a)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSanta Fe\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ePatronato\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eArchivo General de la Naci\u0026oacute;n - AGN (Bogot\u0026aacute;, Colombia)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eCaciques e indios\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBiblioteca Virtual del Banco de la Rep\u0026uacute;blica \u0026ndash; BVBR (Bogot\u0026aacute;, Colombia)\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eArchivo fotogr\u0026aacute;fico de Gumersindo Cu\u0026eacute;llar Jim\u0026eacute;nez 1928-1955\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eImpresiones de un viaje por Guti\u0026eacute;rrez de Alba 1870-1884\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eAuthor Contribution\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eDaniel M. Nieva SanzDesign and development of archival work and fieldwork;Researchers Coordination;Wrote the main manuscript text;Development of nautical analysis and ethnographic work.Willington Barranco-P\u0026eacute;rezCoordination and development of the entire tree species identification process by region, based on field records;Wrote the botanical parts of main manuscript text.Alberto J. Gull\u0026oacute;n AbaoCo-coordination of archiving work and historic perspective.Michelle V. Soto-Avenda\u0026ntilde;oDevelopment of the entire tree species identification process by region, based on field records;Wrote the botanical parts of main manuscript text;Preparation of tables related to botanical work.Jos\u0026eacute; Luis Portillo-SoteloProcessing of the photogrammetric record and generate 3D model for orthophotogrammetric views; Drawn with the vectorisation software Adobe Illustrator.M. Viviana Granados Le\u0026oacute;nDevelopment of specific work about mangrove.All authors reviewed the manuscript.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAcknowledgement\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eWe wish to thank carpenters and fishermen, who lend their unconditional support to the project during fieldwork along the river: Jairo and family; \u0026Aacute;ngel L\u0026oacute;pez and son; Bladimir Madrid and family; Rolando and family; Jes\u0026uacute;s Su\u0026aacute;rez; Cristobal Manuel Pallares; Daniel Cervantes and brother; Mar\u0026iacute;a de la Hoz; Ahmed Guti\u0026eacute;rrez; Jos\u0026eacute; Madrid and sons, among many local people, without whose support this research would not have been possible. We must also thank colleagues from different scientific disciplines who also provided their collaboration in different phases of the field work, such as biologists and scientific communicators Ignacio Gal\u0026aacute;n, Santiago de Narv\u0026aacute;ez and Fabio Bol\u0026iacute;var, the anthropologist Luis C. \u0026Aacute;lvarez, the historians Jorge Enrique El\u0026iacute;as Caro and Edgar Rey Sinning, Elsa L\u0026oacute;pez Manjarr\u0026eacute;s on graphic support and logistics staff Angie Montero .\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAdams, J. (2001) Ships and boats as archaeological source material. \u003cem\u003eWorld Archaeology \u003c/em\u003e32.3: 292-310.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAguado, Fray Pedro de (1906-written 16th century) \u003cem\u003eRecopilaci\u0026oacute;n Historial\u003c/em\u003e. Imprenta Nacional, Bogot\u0026aacute;.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAgudelo, Claudia M.; Bol\u0026iacute;var, Jhoanata; Polan\u0026iacute;a, Jaime; Urrego, Ligia E.; Yepes, Adriana; Sierra, Andr\u0026eacute;s (2015) Estructura y composici\u0026oacute;n flor\u0026iacute;stica de los manglares de la bah\u0026iacute;a de Cispat\u0026aacute;, Caribe colombiano, Revista de Biolog\u0026iacute;a Tropical, vol. 63, n\u0026uacute;m. 4: 1137-1147\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAguirre Bazt\u0026aacute;n, A. (Ed.) (1995) \u003cem\u003eEtnograf\u0026iacute;a Metodolog\u0026iacute;a cualitativa en la investigaci\u0026oacute;n sociocultural\u003c/em\u003e. Editorial Boixareu universitaria, Barcelona.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAguirre Cauh\u0026eacute;, S. (1995) Entrevistas y cuestionarios, en Aguirre Bazt\u0026aacute;n, A. (Ed.), \u003cem\u003eEtnograf\u0026iacute;a Metodolog\u0026iacute;a cualitativa en la investigaci\u0026oacute;n sociocultural\u003c/em\u003e. Editorial Boixareu universitaria, Barcelona, pp 171-180.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eArnold, B. (2017) Les cano\u0026euml;s en \u0026eacute;corce d\u0026apos;Am\u0026eacute;rique du Sud: de l\u0026apos;Amazonie \u0026agrave; la Terre de Feu. Ed. G d\u0026apos;Encre, Le Locle.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAlberda, A., \u0026amp; Ramos P\u0026eacute;rez, R. L. (2024) The J\u0026atilde;ba: Dugout Canoes of the Ember\u0026aacute; \u0026ndash; An Ethnoarchaeological Analysis in Dari\u0026eacute;n and the Ember\u0026aacute;\u0026ndash;Wounaan Territory in Panama. \u003cem\u003eInternational Journal of Nautical Archaeology\u003c/em\u003e 53(2): 430\u0026ndash;455.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eBen\u0026iacute;tez, D., Vel\u0026aacute;squez, C., \u0026amp; Cogollo, \u0026Aacute;. (2013) Densidad b\u0026aacute;sica del fuste de \u0026aacute;rboles del bosque seco en la costa Caribe de Colombia. \u003cem\u003eIntropica: Revista del Instituto de Investigaciones Tropicales\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e8\u003c/em\u003e(1): 17-28.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eBernal, R., S.R. Gradstein \u0026amp; M. Celis (eds.) (2019) Cat\u0026aacute;logo de plantas y l\u0026iacute;quenes de Colombia. Instituto de Ciencias Naturales. Universidad Nacional de Colombia, Bogot\u0026aacute;. http://catalogoplantasdecolombia.unal.edu.co.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eBlanco, J. (2020) Caracterizaci\u0026oacute;n de las 30 especies forestales maderables m\u0026aacute;s movilizadas en Colombia provenientes del bosque natural. Organizaci\u0026oacute;n de las Naciones Unidas para la Alimentaci\u0026oacute;n y la Agricultura, Ministerio de Ambiente y Desarrollo Sostenible y Uni\u0026oacute;n Europea, Bogot\u0026aacute;. \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eCalder\u0026oacute;n, C., Aburto, O., \u0026amp; Ezcurra, E. (2009) El valor de los manglares. CONABIO, Biodiversitas, 82: 1-6.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eCastellanos, J. (2007 [1589]) Eleg\u0026iacute;as de varones ilustres de Indias compuestas por Juan Castellanos, Tomo I, Biblioteca Virtual Miguel de Cervantes.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eCastiblanco-Rodr\u0026iacute;guez, L. F. \u0026amp; Torres-V\u0026aacute;zquez, H. O. (2020) \u003cem\u003eAn\u0026aacute;lisis de las propiedades f\u0026iacute;sicas y mec\u0026aacute;nicas del culmo de Guadua angustifolia en la construcci\u0026oacute;n y estudio de un m\u0026eacute;todo de protecci\u0026oacute;n a la intemperie. Trabajo de Grado. Universidad Cat\u0026oacute;lica de Colombia\u003c/em\u003e. Facultad de Ingenier\u0026iacute;a. Programa de Ingenier\u0026iacute;a Civil, Bogot\u0026aacute;.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eFals Borda, Orlando (1979) \u003cem\u003eHistoria doble de la costa: Mompox y Loba. \u003c/em\u003eCarlos Valencia editores, Bogot\u0026aacute;.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eFelipe Criado Boado (1999) Del terreno al espacio: planteamientos y perspectivas para la arqueolog\u0026iacute;a del paisaje, \u003cem\u003eCriterios y convenciones en Arqueolog\u0026iacute;a del paisaje\u003c/em\u003e 6, Grupo de investigaciones en Arqueolog\u0026iacute;a del paisaje, Santiago de Compostela.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eFrancis, J. K. (2000) Bioecolog\u0026iacute;a de Arboles Nativos y Ex\u0026oacute;ticos de Puerto Rico y las Indias Occidentales. International Institute of Tropical Forestry, Puerto Rico. \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eFuquen Gomez, C. (2014) Logboats of Coqu\u0026iacute;: an ethnographic approach to maritime material culture (Doctoral dissertation, University of Southampton).\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eGarc\u0026iacute;a M\u0026aacute;rquez, G. (1985) El amor en los tiempos del c\u0026oacute;lera. Editorial Oveja Negra, Bogot\u0026aacute;.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eGuerrero Ayuso, V\u0026iacute;ctor M. (2009) \u003cem\u003ePrehistoria de la navegaci\u0026oacute;n\u003c/em\u003e. Oxford BAR International Series, Oxford. \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eGusinde, M. (1986) \u003cem\u003eLos indios de Tierra del Fuego: resultado de mis cuatro expediciones en los a\u0026ntilde;os 1918 hasta 1924\u003c/em\u003e, vols. I, II y III, Editorial CONICET, Buenos Aires.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eGogorza, Andr\u0026eacute;s Anthoine de, Gran canoa colombiana de Cartagena de Indias (c 1862), Museo Naval de Madrid, n\u0026ordm; de inventario 1205. \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eJim\u0026eacute;nez N\u0026uacute;\u0026ntilde;ez, A. (1972) El m\u0026eacute;todo etnohist\u0026oacute;rico y su contribuci\u0026oacute;n a la antropolog\u0026iacute;a americana. \u003cem\u003eRevista espa\u0026ntilde;ola de antropolog\u0026iacute;a americana, \u003c/em\u003e7: 163-196.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eJobson, Robert W. y Hildebrandt, William R., (1980) \u0026ldquo;The distribution of oceangoing canoes on the north coast of California\u0026rdquo;, \u003cem\u003eJournal of California and Great Basin Anthropology \u003c/em\u003e2.2: 165-174.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eLadrillero, Juan de, (1880) Relaci\u0026oacute;n del viaje al Estrecho de Magallanes 1557-1559, In: Anuario Hidrogr\u0026aacute;fico de la Marina de Chile. 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BAR International Series 2901.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eNieva Sanz, D. M. \u0026amp; Gull\u0026oacute;n Abao, A. J. (2025) La navegaci\u0026oacute;n en el r\u0026iacute;o Magdalena: ayer y hoy (ss. XVI-XXI), Editorial UniMagdalena, Santa Marta.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eNieva Sanz, D. M. (2025) Bergantines y canoas en los r\u0026iacute;os Magdalena y Paran\u0026aacute;: Un modelo de an\u0026aacute;lisis transdisciplinar para expediciones fluviales en Am\u0026eacute;rica (siglo XVI), Editorial Aconcagua, Sevilla. \u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eNieva Sanz, D. M. (2024a) La canoa mon\u0026oacute;xila y el saber inmaterial de sus \u0026uacute;ltimos carpinteros: trabajo de campo en El Horno (Magdalena, Colombia). Revista Espa\u0026ntilde;ola de Antropolog\u0026iacute;a Americana 54(1): 101-113.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eNieva Sanz, D. M. (2024b). Una aproximaci\u0026oacute;n integral al origen del champ\u0026aacute;n en el R\u0026iacute;o Magdalena (Siglos XVI-XIX). 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(2022) Estructura y diversidad del bosque de manglar de las \u0026aacute;reas protegidas santuario de flora y fauna ci\u0026eacute;naga grande de Santa Marta y v\u0026iacute;a parque Isla de Salamanca, tesis en bilog\u0026iacute;a, Universidad del Magdalena.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eWalhouse Mark, Edward (1846) Colecci\u0026oacute;n de arte del Banco de la Rep\u0026uacute;blica, Colombia.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eWesterdahl, Christer (1992) The Maritime Cultural Landscape\u0026rdquo;, \u003cem\u003eThe International Journal of Nautical Archaeology\u003c/em\u003e, 21: 5-14.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eWorster, Donald, (2004) \u0026iquest;Por qu\u0026eacute; necesitamos de la historia ambiental?, \u003cem\u003eRevista Tareas \u003c/em\u003e117: 119-130.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":true,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"journal-of-maritime-archaeology","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"jmar","sideBox":"Learn more about [Journal of Maritime Archaeology](http://link.springer.com/journal/11457)","snPcode":"11457","submissionUrl":"https://submission.nature.com/new-submission/11457/3","title":"Journal of Maritime Archaeology","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"Springer Hybrid","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":false},"keywords":"ethnoarchaeology, nautical ethnography, botany, blue humanities","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7265260/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-7265260/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eThis article presents a synthesis of the results of five years of interdisciplinary and transdisciplinary research on traditional navigation in the Magdalena River water system and its adjacent swamps. Over the course multiple fieldwork campaigns, it was possible to fully record and ethnographically analyse the use of monoxylous canoes used in rivers and swamps; the location of their construction and wood supply areas; and the regional differences in the historical, common, and scientific names of the tree species traditionally used in their construction. This involved deploying an interdisciplinary methodology that combines history, ethnography, ethnoarchaeology, and botany, to move between methodological perspectives and optimize the use of documentary, material, and oral sources on the historical relationship between the amphibious cultures in the region and the largely aquatic environment that surrounds them.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Trees and monoxylous canoes: results of a transdisciplinary study in the lower basin of Magdalena River (Colombia)","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-08-19 16:42:48","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7265260/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"decision","content":"Revision requested","date":"2025-09-30T16:40:25+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2025-09-30T03:24:49+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2025-08-22T16:10:32+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"4663238998557070550309369743235796452","date":"2025-08-20T00:21:19+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"9651134366085699358148754484206425240","date":"2025-08-19T21:10:17+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2025-08-11T20:53:43+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2025-08-01T15:21:23+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"checksComplete","content":"","date":"2025-08-01T09:21:06+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"Journal of Maritime Archaeology","date":"2025-07-31T19:31:39+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"journal-of-maritime-archaeology","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"jmar","sideBox":"Learn more about [Journal of Maritime Archaeology](http://link.springer.com/journal/11457)","snPcode":"11457","submissionUrl":"https://submission.nature.com/new-submission/11457/3","title":"Journal of Maritime Archaeology","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"Springer Hybrid","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":false}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"a449ea6b-9448-4aef-9e16-cfb996a1cd29","owner":[],"postedDate":"August 19th, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"published-in-journal","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-03-30T16:27:51+00:00","versionOfRecord":{"articleIdentity":"rs-7265260","link":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s11457-026-09502-9","journal":{"identity":"journal-of-maritime-archaeology","isVorOnly":false,"title":"Journal of Maritime Archaeology"},"publishedOn":"2026-03-23 16:12:27","publishedOnDateReadable":"March 23rd, 2026"},"versionCreatedAt":"2025-08-19 16:42:48","video":"","vorDoi":"10.1007/s11457-026-09502-9","vorDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s11457-026-09502-9","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-7265260","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-7265260","identity":"rs-7265260","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}