Methodological Considerations and Effectiveness for Ecologically Valid Mental Fatigue Inducement in Sports: a Systematic Review

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Ongoing developments in the representativeness of MF inducement approaches, including the broad range of sport-specific motor tasks to simulated real-life scenarios, have shown methodological variability and inconsistent outcomes of effectiveness. Evaluating and comparing these approaches is essential to provide recommendations for designinginducement tasks in future research and considerations for practitioners. Therefore, the systematic review aimed to summarize more ecologically valid MF-inducing tasks in representative sports contexts and to evaluate the MF inducement effectiveness via manipulation check outcomes and potential aftereffects on subsequent sport-specific performance. Methods: The review was registered on the PROSPERO database (CRD42024577183). PubMed, Web of Science, PsycINFO, and SPORTDiscus were searched until 21 August 2024 for studies that applied acute, more ecologically valid MF-inducing tasks within sports-specific contexts. The MF inducement task design and effectiveness across representative sports and participants were investigated. Results: Twelve papers were included. Only a quarter of studies presented an overall low risk of bias. The 20-minute sports-specific motor tasks with cognitive demands and most 30-minute simulated real-life scenarios (i.e., social media use on smartphones, watching tactical videos, sports-themed videogame play) successfully induced MF in differing athlete samples. Ineffective MF inducement was attributed to shorter task duration, passive engagement with sparse cognitive demands, or the involvement of less susceptible participants. Conclusions: This systematic review evaluated MF inducement methodologies with greater ecological validity to sporting contexts. The inducement effectiveness varied within four task types. Athletes and sports practitioners should carefully manage the modality and content of pre-competition activities to minimize MF. Future research should refine and co-design the MF-inducing task with practitioners based on multifaceted MF evidence from laboratory and real-life settings, create immersive scenarios that can better replicate the inducement process in specific contexts, and improve measurement tools, which will provide comprehensive evaluation and verification of the MF inducement. Mental fatigue Cognitive fatigue Inducement Ecological validity Representative Methodology Sports context Real-life scenario Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Key Points The review indicated that 20-minute sports-specific motor tasks with cognitive demands and the majority of the 30-minute simulated real-life scenarios (i.e., social media use on smartphones, watching tactical videos, sports-themed videogame play) successfully induced MF in differing athlete samples. A shorter duration, passive engagement with sparse cognitive demands, or inclusion of less susceptible participants, caused ineffective MF inducement derived from real-life scenarios, highlighting the need for athletes and sports practitioners to carefully manage the modality and content of pre-competition activities to minimize MF where optimal performance is desired. Future research should co-design inducement tasks with practitioner and researcher input based on multifaceted MF evidence from laboratory and real-life settings, create immersive scenarios that can better replicate the inducement process in specific contexts, and improve measurement tools, which will provide comprehensive evaluation and verification of the MF inducement. 1 Background Mental fatigue (MF), a psychobiological state induced during prolonged demanding cognitive activity and characterized by a subjective feeling of tiredness, decreased cognitive capacity, and/or altered brain activation ( 1 ), has gained significant attention in sports contexts over the last decade ( 2 ). Laboratory-based studies indicate the detrimental effects of MF on subsequent athletic performance, especially on physical endurance performance ( 3 , 4 ), sport-specific psychomotor performance ( 5 ), and team-sports technical/tactical performance ( 6 – 8 ). As research on MF progresses within the sports domain, questions arise regarding methodological approaches to inducing MF. Typical MF inducement methods, such as computerized key-pressing tasks (e.g., Stroop task, AX-Continuous Performance Task), have been critiqued for limited ecological validity ( 9 , 10 ). The lack of similarity to tasks understood in daily training or competition decreases the representativeness and applicability of these findings for use in real-world sports settings. In response, some methodological considerations and developments attempt to enhance the ecological validity of MF-inducing tasks. Ecological validity refers to tasks that closely resemble the characteristics of a realistic sporting environment ( 11 ). Taking the soccer training protocols as an example, a 20-minute whole-body coordination task that consisted of juggling a tennis ball while stepping on the agility ladder was designed to induce MF before small-sided games took place ( 12 ). The successful inducement of MF was subjectively identified through higher cognitive demands when compared with light general aerobic exercises. Furthermore, an adapted 20-minute repeated soccer-specific skill test (i.e., Loughborough soccer passing test, LSPT) including passing, dribbling, controlling, and decision-making process was developed ( 13 ). The randomized verbal order of the unexpected passing targets made the task more mentally demanding than executing the same motor pattern in a fixed, clockwise order. These attempts integrate specific technical movements and corresponding cognitive processes to varying degrees, incorporating representative challenges of time pressure and dynamic environments. Besides the specific sports training and competition, many sport- and non-sport-related situations imposing a high cognitive demand can also elicit MF ( 14 ). For a better understanding of real-life cognitive activities encountered by athletes, the survey of English academy soccer players reported that MF was experienced primarily as a result of match-play, but other factors such as travel, fixture congestion, and study also contributed to the moderate presence of subjective MF ( 15 ). Beyond the soccer context, athletes and staff across multiple elite sports also expressed the MF causations from additional media demands, study, and work commitments ( 9 ). When closer to the match, athletes' common activities like pre-match music, browsing social media, watching videos, and team meetings may also play a role in mental expenditure ( 15 , 16 ). Such insights help inform what cognitively demanding tasks athletes may undertake prior to training and competition, and which may be inducing of MF and its subsequent performance effects. The representative scenarios could be extracted and simulated for MF inducement design in real-world settings and investigate the aftereffects on performance. Advantageously, the MF research domain in sports has developed from well-controlled laboratory-based studies with high internal validity to applied studies with more real-world validity ( 14 ). Ongoing developments and applications, including the broad range of sport-specific motor tasks to simulated real-life scenarios, combined with methodological variability of the specific manipulation and evaluation, have contributed to inconsistent outcomes of effectiveness. For instance, a 30-minute smartphone use could induce MF in professional soccer players and impair passing decision-making performance ( 17 ), while a longer exposure of 45 minutes caused no behavioral and perceptual changes in amateur triathletes ( 18 ). Similarly, the 30-minute smartphone use-induced MF could negatively affect subsequent 100/200-meter swimming, but no impact on 50-meter swimming ( 19 ). As the research progresses in broader sports contexts, it is necessary to systematically review, summarize, and evaluate the novel methodological applications for MF inducement purposes with more ecological validity across specific sports. Therefore, the review aims to: 1) summarize more ecologically valid MF-inducing tasks and the representative sports contexts, and 2) evaluate the effectiveness of MF inducement tasks via manipulation check outcomes and potential aftereffects on subsequent sport-specific performance. By evaluating methodological aspects across sports with a standardized perspective, this review will provide applied recommendations for inducement methodologies of future studies, which may have significant implications for advancing knowledge and practice. 2 Methods This systematic review was registered on PROSPERO (CRD42024577183) and conducted by following the PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Review and Meta-analyses) guidelines ( 20 ). 2.1 Eligibility Criteria The predominant objective of this systematic review was to examine the methodology of more ecologically valid MF-inducing tasks within the context of specific sports. The MF inducement task design, the inducement effectiveness, the representative sports and participant characteristics were investigated. In the current review of the acutely induced MF state, the maximum of one day (i.e., 24 hours) was set as the cut-off of the longest MF-inducing task duration to differentiate from the chronic MF or MF trait ( 21 , 22 ). Any other multifaceted fatigue concept (e.g., burnout) was excluded. Due to the inconsistent terminology used in this field to describe mental fatigue state, cognitive fatigue, self-control strength depletion, and ego depletion were accepted as possible equivalent concepts at first screening ( 3 ). To establish the detailed search strategy for this systematic review and the inclusion criteria, the PICOS categories (Population, Intervention, Comparison, Outcomes, and Study design, see Table 1 ) were applied for screening titles, abstracts, and/or the full text of papers. Table 1 PICOS overview. Population Healthy adults (18–50 years) with sports experience or athletes of all ages Interventions Single, acute mental fatigue-inducing task with ecological validity (a dynamic motor task including representative elements to replicate sports reality, or the simulated real-world scenarios encountered by athletes for mental fatigue inducement) before the corresponding specific sports activity Comparisons Periods/activities that intended to induce non- or less mental fatigue, or traditional laboratory computerized key-pressing tasks Outcomes Manipulation check of mental fatigue inducement effectiveness (with subjective/behavioral/(neuro)physiological measurements); athletic performance on subsequent sport-specific tasks as a supplementary behavioral marker Study Design Original experimental research The eligible population included healthy adults (i.e., aged 18–50 years) with sports experience as well as all-age athletes (i.e., no age limit for participants with defined athletic identity). The experimental intervention was an acute ecologically valid task with the purpose of MF inducement for its aftereffect verification. This review detailed the novel MF inducement application as either a dynamic motor task including representative elements to replicate sports reality or real-world scenarios encountered by athletes for MF inducement before the corresponding specific sports activity. Clinical interventions, concurrent interventions (e.g., MF inducement combined with muscular fatigue, sleep deprivation, nutrition, or heat condition), long-term single intervention over 24 hours, or repeated interventions that last more than one day were excluded. For the control condition, periods/activities that intended to induce non- or less mental fatigue, or traditional laboratory computerized key-pressing tasks were set for the MF inducement comparison. Since the effectiveness of the MF-inducing intervention was the primary aim for review outcomes, manipulation checks of MF within expected tasks were necessary for the inclusion. Consistent with other reviews in this domain, three markers of induced MF were categorized into 1. subjective perception (e.g., self-reported MF on a scale); 2. behavior (e.g., cognitive/physical/technical performance); 3. (neuro)physiological measurement (e.g., brainwave activity on electroencephalogram (EEG)) ( 5 , 23 ). The successful inducement of the MF state was defined as the significant alteration of at least one marker immediately after the experimental intervention ( 23 ). Considering the individual differences in MF susceptibility ( 24 ), the subsequent sport-specific performance was examined between conditions as a supplementary behavioral marker for the MF inducement effectiveness, if the manipulation check failed. Studies that entirely neglect manipulation check sessions were excluded. Regarding the study design, only original experimental research was included. The sports specificity of the subsequent performance task needed to be consistent with the represented sports context of MF inducement. Where this was not the approach, for example, studies that used inconsistent isometric movement tasks (e.g., wall-sit), local motor tasks (e.g., bench press, lower limbs maximum voluntary contraction), general physical capacity screening (e.g., balance, dexterity), or other static computerized tasks that lack sports specificity (e.g., video-based visual task, static virtual task) following MF-inducing interventions, were excluded. 2.2 Information Sources and Search Strategy The literature sources used in this review included PubMed (best match option), Web of Science (all databases searched), PsycINFO, and SPORTDiscus database. All databases were searched and updated up to the 21st of August 2024. Filters applied were: English language and article/peer-reviewed journal paper publication. Table 2 reports an overview of the keyword strings used in the different databases and the results. In addition, the reference lists of included studies were screened to ensure the search was as exhaustive as possible. Table 2 Keyword strings applied to the databases and the hits results for the complete search strategy. Database Keywords string + applied filter (language: English) Hits by 21 August 2024) PubMed (("mental fatigue"[MeSH]) OR ("mental fatigue") OR ("cognitive fatigue") OR ("mental strain") OR ("cognitive strain") OR ("mental exertion") OR ("cognitive exertion") OR ("ego depletion")) NOT ("patients" OR "burnout" OR "animals" OR "mice" OR "rats" OR "stroke" OR "traumatic brain injury" OR "multiple sclerosis" OR "Parkinson" OR "diabetes" OR "disease" OR "Neoplasms" OR "Infections") 2573 Web of Science ALL=(("mental fatigue") OR ("cognitive fatigue") OR ("mental strain") OR ("cognitive strain") OR ("mental exertion") OR ("cognitive exertion") OR ("ego depletion")) NOT ALL=("patients" OR "burnout" OR "animals" OR "mice" OR "rats" OR "stroke" OR "traumatic brain injury" OR "multiple sclerosis" OR "Parkinson" OR "diabetes" OR "disease" OR "Neoplasms" OR "Infections") 3597 PsycINFO (("mental fatigue") OR ("cognitive fatigue") OR ("mental strain") OR ("cognitive strain") OR ("mental exertion") OR ("cognitive exertion") OR ("ego depletion")) NOT ("patients" OR "burnout" OR "animals" OR "mice" OR "rats" OR "stroke" OR "traumatic brain injury" OR "multiple sclerosis" OR "Parkinson" OR "diabetes" OR "disease" OR "Neoplasms" OR "Infections") 1689 SPORTDiscus TX ( (("mental fatigue") OR ("cognitive fatigue") OR ("mental strain") OR ("cognitive strain") OR ("mental exertion") OR ("cognitive exertion") OR ("ego depletion")) ) NOT TX ( ("patients" OR "burnout" OR "animals" OR "mice" OR "rats" OR "stroke" OR "traumatic brain injury" OR "multiple sclerosis" OR "Parkinson" OR "diabetes" OR "disease" OR "Neoplasms" OR "Infections") ) 1182 2.3 Study Selection and Data-Collection Process After executing the search strategy of keywords and filters, all studies from the four different databases were gathered and imported into Rayyan ( 25 ). After removing duplicates, two authors (CB and AM) screened the studies by checking titles and abstracts independently and blinded from each other. The system combined decisions from the two reviewers, any "Maybe" or "Conflict" was double-checked and resolved with author EL. Following the first stage, the screening process progressed with two authors (CB and AM) who assessed the remaining full-text articles against the inclusion criteria for eligibility. Where disagreement still existed after a mutual discussion, authors BR and SR made the final decision. 2.4 Extracted Information and Variables of Interest According to the purposes of the review, the method section of the selected studies was first screened. Extracted details included: the representative sports contexts and participant characteristics, the detailed MF-inducing task design, the control condition(s), the subsequent sport-specific task, and the manipulation check of the MF inducement. Additionally, the outcomes of the manipulation check sessions and the potential aftereffects of induced MF on specific athletic performance were extracted for further evaluation of MF inducement effectiveness. Any significant changes were categorized into subjective, behavioral, or (neuro)physiological markers. 2.5 Risk of Bias Assessment According to an overview of the study design, the Revised Cochrane Risk of Bias tool for randomized trials (RoB 2) ( 26 ) was considered suitable and utilized to assess the risk of bias in each study by two authors (CB and AM) independently. As provided in the tool, each of the five general bias evaluation dimensions received a rating that was either "low risk", "some concerns", or "high risk" of bias. Subsequently, an overall judgment was made. The authors adhered to the guidelines from the Cochrane community. Any disagreement from both sides was resolved through discussion and consensus with another author (EL). 3 Results The full study selection process is presented in Fig. 1 . The database search resulted in 9041 hits, of which 5660 remained after the duplicates were excluded. The remaining titles and abstracts were then screened, leading to the thorough assessment of 48 full-text papers for eligibility. Ultimately, 12 papers were included in the review. 3.1 Study quality Half of the included studies showed an overall risk of bias with some concerns, and 25% were with high risk (see Fig. 2 within the study and Fig. 3 across studies). The main issue regarding the randomization process was the lack of double-blind manipulation when allocating the participants and examiners to conduct the MF inducement. Moreover, the acquiescence bias from the respondents' self-reported MF and the expectancy effect from the researchers might have already increased, causing concern about the selection of the reported results. 3.2 Sports contexts and participant characteristics Analysis of the sports contexts showed that more ecological inducement of MF mainly occurred in team sports, with soccer ( 12 , 13 , 17 , 27 , 28 ) being the most involved, followed by basketball ( 29 – 31 ). Others included sprints ( 32 ), freestyle swimming ( 19 ), long-distance swimming of the triathlon ( 18 ), and boxing ( 33 ). All subsequent sports-specific motor tasks implemented to verify the aftereffects of induced MF were within the same sports ( 12 , 13 , 17 – 19 , 27 – 33 ). Generally, participants were youth (15.9–17.2 years) or adult (20.0–27.9 years) athletes at ≥ Tier 2 level ( 34 ) (for details see Table 3 ). Table 3 Overview of mental fatigue-inducing task and control design, representative sports, participants, and subsequent sports-specific tasks. Inducement type Study Sports contexts Participants (Gender, Age, Athletic/competition level) MF-inducing task Control Subsequent sports-specific task Task Content Feature Sports-specific motor task Coutinho, et al., 2017 Soccer M = 12 15.9 ± 0.8 yr Highly trained amateurish Regional competition 20 min Whole-body coordination motor task Seven different stepping exercises in a ladder drill while juggling a tennis ball Intermittent, 4 m practice with 26 m recovery distance, unfamiliar techniques with coordination 20 min Light general aerobic exercises Soccer SSG Bian, et al., 2022 Soccer M = 15 22.0 ± 2.5 yr Well-trained collegiate Provincial competition 20 min Soccer passing skill-based task 10 times repeated LSPT, receiving, control, dribbling, and passing the ball to targets indicated by randomized verbal order as fast and accurately as possible Intermittent, 16 passes a block, interval with about 75 s between, 160 times in total, specific skills with decision-making process 1. 20 min computerized Stroop task 2. 20 min motor task of 10 times LSPT with clockwise passing order Soccer LSPT Tactical video-based task Filipas, et al., 2021 Basketball M = 19 20 ± 3 yr Amateurish Regional competition 30 min Basketball tactical video comprehension Tactical videos created based on the athletic level, after the video, 12 questions were set to check attention Consecutive, watching and comprehension of basketball-specific tactics Condition after 5min standardized warm-up Basketball 60 Free throws Daub, et al., 2022 Basketball M = 15 20.2 ± 1.2 yr Elite collegiate National top competition 30 min Basketball tactical video watching Basketball-specific film, the terminology for the tactics of offensive and defensive plays Consecutive, watching basketball-specific tactics 1. 30 min Computerized stroop task 2. 30 min Emotionally neutral documentary Basketball 60 Free throws and 4 min jump shooting on 7 locations Ciocca, et al., 2022 Soccer ? = 10 17.2 ± 0.9 yr National National U18 competition 30 min Video-based tactics decision-making Top-view clips of 30 defense and 30 attack situations from Italian top matches, the static image showed the final scene as a cue, choosing next tactical movement on the paper Intermittent, 6 s clip, 15 s to tick one of the 3 choices, 4 s black screen and 3 s countdown as the interval 30 min Emotionally neutral documentary Soccer SSG Social media use on smartphone Fortes, et al., 2019 Soccer M = 20 24.7 ± 3.6 yr Professional State competition 15/30/45 min Social media apps use on smartphone Visual content of social media apps (WhatsApp, Facebook, and Instagram) Consecutive, only using the apps, no speaking 30min Coaching video documentary Soccer simulated full-size match Fortes, et al., 2021B Freestyle swimming F = 11 M = 14 20.4 ± 2.06 yr International International and national competitions 30 min Social media apps use on smartphone Visual content of social media apps (WhatsApp, Facebook, and Instagram) Consecutive, only using the apps, no speaking 30min Coaching video documentary Freestyle swimming simulated 50/100/200 m races Fortes, et al., 2021A 100/200 m Sprint M = 16 21.0 ± 0.9 yr Collegiate National university competition 60 min Social media apps use on smartphone Visual content of social media apps (WhatsApp, Facebook, and Instagram) Consecutive, only using the apps, write, read, and insert content posts of photos and videos 1. 60 min Computerized stroop task 2. 60 min Coaching video documentary Sprints simulated 100/200 m dash Quagliarotti, et al., 2023 Triathlon swimming M = 7 27.9 ± 7.0 yr Tier 2 ? 45 min Smartphone use Visual content from all installed apps Consecutive, watching the screen and switching apps, no videos > 2 min and no music 1. 45 min AX-CPT task 2. 45 min Neutral mood documentaries Front crawl swimming test (6 times 200 m at individual average speed and last 200 m all out) Fortes, et al., 2020 Soccer M = 25 23.4 ± 2.8 yr Professional State competition 30 min Social media apps use on smartphone Visual content of social media apps (Facebook and Instagram) Consecutive, using the apps 30 min Advertisement videos Soccer simulated full-size match Fortes, et al., 2023 Boxing F = 8 M = 13 23.33 ± 3.46 yr Amateurish National or regional competition 30 min Social media apps use on smartphone Visual content of social media apps (WhatsApp, Facebook, and Instagram) Consecutive, only using the apps, no speaking 30 min Coaching video documentary Boxing simulated combats (4 rounds of 2 min, 1min interval) Sports-themed videogame play Fortes, et al., 2020 Soccer M = 25 23.4 ± 2.8 yr Professional State competition 30 min Soccer-themed videogame play Soccer-themed video game, FIFA 2018 Consecutive, playing console, in third-person version 30 min Advertisement videos Soccer simulated full-size match Fortes, et al., 2023 Boxing F = 8 M = 13 23.33 ± 3.46 yr Amateurish National or regional competition 30 min Boxing-themed videogame play Boxing-themed video game, Fight Night Round 3 Consecutive, playing console, in first-person version, no speaking 30 min Coaching video documentary Boxing simulated combats (4 rounds of 2 min, 1min interval) Faro, et al., 2023 Basketball M = 14 24.3 ± 4.1 yr Tier 3 National competition 60 min Basketball-themed videogame play Basketball-themed video game, NBA Live 19 Consecutive, paired by playing level, playing console, in third-person version 60 min Coaching video documentary Basketball-specific test (6 min visuomotor task with bouncing the ball, 60 times touch 4-color sensors) F, female; M, male; ?, unclear; yr, year; min, minute; s, second; m, meter; SSG, small-side game; LSPT, Loughborough Soccer Passing Test; AX-CPT, AX-continuous performance task; FIFA, Federation Internationale de Football Association; NBA, The National Basketball Association; App, mobile application. 3.3 Mental fatigue inducement task design The included MF inducement tasks were classified into two main categories; sports-specific motor tasks ( 12 , 13 ), and simulated scenarios extracted from athletes' real-life activities. The applied simulated scenarios were further divided into three types; tactical video-based tasks ( 27 , 29 , 30 ), social media use on smartphones ( 17 – 19 , 28 , 32 , 33 ), and sports-themed videogame play ( 28 , 31 , 33 ) (for details see Table 3 ). Except for the two 20-minute motor tasks with cognitive demands ( 12 , 13 ) and one 30-minute 60-time tactical clip display with subsequent decision-making answers (i.e., during every 30-second block, 15 seconds for ticking a movement choice after watching a 6-second video display) ( 27 ) that were designed intermittently, the others were all consecutive 15 to 60-minute exposures to tactical videos or social media contents or videogames. 3.4 Evaluation of the MF inducement effectiveness Generally, subjective MF on the visual analog scale (MVAS) ( 12 , 13 , 18 , 19 , 29 – 33 ) and the reaction performance of short-version computerized Stroop tasks ( 13 , 17 – 19 , 28 , 31 – 33 ) were broadly used before and after the interventions to check the MF manipulations. Physiological approaches were less commonly employed, with only two studies added to identify MF state by heart rate variability (HRV) indicators ( 19 ) and EEG records ( 31 ) (see Table 4 ). Table 4 Evaluation of the mental fatigue inducement effectiveness of different tasks. Inducement Type Study MF-inducing task Evaluation of MF inducement effectiveness Effectiveness Conclusion Subjective marker behavioral markers (Neuro)-physiological marker Post-inducement manipulation check Subsequent athletic performance Sports-specific motor task Coutinho, et al., 2017 20 min Whole-body coordination motor task MVAS + / Tactical-related positioning performance - (SSG contraction speed -, lateral synchronization time -) / Y Bian, et al., 2022 20 min Soccer passing skill-based task MVAS + Cognitive performance of 3 min computerized stroop task X Technical performance - (LSPT passing accuracy -, technical stability -) / Y Tactical video-based task Filipas, et al., 2021 30 min Basketball tactical video comprehension MVAS + / Technical performance - (shooting accuracy -) / Y Daub, et al., 2022 30 min Basketball tactical video watching MVAS X (VAS-mental effort +) / Technical performance X (shots made, shots missed X) / N Ciocca, et al., 2022 30 min Video-based tactics decision-making / (VAS-mental effort +) / Physical performance X Technical performance + (passes, successful passes +) / N Social media use on smartphone Fortes, et al., 2019 15/30/45 min Social media apps use on smartphone / Cognitive performance of 62 stimuli computerized stroop task - (after 30/45 min tasks, response speed -, accuracy -) Passing decision-making performance - (performance after 30/45 min task -) Technical performance X (passes X) / 30, 45min Y 15min N Fortes, et al., 2021B 30 min Social media apps use on smartphone MVAS + Cognitive performance of 30 stimuli computerized stroop task - (response speed -) Swimming performance − (100/200 m speed -, 50 m speed X) HRV: R-R interval, SDNN, RMSSD, pNN50 X Y Fortes, et al., 2021A 60 min Social media apps use on smartphone MVAS + Cognitive performance of 45 stimuli computerized stroop task - (response speed -) 100/200 m dash performance X / Y Quagliarotti, et al., 2023 45 min Smartphone use MVAS X Cognitive performance of 30 stimuli computerized stroop task X Swimming performance X biomechanical variables X / N Fortes, et al., 2020 30 min Social media apps use on smartphone / Cognitive performance of 62 stimuli computerized stroop task - (response speed -, accuracy -) Passing decision-making performance - Technical performance X (passes X) / Y Fortes, et al., 2023 30 min Social media apps use on smartphone MVAS + Cognitive performance of 30 stimuli computerized stroop task - (response speed -) Boxing decision-making performance - (attack and defense decision-making -) / Y Sports-themed videogame play Fortes, et al., 2020 30 min Soccer-themed videogame play / Cognitive performance of 62 stimuli computerized stroop task - (response speed -, accuracy -) Passing decision-making performance - Technical performance X (passes X) / Y Fortes, et al., 2023 30 min Boxing-themed videogame play MVAS + Cognitive performance of 30 stimuli computerized stroop task - (response speed -) Boxing decision-making performance - (attack and defense decision-making -) / Y Faro, et al., 2023 60 min Basketball-themed videogame play MVAS + Cognitive performance of 40 stimuli computerized stroop task - (response speed -) Visuomotor performance - (speed and accuracy -) EEG: theta wave on Fp1 + Y +, significantly increased; -, significantly decreased; X, unchanged; /, unused; Y, successfully induced; N, failed to induce; VAS, visual analog scale; MVAS, subjective mental fatigue on the visual analog scale; SSG, small-side game; LSPT, Loughborough soccer passing test; min, minute; m, meter; HRV, heart rate variability; R-R interval, interbeat intervals between all successive heartbeats; SDNN, the standard deviation of all interbeat intervals from which artifacts have been removed; pNN50, the consecutive percentage of R-R interval differences greater than 50 ms; RMSSD, the difference of the quadratic mean of the successive R-R normal intervals; EEG, electroencephalogram; Fp1, left prefrontal electrode. 3.4.1 Inducement effectiveness of specific motor tasks Twenty minutes of whole-body coordination drill on the agility ladder and the passing skill-based task induced the MF in soccer players, as indicated by elevated MVAS and significant behavioral aftereffects. The whole-body coordination task led to a decreased ability in spatial exploration and positioning for tactical formation ( 12 ) during the small-sided game. The soccer passing skill-based task resulted in lower technical stability and passing accuracy during subsequent LSPT ( 13 ). 3.4.2 Inducement effectiveness of tactical video-based tasks Tactical video-based tasks showed contradictory effectiveness for the MF inducement. Two of three studies failed to induce MF according to the manipulation check outcomes, only higher mental effort feelings were reported ( 27 , 30 ). Further evaluating the subsequent performance, no significant impact on the elite basketball players' shooting performance was shown by watching the tactical video ( 30 ). The passes and the success rate during the small-side game did not decrease but increased among the national youth soccer players after intermittently watching tactical clips with decision-making answers ( 27 ). Contrarily, watching a similar basketball tactical video induced the MF state of amateur players, with elevated subjective MF and reduced free throw accuracy observed ( 29 ). 3.4.3 Inducement effectiveness of social media use on smartphones The executed tasks exhibited inconsistent MF inducement effectiveness. A 45-minute social media exposure failed to elicit MF as indicated by MVAS and the 30-stimuli version Stroop task among amateur triathletes ( 18 ). Additionally, no specific performance or behavioral (i.e., kicking, stroking, breathing) alterations were observed in subsequent endurance swimming ( 18 ). Among the other five studies, three showed significantly higher MVAS after the MF inducement tasks ( 19 , 32 , 33 ). Simultaneously, the MF inducement effectiveness was verified by increased response time during different short-version (i.e., 30-stimuli ( 19 , 33 ), and 45-stimuli ( 32 )) Stroop tasks. One study included HRV indicators (interbeat intervals between all successive heartbeats and derivative calculations, details see Table 4 ), which showed all declines from initial to post-swimming races regardless of the intervention ( 19 ). The 30-minute inducement tasks hindered amateur boxers' attack and defense decision-making performance in simulated combats ( 33 ), and international-level swimmers' speed in simulated 100 and 200 meters freestyle swimming races, except the 50-meter race performance ( 19 ). Extending the exposure to 60 minutes could not impact the simulated 100, 200-meter dash performance in collegiate sprinters ( 32 ). The remaining two studies verified the MF inducement after 30 or 45-minute exposure only by behavioral changes. Professional soccer players showed decreased response speed and accuracy in the 62-stimuli Stroop task and worsened passing decision-making performance during the simulated match ( 17 , 28 ). However, the 15-minute exposure did not result in any significant change, thus failing to induce MF ( 17 ). 3.4.4 Inducement effectiveness of sports-themed videogame play The 30-minute soccer-themed video game caused a significant decline in response speed and accuracy of the 62-stimuli computerized Stroop task ( 28 ). The induced MF further hindered subsequent passing decision-making performance. Playing the same duration of a boxing-themed video game, the effective MF inducement was proved by MVAS and the decreased response speed on the 30-stimuli computerized Stroop task ( 33 ). Boxing-specific attack and defense decision-making performance in simulated combats were also reported ( 33 ). Following the 60-minute basketball-themed video game play, national basketball players showed higher MVAS and response time of the 40-stimuli Stroop task. Increased theta waves on the left prefrontal electrode (i.e., Fp1) in EEG records provided further evidence of effective inducement as suggested by previous studies ( 31 , 35 , 36 ). Video game-induced MF impaired subsequent reaction performance on a visuomotor test involving basketball-bouncing movements ( 31 ). 4 Discussion This systematic review aimed to summarize the MF-inducing tasks with greater ecological validity with regard to sports training and performance and evaluate their inducement effectiveness. The included sports-specific motor tasks and simulated athletes' real-life scenarios addressed the primary consideration of ecological validity by incorporating representative sports elements or simulating daily scenarios that athletes face in real-world settings into task designs. However, the review also highlighted considerable variability in the effectiveness of these specific approaches, and nuances to consider for the application of representative MF-inducing tasks. 4.1 Stance on Ecological validity of MF inducement in sports Ecological validity is mainly used to discuss whether experimental research resembles and generalizes to the ‘real world' ( 37 ). During the progress of studies inducing MF in sports, researchers adopted this term (i.e., ‘limited’ ecological validity) ( 7 , 9 , 10 ) to critically evaluate previous fundamental studies, especially for the purpose of translating laboratory-based evidence into practice. However, it is unrealistic for ecological validity to imply that research should always occur during open analysis of performance, since control is necessary for participants to exhibit truthful behaviors ( 38 ). Given the importance of maintaining the experimental control, first manipulating cognitive load by employing an isolated, static task in the fundamental studies to induce MF, holds scientific rigor. Therefore, based on these perspectives, the current systematic review does not take an adversarial position towards previous traditional research, nor does it advocate that an event occurring in real life (e.g., transcribing task ( 39 – 41 )) inherently results in high ecological validity to particular sports environment. Considering the challenges in determining the specific nature of the ‘ecologically valid standard’, the inclusion criteria were established to focus on dynamic motor tasks that involve sports-specific elements or applications of simulated cognitive-demanding scenarios encountered in athletes' real lives. 4.2 Effectiveness of different MF inducement tasks 4.2.1 Sports-specific motor tasks The review identified two primary approaches: whole-body coordination and soccer passing skill-based tasks. Both methods showed effectiveness in inducing MF of soccer players after 20 minutes. The whole-body coordination task emphasized motor coordination under spatial pressure ( 12 ), while the soccer passing skill-based task focused on accurate decision-making and movement executions under time pressure ( 13 ). The common feature of the two tasks is adding the active processing of environmental information from the field into the serial movement combination. The dynamic task mode requires selective and sustained attention ( 42 ), as well as challenges players' ability to inhibit automatic response, initiated action, or inappropriate behavior, or compete with distracting stimuli that may compromise performance ( 43 ). Incorporation of technical movements and cognitive requirements may represent part of the elements from pre-match warm-up protocols, gaining ecological validity of such MF inducement task designs for performance aftereffect studies. 4.2.2 Simulated scenarios in athletes' real-life setting The use of sports-themed video games to induce MF in athletes has shown consistent effectiveness ( 28 , 31 , 33 ). Despite the largely seated position, the high-level attention required, rapid processing of visual information from the dynamic virtual environment, decision-making under time pressure, the need for fine-motor control of fingers and hand-eye coordination, all contribute to cognitive load and subsequent potential for inducement of MF ( 44 – 46 ). The consecutive use of social media on smartphones induced MF in all but one included study. Generally, a minimum of 30 minutes of exposure to social media content was effective in inducing MF. The prolonged gazing and interactive activities on the screen require constant attention and information processing ( 47 , 48 ). Users frequently switch between different types of texts, images, and videos, which demands continuous cognitive engagement and can lead to cognition overload ( 49 , 50 ). This multitasking process and response to a high volume of information can exhaust attentional resources ( 51 ) and hinder executive function ( 52 ), leading to MF ( 53 ). Besides, daily social media use often involves emotional engagement, as users interact with content that can elicit a wide range of emotions from positive to negative. The emotional regulation required to process these interactions could further contribute to MF ( 54 , 55 ). However, 45-minute smartphone content exposure among amateur triathletes did not induce MF ( 18 ). Participants were allowed to switch between any apps installed on the smartphone. The flexible and relaxed nature likely diluted cognitive load ( 56 ) compared to more immersive and forced social media interaction tasks previously employed. Because social media use on smartphones in daily life may be more in a relaxed manner, as opposed to typically blocked, forced laboratory settings with MF inducement purposes, this should be considered when transferring such applications into practice. Furthermore, in this study, a 15-minute warm-up session was set between the smartphone exposure and subsequent swimming races. Low-intensity warm-up activities can increase arousal and counteract the impacts of MF by boosting dopamine levels and overall alertness ( 57 , 58 ), potentially countering any social media inducement effects. It also suggests that more research should focus on the arrangement and optimal combinations of pre-match activities in a limited time window, an area of interest for athletes and sports practitioners to better manage and prevent the MF. Two studies involving watching basketball tactical videos ( 29 , 30 ), yielded contrasting effectiveness on MF inducement. The one that required participants to watch basketball tactical videos and subsequently answer 12 questions based on the content successfully induced MF ( 29 ). Similar to the studies in academic settings, this active engagement and cognitive demands involved in the theoretical learning process and prolonged attention maintenance likely contributed to the higher level of MF ( 59 , 60 ). Contrarily, the other with solely passive exposure to tactics terminology film did not effectively induce MF. Although the national-level basketball players self-reported more mental effort after the task, their shooting performance and MF values showed no significant changes ( 30 ). This is consistent with the function of emotionally neutral documentary viewing tasks that are widely used as a control due to the low level of cognitive engagement ( 61 , 62 ). Additionally, the soccer tactical video-based task involving intermittent match records watching and related decision-making answers failed to induce MF ( 27 ). Despite the active engagement in skills decision-making related to actual soccer scenarios, the low stimuli frequency (i.e., one time in the 30-second block), combined with the fixed response mode of three known choices under sufficient time, might not reach the sustained, intense cognitive load necessary to induce significant MF ( 10 , 63 ). 4.3 Variability in inducement effectiveness within one type of task It is evident that dynamic, structured tasks with intense cognitive demands and prolonged, active engagement are generally effective in inducing MF in sports contexts. Meanwhile, the observed inconsistency in inducement effectiveness within one type of task indicates the variability in the design, application, and response of MF-inducing tasks. Variable effectiveness in MF inducement can be attributed to diversity in participants' features such as age, athletic level, and prior training and competition experience ( 24 , 64 ). When cross-checking two similar tactical video-based tasks, the one applied to elite basketball players competing at the highest national league showed ineffective inducement ( 30 ), while the other induced MF successfully in regional amateurs ( 29 ). Consistently, more experienced athletes were found less susceptible ( 41 , 65 , 66 ) to induced MF. Meanwhile, different sports contexts impose unique cognitive and physical demands, which may shape different natures of fatigue, and in turn, change the logic of ecological MF inducement. Ecologically valid MF-inducing task design requires a better understanding of the contextual differences and representative elements in particular sports contexts, as well as the real-life causations of MF in particular athletes ( 67 ). The duration of exposure to MF-inducing tasks played an important role. Van Cutsem et al. (2017) proposed a cut-off value of 30 minutes that aligns with the minimal cortical activity time required to induce MF ( 3 ). Direct comparisons in one study showed that a shorter 15 minutes of smartphone use failed to induce significant MF, whereas 45 minutes of longer use could induce MF but caused no more detrimental aftereffects ( 17 ). However, two soccer-specific motor tasks could effectively induce MF in 20 minutes ( 12 , 13 ). The dynamic, dual-task design with movement execution and extra cognitive demands from environmental cues might account for the successful inducement in a shorter duration than virtual tasks ( 68 ). The application for MF inducement needs to consider manipulating the task variability in duration and intensity, increasing contextual interference ( 10 ) to mimic athletes' cognitive activities. Interestingly, Zeuwts et al. (2021) investigated the Stroop-task-induced MF in young cyclists with an innovative virtual reality simulator to mimic traffic situations ( 69 ), a practical design that inspires further reappearance of sports scenarios. The variability in MF inducement effectiveness also stems from differences in how MF is measured and verified through manipulation checks and subsequent behavioral assessments. Studies mainly utilizing subjective indicators such as the MVAS in combination with objective cognitive performance tests like the short-version Stroop task tend to provide more robust evidence of MF inducement ( 70 , 71 ). However, discrepancies arise when only a single measure is used or when the selected assessment methods are not sensitive enough to detect potential changes. 4.4 Limitations Although the present review assessed both manipulation checks and the behavioral aftereffects of potentially induced MF on subsequent sports-specific performance, the inherent heterogeneity in detailed task designs, sports contexts, and athletes' characteristics, combined with the limited number of studies, challenged cross-comparisons within specific inducement approaches. As indicated by the risk of bias evaluation, randomization of task allocation and single-blind design for athletes was commonly guaranteed, but not for the investigators. There is a possibility that the observer expectancy effect ( 72 ) could interfere with the effectiveness interpretation. Furthermore, the self-reported MVAS was most utilized to verify the MF inducement, but due to the subjective feelings being the integration of various information sources, it should be distinguished from and not be interchangeable with objective measures ( 73 ). In some studies, the significant elevation of MVAS observed may also be partially due to the acquiescence bias ( 10 ), as well as influenced by the clear distinction between a cognitively demanding task and casually watching the documentary, where the MF-inducing purpose could be easily detected. When interpreting and transferring the conclusions, standardization issues, contextual differences, and evidence bias should be considered. 4.5 Implications for future research and practice Future research should focus on enhancing the ecological validity of MF-inducing tasks by using sports-specific motor tasks in open environments or athletes' real-life scenarios. Combining qualitative and quantitative approaches will help better understand MF contributors and real-life causations in specific sports contexts, leading to MF inducement tasks that more closely relate to the demands of training and competition. Incorporating advanced technologies like virtual and augmented reality may open the opportunity to create more precise simulations for MF inducement. Additionally, more balanced studies across diverse participants and sports contexts are needed to broaden MF applications. Integrating multifaceted indicators, including subjective monitoring, behavioral tasks, and neurophysiological assessments, throughout the inducement process will improve the accuracy of MF evaluation. The ineffective inducement task design also reflects that athletes and sports practitioners should be mindful of managing the duration, content, and engagement forms of pre-match activities, in case of inducing or aggravating MF which may impair performance. 5 Conclusion This systematic review evaluated the MF inducement methodologies in sports contexts with a particular focus on ecological validity and representative design. The inducement effectiveness varied within the task type, suggesting the need for tailored design and standardized evaluation to specific contexts. Findings indicated that 20-minute sports-specific motor tasks with cognitive demands and most of the 30-minute simulated real-life scenarios successfully induced MF in different athletes. Where ineffective inducement was observed, this was due to contributing factors of shorter duration, passive engagement with sparse cognitive demands, or conducted on less susceptible participants. Athletes and sports practitioners should carefully manage the modality and content of the pre-match activities to prevent inducing or aggravating MF. Future research should refine and co-design the MF-inducing task with practitioners based on multifaceted MF evidence in the laboratory and real-life settings, create immersive scenarios that can better replicate the inducement process in specific contexts, and improve measurement tools, which will provide comprehensive evaluation and verification of the MF inducement. Abbreviations MF, Mental fatigue; PICOS, Population, intervention, comparison, outcomes, and study design; RoB 2, Revised Cochrane risk of bias tool for randomized trials; LSPT, Loughborough soccer passing test; MVAS, Subjective mental fatigue on visual analog scale; SSG, Small-side game; EEG, Electroencephalogram; HRV, Heart rate variability; App, mobile application. Declarations Ethics approval and consent to participate: Chao Bian, Suzanna Russell, Ana Mali, Elke Lathouwers, Kevin De Pauw, Jelle Habay, Špela Bogataj, and Bart Roelands declare that the systematic review complies with all ethical standards. No participants were recruited for the present study, so no consent for participation needed to be collected. Consent for publication: Not applicable. Availability of data and material: All data generated or analyzed during this study are included in this published article. Competing interests: Chao Bian, Suzanna Russell, Ana Mali, Elke Lathouwers, Kevin De Pauw, Jelle Habay, Špela Bogataj, and Bart Roelands have no competing interests relevant to the content of this review. Funding : Chao Bian is an awardee of the China Scholarship Council (File No. 202208310018). Authors' contributions: CB, BR, and SR conceptualized the topic and finalized the detailed search strategy. 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Cite Share Download PDF Status: Published Journal Publication published 01 Jul, 2025 Read the published version in Sports Medicine-Open → Version 1 posted Editorial decision: Major Revision 17 May, 2025 Reviewers agreed at journal 29 Oct, 2024 Reviewers invited by journal 29 Oct, 2024 Editor assigned by journal 19 Sep, 2024 First submitted to journal 18 Sep, 2024 You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. Our growing team is made up of researchers and industry professionals working together to solve the most critical problems facing scientific publishing. Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-5102261","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":371766512,"identity":"8b831ad9-1acf-40a4-afc3-b262f699d026","order_by":0,"name":"Chao Bian","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAAzklEQVRIiWNgGAWjYBAC/hlAgvGHBAMDewMDMwPDAcJaJG6AtPQAtfAcIFKLQQRISxtIcwKxWqSbHz5g7LGQN5d8YyZdwHBHjrAWmWPGBkC/GO6cnWMmPYPhmTFhLRIJZhJAvzBuuJ2WJs3DcDixgbCW9G8SjG0S9htuHgNrqSesJSLHDKQlccMN5mMgLQkEHSZxI6fYILFHInnDmeTD1jMMnhkStIV/RvrGBx9/1NluOH6w8XZBxR15graAAcIxBsRpGAWjYBSMglFAAAAANOU8FXj002kAAAAASUVORK5CYII=","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0451-7459","institution":"Vrije Universiteit Brussel Faculteit Lichamelijke Opvoeding en Kinesitherapie","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Chao","middleName":"","lastName":"Bian","suffix":""},{"id":371766513,"identity":"472ef7e0-fe15-4814-b7b2-8e64e7c5b5da","order_by":1,"name":"Suzanna Russell","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Australian Catholic University Faculty of Health Sciences","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Suzanna","middleName":"","lastName":"Russell","suffix":""},{"id":371766514,"identity":"8b4930bc-b54d-4a4d-9664-806d84a7faf7","order_by":2,"name":"Ana Mali","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Science and Research Centre Koper: Znanstveno-raziskovalno sredisce Koper","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Ana","middleName":"","lastName":"Mali","suffix":""},{"id":371766515,"identity":"aefb6a3b-678a-4675-98e3-0b380a866bed","order_by":3,"name":"Elke Lathouwers","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Vrije Universiteit Brussel Faculteit Lichamelijke Opvoeding en Kinesitherapie","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Elke","middleName":"","lastName":"Lathouwers","suffix":""},{"id":371766516,"identity":"df10321c-ff15-4e5b-93ad-29ce945af451","order_by":4,"name":"Kevin De Pauw","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Vrije Universiteit Brussel Faculteit Lichamelijke Opvoeding en Kinesitherapie","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Kevin","middleName":"","lastName":"De Pauw","suffix":""},{"id":371766517,"identity":"e7519ed3-5e5f-4f4c-8abb-6faf041c0f80","order_by":5,"name":"Jelle Habay","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Vrije Universiteit Brussel Faculteit Lichamelijke Opvoeding en Kinesitherapie","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Jelle","middleName":"","lastName":"Habay","suffix":""},{"id":371766518,"identity":"62ed8063-3e55-45fb-bc52-30ecf9d4fb4e","order_by":6,"name":"Špela Bogataj","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"University Medical Centre Ljubljana Division of Internal Medicine: Univerzitetni klinicni center Ljubljana Interna medicina","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Špela","middleName":"","lastName":"Bogataj","suffix":""},{"id":371766519,"identity":"1892f334-6077-4a7a-bf70-3586d6d3c0e7","order_by":7,"name":"Bart Roelands","email":"","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2808-044X","institution":"Vrije Universiteit Brussel Faculteit Lichamelijke Opvoeding en Kinesitherapie","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Bart","middleName":"","lastName":"Roelands","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2024-09-17 09:49:21","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-5102261/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-5102261/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[{"content":"https://doi.org/10.1186/s40798-025-00891-0","type":"published","date":"2025-07-01T15:57:25+00:00"}],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":69437387,"identity":"7f1e4791-5546-46c3-9a05-09b286824e2a","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-11-20 10:47:29","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":27811,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eFlowchart of the selection process.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5102261/v1/342a6d6d53a8a8bb5aef8805.png"},{"id":69437388,"identity":"ec932ee5-2c96-483b-93dd-6417b32a1da6","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-11-20 10:47:29","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":28486,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eRisk of bias within the study. +, low risk of bias; ?, some concerns of bias; -, high risk of bias; D1, randomization process; D2, deviations from intended interventions; D3, missing outcome data; D4, measurement of the outcome; D5, selection of the reported result; D6, overall bias.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5102261/v1/ebe799002430fff2a05d390a.png"},{"id":69437389,"identity":"558045af-b2bf-45e3-bc46-4460e3fc9746","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-11-20 10:47:29","extension":"png","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":13270,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eRisk of bias across studies.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"3.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5102261/v1/1a938d4cacfb0a96679e2288.png"},{"id":86179717,"identity":"165e7c70-8bad-4b4a-ae7f-004dcd5491ec","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-07-07 16:18:55","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":1296679,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5102261/v1/cc6cfc80-aba4-4748-a329-4c169f74a3c6.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"","formattedTitle":"Methodological Considerations and Effectiveness for Ecologically Valid Mental Fatigue Inducement in Sports: a Systematic Review","fulltext":[{"header":"Key Points","content":"\u003cul\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eThe review indicated that 20-minute sports-specific motor tasks with cognitive demands and the majority of the 30-minute simulated real-life scenarios (i.e., social media use on smartphones, watching tactical videos, sports-themed videogame play) successfully induced MF in differing athlete samples.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eA shorter duration, passive engagement with sparse cognitive demands, or inclusion of less susceptible participants, caused\u0026nbsp;ineffective MF inducement\u0026nbsp;derived\u0026nbsp;from real-life scenarios,\u0026nbsp;highlighting the need for athletes and sports practitioners to carefully manage the modality and content of pre-competition activities to\u0026nbsp;minimize\u0026nbsp;MF where optimal performance is desired.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eFuture research should co-design inducement tasks with practitioner and researcher input based on multifaceted MF evidence from laboratory and real-life settings, create immersive scenarios that can better replicate the inducement process in specific contexts, and improve measurement tools, which will provide comprehensive evaluation and verification of the MF inducement.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ul\u003e"},{"header":"1 Background","content":"\u003cp\u003eMental fatigue (MF), a psychobiological state induced during prolonged demanding cognitive activity and characterized by a subjective feeling of tiredness, decreased cognitive capacity, and/or altered brain activation (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e), has gained significant attention in sports contexts over the last decade (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e). Laboratory-based studies indicate the detrimental effects of MF on subsequent athletic performance, especially on physical endurance performance (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e), sport-specific psychomotor performance (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e), and team-sports technical/tactical performance (\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR7\" citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e). As research on MF progresses within the sports domain, questions arise regarding methodological approaches to inducing MF. Typical MF inducement methods, such as computerized key-pressing tasks (e.g., Stroop task, AX-Continuous Performance Task), have been critiqued for limited ecological validity (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e). The lack of similarity to tasks understood in daily training or competition decreases the representativeness and applicability of these findings for use in real-world sports settings.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn response, some methodological considerations and developments attempt to enhance the ecological validity of MF-inducing tasks. Ecological validity refers to tasks that closely resemble the characteristics of a realistic sporting environment (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e). Taking the soccer training protocols as an example, a 20-minute whole-body coordination task that consisted of juggling a tennis ball while stepping on the agility ladder was designed to induce MF before small-sided games took place (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e). The successful inducement of MF was subjectively identified through higher cognitive demands when compared with light general aerobic exercises. Furthermore, an adapted 20-minute repeated soccer-specific skill test (i.e., Loughborough soccer passing test, LSPT) including passing, dribbling, controlling, and decision-making process was developed (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e). The randomized verbal order of the unexpected passing targets made the task more mentally demanding than executing the same motor pattern in a fixed, clockwise order. These attempts integrate specific technical movements and corresponding cognitive processes to varying degrees, incorporating representative challenges of time pressure and dynamic environments.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eBesides the specific sports training and competition, many sport- and non-sport-related situations imposing a high cognitive demand can also elicit MF (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e). For a better understanding of real-life cognitive activities encountered by athletes, the survey of English academy soccer players reported that MF was experienced primarily as a result of match-play, but other factors such as travel, fixture congestion, and study also contributed to the moderate presence of subjective MF (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e15\u003c/span\u003e). Beyond the soccer context, athletes and staff across multiple elite sports also expressed the MF causations from additional media demands, study, and work commitments (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e). When closer to the match, athletes' common activities like pre-match music, browsing social media, watching videos, and team meetings may also play a role in mental expenditure (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e15\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e). Such insights help inform what cognitively demanding tasks athletes may undertake prior to training and competition, and which may be inducing of MF and its subsequent performance effects. The representative scenarios could be extracted and simulated for MF inducement design in real-world settings and investigate the aftereffects on performance. Advantageously, the MF research domain in sports has developed from well-controlled laboratory-based studies with high internal validity to applied studies with more real-world validity (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOngoing developments and applications, including the broad range of sport-specific motor tasks to simulated real-life scenarios, combined with methodological variability of the specific manipulation and evaluation, have contributed to inconsistent outcomes of effectiveness. For instance, a 30-minute smartphone use could induce MF in professional soccer players and impair passing decision-making performance (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e), while a longer exposure of 45 minutes caused no behavioral and perceptual changes in amateur triathletes (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e). Similarly, the 30-minute smartphone use-induced MF could negatively affect subsequent 100/200-meter swimming, but no impact on 50-meter swimming (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e). As the research progresses in broader sports contexts, it is necessary to systematically review, summarize, and evaluate the novel methodological applications for MF inducement purposes with more ecological validity across specific sports. Therefore, the review aims to: 1) summarize more ecologically valid MF-inducing tasks and the representative sports contexts, and 2) evaluate the effectiveness of MF inducement tasks via manipulation check outcomes and potential aftereffects on subsequent sport-specific performance. By evaluating methodological aspects across sports with a standardized perspective, this review will provide applied recommendations for inducement methodologies of future studies, which may have significant implications for advancing knowledge and practice.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"2 Methods","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis systematic review was registered on PROSPERO (CRD42024577183) and conducted by following the PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Review and Meta-analyses) guidelines (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.1 Eligibility Criteria\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003e The predominant objective of this systematic review was to examine the methodology of more ecologically valid MF-inducing tasks within the context of specific sports. The MF inducement task design, the inducement effectiveness, the representative sports and participant characteristics were investigated. In the current review of the acutely induced MF state, the maximum of one day (i.e., 24 hours) was set as the cut-off of the longest MF-inducing task duration to differentiate from the chronic MF or MF trait (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e22\u003c/span\u003e). Any other multifaceted fatigue concept (e.g., burnout) was excluded. Due to the inconsistent terminology used in this field to describe mental fatigue state, cognitive fatigue, self-control strength depletion, and ego depletion were accepted as possible equivalent concepts at first screening (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo establish the detailed search strategy for this systematic review and the inclusion criteria, the PICOS categories (Population, Intervention, Comparison, Outcomes, and Study design, see Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e) were applied for screening titles, abstracts, and/or the full text of papers.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePICOS overview.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"2\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePopulation\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHealthy adults (18\u0026ndash;50 years) with sports experience or athletes of all ages\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eInterventions\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSingle, acute mental fatigue-inducing task with ecological validity (a dynamic motor task including representative elements to replicate sports reality, or the simulated real-world scenarios encountered by athletes for mental fatigue inducement) before the corresponding specific sports activity\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eComparisons\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePeriods/activities that intended to induce non- or less mental fatigue, or traditional laboratory computerized key-pressing tasks\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOutcomes\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eManipulation check of mental fatigue inducement effectiveness (with subjective/behavioral/(neuro)physiological measurements); athletic performance on subsequent sport-specific tasks as a supplementary behavioral marker\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eStudy Design\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOriginal experimental research\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe eligible population included healthy adults (i.e., aged 18\u0026ndash;50 years) with sports experience as well as all-age athletes (i.e., no age limit for participants with defined athletic identity). The experimental intervention was an acute ecologically valid task with the purpose of MF inducement for its aftereffect verification. This review detailed the novel MF inducement application as either a dynamic motor task including representative elements to replicate sports reality or real-world scenarios encountered by athletes for MF inducement before the corresponding specific sports activity. Clinical interventions, concurrent interventions (e.g., MF inducement combined with muscular fatigue, sleep deprivation, nutrition, or heat condition), long-term single intervention over 24 hours, or repeated interventions that last more than one day were excluded. For the control condition, periods/activities that intended to induce non- or less mental fatigue, or traditional laboratory computerized key-pressing tasks were set for the MF inducement comparison.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSince the effectiveness of the MF-inducing intervention was the primary aim for review outcomes, manipulation checks of MF within expected tasks were necessary for the inclusion. Consistent with other reviews in this domain, three markers of induced MF were categorized into 1. subjective perception (e.g., self-reported MF on a scale); 2. behavior (e.g., cognitive/physical/technical performance); 3. (neuro)physiological measurement (e.g., brainwave activity on electroencephalogram (EEG)) (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e23\u003c/span\u003e). The successful inducement of the MF state was defined as the significant alteration of at least one marker immediately after the experimental intervention (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e23\u003c/span\u003e). Considering the individual differences in MF susceptibility (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e24\u003c/span\u003e), the subsequent sport-specific performance was examined between conditions as a supplementary behavioral marker for the MF inducement effectiveness, if the manipulation check failed. Studies that entirely neglect manipulation check sessions were excluded.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eRegarding the study design, only original experimental research was included. The sports specificity of the subsequent performance task needed to be consistent with the represented sports context of MF inducement. Where this was not the approach, for example, studies that used inconsistent isometric movement tasks (e.g., wall-sit), local motor tasks (e.g., bench press, lower limbs maximum voluntary contraction), general physical capacity screening (e.g., balance, dexterity), or other static computerized tasks that lack sports specificity (e.g., video-based visual task, static virtual task) following MF-inducing interventions, were excluded.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec4\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.2 Information Sources and Search Strategy\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe literature sources used in this review included PubMed (best match option), Web of Science (all databases searched), PsycINFO, and SPORTDiscus database. All databases were searched and updated up to the 21st of August 2024. Filters applied were: English language and article/peer-reviewed journal paper publication. Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e reports an overview of the keyword strings used in the different databases and the results. In addition, the reference lists of included studies were screened to ensure the search was as exhaustive as possible.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eKeyword strings applied to the databases and the hits results for the complete search strategy.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"3\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDatabase\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eKeywords string\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e+ applied filter (language: English)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHits\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eby 21 August 2024)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePubMed\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e((\"mental fatigue\"[MeSH]) OR (\"mental fatigue\") OR (\"cognitive fatigue\") OR (\"mental strain\") OR (\"cognitive strain\") OR (\"mental exertion\") OR (\"cognitive exertion\") OR (\"ego depletion\")) NOT (\"patients\" OR \"burnout\" OR \"animals\" OR \"mice\" OR \"rats\" OR \"stroke\" OR \"traumatic brain injury\" OR \"multiple sclerosis\" OR \"Parkinson\" OR \"diabetes\" OR \"disease\" OR \"Neoplasms\" OR \"Infections\")\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2573\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWeb of Science\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eALL=((\"mental fatigue\") OR (\"cognitive fatigue\") OR (\"mental strain\") OR (\"cognitive strain\") OR (\"mental exertion\") OR (\"cognitive exertion\") OR (\"ego depletion\")) NOT ALL=(\"patients\" OR \"burnout\" OR \"animals\" OR \"mice\" OR \"rats\" OR \"stroke\" OR \"traumatic brain injury\" OR \"multiple sclerosis\" OR \"Parkinson\" OR \"diabetes\" OR \"disease\" OR \"Neoplasms\" OR \"Infections\")\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3597\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePsycINFO\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e((\"mental fatigue\") OR (\"cognitive fatigue\") OR (\"mental strain\") OR (\"cognitive strain\") OR (\"mental exertion\") OR (\"cognitive exertion\") OR (\"ego depletion\")) NOT (\"patients\" OR \"burnout\" OR \"animals\" OR \"mice\" OR \"rats\" OR \"stroke\" OR \"traumatic brain injury\" OR \"multiple sclerosis\" OR \"Parkinson\" OR \"diabetes\" OR \"disease\" OR \"Neoplasms\" OR \"Infections\")\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1689\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSPORTDiscus\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTX ( ((\"mental fatigue\") OR (\"cognitive fatigue\") OR (\"mental strain\") OR (\"cognitive strain\") OR (\"mental exertion\") OR (\"cognitive exertion\") OR (\"ego depletion\")) ) NOT TX ( (\"patients\" OR \"burnout\" OR \"animals\" OR \"mice\" OR \"rats\" OR \"stroke\" OR \"traumatic brain injury\" OR \"multiple sclerosis\" OR \"Parkinson\" OR \"diabetes\" OR \"disease\" OR \"Neoplasms\" OR \"Infections\") )\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1182\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec5\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.3 Study Selection and Data-Collection Process\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eAfter executing the search strategy of keywords and filters, all studies from the four different databases were gathered and imported into Rayyan (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e25\u003c/span\u003e). After removing duplicates, two authors (CB and AM) screened the studies by checking titles and abstracts independently and blinded from each other. The system combined decisions from the two reviewers, any \"Maybe\" or \"Conflict\" was double-checked and resolved with author EL. Following the first stage, the screening process progressed with two authors (CB and AM) who assessed the remaining full-text articles against the inclusion criteria for eligibility. Where disagreement still existed after a mutual discussion, authors BR and SR made the final decision.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec6\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.4 Extracted Information and Variables of Interest\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eAccording to the purposes of the review, the method section of the selected studies was first screened. Extracted details included: the representative sports contexts and participant characteristics, the detailed MF-inducing task design, the control condition(s), the subsequent sport-specific task, and the manipulation check of the MF inducement. Additionally, the outcomes of the manipulation check sessions and the potential aftereffects of induced MF on specific athletic performance were extracted for further evaluation of MF inducement effectiveness. Any significant changes were categorized into subjective, behavioral, or (neuro)physiological markers.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec7\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.5 Risk of Bias Assessment\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eAccording to an overview of the study design, the Revised Cochrane Risk of Bias tool for randomized trials (RoB 2) (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e26\u003c/span\u003e) was considered suitable and utilized to assess the risk of bias in each study by two authors (CB and AM) independently. As provided in the tool, each of the five general bias evaluation dimensions received a rating that was either \"low risk\", \"some concerns\", or \"high risk\" of bias. Subsequently, an overall judgment was made. The authors adhered to the guidelines from the Cochrane community. Any disagreement from both sides was resolved through discussion and consensus with another author (EL).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"3 Results","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe full study selection process is presented in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e. The database search resulted in 9041 hits, of which 5660 remained after the duplicates were excluded. The remaining titles and abstracts were then screened, leading to the thorough assessment of 48 full-text papers for eligibility. Ultimately, 12 papers were included in the review.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec9\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.1 Study quality\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eHalf of the included studies showed an overall risk of bias with some concerns, and 25% were with high risk (see Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e within the study and Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e across studies). The main issue regarding the randomization process was the lack of double-blind manipulation when allocating the participants and examiners to conduct the MF inducement. Moreover, the acquiescence bias from the respondents' self-reported MF and the expectancy effect from the researchers might have already increased, causing concern about the selection of the reported results.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec10\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.2 Sports contexts and participant characteristics\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eAnalysis of the sports contexts showed that more ecological inducement of MF mainly occurred in team sports, with soccer (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e27\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e28\u003c/span\u003e) being the most involved, followed by basketball (\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR30\" citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e29\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e31\u003c/span\u003e). Others included sprints (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e32\u003c/span\u003e), freestyle swimming (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e), long-distance swimming of the triathlon (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e), and boxing (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e33\u003c/span\u003e). All subsequent sports-specific motor tasks implemented to verify the aftereffects of induced MF were within the same sports (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR18\" citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR28 CR29 CR30 CR31 CR32\" citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e27\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e33\u003c/span\u003e). Generally, participants were youth (15.9\u0026ndash;17.2 years) or adult (20.0\u0026ndash;27.9 years) athletes at \u0026ge;\u0026thinsp;Tier 2 level (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e34\u003c/span\u003e) (for details see Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOverview of mental fatigue-inducing task and control design, representative sports, participants, and subsequent sports-specific tasks.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"9\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c9\" colnum=\"9\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eInducement type\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eStudy\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSports contexts\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eParticipants (Gender, Age, Athletic/competition level)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMF-inducing task\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eControl\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSubsequent sports-specific task\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTask\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eContent\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFeature\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSports-specific motor task\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCoutinho, et al., 2017\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSoccer\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eM\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;12\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.9\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.8 yr\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eHighly trained amateurish\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eRegional competition\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20 min Whole-body coordination motor task\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSeven different stepping exercises in a ladder drill while juggling a tennis ball\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIntermittent, 4 m practice with 26 m recovery distance, unfamiliar techniques with coordination\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20 min Light general aerobic exercises\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSoccer SSG\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBian, et al., 2022\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSoccer\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eM\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;15\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e22.0\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.5 yr\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWell-trained collegiate\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eProvincial competition\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20 min Soccer passing skill-based task\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10 times repeated LSPT, receiving, control, dribbling, and passing the ball to targets indicated by randomized verbal order as fast and accurately as possible\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIntermittent, 16 passes a block, interval with about 75 s between, 160 times in total, specific skills with decision-making process\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1. 20 min computerized Stroop task\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e2. 20 min motor task of 10 times LSPT with clockwise passing order\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSoccer LSPT\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTactical video-based task\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFilipas, et al., 2021\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBasketball\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eM\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;19\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e20\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;3 yr\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAmateurish\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eRegional competition\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e30 min Basketball tactical video comprehension\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTactical videos created based on the athletic level, after the video, 12 questions were set to check attention\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eConsecutive, watching and comprehension of basketball-specific tactics\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCondition after 5min standardized warm-up\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBasketball 60 Free throws\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDaub, et al., 2022\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBasketball\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eM\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;15\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e20.2\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.2 yr\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eElite collegiate\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eNational top competition\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e30 min Basketball tactical video watching\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBasketball-specific film, the terminology for the tactics of offensive and defensive plays\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eConsecutive, watching basketball-specific tactics\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1. 30 min Computerized stroop task\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e2. 30 min Emotionally neutral documentary\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBasketball 60 Free throws and 4 min jump shooting on 7 locations\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCiocca, et al., 2022\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSoccer\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e? = 10\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e17.2\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.9 yr\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eNational\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eNational U18 competition\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e30 min Video-based tactics decision-making\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTop-view clips of 30 defense and 30 attack situations from Italian top matches, the static image showed the final scene as a cue, choosing next tactical movement on the paper\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIntermittent, 6 s clip, 15 s to tick one of the 3 choices, 4 s black screen and 3 s countdown as the interval\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e30 min Emotionally neutral documentary\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSoccer SSG\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"5\" rowspan=\"6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSocial media use on smartphone\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFortes, et al., 2019\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSoccer\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eM\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;20\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e24.7\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;3.6 yr\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eProfessional\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eState competition\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15/30/45 min Social media apps use on smartphone\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVisual content of social media apps (WhatsApp, Facebook, and Instagram)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eConsecutive, only using the apps, no speaking\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e30min Coaching video documentary\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSoccer simulated full-size match\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFortes, et al., 2021B\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFreestyle swimming\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eF\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;11 M\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;14\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e20.4\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.06 yr\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eInternational\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eInternational and national competitions\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e30 min Social media apps use on smartphone\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVisual content of social media apps (WhatsApp, Facebook, and Instagram)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eConsecutive, only using the apps, no speaking\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e30min Coaching video documentary\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFreestyle swimming simulated 50/100/200 m races\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFortes, et al., 2021A\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e100/200 m Sprint\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eM\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;16\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e21.0\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.9 yr\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eCollegiate\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eNational university competition\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e60 min Social media apps use on smartphone\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVisual content of social media apps (WhatsApp, Facebook, and Instagram)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eConsecutive, only using the apps, write, read, and insert content posts of photos and videos\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1. 60 min Computerized stroop task \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e2. 60 min Coaching video documentary\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSprints simulated 100/200 m dash\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eQuagliarotti, et al., 2023\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTriathlon swimming\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eM\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;7\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e27.9\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;7.0 yr\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTier 2\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e?\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e45 min Smartphone use\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVisual content from all installed apps\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eConsecutive, watching the screen and switching apps, no videos\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;2 min and no music\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1. 45 min AX-CPT task \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e2. 45 min Neutral mood documentaries\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFront crawl swimming test (6 times 200 m at individual average speed and last 200 m all out)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFortes, et al., 2020\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSoccer\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eM\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;25\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e23.4\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.8 yr\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eProfessional\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eState competition\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e30 min Social media apps use on smartphone\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVisual content of social media apps (Facebook and Instagram)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eConsecutive, using the apps\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e30 min Advertisement videos\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSoccer simulated full-size match\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFortes, et al., 2023\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBoxing\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eF\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;8 M\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;13\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e23.33\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;3.46 yr\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAmateurish\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eNational or regional competition\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e30 min Social media apps use on smartphone\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVisual content of social media apps (WhatsApp, Facebook, and Instagram)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eConsecutive, only using the apps, no speaking\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e30 min Coaching video documentary\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBoxing simulated combats (4 rounds of 2 min, 1min interval)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSports-themed videogame play\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFortes, et al., 2020\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSoccer\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eM\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;25\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e23.4\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.8 yr\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eProfessional\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eState competition\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e30 min Soccer-themed videogame play\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSoccer-themed video game, FIFA 2018\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eConsecutive, playing console, in third-person version\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e30 min Advertisement videos\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSoccer simulated full-size match\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFortes, et al., 2023\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBoxing\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eF\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;8 M\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;13\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e23.33\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;3.46 yr\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAmateurish\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eNational or regional competition\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e30 min Boxing-themed videogame play\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBoxing-themed video game, Fight Night Round 3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eConsecutive, playing console, in first-person version, no speaking\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e30 min Coaching video documentary\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBoxing simulated combats (4 rounds of 2 min, 1min interval)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFaro, et al., 2023\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBasketball\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eM\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;14\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e24.3\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;4.1 yr\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTier 3\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eNational competition\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e60 min Basketball-themed videogame play\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBasketball-themed video game, NBA Live 19\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eConsecutive, paired by playing level, playing console, in third-person version\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e60 min Coaching video documentary\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBasketball-specific test (6 min visuomotor task with bouncing the ball, 60 times touch 4-color sensors)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eF, female; M, male; ?, unclear; yr, year; min, minute; s, second; m, meter; SSG, small-side game; LSPT, Loughborough Soccer Passing Test; AX-CPT, AX-continuous performance task; FIFA, Federation Internationale de Football Association; NBA, The National Basketball Association; App, mobile application.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.3 Mental fatigue inducement task design\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe included MF inducement tasks were classified into two main categories; sports-specific motor tasks (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e), and simulated scenarios extracted from athletes' real-life activities. The applied simulated scenarios were further divided into three types; tactical video-based tasks (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e27\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e29\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e30\u003c/span\u003e), social media use on smartphones (\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR18\" citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e28\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e32\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e33\u003c/span\u003e), and sports-themed videogame play (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e28\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e31\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e33\u003c/span\u003e) (for details see Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e). Except for the two 20-minute motor tasks with cognitive demands (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e) and one 30-minute 60-time tactical clip display with subsequent decision-making answers (i.e., during every 30-second block, 15 seconds for ticking a movement choice after watching a 6-second video display) (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e27\u003c/span\u003e) that were designed intermittently, the others were all consecutive 15 to 60-minute exposures to tactical videos or social media contents or videogames.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.4 Evaluation of the MF inducement effectiveness\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eGenerally, subjective MF on the visual analog scale (MVAS) (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR30 CR31 CR32\" citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e29\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e33\u003c/span\u003e) and the reaction performance of short-version computerized Stroop tasks (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR18\" citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e28\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR32\" citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e31\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e33\u003c/span\u003e) were broadly used before and after the interventions to check the MF manipulations. Physiological approaches were less commonly employed, with only two studies added to identify MF state by heart rate variability (HRV) indicators (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e) and EEG records (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e31\u003c/span\u003e) (see Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab4\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 4\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEvaluation of the mental fatigue inducement effectiveness of different tasks.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"8\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eInducement Type\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eStudy\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMF-inducing task\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"4\" nameend=\"c7\" namest=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEvaluation of MF inducement effectiveness\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEffectiveness Conclusion\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSubjective marker\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c6\" namest=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ebehavioral markers\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e(Neuro)-physiological marker\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePost-inducement manipulation check\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSubsequent athletic performance\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSports-specific motor task\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCoutinho, et al., 2017\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20 min Whole-body coordination motor task\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMVAS +\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e/\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTactical-related positioning performance -\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(SSG contraction speed -, lateral synchronization time -)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e/\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eY\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBian, et al., 2022\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20 min Soccer passing skill-based task\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMVAS +\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCognitive performance of 3 min computerized stroop task X\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTechnical performance - \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(LSPT passing accuracy -, technical stability -)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e/\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eY\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTactical video-based task\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFilipas, et al., 2021\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e30 min Basketball tactical video comprehension\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMVAS +\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e/\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTechnical performance -\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(shooting accuracy -)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e/\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eY\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDaub, et al., 2022\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e30 min Basketball tactical video watching\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMVAS X\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(VAS-mental effort +)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e/\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTechnical performance X \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(shots made, shots missed X)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e/\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eN\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCiocca, et al., 2022\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e30 min Video-based tactics decision-making\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e/\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(VAS-mental effort +)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e/\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePhysical performance X\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTechnical performance + \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e (passes, successful passes +)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e/\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eN\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"5\" rowspan=\"6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSocial media use on smartphone\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFortes, et al., 2019\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15/30/45 min Social media apps use on smartphone\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e/\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCognitive performance of 62 stimuli computerized stroop task -\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(after 30/45 min tasks, response speed -, accuracy -)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePassing decision-making performance -\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(performance after 30/45 min task -)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTechnical performance X \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e (passes X)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e/\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e30, 45min Y\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e15min N\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFortes, et al., 2021B\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e30 min Social media apps use on smartphone\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMVAS +\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCognitive performance of 30 stimuli computerized stroop task - \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(response speed -)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSwimming performance \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(100/200 m speed -, 50 m speed X)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHRV: R-R interval, SDNN, RMSSD, pNN50 X\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eY\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFortes, et al., 2021A\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e60 min Social media apps use on smartphone\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMVAS +\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCognitive performance of 45 stimuli computerized stroop task - \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(response speed -)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e100/200 m dash performance X\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e/\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eY\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eQuagliarotti, et al., 2023\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e45 min Smartphone use\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMVAS X\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCognitive performance of 30 stimuli computerized stroop task X\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSwimming performance X\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ebiomechanical variables X\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e/\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eN\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFortes, et al., 2020\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e30 min Social media apps use on smartphone\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e/\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCognitive performance of 62 stimuli computerized stroop task - \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(response speed -, accuracy -)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePassing decision-making performance - \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTechnical performance X \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e (passes X)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e/\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eY\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFortes, et al., 2023\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e30 min Social media apps use on smartphone\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMVAS +\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCognitive performance of 30 stimuli computerized stroop task - \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(response speed -)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBoxing decision-making performance - \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(attack and defense decision-making -)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e/\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eY\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSports-themed videogame play\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFortes, et al., 2020\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e30 min Soccer-themed videogame play\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e/\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCognitive performance of 62 stimuli computerized stroop task - \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(response speed -, accuracy -)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePassing decision-making performance -\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTechnical performance X \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e (passes X)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e/\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eY\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFortes, et al., 2023\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e30 min Boxing-themed videogame play\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMVAS +\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCognitive performance of 30 stimuli computerized stroop task - \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(response speed -)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBoxing decision-making performance - \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(attack and defense decision-making -)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e/\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eY\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFaro, et al., 2023\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e60 min Basketball-themed videogame play\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMVAS +\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCognitive performance of 40 stimuli computerized stroop task - \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(response speed -)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVisuomotor performance -\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(speed and accuracy -)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEEG: theta wave on Fp1 +\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eY\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e+, significantly increased; -, significantly decreased; X, unchanged; /, unused; Y, successfully induced; N, failed to induce; VAS, visual analog scale; MVAS, subjective mental fatigue on the visual analog scale; SSG, small-side game; LSPT, Loughborough soccer passing test; min, minute; m, meter; HRV, heart rate variability; R-R interval, interbeat intervals between all successive heartbeats; SDNN, the standard deviation of all interbeat intervals from which artifacts have been removed; pNN50, the consecutive percentage of R-R interval differences greater than 50 ms; RMSSD, the difference of the quadratic mean of the successive R-R normal intervals; EEG, electroencephalogram; Fp1, left prefrontal electrode.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec13\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.4.1 Inducement effectiveness of specific motor tasks\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eTwenty minutes of whole-body coordination drill on the agility ladder and the passing skill-based task induced the MF in soccer players, as indicated by elevated MVAS and significant behavioral aftereffects. The whole-body coordination task led to a decreased ability in spatial exploration and positioning for tactical formation (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e) during the small-sided game. The soccer passing skill-based task resulted in lower technical stability and passing accuracy during subsequent LSPT (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec14\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.4.2 Inducement effectiveness of tactical video-based tasks\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eTactical video-based tasks showed contradictory effectiveness for the MF inducement. Two of three studies failed to induce MF according to the manipulation check outcomes, only higher mental effort feelings were reported (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e27\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e30\u003c/span\u003e). Further evaluating the subsequent performance, no significant impact on the elite basketball players' shooting performance was shown by watching the tactical video (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e30\u003c/span\u003e). The passes and the success rate during the small-side game did not decrease but increased among the national youth soccer players after intermittently watching tactical clips with decision-making answers (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e27\u003c/span\u003e). Contrarily, watching a similar basketball tactical video induced the MF state of amateur players, with elevated subjective MF and reduced free throw accuracy observed (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e29\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec15\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.4.3 Inducement effectiveness of social media use on smartphones\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe executed tasks exhibited inconsistent MF inducement effectiveness. A 45-minute social media exposure failed to elicit MF as indicated by MVAS and the 30-stimuli version Stroop task among amateur triathletes (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e). Additionally, no specific performance or behavioral (i.e., kicking, stroking, breathing) alterations were observed in subsequent endurance swimming (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e). Among the other five studies, three showed significantly higher MVAS after the MF inducement tasks (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e32\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e33\u003c/span\u003e). Simultaneously, the MF inducement effectiveness was verified by increased response time during different short-version (i.e., 30-stimuli (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e33\u003c/span\u003e), and 45-stimuli (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e32\u003c/span\u003e)) Stroop tasks. One study included HRV indicators (interbeat intervals between all successive heartbeats and derivative calculations, details see Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e), which showed all declines from initial to post-swimming races regardless of the intervention (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e). The 30-minute inducement tasks hindered amateur boxers' attack and defense decision-making performance in simulated combats (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e33\u003c/span\u003e), and international-level swimmers' speed in simulated 100 and 200 meters freestyle swimming races, except the 50-meter race performance (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e). Extending the exposure to 60 minutes could not impact the simulated 100, 200-meter dash performance in collegiate sprinters (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e32\u003c/span\u003e). The remaining two studies verified the MF inducement after 30 or 45-minute exposure only by behavioral changes. Professional soccer players showed decreased response speed and accuracy in the 62-stimuli Stroop task and worsened passing decision-making performance during the simulated match (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e28\u003c/span\u003e). However, the 15-minute exposure did not result in any significant change, thus failing to induce MF (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec16\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.4.4 Inducement effectiveness of sports-themed videogame play\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe 30-minute soccer-themed video game caused a significant decline in response speed and accuracy of the 62-stimuli computerized Stroop task (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e28\u003c/span\u003e). The induced MF further hindered subsequent passing decision-making performance. Playing the same duration of a boxing-themed video game, the effective MF inducement was proved by MVAS and the decreased response speed on the 30-stimuli computerized Stroop task (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e33\u003c/span\u003e). Boxing-specific attack and defense decision-making performance in simulated combats were also reported (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e33\u003c/span\u003e). Following the 60-minute basketball-themed video game play, national basketball players showed higher MVAS and response time of the 40-stimuli Stroop task. Increased theta waves on the left prefrontal electrode (i.e., Fp1) in EEG records provided further evidence of effective inducement as suggested by previous studies (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e31\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e35\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e36\u003c/span\u003e). Video game-induced MF impaired subsequent reaction performance on a visuomotor test involving basketball-bouncing movements (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e31\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"4 Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis systematic review aimed to summarize the MF-inducing tasks with greater ecological validity with regard to sports training and performance and evaluate their inducement effectiveness. The included sports-specific motor tasks and simulated athletes' real-life scenarios addressed the primary consideration of ecological validity by incorporating representative sports elements or simulating daily scenarios that athletes face in real-world settings into task designs. However, the review also highlighted considerable variability in the effectiveness of these specific approaches, and nuances to consider for the application of representative MF-inducing tasks.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec18\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e4.1 Stance on Ecological validity of MF inducement in sports\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eEcological validity is mainly used to discuss whether experimental research resembles and generalizes to the \u0026lsquo;real world' (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e37\u003c/span\u003e). During the progress of studies inducing MF in sports, researchers adopted this term (i.e., \u0026lsquo;limited\u0026rsquo; ecological validity) (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e) to critically evaluate previous fundamental studies, especially for the purpose of translating laboratory-based evidence into practice. However, it is unrealistic for ecological validity to imply that research should always occur during open analysis of performance, since control is necessary for participants to exhibit truthful behaviors (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e38\u003c/span\u003e). Given the importance of maintaining the experimental control, first manipulating cognitive load by employing an isolated, static task in the fundamental studies to induce MF, holds scientific rigor. Therefore, based on these perspectives, the current systematic review does not take an adversarial position towards previous traditional research, nor does it advocate that an event occurring in real life (e.g., transcribing task (\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR40\" citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e39\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e41\u003c/span\u003e)) inherently results in high ecological validity to particular sports environment. Considering the challenges in determining the specific nature of the \u0026lsquo;ecologically valid standard\u0026rsquo;, the inclusion criteria were established to focus on dynamic motor tasks that involve sports-specific elements or applications of simulated cognitive-demanding scenarios encountered in athletes' real lives.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec19\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e4.2 Effectiveness of different MF inducement tasks\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec20\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e4.2.1 Sports-specific motor tasks\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe review identified two primary approaches: whole-body coordination and soccer passing skill-based tasks. Both methods showed effectiveness in inducing MF of soccer players after 20 minutes. The whole-body coordination task emphasized motor coordination under spatial pressure (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e), while the soccer passing skill-based task focused on accurate decision-making and movement executions under time pressure (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e). The common feature of the two tasks is adding the active processing of environmental information from the field into the serial movement combination. The dynamic task mode requires selective and sustained attention (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e42\u003c/span\u003e), as well as challenges players' ability to inhibit automatic response, initiated action, or inappropriate behavior, or compete with distracting stimuli that may compromise performance (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e43\u003c/span\u003e). Incorporation of technical movements and cognitive requirements may represent part of the elements from pre-match warm-up protocols, gaining ecological validity of such MF inducement task designs for performance aftereffect studies.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec21\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e4.2.2 Simulated scenarios in athletes' real-life setting\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe use of sports-themed video games to induce MF in athletes has shown consistent effectiveness (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e28\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e31\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e33\u003c/span\u003e). Despite the largely seated position, the high-level attention required, rapid processing of visual information from the dynamic virtual environment, decision-making under time pressure, the need for fine-motor control of fingers and hand-eye coordination, all contribute to cognitive load and subsequent potential for inducement of MF (\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR45\" citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e44\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e46\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe consecutive use of social media on smartphones induced MF in all but one included study. Generally, a minimum of 30 minutes of exposure to social media content was effective in inducing MF. The prolonged gazing and interactive activities on the screen require constant attention and information processing (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR47\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e47\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR48\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e48\u003c/span\u003e). Users frequently switch between different types of texts, images, and videos, which demands continuous cognitive engagement and can lead to cognition overload (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR49\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e49\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e50\u003c/span\u003e). This multitasking process and response to a high volume of information can exhaust attentional resources (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR51\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e51\u003c/span\u003e) and hinder executive function (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR52\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e52\u003c/span\u003e), leading to MF (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR53\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e53\u003c/span\u003e). Besides, daily social media use often involves emotional engagement, as users interact with content that can elicit a wide range of emotions from positive to negative. The emotional regulation required to process these interactions could further contribute to MF (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR54\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e54\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR55\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e55\u003c/span\u003e). However, 45-minute smartphone content exposure among amateur triathletes did not induce MF (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e). Participants were allowed to switch between any apps installed on the smartphone. The flexible and relaxed nature likely diluted cognitive load (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR56\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e56\u003c/span\u003e) compared to more immersive and forced social media interaction tasks previously employed. Because social media use on smartphones in daily life may be more in a relaxed manner, as opposed to typically blocked, forced laboratory settings with MF inducement purposes, this should be considered when transferring such applications into practice. Furthermore, in this study, a 15-minute warm-up session was set between the smartphone exposure and subsequent swimming races. Low-intensity warm-up activities can increase arousal and counteract the impacts of MF by boosting dopamine levels and overall alertness (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR57\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e57\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR58\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e58\u003c/span\u003e), potentially countering any social media inducement effects. It also suggests that more research should focus on the arrangement and optimal combinations of pre-match activities in a limited time window, an area of interest for athletes and sports practitioners to better manage and prevent the MF.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTwo studies involving watching basketball tactical videos (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e29\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e30\u003c/span\u003e), yielded contrasting effectiveness on MF inducement. The one that required participants to watch basketball tactical videos and subsequently answer 12 questions based on the content successfully induced MF (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e29\u003c/span\u003e). Similar to the studies in academic settings, this active engagement and cognitive demands involved in the theoretical learning process and prolonged attention maintenance likely contributed to the higher level of MF (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR59\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e59\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR60\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e60\u003c/span\u003e). Contrarily, the other with solely passive exposure to tactics terminology film did not effectively induce MF. Although the national-level basketball players self-reported more mental effort after the task, their shooting performance and MF values showed no significant changes (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e30\u003c/span\u003e). This is consistent with the function of emotionally neutral documentary viewing tasks that are widely used as a control due to the low level of cognitive engagement (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR61\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e61\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR62\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e62\u003c/span\u003e). Additionally, the soccer tactical video-based task involving intermittent match records watching and related decision-making answers failed to induce MF (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e27\u003c/span\u003e). Despite the active engagement in skills decision-making related to actual soccer scenarios, the low stimuli frequency (i.e., one time in the 30-second block), combined with the fixed response mode of three known choices under sufficient time, might not reach the sustained, intense cognitive load necessary to induce significant MF (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR63\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e63\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec22\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e4.3 Variability in inducement effectiveness within one type of task\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eIt is evident that dynamic, structured tasks with intense cognitive demands and prolonged, active engagement are generally effective in inducing MF in sports contexts. Meanwhile, the observed inconsistency in inducement effectiveness within one type of task indicates the variability in the design, application, and response of MF-inducing tasks.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eVariable effectiveness in MF inducement can be attributed to diversity in participants' features such as age, athletic level, and prior training and competition experience (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e24\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR64\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e64\u003c/span\u003e). When cross-checking two similar tactical video-based tasks, the one applied to elite basketball players competing at the highest national league showed ineffective inducement (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e30\u003c/span\u003e), while the other induced MF successfully in regional amateurs (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e29\u003c/span\u003e). Consistently, more experienced athletes were found less susceptible (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e41\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR65\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e65\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR66\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e66\u003c/span\u003e) to induced MF. Meanwhile, different sports contexts impose unique cognitive and physical demands, which may shape different natures of fatigue, and in turn, change the logic of ecological MF inducement. Ecologically valid MF-inducing task design requires a better understanding of the contextual differences and representative elements in particular sports contexts, as well as the real-life causations of MF in particular athletes (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR67\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e67\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe duration of exposure to MF-inducing tasks played an important role. Van Cutsem et al. (2017) proposed a cut-off value of 30 minutes that aligns with the minimal cortical activity time required to induce MF (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e). Direct comparisons in one study showed that a shorter 15 minutes of smartphone use failed to induce significant MF, whereas 45 minutes of longer use could induce MF but caused no more detrimental aftereffects (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e). However, two soccer-specific motor tasks could effectively induce MF in 20 minutes (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e). The dynamic, dual-task design with movement execution and extra cognitive demands from environmental cues might account for the successful inducement in a shorter duration than virtual tasks (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR68\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e68\u003c/span\u003e). The application for MF inducement needs to consider manipulating the task variability in duration and intensity, increasing contextual interference (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e) to mimic athletes' cognitive activities. Interestingly, Zeuwts et al. (2021) investigated the Stroop-task-induced MF in young cyclists with an innovative virtual reality simulator to mimic traffic situations (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR69\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e69\u003c/span\u003e), a practical design that inspires further reappearance of sports scenarios.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe variability in MF inducement effectiveness also stems from differences in how MF is measured and verified through manipulation checks and subsequent behavioral assessments. Studies mainly utilizing subjective indicators such as the MVAS in combination with objective cognitive performance tests like the short-version Stroop task tend to provide more robust evidence of MF inducement (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR70\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e70\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR71\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e71\u003c/span\u003e). However, discrepancies arise when only a single measure is used or when the selected assessment methods are not sensitive enough to detect potential changes.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec23\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e4.4 Limitations\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eAlthough the present review assessed both manipulation checks and the behavioral aftereffects of potentially induced MF on subsequent sports-specific performance, the inherent heterogeneity in detailed task designs, sports contexts, and athletes' characteristics, combined with the limited number of studies, challenged cross-comparisons within specific inducement approaches. As indicated by the risk of bias evaluation, randomization of task allocation and single-blind design for athletes was commonly guaranteed, but not for the investigators. There is a possibility that the observer expectancy effect (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR72\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e72\u003c/span\u003e) could interfere with the effectiveness interpretation. Furthermore, the self-reported MVAS was most utilized to verify the MF inducement, but due to the subjective feelings being the integration of various information sources, it should be distinguished from and not be interchangeable with objective measures (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR73\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e73\u003c/span\u003e). In some studies, the significant elevation of MVAS observed may also be partially due to the acquiescence bias (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e), as well as influenced by the clear distinction between a cognitively demanding task and casually watching the documentary, where the MF-inducing purpose could be easily detected. When interpreting and transferring the conclusions, standardization issues, contextual differences, and evidence bias should be considered.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec24\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e4.5 Implications for future research and practice\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eFuture research should focus on enhancing the ecological validity of MF-inducing tasks by using sports-specific motor tasks in open environments or athletes' real-life scenarios. Combining qualitative and quantitative approaches will help better understand MF contributors and real-life causations in specific sports contexts, leading to MF inducement tasks that more closely relate to the demands of training and competition. Incorporating advanced technologies like virtual and augmented reality may open the opportunity to create more precise simulations for MF inducement. Additionally, more balanced studies across diverse participants and sports contexts are needed to broaden MF applications. Integrating multifaceted indicators, including subjective monitoring, behavioral tasks, and neurophysiological assessments, throughout the inducement process will improve the accuracy of MF evaluation. The ineffective inducement task design also reflects that athletes and sports practitioners should be mindful of managing the duration, content, and engagement forms of pre-match activities, in case of inducing or aggravating MF which may impair performance.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"5 Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis systematic review evaluated the MF inducement methodologies in sports contexts with a particular focus on ecological validity and representative design. The inducement effectiveness varied within the task type, suggesting the need for tailored design and standardized evaluation to specific contexts. Findings indicated that 20-minute sports-specific motor tasks with cognitive demands and most of the 30-minute simulated real-life scenarios successfully induced MF in different athletes. Where ineffective inducement was observed, this was due to contributing factors of shorter duration, passive engagement with sparse cognitive demands, or conducted on less susceptible participants. Athletes and sports practitioners should carefully manage the modality and content of the pre-match activities to prevent inducing or aggravating MF. Future research should refine and co-design the MF-inducing task with practitioners based on multifaceted MF evidence in the laboratory and real-life settings, create immersive scenarios that can better replicate the inducement process in specific contexts, and improve measurement tools, which will provide comprehensive evaluation and verification of the MF inducement.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Abbreviations","content":"\u003cp\u003eMF, Mental fatigue; PICOS, Population, intervention, comparison, outcomes, and study design; RoB 2, Revised Cochrane risk of bias tool for randomized trials; LSPT, Loughborough soccer passing test; MVAS, Subjective mental fatigue on visual analog scale; SSG, Small-side game; EEG, Electroencephalogram; HRV, Heart rate variability; App, mobile application.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEthics approval and consent to participate:\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eChao Bian, Suzanna Russell, Ana Mali, Elke Lathouwers, Kevin De Pauw, Jelle Habay,\u0026nbsp;Špela Bogataj, and Bart Roelands declare that the systematic review complies with all ethical standards. No participants were recruited for the present study, so no consent for participation needed to be collected.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConsent for publication:\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNot applicable.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAvailability of data and material:\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAll data generated or analyzed during this study are included in this published article.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCompeting interests:\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eChao Bian, Suzanna Russell, Ana Mali, Elke Lathouwers, Kevin De Pauw, Jelle Habay,\u0026nbsp;Špela Bogataj, and Bart Roelands\u0026nbsp;have no competing interests relevant to the content of this review.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFunding\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e:\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eChao Bian is an awardee of the China Scholarship Council (File No. 202208310018).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAuthors' contributions:\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eCB, BR, and SR conceptualized the topic and finalized the detailed search strategy. CB, AM, and EL performed the primary literature search and full-text screening. Data synthesis and presentation were conducted by CB and AM. CB first drafted the manuscript. ŠB, SR, JH, and KDP later helped adjust the general construction, modify the main content, and polish the sentences.\u0026nbsp;CB,\u0026nbsp;BR, and SR updated and finalized the manuscript. All authors read, revised, and approved the final manuscript.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAcknowledgements:\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBart Roelands is a Collen-Francqui research professor. China Scholarship Council, entrusted by the Chinese Government, sponsors Chao Bian to pursue study in Belgium. We would like to thank the Strategic Research Program Exercise and the Brain in Health \u0026amp; Disease: The Added Value of Human-Centered Robotics (SRP17 and SRP77) and the Research Council of the Vrije Universiteit Brussel for their valuable contribution to this work.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eBoksem M, Tops M. Mental fatigue: Costs and benefits. Brain Research Reviews. 2008;59:125-39.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eRoelands B, Kelly V, Russell S, Habay J. The physiological nature of mental fatigue: Current knowledge and future avenues for sport science. International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance. 2021;17:1-2.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eVan Cutsem J, Marcora S, De Pauw K, Bailey S, Meeusen R, Roelands B. The effects of mental fatigue on physical performance: A systematic review. Sports Medicine. 2017;47(8):1569-88.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eMcMorris T, Barwood M, Hale BJ, Dicks M, Corbett J. 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Journal of Sports Sciences. 2001;19:811-27.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eMcCall A, Wolfberg A, Ivarsson A, Dupont G, Larocque A, Bilsborough J. A qualitative study of 11 world-class team-sport athletes\u0026apos; experiences answering subjective questionnaires: A key ingredient for \u0026lsquo;visible\u0026apos; health and performance monitoring? Sports Medicine. 2023;53.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":true,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":true,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"sports-medicine-open","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"smoa","sideBox":"Learn more about [Sports Medicine-Open](http://sportsmedicine-open.springeropen.com/)","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"https://www.editorialmanager.com/smoa/default.aspx","title":"Sports Medicine-Open","twitterHandle":"@SpringerOpen","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"BMC/SO AJ","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Mental fatigue, Cognitive fatigue, Inducement, Ecological validity, Representative, Methodology, Sports context, Real-life scenario","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-5102261/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-5102261/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eBackground:\u003c/strong\u003e Mental fatigue (MF) in sports has developed from well-controlled laboratory-based studies to applied studies with greater ecological validity. Ongoing developments in the representativeness of MF inducement approaches, including the broad range of sport-specific motor tasks to simulated real-life scenarios, have shown methodological variability and inconsistent outcomes of effectiveness. Evaluating and comparing these approaches is essential to provide recommendations for designinginducement tasks in future research and considerations for practitioners. Therefore, the systematic review aimed to summarize more ecologically valid MF-inducing tasks in representative sports contexts and to evaluate the MF inducement effectiveness via manipulation check outcomes and potential aftereffects on subsequent sport-specific performance.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMethods: \u003c/strong\u003eThe review was registered on the PROSPERO database (CRD42024577183). PubMed, Web of Science, PsycINFO, and SPORTDiscus were searched until 21 August 2024 for studies that applied acute, more ecologically valid MF-inducing tasks within sports-specific contexts. The MF inducement task design and effectiveness across representative sports and participants were investigated.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eResults: \u003c/strong\u003eTwelve\u003cstrong\u003e \u003c/strong\u003epapers were included. Only a quarter of studies presented an overall low risk of bias. The 20-minute sports-specific motor tasks with cognitive demands and most 30-minute simulated real-life scenarios (i.e., social media use on smartphones, watching tactical videos, sports-themed videogame play) successfully induced MF in differing athlete samples. Ineffective MF inducement was attributed to shorter task duration, passive engagement with sparse cognitive demands, or the involvement of less susceptible participants.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConclusions:\u003c/strong\u003e This systematic review evaluated MF inducement methodologies with greater ecological validity to sporting contexts. The inducement effectiveness varied within four task types. Athletes and sports practitioners should carefully manage the modality and content of pre-competition activities to minimize MF. Future research should refine and co-design the MF-inducing task with practitioners based on multifaceted MF evidence from laboratory and real-life settings, create immersive scenarios that can better replicate the inducement process in specific contexts, and improve measurement tools, which will provide comprehensive evaluation and verification of the MF inducement.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Methodological Considerations and Effectiveness for Ecologically Valid Mental Fatigue Inducement in Sports: a Systematic Review","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2024-11-20 10:47:24","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-5102261/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"decision","content":"Major Revision","date":"2025-05-17T07:56:16+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"","date":"2024-10-29T13:59:44+00:00","index":0,"fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2024-10-29T13:08:30+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2024-09-20T00:47:52+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"Sports Medicine-Open","date":"2024-09-19T00:50:08+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"sports-medicine-open","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"smoa","sideBox":"Learn more about [Sports Medicine-Open](http://sportsmedicine-open.springeropen.com/)","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"https://www.editorialmanager.com/smoa/default.aspx","title":"Sports Medicine-Open","twitterHandle":"@SpringerOpen","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"BMC/SO AJ","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"72deca8d-8e25-4fd1-b949-dd4c74a790dd","owner":[],"postedDate":"November 20th, 2024","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"published-in-journal","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2025-07-07T16:09:51+00:00","versionOfRecord":{"articleIdentity":"rs-5102261","link":"https://doi.org/10.1186/s40798-025-00891-0","journal":{"identity":"sports-medicine-open","isVorOnly":false,"title":"Sports Medicine-Open"},"publishedOn":"2025-07-01 15:57:25","publishedOnDateReadable":"July 1st, 2025"},"versionCreatedAt":"2024-11-20 10:47:24","video":"","vorDoi":"10.1186/s40798-025-00891-0","vorDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1186/s40798-025-00891-0","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-5102261","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-5102261","identity":"rs-5102261","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"qtupq5eGEP_6zYnWcrvyt","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}