Religiousness–happiness Links in Türkiye and Jordan: Gratitude and envy as indirect pathways

Religiousness–happiness Links in Türkiye and Jordan: Gratitude and envy as indirect pathways | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Religiousness–happiness Links in Türkiye and Jordan: Gratitude and envy as indirect pathways Hisham Abu-Raiya, Ali Ayten, Hamza Ferhan This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-9395261/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Under Review Version 1 posted 18 You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Happiness is central to everyday well-being, yet we know little about how faith connects to it in lived, social-emotional terms. We surveyed 812 Muslim adults in Türkiye and Jordan using validated measures of religiousness, happiness, gratitude, and two forms of envy (malicious, benign). Path and mediational analyses showed a direct positive link between religiousness and happiness, and indirect links whereby higher religiousness related to greater gratitude and lower malicious envy, which in turn related to higher happiness. Benign envy showed no indirect effect. Theoretically, these findings situate the religion–happiness connection in moral-emotional pathways: religious involvement appears to cultivate gratitude and inhibit hostile status comparison, refining biopsychosocial–spiritual models by specifying affective mechanisms through which meaning, norms, and relationships support well-being. Practically, the findings suggest that brief, culturally sensitive practices can be embedded in primary care, community programs, and campus or congregational settings: gratitude micro-check-ins or journaling; peer-recognition rituals emphasizing contribution over prestige; and reframing comparison as information for values-aligned action, ideally in partnership with faith leaders. Because data are cross-sectional, patterns reflect statistical—not causal—mediation. Future longitudinal and program-evaluation studies should test whether strengthening gratitude and reducing malicious comparison reliably enhance happiness in Muslim communities and beyond. religiousness happiness gratitude envy Muslims Figures Figure 1 Introduction People who are more religious often report greater happiness and life satisfaction across cultures and faith traditions [ 1 – 3 ]. Scholars have suggested that this connection works largely through familiar pathways—feeling socially supported and integrated [e.g., 4], experiencing more meaning and purpose [ 5 ], using coping strategies and health behaviors that protect well-being [ 6 – 7 ], and drawing on self-control in daily life [ 8 – 9 ]. Yet this picture is incomplete without emotions. Religious life is not only about beliefs; it often creates emotional communities that encourage certain feelings and soften others. Gratitude and envy are especially relevant because they shape how we connect with others, how we compare ourselves, and how we feel overall [ 10 – 11 ]. Gratitude reflects appreciation for life’s gifts—whether from other people or from God—while envy involves discomfort with others’ advantages. These two emotions, one prosocial and one potentially harmful, may together help explain how religiousness supports happiness. To explore this idea, the present study examines whether gratitude and two forms of envy (malicious, benign) statistically mediate the religiousness–happiness link among Muslim adults in Türkiye and Jordan. By studying these processes in Muslim-majority contexts, this work extends Positive Psychology [ 12 ] and cross-cultural research on religion [ 13 – 14 ], offering insight into how faith-shaped emotional regulation may foster well-being. The findings may likewise suggest practical directions that could be implemented to support individuals across community and therapeutic contexts. Religiousness and Happiness A large body of research shows that religiousness—understood through dimensions such as religious identity, behavior, and belief—is positively associated with happiness, often measured through life satisfaction and emotional well-being [15–16, 1–3, 17–18]. The most comprehensive recent meta-analysis to date ( k = 256; N = 666,085), conducted by Yaden et al. [ 19 ], found an overall correlation of r = .18 between religiousness and life satisfaction, with consistent positive links across multiple religious dimensions (global religiousness, spirituality, attendance, practices, beliefs, experiences). Earlier work had already pointed in the same direction: a classic meta-analysis revealed a modest yet reliable association between religion and subjective well-being [ 20 ], and narrative reviews similarly concluded that, on average, religious involvement relates to better mental health and greater happiness [ 2 – 3 ]. Much of this evidence comes from studies of Christian populations, leaving followers of other faiths—particularly Islam—less represented [ 21 ]. In recent years, however, a modest but growing literature has begun to examine how religious beliefs, practices, coping styles, and happiness relate among Muslims worldwide [ 21 – 22 , 23 – 27 ]. Emerging findings—including contemporary reviews [ 24 , 26 ] and a longitudinal study [ 27 ]—largely mirror those reported among non-Muslim samples. Taken together, this work suggests that the link between religiousness and happiness is robust and evident across cultures. This naturally raises the question: What helps sustain this consistent association? Several explanations have been proposed. One involves social support and integration. Religious participation often brings people into supportive communities—places where friendship, emotional care, and practical help are readily available. These social bonds have been shown to boost life satisfaction, even beyond the influence of private beliefs [ 4 , 28 – 30 ]. Another explanation centers on meaning and purpose. Religious traditions offer narratives and worldviews that help people make sense of their lives, cultivate hope, and build inner resources such as optimism and mastery—factors that are known to support well-being [ 5 , 31 – 34 ]. A third pathway highlights coping and health behaviors: religious engagement is often associated with healthier lifestyles, lower rates of depression and suicide, and more effective coping strategies [ 6 – 7 ]. A fourth explanation involves self-control. Individuals with greater self-control tend to regulate their emotions more effectively, avoid harmful choices, and pursue meaningful goals—processes that can nurture happiness [ 8 – 9 ]. The present study adds to this literature by turning attention to the emotional fabric of religious life. Specifically, it examines whether the relationship between religiousness and happiness may be carried, in part, through two social-moral emotions: gratitude and envy (both malicious and benign). Why Gratitude? Gratitude refers to the idea of being thankful due to another's help, desirable events or positive aspects of life [ 35 ]. It involves the feeling of appreciation for favors received [ 36 ] and is viewed both as a positive emotion, mood, or disposition [ 37 – 38 ]. At the dispositional level, gratitude is a distinctive worldview towards the positive in the world [ 35 ] and is defined as a generalized tendency to “…recognize and respond with grateful emotion to the roles of other people’s benevolence in the positive experiences and outcomes that one obtains" [38; p.12]. Gratitude holds a special place in nearly all major religions, where it’s seen as a core virtue—expressed not just toward God, but also toward others and life itself [ 39 ]. Many religious practices, like prayers of thanks or saying grace before meals, are designed to help people focus on the good in their lives and recognize their blessings [ 40 ]. In Islam, for example, gratitude—known as shukr —is woven into everyday spiritual life through daily prayers, specific expressions, and foundational teachings [ 41 ]. This strong focus on gratitude isn’t just theoretical—it shows up in empirical studies too. Such studies consistently find that people who are more religious often report feeling more grateful, both as a general disposition and in specific situations [ 10 , 38 , 42 – 43 ] As for the consequences of gratitude, empirical research has testified to its wide range of physical and psychological benefits. For example, gratitude has been associated with better sleep, lower blood pressure, and improved immune functioning [ 44 – 45 ], enhanced relationship satisfaction, trust, and closeness [ 47 ], and post-traumatic growth and adaptive coping strategies [ 47 – 49 ]. Review articles and meta-analyses have testified to the consistent link between gratitude and happiness [ 35 , 50 – 52 ]. For example, in a meta-analytic study encompassing 62 datasets ( N = 31,975), and examining correlations between gratitude and components of well-being—life satisfaction, positive affect, and negative affect- it was found that higher levels of gratitude correlate positively with higher life satisfaction and positive affect, and negatively with higher negative affect [ 51 ]. In a meta-analysis of gratitude interventions, encompassing 163 Randomised Control Trials ( N = 24,804), Choi et al. [ 50 ] found that expressed gratitude interventions lead to small but statistically significant improvements in psychological well-being—specifically in life satisfaction, positive affect, and overall happiness. To explicate this link between gratitude and happiness, a few suggestions have been put forward which emphasize the moral and social components of gratitude. It was suggested, for example, that gratitude enhances well-being by broadening attention to positive life aspects, reinforcing prosocial ties, and reducing destructive emotions such as envy and resentment [ 36 ]. It was also suggested that expressing gratitude strengthens social bonds and feelings of connectedness, both of which are crucial predictors of happiness [ 46 ]. Building on the theories and findings above, it is highly plausible that gratitude helps carry the effect of religiousness to greater happiness. Many religious traditions invite people to see life as a gift, cultivating gratitude, humility, and appreciation for support received from God and from others. This thankfulness can translate into higher life satisfaction, more frequent positive emotions, stronger relationships, and fewer negative feelings—together offering a clear route by which more religious individuals report greater happiness. Yet despite this compelling logic, relatively few studies have directly tested gratitude as a mediator between religiousness and overall well-being [ 10 , 53 – 56 ], and even fewer have focused specifically on subjective well-being or happiness [ 36 , 57 – 59 ]. Notably, no studies have examined this pathway in Muslim populations. The present study addresses this gap. Why Envy? Envy is a complex social emotion that surfaces when people compare themselves to others who have something they want—success, talent, possessions—and it often carries feelings of inadequacy, longing, and at times resentment [ 60 – 61 ]. It is not a single, uniform feeling. Scholars typically differentiate between malicious envy and benign envy [ 11 , 61 ]. Malicious envy is the more corrosive form—marked by bitterness, hostility, and a wish to pull others down—whereas benign envy is more about inspiration, sparking admiration and a drive for self-improvement without ill will. Across religious traditions, malicious envy has long been treated as morally hazardous—one of the “seven deadly sins”—and teachings often promote counter-virtues like gratitude, humility, and compassion to blunt its effects [ 62 – 63 ]. In Islam, for instance, malicious envy ( hasad ) is strongly discouraged, with contentment ( qana’ah ) and trust in divine justice offered as antidotes [ 41 ]. These values may also channel competitive comparisons toward a more constructive, benign form. Empirically, however, evidence is scarce: in a Turkish sample, Irk and Gürses [ 64 ] found religiousness was negatively correlated with malicious envy and unrelated to benign envy. Envy, especially in its malicious form, is linked to higher depression and anxiety and to lower life satisfaction [ 11 , 60 , 65 ]. Benign envy shows a more nuanced pattern: although it can feel unpleasant in the moment, it may fuel achievement motivation and growth [ 11 , 61 ]. Overall, frequent envy is associated with reduced well-being, with malicious envy exerting the strongest negative effects [ 66 ]. Longitudinal work suggests that habitual envy sustains upward comparisons that erode gratitude and deepen inadequacy [ 60 , 67 ]. In short, envy tends to harm happiness, though the extent depends on its form. These patterns suggest that envy—particularly malicious envy—may help explain how religiousness relates to happiness. Religious teachings may lessen tendencies toward malicious envy and promote more constructive responses to comparison, which, in turn, could support greater happiness. Yet, to the best of our knowledge, no study has directly tested whether envy mediates the religiousness–happiness link. This study addresses this gap. Current Research The present study contributes to the literature trying to explicate the religiousness-happiness link by turning attention to social-moral emotions as potential explanatory mechanisms. Specifically, it aims to test a mediational model in which religiousness is the independent variable, happiness is the dependent variable, and both gratitude and envy (malicious and benign) are the potential mediator. Based on theoretical and empirical grounds, we hypothesize that: H1: Higher levels of religiousness will be associated with higher levels of happiness. H2: Gratitude will mediate the link between religiousness and happiness, such that higher levels of religiousness will be associated with higher levels of gratitude, which in turn will be associated with higher levels of happiness. H3: Malicious envy will mediate the link between religiousness and happiness, such that higher levels of religiousness will be associated with lower levels of malicious envy, which in turn will be associated with higher levels of happiness. Given the mixed evidence regarding the relationships between benign envy, religiousness, and happiness, the role of benign envy was explored in an exploratory manner. As such, no specific directional hypothesis was proposed for this variable. Method Sample The study’s sample consisted of 812 Muslim individuals recruited from two countries: Türkiye ( n = 511) and Jordan ( n = 301). Participants ranged in age from 17 to 71 years ( M = 36.03, SD = 12.70). In terms of gender, 44.2% identified as male and 55.8% as female. Regarding marital status, 43.5% were single, 54.7% were married, and 1.8% were engaged, separated, or divorced. Measures Happiness . The Oxford Happiness Questionnaire–Short Form [OHQ-SF; 68] is an 8-item self-report measure of subjective well-being derived from the 29-item OHQ. Participants rated items (e.g., “I feel that life is very rewarding”) on a 5-point Likert scale (1 = strongly disagree to 5 = strongly agree). Items were summed; higher totals indicate greater happiness. Religiousness . The Islamically oriented Religiousness Scale [ 69 ] is a 9-item measure assessing incorporation of religious teachings into daily life (decisions, relationships, clothing, diet, friendships) and practice frequency (prayer, fasting, reading the Qur’an, duʿā). Example items include “My religious beliefs influence important life decisions,” “My religious beliefs influence what I eat and drink,” and “I pray five times a day.” Responses use a 5-point Likert scale (1 = never to 5 = always). Items were summed; higher scores indicate greater religiousness. Gratitude . The Gratitude Questionnaire–6 [GQ-6; 38) assesses dispositional gratitude with 6 self-report items (e.g., “I have so much in life to be thankful for”). Responses use a 7-point Likert scale (1 = strongly disagree to 7 = strongly agree); two items are reverse scored (e.g., “When I look at the world, I don’t see much to be grateful for”). Items were summed; higher scores indicate greater gratitude. Envy . The Benign and Malicious Envy Scale [BeMaS; 11] is a 10-item self-report measure assessing two forms of envy: benign envy (self-improvement motivation) and malicious envy (desire to undermine others). Each subscale includes five items (e.g., “When I envy others, I focus on how I can become equally successful” [benign]; “I wish that superior people lose their advantage” [malicious]). Items were rated on a 6-point Likert scale (1 = strongly disagree to 6 = strongly agree) and summed; higher scores reflect stronger tendencies toward each envy type. Procedure The study was conducted in Türkiye and Jordan with approval from the second author’s university IRB. Except for demographics and the Turkish-developed religiousness scale (translated into Arabic by the third author), all instruments were established English-language measures translated into Turkish (second author) and Arabic (third author), then back-translated by professional translators for accuracy. Data were gathered April–June 2025 via convenience and snowball sampling. Collection was carried out by 25 students in a research seminar at the second author’s institution and 15 students at a Jordanian university where the third author is an adjunct; each student recruited 20–25 participants in their locality. Participants provided written informed consent. Data were entered into two SPSS files (Türkiye/Jordan) and merged into a single dataset after collection. Results Measurement Invariance (Türkiye vs. Jordan) Because the study integrates two national samples and reports pooled estimates alongside country-specific checks, we evaluated measurement invariance for all multi-item measures (religiousness, happiness, gratitude, benign envy, malicious envy) across Türkiye and Jordan prior to hypothesis testing. We tested configural invariance (same factor structure), metric invariance (equal factor loadings), and scalar invariance (equal intercepts) using multi-group confirmatory factor analysis (MG-CFA) in AMOS 25. Model fit was evaluated using χ², CFI, TLI, RMSEA (90% CI), and SRMR. Invariance decisions relied on changes in practical fit indices rather than the χ² difference test, using commonly recommended criteria (ΔCFI ≤ .010 and ΔRMSEA ≤ .015) when moving from less to more constrained models. When full scalar invariance was not supported, partial scalar invariance was considered by freeing a small number of intercepts with the largest modification indices while retaining equality constraints for the remaining items. As shown in Table 1 , configural and metric invariance were supported for all measures based on ΔCFI and ΔRMSEA thresholds. Scalar invariance was supported for religiousness, happiness, and gratitude, whereas scalar invariance was not fully supported for the BeMaS subscales; therefore, partial scalar invariance was established for benign envy and malicious envy by freeing one intercept per subscale (while retaining equality constraints for all other intercepts). These results indicate that the constructs are measured comparably across countries, supporting pooled analyses and allowing meaningful comparison of associations across Türkiye and Jordan; latent mean comparisons should be interpreted most confidently for scales meeting (full or partial) scalar invariance. Table 1 Measurement invariance fit indices across scales Scale (model) χ² (df) CFI TLI RMSEA (90% CI) SRMR ΔCFI ΔRMSEA Religiousness 9 items Configural 176.40 (54) .966 .953 .047 (.039–.055) .041 — — Metric 187.92 (62) .963 .956 .045 (.037–.053) .045 .003 .002 Scalar 205.10 (70) .959 .957 .044 (.036–.052) .048 .004 .001 Happiness (OHQ-SF; 8 items) Configural 143.55 (40) .958 .942 .055 (.045–.065) .049 — — Metric 152.20 (47) .956 .948 .052 (.043–.062) .052 .002 .003 Scalar 167.30 (54) .952 .949 .051 (.041–.061) .056 .004 .001 Gratitude (GQ-6; 6 items) Configural 78.10 (18) .974 .957 .064 (.050–.078) .036 — — Metric 84.30 (23) .972 .963 .059 (.046–.072) .040 .002 .005 Scalar 95.60 (28) .968 .965 .056 (.043–.069) .043 .004 .003 Benign envy (BeMaS; 5 items) Configural 61.80 (10) .957 .928 .081 (.062–.101) .049 — — Metric 70.10 (14) .953 .937 .073 (.056–.091) .055 .004 .008 Scalar (full) 94.60 (18) .935 .928 .082 (.067–.099) .071 .018 .009 Malicious envy (BeMaS; 5 items) Configural 54.25 (10) .965 .944 .074 (.055–.094) .043 — — Metric 60.90 (14) .962 .953 .066 (.048–.085) .048 .003 .008 Scalar (full) 86.30 (18) .942 .944 .075 (.059–.092) .064 .020 .009 Scalar (partial*) 68.70 (17) .958 .956 .061(0.44–0.79) .053 0.04 0.05 Note . ΔCFI and ΔRMSEA are relative to the previous (less constrained) model. Configural = same factor structure; Metric = equal loadings; Scalar = equal intercepts. * Partial scalar invariance: one item intercept per envy subscale freed (the item with the largest intercept noninvariance modification index), while retaining intercept equality constraints for remaining items. Descriptive Statistics Table 2 presents internal consistencies (Cronbach’s α ) and descriptive statistics ( M , SD , range) for religiousness, happiness, gratitude, malicious envy, and benign envy. All scales showed good–excellent reliability. On average, participants reported high religiousness and gratitude, moderate happiness and benign envy, and low malicious envy. Table 2 Descriptive statistics Variable α N M SD R Religiousness .86 812 39.75 5.60 9–45 Happiness .78 812 29.45 4.87 8–40 Gratitude .78 812 35.32 4.86 6–42 Benign Envy .79 812 16.79 6.54 5–30 Malicious Envy .75 812 7.09 3.45 5–30 Note . α = Cronbach’s Alpha; N = number of participants; M = mean; SD = standard deviation; R = Range Insert Table 1 about here Correlational Analyses A correlation matrix including the study's main variables (i.e., religiousness, happiness, gratitude, malicious envy, benign envy) is displayed in Table 3 . Religiousness correlated positively with happiness and gratitude, negatively with malicious envy and was uncorrelated to benign envy. Happiness correlated positively with gratitude, negatively with malicious envy, and was uncorrelated to benign envy. Gratitude correlated negatively with both types of envy, which correlated positively with each other. Table 3 Correlation matrix Variable 1 2 3 4 5 1. Religiousness 1 2. Happiness .26** 1 3. Gratitude .35** .38** 1 4. Benign Envy .01 .00 − .12** 1 5. Malicious Envy − .13** − .25** − .21** .19** 1 Note . ** p < .01 Insert Table 2 about here Testing the Hypothesized Study Model The mediational model proposed in this study included religiousness as an independent variable, happiness as a dependent variable, and gratitude, malicious envy and malicious envy as possible mediators. Age and marital status, which correlated with happiness, were inserted in the proposed model as covariates. To test the model and associated hypotheses, a path analysis was run using the Amos25 software. In addition, consistent with the measurement invariance evidence, we examined whether structural paths differed by country using a multi-group framework (Türkiye vs. Jordan) and report pooled estimates because the pattern of associations did not significantly vary between groups. The goodness-of-fit indices of the model showed a good fit of the model to the sample data: χ 2 /df = 3.29, p = .06, CFI = 0.97, TLI = 0.95, RMSEA = .04 (CI 90% .01, .17). The findings of this analysis are presented in Fig. 1 . Insert Fig. 1 about here As hypothesized, religiousness correlated positively with happiness and gratitude, negatively with malicious envy, and was unrelated to benign envy. Happiness correlated positively with gratitude and negatively with malicious envy; neither religiousness nor happiness related to benign envy. Gratitude correlated negatively with both envy types, which were positively intercorrelated. Together, model predictors explained 26% of the variance in happiness ( R² = .26). Mediation was tested using bias-corrected and accelerated bootstrap confidence intervals. An indirect effect was deemed significant when its 95% CI excluded 0. As shown in Table 4 , religiousness had a significant direct association with happiness and significant indirect associations via higher gratitude and lower malicious envy; the benign envy pathway was not significant. Table 4 Direct and indirect links between religiousness and happiness Independent Variable Happiness B SE CI 95% Direct link Religiousness .09 .04 .04, .15** Indirect links Through gratitude .09 .02 .06, .12** Through malicious envy − .05 .01 .02, .04* Notes . * p < .05, ** p < .01; CI = Confidence interval; A confidence interval which does not include 0 is significant and indicates a direct/indirect link .21** − .10* .23** Insert Table 3 about here Discussion Main findings The findings of the present study contribute to the growing body of evidence that highlights a positive association between religiousness and happiness [1–3, 15, 17–18]. In a large sample of Muslims from Türkiye and Jordan, religiousness was shown to be linked to happiness not only directly but also indirectly, through distinct social–emotional pathways. Specifically, gratitude and malicious envy emerged as key indirect pathways in this relationship, while benign envy did not significantly explain the connection between religiousness and happiness. Gratitude appears to play a key role in explaining how religiousness can support well-being. People who described themselves as more religious also tended to feel more grateful—and in turn, this sense of gratitude was linked to greater happiness. This fits with earlier studies showing that gratitude served as a statistical mediator between religiousness and overall well-being [ 10 , 53 – 56 ], and happiness more specifically [ 36 , 57 – 59 ]. In this light, gratitude may be one of the ways religious beliefs and practices help people feel more appreciative, content, and find deeper meaning in everyday life [ 10 , 38 , 42 – 43 ]. Conversely, malicious envy emerged as a negative associational pathway in the link between religiousness and happiness. This means that people who are more religious may be less likely to engage in hostile or destructive comparisons with others—helping protect their well-being from the damaging effects of such emotions. Past research has shown that malicious envy often goes hand in hand with resentment, lower life satisfaction, and reduced overall well-being [ 11 , 60 ]. By making people less vulnerable to these harmful feelings, religiousness may offer a kind of emotional buffer that helps preserve happiness. Interestingly, benign envy did not play a significant mediating role. While benign envy has been described as potentially motivating and less destructive than malicious envy [ 11 , 61 ], it did not emerge as a relevant pathway in this study. This may indicate that in the context of religion and happiness, it is specifically the mitigation of harmful forms of envy—rather than the presence of motivational envy—that matters most. Alternatively, cultural and religious norms within Muslim-majority societies may place stronger emphasis on avoiding destructive emotions such as resentment, making malicious envy more salient in this emotional process [ 70 – 71 ]. The negative link between gratitude and both types of envy—benign and malicious—fits well with earlier research showing how gratitude encourages positive social emotions and helps reduce harmful comparisons [ 38 , 46 ]. When people focus on gratitude, they tend to appreciate what they have and feel more connected to others, which can protect them from the kinds of upward social comparisons that often spark envy [ 44 ]. This suggests that grateful people are less likely to feel envy—whether it’s the more positive, motivating kind of benign envy or the resentful, harmful kind of malicious envy—because they pay less attention to what others have and more to their own sense of contentment and warm relationships. These findings add to a growing body of evidence that gratitude acts as a protective social–emotional resource and highlight its potential as a helpful tool in efforts to reduce envy and bolster subjective well-being. Overall, the findings suggest that religiousness is linked to happiness in two important ways: by encouraging positive, uplifting emotions like gratitude, and by reducing harmful, damaging emotions like malicious envy. This dual process shows just how complex the emotional connections are between religiousness and happiness, and it highlights why it’s important to look closely at different kinds of moral emotions when exploring this relationship. Limitations and future Directions for research These findings should be interpreted considering several limitations. First, because the study is cross-sectional, we can speak only about associations. The “indirect paths” through gratitude and envy are best understood as statistical mediation patterns—consistent with the proposed processes but not proof of temporal or causal mediation. Other sequences are plausible (e.g., happiness → gratitude; bidirectional links between envy and happiness), and unmeasured third variables could bias the estimates. To establish temporal order, future research should use multi-wave longitudinal designs (three or more waves; random-intercept cross-lagged panel models) and, when possible, program-evaluation or experimental approaches (e.g., brief gratitude inductions; ethically safeguarded envy-provocation tasks) to test whether changes in the mediators precede changes in happiness. Second, although the sample is sizable and culturally varied, it was recruited with non-probability methods, which limits generalizability to broader Turkish and Jordanian populations. Replication with probability samples and multigroup tests of measurement invariance (by country, gender, and age) would bolster external validity and cross-cultural comparability. Although we assessed measurement invariance by country here, future work should extend invariance testing to additional strata (e.g., gender, age), evaluate invariance across language versions more explicitly, and replicate findings using probability sampling to strengthen generalizability. Third, all variables were measured via self-report, making the data susceptible to social desirability and shared-method variance. Future studies should add multi-method assessments (informant reports, behavioral tasks tapping gratitude/envy responses, ecological momentary assessment) and apply latent-variable modeling to reduce measurement error. Together, these steps would clarify directional pathways and strengthen the robustness and generalizability of the religiousness–happiness link. Implications for theory and practice Despite its limitations, this study offers valuable insights for psychological research and practice. Theoretically, it highlights moral emotions—particularly gratitude and envy—as key pathways linking religiousness to well-being. Beyond religion’s established roles in meaning-making, coping, and social integration, these findings suggest that emotional regulation is a central mechanism through which faith supports psychological health. Religiousness appears to enhance happiness by fostering gratitude, which strengthens empathy and social connection, and by reducing malicious envy, which undermines relationships and well-being. Culturally, the study expands understanding of religion and emotional well-being in Muslim-majority contexts, contributing to a more inclusive global professional perspective. It supports culturally attuned models that respect spiritual frameworks as vital sources of resilience and social cohesion. Practically, our findings point to simple ways mental health professionals, community leaders, and clinicians can nurture well-being/happiness in everyday work. Small moments matter: inviting a client to name something they’re grateful for this week, noticing who showed up for them, or keeping a brief gratitude journal can shift attention toward connection and meaning. When envy surfaces—often in the wake of hardship or scarcity—practitioners can help clients reinterpret painful comparisons, explore what those comparisons reveal about values and goals, and channel that energy into small, values-based acts of generosity or self-care. These practices can be woven into individual counseling, group sessions, chronic-illness support, and family meetings. Partnering with faith leaders or chaplains can further ground the work in spiritual language that resonates—emphasizing contentment, compassion, and mutual care—while keeping participation voluntary and adaptable for clients who prefer secular framing. Embedding these brief, relationship-centered strategies in routine assessment and care planning aligns with the holistic mission of mental health professionals: to strengthen social ties, honor culture and belief, and integrate spiritual and emotional dimensions of care. In this way, gratitude-building and gentle, anti-envy work become accessible tools that complement standard psychosocial interventions and help clients move toward steadier well-being/happiness. Declarations Ethics approval and consent to participate This study received ethical approval from the ethics committees of Marmara University (Istanbul) and Necmettin Erbakan University (Konya), Türkiye, in accordance with institutional ethical standards. Informed consent was obtained from all participants. Availability of data and material The data that supports the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author, upon reasonable request. Consent for publication All participants provided informed consent for the use of their anonymized data for research and publication purposes. Competing interests No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors. Funding The authors reported there is no funding associated with the work featured in this article. Authors' contributions H.A. led the conceptualization, study design, data analysis, and manuscript writing. A.A. and H.F. contributed to data collection, interpretation of findings, and critical revision of the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript. References Garssen B, Visser A, Pool G. Does spirituality or religion positively affect mental health? meta-analysis of longitudinal studies. Int J Psychol Relig. 2021;31(1):4–20. Hood RW, Hill PC, Spilka B. The psychology of religion: an empirical approach. New York: Guilford Press; 2018. Koenig HG, King DE, Carson VB. Handbook of religion and health. 2nd ed. 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Religious orientation and subjective well-being: the mediating role of meaning in life. J Psychol Theol. 2018;47(1):34–47. Wood AM, Froh JJ, Geraghty AWE. Gratitude and well-being: a review and theoretical integration. Clin Psychol Rev. 2010;30(7):890–905. Watkins P, Emmons R, Davis D, Frederick M. Thanks be to God: divine gratitude and its relationship to well-being. Religions. 2024;15(10):1246. Corona K, Senft N, Campos B, Chen C, Shiota M, Chentsova-Dutton YE. Ethnic variation in gratitude and well-being. Emotion. 2020;20(3):518–24. McCullough ME, Emmons RA, Tsang JA. The grateful disposition: a conceptual and empirical topography. J Pers Soc Psychol. 2002;82(1):112–27. Emmons RA, McCullough ME, editors. The psychology of gratitude. Oxford: Oxford University Press; 2004. Chelladurai JM, Marks LD, Dollahite DC, Kelley HH, Allsop DB. The hidden power of thank you: exploring aspects, expressions, and the influence of gratitude in religious families. Psych. 2023;5(3):742–56. Saritoprak SN, Abu-Raiya H. Living the good life: an Islamic perspective on positive psychology. In: Davis EB, Worthington EL Jr, Schnitker SA, editors. Handbook of positive psychology, religion, and spirituality. 2023. pp. 179–193. Krause N, Emmons RA, Ironson G. Benevolent images of God, gratitude, and physical health status. J Relig Health. 2015;54(4):1503–19. Rosmarin DH, Pirutinsky S, Cohen AB, Galler Y, Krumrei EJ. Grateful to God or just plain grateful? J Posit Psychol. 2011;6(5):389–96. Emmons RA, McCullough ME, Tsang JA. The assessment of gratitude. In: Lopez SJ, Snyder CR, editors. Positive psychological assessment: a handbook of models and measures. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association; 2003. pp. 327–41. Mills PJ, Redwine L, Wilson K, Pung MA, Chinh K, Greenberg BH, et al. The role of gratitude in spiritual well-being in asymptomatic heart failure patients. Spiritual Clin Pract. 2015;2(1):5–17. Algoe SB. Find, remind, and bind: the functions of gratitude in everyday relationships. Soc Personal Psychol Compass. 2012;6(6):455–69. Ruini C, Vescovelli F. The role of gratitude in breast cancer. J Happiness Stud. 2013;14(1):263–74. Wood AM, Joseph S, Linley PA. Coping style as a psychological resource of grateful people. J Soc Clin Psychol. 2007;26(9):1076–93. Fredrickson BL, Tugade MM, Waugh CE, Larkin GR. What good are positive emotions in crisis? a prospective study of resilience and emotions following the terrorist attacks on the United States on September 11th, 2001. J Pers Soc Psychol. 2003;84(2):365–7. Choi H, Cha Y, McCullough ME, Coles NA, Oishi S. A meta-analysis of the effectiveness of gratitude interventions on well-being across cultures. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2025;122(28):e2425193122. Ding F, Zhao H. Is the individual subjective well-being of gratitude stronger? a meta-analysis. Adv Psychol Sci. 2018;26(10):1749. Kirca A, Malouff JM, Meynadier J. The effect of expressed gratitude interventions on psychological wellbeing: a meta-analysis of randomised controlled studies. Int J Appl Posit Psychol. 2023;8(1):63–86. Kane DK, Allen GK, Ming M, Smith TB, Jackson AP, Griner D, et al. Forgiveness and gratitude as mediators between religious commitment and well-being. Ment Health Relig Cult. 2021;24(2):195–210. Szcześniak M, Falewicz A, Madej D, Bielecka G, Pracka J, Rybarski R. The mediating effect of dispositional gratitude on the relationship between religious struggles and self-esteem. Religions. 2022;13(1):70. Sharma S, Singh K. Religion and well-being: the mediating role of positive virtues. J Relig Health. 2019;58(1):119–31. Van Cappellen P, Toth-Gauthier M, Saroglou V, Fredrickson BL. Religion and well-being: the mediating role of positive emotions. J Happiness Stud. 2016;17(2):485–505. Ferenczi A, Tanyi Z, Mirnics Z, Kovács D, Mészáros V, Hubner A. Gratitude, religiousness and well-being. Psychiatr Danub. 2021;33(Suppl 4):827–32. Huynh VS, Tran-Thien GP, Nguyen TB, Nguyen XTK, Nguyen VHA, Tran-Chi VL. What do we know about the influence of believers' religiosity on happiness and gratitude? a perspective for clinical practice. Psychol Res Behav Manag. 2024;17:2433–47. Lantz ED, Stearns M, McKay I, Nadorff DK. The mediating effect of gratitude on the relation between religiosity and well-being. J Happiness Stud. 2022;23(3):969–84. Smith RH, Kim SH. Comprehending envy. Psychol Bull. 2007;133(1):46–64. Van de Ven N, Zeelenberg M, Pieters R. Leveling up and down: the experiences of benign and malicious envy. Emotion. 2009;9(3):419–29. Parrott WG, Smith RH. Distinguishing the experiences of envy and jealousy. J Pers Soc Psychol. 1993;64(6):906–20. Exline JJ, Hill PC. Humility: a consistent and robust predictor of well-being. J Posit Psychol. 2012;7(3):208–18. Irk E, Gürses I. A quantitative research on the relationship of malicious and benign envy with religiosity and psychological well-being. J Ilahiyat Res. 2024;61. Sabah A, Aljaberi MA, Hassan SA. Examining benign and malicious envy and flourishing among Muslim university students. Soc Sci Humanit Open. 2025;11:101293. Ng TWH. Meta-analytic review of the relationship between envy and social outcomes. J Appl Psychol. 2017;102(8):1267–88. Xiang Y, Chao X, Ye B. Dispositional envy and subjective well-being: a three-wave longitudinal study. Pers Individ Dif. 2022;185:111266. Hills P, Argyle M. The Oxford happiness questionnaire: a compact scale for the measurement of psychological well-being. Pers Individ Dif. 2002;33(7):1073–82. Ayten A. Kimlik ve din: İngiltere’deki Türk gençleri üzerine bir araştırma. Cukurova Univ Ilahiyat Fak Derg. 2012;12(2):101–19. Ashraf R, Sitwat A. Conceptualization and manifestation of anger in context of Islamic psychology. J Prof Appl Psychol. 2024;5(2):325–41. De Leersnyder J, Boiger M, Mesquita B. Cultural regulation of emotion: individual, relational, and structural sources. Front Psychol. 2013;4:55. Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-9395261","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":630400364,"identity":"e9db2e54-aaa0-4759-9fec-5f22e151d66b","order_by":0,"name":"Hisham Abu-Raiya","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAA7ElEQVRIiWNgGAWjYBACA2YGNiBlgyacUEBQS5oEVClMiwEeLQxgLYfRtDDg0WLOzv7swc+c83X8M5KPSTD+sEtsYD/8gOEBHi2WzTzmhr3bbktI3EhLNmBISE5s4EkzwO+wwzxsErxALQw3cgwfMCQwJzYw5BDwy2H2Z5J/t52TkL+R/+EAQ0J9YgP/G0JaGMykebcdkDC4kcMItOVwYoMEQVt4zKRltyVLbjzzzNggIe24cZvEM4MDeLWcP/5M8u02O36548nPJD7YVMv28yc/fPijArcWVJDAAImmA8RqGAWjYBSMglGAHQAAW+9LEjqGyxoAAAAASUVORK5CYII=","orcid":"","institution":"Tel Aviv University","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Hisham","middleName":"","lastName":"Abu-Raiya","suffix":""},{"id":630400365,"identity":"4b14cbef-03bf-4bf1-950a-b183466eda49","order_by":1,"name":"Ali Ayten","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Marmara University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Ali","middleName":"","lastName":"Ayten","suffix":""},{"id":630400368,"identity":"26bf958b-606d-4942-92c6-d4db155fd3cb","order_by":2,"name":"Hamza Ferhan","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Necmettin Erbakan University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Hamza","middleName":"","lastName":"Ferhan","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2026-04-12 15:09:30","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-9395261/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-9395261/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":108141257,"identity":"e6834cf9-5cca-4b6e-8e79-cc1c2acd77e4","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-04-29 19:17:07","extension":"jpg","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":47911,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eFindings of Path Analysis.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eNote\u003c/em\u003e. * \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e \u0026lt; .05, ** \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026lt; .01\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"1.jpg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-9395261/v1/685070d3eab487f805536752.jpg"},{"id":108183068,"identity":"51024c83-9042-4793-abbb-0737b0c6ddde","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-04-30 08:59:46","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":494073,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-9395261/v1/451b3ca4-7909-40e9-9de0-93e6d840911a.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Religiousness–happiness Links in Türkiye and Jordan: Gratitude and envy as indirect pathways","fulltext":[{"header":"Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003ePeople who are more religious often report greater happiness and life satisfaction across cultures and faith traditions [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR2\" citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e]. Scholars have suggested that this connection works largely through familiar pathways\u0026mdash;feeling socially supported and integrated [e.g., 4], experiencing more meaning and purpose [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e], using coping strategies and health behaviors that protect well-being [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e], and drawing on self-control in daily life [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eYet this picture is incomplete without emotions. Religious life is not only about beliefs; it often creates emotional communities that encourage certain feelings and soften others. Gratitude and envy are especially relevant because they shape how we connect with others, how we compare ourselves, and how we feel overall [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e]. Gratitude reflects appreciation for life\u0026rsquo;s gifts\u0026mdash;whether from other people or from God\u0026mdash;while envy involves discomfort with others\u0026rsquo; advantages. These two emotions, one prosocial and one potentially harmful, may together help explain how religiousness supports happiness.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo explore this idea, the present study examines whether gratitude and two forms of envy (malicious, benign) statistically mediate the religiousness\u0026ndash;happiness link among Muslim adults in T\u0026uuml;rkiye and Jordan. By studying these processes in Muslim-majority contexts, this work extends Positive Psychology [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e] and cross-cultural research on religion [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e], offering insight into how faith-shaped emotional regulation may foster well-being. The findings may likewise suggest practical directions that could be implemented to support individuals across community and therapeutic contexts.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eReligiousness and Happiness\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eA large body of research shows that religiousness\u0026mdash;understood through dimensions such as religious identity, behavior, and belief\u0026mdash;is positively associated with happiness, often measured through life satisfaction and emotional well-being [15\u0026ndash;16, 1\u0026ndash;3, 17\u0026ndash;18]. The most comprehensive recent meta-analysis to date (\u003cem\u003ek\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;256; \u003cem\u003eN\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;666,085), conducted by Yaden et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e], found an overall correlation of \u003cem\u003er\u003c/em\u003e = .18 between religiousness and life satisfaction, with consistent positive links across multiple religious dimensions (global religiousness, spirituality, attendance, practices, beliefs, experiences). Earlier work had already pointed in the same direction: a classic meta-analysis revealed a modest yet reliable association between religion and subjective well-being [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e], and narrative reviews similarly concluded that, on average, religious involvement relates to better mental health and greater happiness [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMuch of this evidence comes from studies of Christian populations, leaving followers of other faiths\u0026mdash;particularly Islam\u0026mdash;less represented [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e]. In recent years, however, a modest but growing literature has begun to examine how religious beliefs, practices, coping styles, and happiness relate among Muslims worldwide [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e22\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR24 CR25 CR26\" citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e23\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e27\u003c/span\u003e]. Emerging findings\u0026mdash;including contemporary reviews [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e24\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e26\u003c/span\u003e] and a longitudinal study [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e27\u003c/span\u003e]\u0026mdash;largely mirror those reported among non-Muslim samples. Taken together, this work suggests that the link between religiousness and happiness is robust and evident across cultures.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis naturally raises the question: What helps sustain this consistent association? Several explanations have been proposed. One involves social support and integration. Religious participation often brings people into supportive communities\u0026mdash;places where friendship, emotional care, and practical help are readily available. These social bonds have been shown to boost life satisfaction, even beyond the influence of private beliefs [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR29\" citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e28\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e30\u003c/span\u003e]. Another explanation centers on meaning and purpose. Religious traditions offer narratives and worldviews that help people make sense of their lives, cultivate hope, and build inner resources such as optimism and mastery\u0026mdash;factors that are known to support well-being [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR32 CR33\" citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e31\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e34\u003c/span\u003e]. A third pathway highlights coping and health behaviors: religious engagement is often associated with healthier lifestyles, lower rates of depression and suicide, and more effective coping strategies [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e]. A fourth explanation involves self-control. Individuals with greater self-control tend to regulate their emotions more effectively, avoid harmful choices, and pursue meaningful goals\u0026mdash;processes that can nurture happiness [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe present study adds to this literature by turning attention to the emotional fabric of religious life. Specifically, it examines whether the relationship between religiousness and happiness may be carried, in part, through two social-moral emotions: gratitude and envy (both malicious and benign).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eWhy Gratitude?\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eGratitude refers to the idea of being thankful due to another's help, desirable events or positive aspects of life [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e35\u003c/span\u003e]. It involves the feeling of appreciation for favors received [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e36\u003c/span\u003e] and is viewed both as a positive emotion, mood, or disposition [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e37\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e38\u003c/span\u003e]. At the dispositional level, gratitude is a distinctive worldview towards the positive in the world [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e35\u003c/span\u003e] and is defined as a generalized tendency to \u0026ldquo;\u0026hellip;recognize and respond with grateful emotion to the roles of other people\u0026rsquo;s benevolence in the positive experiences and outcomes that one obtains\" [38; p.12].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eGratitude holds a special place in nearly all major religions, where it\u0026rsquo;s seen as a core virtue\u0026mdash;expressed not just toward God, but also toward others and life itself [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e39\u003c/span\u003e]. Many religious practices, like prayers of thanks or saying grace before meals, are designed to help people focus on the good in their lives and recognize their blessings [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e40\u003c/span\u003e]. In Islam, for example, gratitude\u0026mdash;known as \u003cem\u003eshukr\u003c/em\u003e\u0026mdash;is woven into everyday spiritual life through daily prayers, specific expressions, and foundational teachings [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e41\u003c/span\u003e]. This strong focus on gratitude isn\u0026rsquo;t just theoretical\u0026mdash;it shows up in empirical studies too. Such studies consistently find that people who are more religious often report feeling more grateful, both as a general disposition and in specific situations [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e38\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e42\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e43\u003c/span\u003e]\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAs for the consequences of gratitude, empirical research has testified to its wide range of physical and psychological benefits. For example, gratitude has been associated with better sleep, lower blood pressure, and improved immune functioning [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e44\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e45\u003c/span\u003e], enhanced relationship satisfaction, trust, and closeness [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e47\u003c/span\u003e], and post-traumatic growth and adaptive coping strategies [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR48\" citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e47\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR48\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e49\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eReview articles and meta-analyses have testified to the consistent link between gratitude and happiness [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e35\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR51\" citationid=\"CR49\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e50\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR51\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e52\u003c/span\u003e]. For example, in a meta-analytic study encompassing 62 datasets (\u003cem\u003eN\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;31,975), and examining correlations between gratitude and components of well-being\u0026mdash;life satisfaction, positive affect, and negative affect- it was found that higher levels of gratitude correlate positively with higher life satisfaction and positive affect, and negatively with higher negative affect [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e51\u003c/span\u003e]. In a meta-analysis of gratitude interventions, encompassing 163 Randomised Control Trials (\u003cem\u003eN\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;24,804), Choi et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR49\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e50\u003c/span\u003e] found that expressed gratitude interventions lead to small but statistically significant improvements in psychological well-being\u0026mdash;specifically in life satisfaction, positive affect, and overall happiness.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo explicate this link between gratitude and happiness, a few suggestions have been put forward which emphasize the moral and social components of gratitude. It was suggested, for example, that gratitude enhances well-being by broadening attention to positive life aspects, reinforcing prosocial ties, and reducing destructive emotions such as envy and resentment [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e36\u003c/span\u003e]. It was also suggested that expressing gratitude strengthens social bonds and feelings of connectedness, both of which are crucial predictors of happiness [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e46\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eBuilding on the theories and findings above, it is highly plausible that gratitude helps carry the effect of religiousness to greater happiness. Many religious traditions invite people to see life as a gift, cultivating gratitude, humility, and appreciation for support received from God and from others. This thankfulness can translate into higher life satisfaction, more frequent positive emotions, stronger relationships, and fewer negative feelings\u0026mdash;together offering a clear route by which more religious individuals report greater happiness. Yet despite this compelling logic, relatively few studies have directly tested gratitude as a mediator between religiousness and overall well-being [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR54 CR55\" citationid=\"CR52\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e53\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR55\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e56\u003c/span\u003e], and even fewer have focused specifically on subjective well-being or happiness [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e36\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR58\" citationid=\"CR56\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e57\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR58\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e59\u003c/span\u003e]. Notably, no studies have examined this pathway in Muslim populations. The present study addresses this gap.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eWhy Envy?\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eEnvy is a complex social emotion that surfaces when people compare themselves to others who have something they want\u0026mdash;success, talent, possessions\u0026mdash;and it often carries feelings of inadequacy, longing, and at times resentment [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR59\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e60\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR60\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e61\u003c/span\u003e]. It is not a single, uniform feeling. Scholars typically differentiate between \u003cem\u003emalicious\u003c/em\u003e envy and \u003cem\u003ebenign\u003c/em\u003e envy [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR60\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e61\u003c/span\u003e]. Malicious envy is the more corrosive form\u0026mdash;marked by bitterness, hostility, and a wish to pull others down\u0026mdash;whereas benign envy is more about inspiration, sparking admiration and a drive for self-improvement without ill will.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAcross religious traditions, malicious envy has long been treated as morally hazardous\u0026mdash;one of the \u0026ldquo;seven deadly sins\u0026rdquo;\u0026mdash;and teachings often promote counter-virtues like gratitude, humility, and compassion to blunt its effects [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR61\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e62\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR62\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e63\u003c/span\u003e]. In Islam, for instance, malicious envy (\u003cem\u003ehasad\u003c/em\u003e) is strongly discouraged, with contentment (\u003cem\u003eqana\u0026rsquo;ah\u003c/em\u003e) and trust in divine justice offered as antidotes [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e41\u003c/span\u003e]. These values may also channel competitive comparisons toward a more constructive, benign form. Empirically, however, evidence is scarce: in a Turkish sample, Irk and G\u0026uuml;rses [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR63\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e64\u003c/span\u003e] found religiousness was negatively correlated with malicious envy and unrelated to benign envy.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eEnvy, especially in its malicious form, is linked to higher depression and anxiety and to lower life satisfaction [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR59\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e60\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR64\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e65\u003c/span\u003e]. Benign envy shows a more nuanced pattern: although it can feel unpleasant in the moment, it may fuel achievement motivation and growth [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR60\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e61\u003c/span\u003e]. Overall, frequent envy is associated with reduced well-being, with malicious envy exerting the strongest negative effects [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR65\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e66\u003c/span\u003e]. Longitudinal work suggests that habitual envy sustains upward comparisons that erode gratitude and deepen inadequacy [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR59\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e60\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR66\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e67\u003c/span\u003e]. In short, envy tends to harm happiness, though the extent depends on its form.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThese patterns suggest that envy\u0026mdash;particularly malicious envy\u0026mdash;may help explain how religiousness relates to happiness. Religious teachings may lessen tendencies toward malicious envy and promote more constructive responses to comparison, which, in turn, could support greater happiness. Yet, to the best of our knowledge, no study has directly tested whether envy mediates the religiousness\u0026ndash;happiness link. This study addresses this gap.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eCurrent Research\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe present study contributes to the literature trying to explicate the religiousness-happiness link by turning attention to \u003cem\u003esocial-moral emotions\u003c/em\u003e as potential explanatory mechanisms. Specifically, it aims to test a mediational model in which religiousness is the independent variable, happiness is the dependent variable, and both gratitude and envy (malicious and benign) are the potential mediator.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eBased on theoretical and empirical grounds, we hypothesize that:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cul\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eH1: Higher levels of religiousness will be associated with higher levels of happiness.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eH2: Gratitude will mediate the link between religiousness and happiness, such that higher levels of religiousness will be associated with higher levels of gratitude, which in turn will be associated with higher levels of happiness.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eH3: Malicious envy will mediate the link between religiousness and happiness, such that higher levels of religiousness will be associated with lower levels of malicious envy, which in turn will be associated with higher levels of happiness.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/ul\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eGiven the mixed evidence regarding the relationships between benign envy, religiousness, and happiness, the role of benign envy was explored in an exploratory manner. As such, no specific directional hypothesis was proposed for this variable.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Method","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec7\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eSample\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe study\u0026rsquo;s sample consisted of 812 Muslim individuals recruited from two countries: T\u0026uuml;rkiye (\u003cem\u003en\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;511) and Jordan (\u003cem\u003en\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;301). Participants ranged in age from 17 to 71 years (\u003cem\u003eM\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;36.03, \u003cem\u003eSD\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;12.70). In terms of gender, 44.2% identified as male and 55.8% as female. Regarding marital status, 43.5% were single, 54.7% were married, and 1.8% were engaged, separated, or divorced.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eMeasures\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eHappiness\u003c/b\u003e. The Oxford Happiness Questionnaire\u0026ndash;Short Form [OHQ-SF; 68] is an 8-item self-report measure of subjective well-being derived from the 29-item OHQ. Participants rated items (e.g., \u0026ldquo;I feel that life is very rewarding\u0026rdquo;) on a 5-point Likert scale (1\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;strongly disagree to 5\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;strongly agree). Items were summed; higher totals indicate greater happiness.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eReligiousness\u003c/b\u003e. The Islamically oriented Religiousness Scale [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR68\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e69\u003c/span\u003e] is a 9-item measure assessing incorporation of religious teachings into daily life (decisions, relationships, clothing, diet, friendships) and practice frequency (prayer, fasting, reading the Qur\u0026rsquo;an, duʿā). Example items include \u0026ldquo;My religious beliefs influence important life decisions,\u0026rdquo; \u0026ldquo;My religious beliefs influence what I eat and drink,\u0026rdquo; and \u0026ldquo;I pray five times a day.\u0026rdquo; Responses use a 5-point Likert scale (1\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;never to 5\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;always). Items were summed; higher scores indicate greater religiousness.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eGratitude\u003c/b\u003e. The Gratitude Questionnaire\u0026ndash;6 [GQ-6; 38) assesses dispositional gratitude with 6 self-report items (e.g., \u0026ldquo;I have so much in life to be thankful for\u0026rdquo;). Responses use a 7-point Likert scale (1\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;strongly disagree to 7\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;strongly agree); two items are reverse scored (e.g., \u0026ldquo;When I look at the world, I don\u0026rsquo;t see much to be grateful for\u0026rdquo;). Items were summed; higher scores indicate greater gratitude.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eEnvy\u003c/b\u003e. The Benign and Malicious Envy Scale [BeMaS; 11] is a 10-item self-report measure assessing two forms of envy: benign envy (self-improvement motivation) and malicious envy (desire to undermine others). Each subscale includes five items (e.g., \u0026ldquo;When I envy others, I focus on how I can become equally successful\u0026rdquo; [benign]; \u0026ldquo;I wish that superior people lose their advantage\u0026rdquo; [malicious]). Items were rated on a 6-point Likert scale (1\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;strongly disagree to 6\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;strongly agree) and summed; higher scores reflect stronger tendencies toward each envy type.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eProcedure\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe study was conducted in T\u0026uuml;rkiye and Jordan with approval from the second author\u0026rsquo;s university IRB. Except for demographics and the Turkish-developed religiousness scale (translated into Arabic by the third author), all instruments were established English-language measures translated into Turkish (second author) and Arabic (third author), then back-translated by professional translators for accuracy. Data were gathered April\u0026ndash;June 2025 via convenience and snowball sampling. Collection was carried out by 25 students in a research seminar at the second author\u0026rsquo;s institution and 15 students at a Jordanian university where the third author is an adjunct; each student recruited 20\u0026ndash;25 participants in their locality. Participants provided written informed consent. Data were entered into two SPSS files (T\u0026uuml;rkiye/Jordan) and merged into a single dataset after collection.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Results","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eMeasurement Invariance (T\u0026uuml;rkiye vs. Jordan)\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eBecause the study integrates two national samples and reports pooled estimates alongside country-specific checks, we evaluated measurement invariance for all multi-item measures (religiousness, happiness, gratitude, benign envy, malicious envy) across T\u0026uuml;rkiye and Jordan prior to hypothesis testing. We tested configural invariance (same factor structure), metric invariance (equal factor loadings), and scalar invariance (equal intercepts) using multi-group confirmatory factor analysis (MG-CFA) in AMOS 25. Model fit was evaluated using χ\u0026sup2;, CFI, TLI, RMSEA (90% CI), and SRMR. Invariance decisions relied on changes in practical fit indices rather than the χ\u0026sup2; difference test, using commonly recommended criteria (ΔCFI \u0026le; .010 and ΔRMSEA \u0026le; .015) when moving from less to more constrained models. When full scalar invariance was not supported, partial scalar invariance was considered by freeing a small number of intercepts with the largest modification indices while retaining equality constraints for the remaining items.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAs shown in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e, configural and metric invariance were supported for all measures based on ΔCFI and ΔRMSEA thresholds. Scalar invariance was supported for religiousness, happiness, and gratitude, whereas scalar invariance was not fully supported for the BeMaS subscales; therefore, partial scalar invariance was established for benign envy and malicious envy by freeing one intercept per subscale (while retaining equality constraints for all other intercepts). These results indicate that the constructs are measured comparably across countries, supporting pooled analyses and allowing meaningful comparison of associations across T\u0026uuml;rkiye and Jordan; latent mean comparisons should be interpreted most confidently for scales meeting (full or partial) scalar invariance.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMeasurement invariance fit indices across scales\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"8\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eScale (model)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eχ\u0026sup2; (df)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCFI\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTLI\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRMSEA\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(90% CI)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSRMR\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eΔCFI\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eΔRMSEA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eReligiousness\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e9 items\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eConfigural\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e176.40 (54)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.966\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.953\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.047 (.039\u0026ndash;.055)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.041\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026mdash;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026mdash;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMetric\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e187.92 (62)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.963\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.956\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.045 (.037\u0026ndash;.053)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.045\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.003\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.002\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eScalar\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e205.10 (70)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.959\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.957\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.044 (.036\u0026ndash;.052)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.048\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.004\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eHappiness (OHQ-SF; 8 items)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eConfigural\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e143.55 (40)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.958\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.942\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.055 (.045\u0026ndash;.065)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.049\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026mdash;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026mdash;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMetric\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e152.20 (47)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.956\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.948\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.052 (.043\u0026ndash;.062)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.052\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.002\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.003\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eScalar\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e167.30 (54)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.952\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.949\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.051 (.041\u0026ndash;.061)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.056\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.004\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eGratitude (GQ-6; 6 items)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eConfigural\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e78.10 (18)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.974\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.957\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.064 (.050\u0026ndash;.078)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.036\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026mdash;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026mdash;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMetric\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e84.30 (23)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.972\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.963\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.059 (.046\u0026ndash;.072)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.040\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.002\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.005\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eScalar\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e95.60 (28)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.968\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.965\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.056 (.043\u0026ndash;.069)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.043\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.004\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.003\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eBenign envy (BeMaS; 5 items)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eConfigural\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e61.80 (10)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.957\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.928\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.081 (.062\u0026ndash;.101)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.049\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026mdash;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026mdash;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMetric\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e70.10 (14)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.953\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.937\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.073 (.056\u0026ndash;.091)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.055\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.004\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.008\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eScalar (full)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e94.60 (18)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.935\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.928\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.082 (.067\u0026ndash;.099)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.071\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.018\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.009\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eMalicious envy (BeMaS; 5 items)\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eConfigural\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e54.25 (10)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.965\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.944\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.074 (.055\u0026ndash;.094)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.043\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026mdash;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026mdash;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMetric\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e60.90 (14)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.962\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.953\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.066 (.048\u0026ndash;.085)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.048\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.003\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.008\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eScalar (full)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e86.30 (18)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.942\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.944\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.075 (.059\u0026ndash;.092)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.064\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.020\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.009\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eScalar (partial*)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e68.70 (17)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.958\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.956\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.061(0.44\u0026ndash;0.79)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.053\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.04\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.05\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003ctfoot\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"8\"\u003e\u003cem\u003eNote\u003c/em\u003e. ΔCFI and ΔRMSEA are relative to the previous (less constrained) model. Configural\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;same factor structure; Metric\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;equal loadings; Scalar\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;equal intercepts.\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"8\"\u003e* Partial scalar invariance: one item intercept per envy subscale freed (the item with the largest intercept noninvariance modification index), while retaining intercept equality constraints for remaining items.\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tfoot\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eDescriptive Statistics\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eTable\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e presents internal consistencies (Cronbach\u0026rsquo;s \u003cem\u003eα\u003c/em\u003e) and descriptive statistics (\u003cem\u003eM\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eSD\u003c/em\u003e, range) for religiousness, happiness, gratitude, malicious envy, and benign envy. All scales showed good\u0026ndash;excellent reliability. On average, participants reported high religiousness and gratitude, moderate happiness and benign envy, and low malicious envy.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDescriptive statistics\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"6\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cspan type=\"Underline\" class=\"Underline\" name=\"Emphasis\"\u003eVariable\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eα\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cspan type=\"ItalicUnderline\" class=\"ItalicUnderline\" name=\"Emphasis\"\u003eN\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cspan type=\"ItalicUnderline\" class=\"ItalicUnderline\" name=\"Emphasis\"\u003eM\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cspan type=\"ItalicUnderline\" class=\"ItalicUnderline\" name=\"Emphasis\"\u003eSD\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cspan type=\"ItalicUnderline\" class=\"ItalicUnderline\" name=\"Emphasis\"\u003eR\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eReligiousness\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.86\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e812\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e39.75\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.60\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9\u0026ndash;45\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHappiness\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.78\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e812\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e29.45\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.87\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8\u0026ndash;40\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGratitude\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.78\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e812\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e35.32\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.86\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6\u0026ndash;42\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBenign Envy\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.79\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e812\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e16.79\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.54\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u0026ndash;30\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMalicious Envy\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.75\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e812\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.09\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.45\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u0026ndash;30\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003ctfoot\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"6\"\u003e\u003cem\u003eNote\u003c/em\u003e. α\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Cronbach\u0026rsquo;s Alpha; \u003cem\u003eN\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;number of participants; \u003cem\u003eM\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;mean; \u003cem\u003eSD\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;standard deviation; \u003cem\u003eR\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Range\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tfoot\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eInsert Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e about here\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec13\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eCorrelational Analyses\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eA correlation matrix including the study's main variables (i.e., religiousness, happiness, gratitude, malicious envy, benign envy) is displayed in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e. Religiousness correlated positively with happiness and gratitude, negatively with malicious envy and was uncorrelated to benign envy. Happiness correlated positively with gratitude, negatively with malicious envy, and was uncorrelated to benign envy. Gratitude correlated negatively with both types of envy, which correlated positively with each other.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCorrelation matrix\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"6\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVariable\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1. Religiousness\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2. Happiness\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.26**\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3. Gratitude\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.35**\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.38**\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4. Benign Envy\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.01\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.00\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.12**\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5. Malicious Envy\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.13**\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.25**\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.21**\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.19**\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003ctfoot\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"6\"\u003e\u003cem\u003eNote\u003c/em\u003e. ** \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e \u0026lt; .01\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tfoot\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eInsert Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e about here\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec14\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eTesting the Hypothesized Study Model\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe mediational model proposed in this study included religiousness as an independent variable, happiness as a dependent variable, and gratitude, malicious envy and malicious envy as possible mediators. Age and marital status, which correlated with happiness, were inserted in the proposed model as covariates. To test the model and associated hypotheses, a path analysis was run using the Amos25 software. In addition, consistent with the measurement invariance evidence, we examined whether structural paths differed by country using a multi-group framework (T\u0026uuml;rkiye vs. Jordan) and report pooled estimates because the pattern of associations did not significantly vary between groups. The goodness-of-fit indices of the model showed a good fit of the model to the sample data: χ\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e/df\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;3.29, p = .06, CFI\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.97, TLI\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.95, RMSEA = .04 (CI 90% .01, .17). The findings of this analysis are presented in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eInsert Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e about here\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAs hypothesized, religiousness correlated positively with happiness and gratitude, negatively with malicious envy, and was unrelated to benign envy. Happiness correlated positively with gratitude and negatively with malicious envy; neither religiousness nor happiness related to benign envy. Gratitude correlated negatively with both envy types, which were positively intercorrelated. Together, model predictors explained 26% of the variance in happiness (\u003cem\u003eR\u0026sup2;\u003c/em\u003e = .26).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMediation was tested using bias-corrected and accelerated bootstrap confidence intervals. An indirect effect was deemed significant when its 95% CI excluded 0. As shown in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e, religiousness had a significant direct association with happiness and significant indirect associations via higher gratitude and lower malicious envy; the benign envy pathway was not significant.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab4\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 4\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDirect and indirect links between religiousness and happiness\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"2\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIndependent Variable\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHappiness\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eB SE CI 95%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eDirect link\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eReligiousness\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.09 .04 .04, .15**\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eIndirect links\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eThrough gratitude\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.09 .02 .06, .12**\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eThrough malicious envy\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.05 .01 .02, .04*\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003ctfoot\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cem\u003eNotes\u003c/em\u003e. * \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e \u0026lt; .05, ** \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e \u0026lt; .01; CI\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Confidence interval; A confidence interval which does not include 0 is significant and indicates a direct/indirect link\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"2\"\u003e.21** \u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;.10* .23**\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tfoot\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eInsert Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e about here\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Discussion","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec16\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eMain findings\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe findings of the present study contribute to the growing body of evidence that highlights a positive association between religiousness and happiness [1\u0026ndash;3, 15, 17\u0026ndash;18]. In a large sample of Muslims from T\u0026uuml;rkiye and Jordan, religiousness was shown to be linked to happiness not only directly but also indirectly, through distinct social\u0026ndash;emotional pathways. Specifically, gratitude and malicious envy emerged as key indirect pathways in this relationship, while benign envy did not significantly explain the connection between religiousness and happiness.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eGratitude appears to play a key role in explaining how religiousness can support well-being. People who described themselves as more religious also tended to feel more grateful\u0026mdash;and in turn, this sense of gratitude was linked to greater happiness. This fits with earlier studies showing that gratitude served as a statistical mediator between religiousness and overall well-being [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR54 CR55\" citationid=\"CR52\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e53\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR55\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e56\u003c/span\u003e], and happiness more specifically [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e36\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR58\" citationid=\"CR56\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e57\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR58\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e59\u003c/span\u003e]. In this light, gratitude may be one of the ways religious beliefs and practices help people feel more appreciative, content, and find deeper meaning in everyday life [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e38\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e42\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e43\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eConversely, malicious envy emerged as a negative associational pathway in the link between religiousness and happiness. This means that people who are more religious may be less likely to engage in hostile or destructive comparisons with others\u0026mdash;helping protect their well-being from the damaging effects of such emotions. Past research has shown that malicious envy often goes hand in hand with resentment, lower life satisfaction, and reduced overall well-being [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR59\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e60\u003c/span\u003e]. By making people less vulnerable to these harmful feelings, religiousness may offer a kind of emotional buffer that helps preserve happiness.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eInterestingly, benign envy did not play a significant mediating role. While benign envy has been described as potentially motivating and less destructive than malicious envy [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR60\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e61\u003c/span\u003e], it did not emerge as a relevant pathway in this study. This may indicate that in the context of religion and happiness, it is specifically the mitigation of harmful forms of envy\u0026mdash;rather than the presence of motivational envy\u0026mdash;that matters most. Alternatively, cultural and religious norms within Muslim-majority societies may place stronger emphasis on avoiding destructive emotions such as resentment, making malicious envy more salient in this emotional process [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR69\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e70\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR70\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e71\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe negative link between gratitude and both types of envy\u0026mdash;benign and malicious\u0026mdash;fits well with earlier research showing how gratitude encourages positive social emotions and helps reduce harmful comparisons [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e38\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e46\u003c/span\u003e]. When people focus on gratitude, they tend to appreciate what they have and feel more connected to others, which can protect them from the kinds of upward social comparisons that often spark envy [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e44\u003c/span\u003e]. This suggests that grateful people are less likely to feel envy\u0026mdash;whether it\u0026rsquo;s the more positive, motivating kind of benign envy or the resentful, harmful kind of malicious envy\u0026mdash;because they pay less attention to what others have and more to their own sense of contentment and warm relationships. These findings add to a growing body of evidence that gratitude acts as a protective social\u0026ndash;emotional resource and highlight its potential as a helpful tool in efforts to reduce envy and bolster subjective well-being.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOverall, the findings suggest that religiousness is linked to happiness in two important ways: by encouraging positive, uplifting emotions like gratitude, and by reducing harmful, damaging emotions like malicious envy. This dual process shows just how complex the emotional connections are between religiousness and happiness, and it highlights why it\u0026rsquo;s important to look closely at different kinds of moral emotions when exploring this relationship.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec17\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eLimitations and future Directions for research\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThese findings should be interpreted considering several limitations. First, because the study is cross-sectional, we can speak only about associations. The \u0026ldquo;indirect paths\u0026rdquo; through gratitude and envy are best understood as statistical mediation patterns\u0026mdash;consistent with the proposed processes but not proof of temporal or causal mediation. Other sequences are plausible (e.g., happiness \u0026rarr; gratitude; bidirectional links between envy and happiness), and unmeasured third variables could bias the estimates. To establish temporal order, future research should use multi-wave longitudinal designs (three or more waves; random-intercept cross-lagged panel models) and, when possible, program-evaluation or experimental approaches (e.g., brief gratitude inductions; ethically safeguarded envy-provocation tasks) to test whether changes in the mediators precede changes in happiness.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSecond, although the sample is sizable and culturally varied, it was recruited with non-probability methods, which limits generalizability to broader Turkish and Jordanian populations. Replication with probability samples and multigroup tests of measurement invariance (by country, gender, and age) would bolster external validity and cross-cultural comparability. Although we assessed measurement invariance by country here, future work should extend invariance testing to additional strata (e.g., gender, age), evaluate invariance across language versions more explicitly, and replicate findings using probability sampling to strengthen generalizability.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThird, all variables were measured via self-report, making the data susceptible to social desirability and shared-method variance. Future studies should add multi-method assessments (informant reports, behavioral tasks tapping gratitude/envy responses, ecological momentary assessment) and apply latent-variable modeling to reduce measurement error. Together, these steps would clarify directional pathways and strengthen the robustness and generalizability of the religiousness\u0026ndash;happiness link.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec18\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eImplications for theory and practice\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eDespite its limitations, this study offers valuable insights for psychological research and practice. Theoretically, it highlights moral emotions\u0026mdash;particularly gratitude and envy\u0026mdash;as key pathways linking religiousness to well-being. Beyond religion\u0026rsquo;s established roles in meaning-making, coping, and social integration, these findings suggest that emotional regulation is a central mechanism through which faith supports psychological health. Religiousness appears to enhance happiness by fostering gratitude, which strengthens empathy and social connection, and by reducing malicious envy, which undermines relationships and well-being.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eCulturally, the study expands understanding of religion and emotional well-being in Muslim-majority contexts, contributing to a more inclusive global professional perspective. It supports culturally attuned models that respect spiritual frameworks as vital sources of resilience and social cohesion.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePractically, our findings point to simple ways mental health professionals, community leaders, and clinicians can nurture well-being/happiness in everyday work. Small moments matter: inviting a client to name something they\u0026rsquo;re grateful for this week, noticing who showed up for them, or keeping a brief gratitude journal can shift attention toward connection and meaning. When envy surfaces\u0026mdash;often in the wake of hardship or scarcity\u0026mdash;practitioners can help clients reinterpret painful comparisons, explore what those comparisons reveal about values and goals, and channel that energy into small, values-based acts of generosity or self-care.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThese practices can be woven into individual counseling, group sessions, chronic-illness support, and family meetings. Partnering with faith leaders or chaplains can further ground the work in spiritual language that resonates\u0026mdash;emphasizing contentment, compassion, and mutual care\u0026mdash;while keeping participation voluntary and adaptable for clients who prefer secular framing.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eEmbedding these brief, relationship-centered strategies in routine assessment and care planning aligns with the holistic mission of mental health professionals: to strengthen social ties, honor culture and belief, and integrate spiritual and emotional dimensions of care. In this way, gratitude-building and gentle, anti-envy work become accessible tools that complement standard psychosocial interventions and help clients move toward steadier well-being/happiness.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEthics approval and consent to participate\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis study received ethical approval from the ethics committees of Marmara University (Istanbul) and Necmettin Erbakan University (Konya), Türkiye, in accordance with institutional ethical standards. Informed consent was obtained from all participants.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAvailability of data and material\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe data that supports the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author, upon reasonable request.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConsent for publication\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAll participants provided informed consent for the use of their anonymized data for research and publication purposes.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCompeting interests\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNo potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFunding\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors reported there is no funding associated with the work featured in this article.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAuthors' contributions\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eH.A. led the conceptualization, study design, data analysis, and manuscript writing. A.A. and H.F. contributed to data collection, interpretation of findings, and critical revision of the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eGarssen B, Visser A, Pool G. Does spirituality or religion positively affect mental health? meta-analysis of longitudinal studies. Int J Psychol Relig. 2021;31(1):4\u0026ndash;20.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eHood RW, Hill PC, Spilka B. The psychology of religion: an empirical approach. New York: Guilford Press; 2018.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eKoenig HG, King DE, Carson VB. Handbook of religion and health. 2nd ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press; 2012.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eLim C, Putnam RD. Religion, social networks, and life satisfaction. 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Front Psychol. 2013;4:55.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"bmc-psychology","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"psyo","sideBox":"Learn more about [BMC Psychology](http://bmcpsychology.biomedcentral.com/)","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"","title":"BMC Psychology","twitterHandle":"BMC_series","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"stoa","reportingPortfolio":"BMC Series","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"religiousness, happiness, gratitude, envy, Muslims","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-9395261/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-9395261/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eHappiness is central to everyday well-being, yet we know little about how faith connects to it in lived, social-emotional terms. We surveyed 812 Muslim adults in T\u0026uuml;rkiye and Jordan using validated measures of religiousness, happiness, gratitude, and two forms of envy (malicious, benign). Path and mediational analyses showed a direct positive link between religiousness and happiness, and indirect links whereby higher religiousness related to greater gratitude and lower malicious envy, which in turn related to higher happiness. Benign envy showed no indirect effect. Theoretically, these findings situate the religion\u0026ndash;happiness connection in moral-emotional pathways: religious involvement appears to cultivate gratitude and inhibit hostile status comparison, refining biopsychosocial\u0026ndash;spiritual models by specifying affective mechanisms through which meaning, norms, and relationships support well-being. Practically, the findings suggest that brief, culturally sensitive practices can be embedded in primary care, community programs, and campus or congregational settings: gratitude micro-check-ins or journaling; peer-recognition rituals emphasizing contribution over prestige; and reframing comparison as information for values-aligned action, ideally in partnership with faith leaders. Because data are cross-sectional, patterns reflect statistical\u0026mdash;not causal\u0026mdash;mediation. Future longitudinal and program-evaluation studies should test whether strengthening gratitude and reducing malicious comparison reliably enhance happiness in Muslim communities and beyond.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Religiousness–happiness Links in Türkiye and Jordan: Gratitude and envy as indirect pathways","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2026-04-29 19:17:03","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-9395261/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"decision","content":"Revision requested","date":"2026-05-12T17:00:29+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2026-05-10T08:27:17+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"122437559332127976745453930843311041408","date":"2026-05-04T07:13:26+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"188314451558855103772375669128510923692","date":"2026-05-04T06:26:23+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"207877961098372148277960571490264058706","date":"2026-05-03T00:54:14+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"5860681624504955848475252976532201827","date":"2026-05-02T13:08:40+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"234036406773973606660296502603565875889","date":"2026-04-30T10:30:21+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2026-04-29T15:38:11+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2026-04-27T13:55:45+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"45748593494325993809736106369650414863","date":"2026-04-23T18:20:07+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"48246368224708189450503219292383834281","date":"2026-04-23T16:03:16+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"213348002883115352871539604160832956522","date":"2026-04-22T19:13:42+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"256588112578166524623992669994492697890","date":"2026-04-22T14:46:51+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2026-04-21T12:06:34+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2026-04-19T20:08:13+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvited","content":"","date":"2026-04-16T17:58:58+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"checksComplete","content":"","date":"2026-04-16T16:08:59+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"BMC Psychology","date":"2026-04-16T15:57:02+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"bmc-psychology","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"psyo","sideBox":"Learn more about [BMC Psychology](http://bmcpsychology.biomedcentral.com/)","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"","title":"BMC Psychology","twitterHandle":"BMC_series","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"stoa","reportingPortfolio":"BMC Series","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"ad3bc0b3-d7b2-4328-853c-64023b922fdb","owner":[],"postedDate":"April 29th, 2026","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[{"type":"decision","content":"Revision requested","date":"2026-05-12T17:00:29+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2026-05-10T08:27:17+00:00","index":62,"fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"122437559332127976745453930843311041408","date":"2026-05-04T07:13:26+00:00","index":60,"fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"188314451558855103772375669128510923692","date":"2026-05-04T06:26:23+00:00","index":59,"fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"207877961098372148277960571490264058706","date":"2026-05-03T00:54:14+00:00","index":58,"fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"5860681624504955848475252976532201827","date":"2026-05-02T13:08:40+00:00","index":57,"fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"234036406773973606660296502603565875889","date":"2026-04-30T10:30:21+00:00","index":54,"fulltext":""}],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"under-review","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-05-13T07:08:53+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2026-04-29 19:17:03","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-9395261","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-9395261","identity":"rs-9395261","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"XKTyCvWXoU3ODBz1xrDgd","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}