Empowerment and Helping Behavior in Luxury Hotels: The Roles of Work Engagement and Psychological Safety

Empowerment and Helping Behavior in Luxury Hotels: The Roles of Work Engagement and Psychological Safety | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Empowerment and Helping Behavior in Luxury Hotels: The Roles of Work Engagement and Psychological Safety Shuxia Cao, Mohd Anuar Bin Arshad, Mengjiao Zhao, Lijuan Tao This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-6876582/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Background – In luxury hotels, where service demands are high and coordination among staff is critical, helping behavior voluntary support beyond formal job duties），is essential for delivering fast and personalized service. However, due to its discretionary nature, such behavior is difficult to sustain. Drawing on Self-Determination Theory (SDT), this study examines how employee empowerment fosters helping behavior, considering the mediating role of work engagement and the moderating role of psychological safety. Methods – The study surveyed 305 frontline employees across 18 five-star hotels in economically developed regions of Northern and Eastern China. Using Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modeling (PLS-SEM), we tested a moderated mediation model. Results – Empowerment was found to promote helping behavior both directly and indirectly by enhancing work engagement. Moreover, psychological safety amplified the positive effect of engagement on helping behavior. Conclusion – These findings highlight empowerment as a key managerial lever to enhance helping behavior in service settings. Work engagement acts as a psychological bridge in this process, while psychological safety ensures employees can translate their motivation into action without fear of negative consequences. Empowerment Work Engagement Helping Behavior Psychological Safety Self-Determination Theory Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 1. Introduction In today’s highly competitive hotel industry, customers expect fast and personalized service (Makandwa & Basera, 2020 ). To meet these high demands, good teamwork among employees is especially important. One key behavior that supports this is helping behavior—when employees take the initiative to assist colleagues or handle unexpected situations, even when it’s not part of their official job duties (Organ, 1988 ; Podsakoff et al., 2000 ). Studies have shown that helping behavior can improve team coordination, increase operational efficiency, and lead to better customer satisfaction and trust (Bettencourt & Brown, 1997 ; Bello et al., 2017 ). However, because this behavior is not formally required, many organizations find it difficult to encourage consistently (Podsakoff et al., 2009 ). This makes it important to understand what factors influence employees’ willingness to help, especially in service-focused workplaces like hotels (Zhu et al., 2024 ). Against this backdrop, empowerment has been widely recognized as an important managerial practice for enhancing employees’ proactivity and engagement (Spreitzer, 1995 ; Seibert, Wang, & Courtright, 2011 ). Studies have identified work engagement as a key mediating mechanism in this process, translating managerial initiatives into tangible behavioral outcomes (Breevaart et al., 2014 ; Albrecht & Bakker, 2018 ). Meanwhile, psychological safety has been acknowledged as a vital contextual condition that could influence whether employees who are engaged are also inclined to offer helping behaviors (Frazier et al., 2017 ; Newman et al., 2017 ). Although research on empowerment has expanded in recent years, empirical work still falls short in systematically unpacking the mechanisms that connect empowerment with helping behaviors, especially in high-demand, high-standard service sectors such as five-star hotels operating within Chinese cultural environments (Zhu et al., 2024 ). To address this research shortfall, the present study draws upon Self-Determination Theory (Deci & Ryan, 1985 ) to formulate a conceptual framework that elucidates the psychological mechanisms through which empowerment contributes to helping behavior. It focuses on how work engagement might help explain the link between empowerment and employees’ willingness to help others (Bhatnagar, 2012 ), and how psychological safety may influence the strength of this connection (Frazier et al., 2017 ). Drawing on data from frontline staff in China’s five-star hotels, the research aims to better understand the psychological factors that drive positive extra-role behaviors in demanding service settings, and to offer useful perspectives for both theory and practice related to employee empowerment in human resource management. 2. Literature Review and Hypotheses Development 2.1 Self-Determination Theory Self-Determination Theory (SDT), introduced by Deci and Ryan ( 1985 , 2000 ), has become a foundational framework for exploring human motivation in organizational settings. It posits that individuals are more intrinsically motivated and likely to exhibit positive work behaviors when their basic psychological needs for autonomy, competence, and relatedness are adequately satisfied (Deci & Ryan, 2000 ; Deci, Olafsen, & Ryan, 2017 ). These needs are especially relevant in organizational contexts, where supportive practices such as delegating decision-making, offering feedback, and recognizing effort help fulfill them. Empirical reviews have confirmed that satisfying these needs leads to greater engagement and job performance across various industries (Van den Broeck et al., 2016 ; Tóth-Király et al., 2021 ). Empowerment practices that address these needs can therefore foster internal motivation and strengthen employee engagement (Deci et al., 2017 ). 2.2 Empowerment and Work Engagement Empowerment involves organizational practices that give employees greater autonomy, participation in workplace decisions, and the ability to act independently, thereby reinforcing their perceived control and sense of agency in the workplace (Bae & Lawler, 2000 ; Spreitzer, 1995 ). In service-intensive industries, especially high-demand settings such as five-star hotels, empowered frontline staff can respond more effectively to customer needs, enhance service flexibility and quality, and experience a stronger sense of responsibility and purpose (Ko, 2025 ; Bello, Bello, & Ifegbu, 2017 ). Grounded in Self-Determination Theory (Deci & Ryan, 1985 ), empowerment is understood to support employees’ fundamental psychological needs, particularly autonomy and competence. This need satisfaction fosters intrinsic motivation, which in turn contributes to a high level of work engagement—typically expressed through energy, dedication, and complete absorption in tasks (Deci & Ryan, 2000 ; Schaufeli, Salanova, González-Romá, & Bakker, 2002 ). Recent evidence further suggests that psychological empowerment is significantly associated with employee engagement and creativity in the hospitality field (Chompukum & Vanichbuncha, 2025 ). Similarly, empowering leadership has been found to strengthen both psychological empowerment and employee engagement (Seibert et al., 2011 ), while perceptions of empowerment are associated with stronger emotional involvement and dedication to work (Spreitzer et al., 2005 ; Albrecht & Bakker, 2018 ). While the positive association between empowerment and work engagement has been widely supported, the underlying mechanisms in high-demand service settings, such as five-star hotels in China, remain relatively underexplored. Thus, the following hypothesis is proposed: H1: Empowerment is positively related to employees’ work engagement. 2.3 Work Engagement and Helping Behavior Work engagement reflects a positive and meaningful psychological state in which employees experience energy, dedication, and deep involvement in their work tasks (Schaufeli et al., 2002 ; Kahn, 1992 ; Saks, 2006 ). Highly engaged employees typically demonstrate greater enthusiasm for their work and are more willing to exert extra effort beyond their formal job responsibilities (Breevaart et al., 2014 ; Saks, 2019 ). Helping behavior refers to employees’ voluntary actions aimed at assisting colleagues or customers and addressing problems proactively (Podsakoff et al., 2000 ; Organ, 1988 ). As a practically significant form of discretionary behavior, helping behavior is crucial for enhancing team collaboration and improving customer experiences in service-intensive industries. From the perspective of Self-Determination Theory (Deci & Ryan, 1985 , 2000 ), work engagement can be seen as an expression of intrinsic motivation, which makes employees more inclined to engage in voluntary prosocial behaviors (Gutermann et al., 2017 ; Sun & Yoon, 2022 ). Previous studies have supported the positive relationship between work engagement and helping behavior (Bakker, Demerouti, & Verbeke, 2004 ; Kim & Park, 2019; Luu, 2017 ; Zhu, Obeng, & Azinga, 2024 ). However, most existing research has focused on general industries, with limited empirical investigation in high-pressure, high-contact service contexts like five-star hotels. Based on this theoretical pathway and the context of the present study, the following hypothesis is proposed: H2: Employees’ work engagement is positively related to helping behavior. 2.4 Mediation Role of Work Engagement Work engagement not only reflects employees' positive psychological states but also may serve as a key psychological mechanism through which empowerment influences employee behavior. Drawing from Self-Determination Theory (Deci & Ryan, 2000 ; Deci, Olafsen, & Ryan, 2017 ), organizational efforts that foster autonomy, participation, and appreciation help satisfy core psychological needs for independence and capability, thereby encouraging internally driven motivation. This type of motivation often leads to higher levels of work engagement, which can be seen in employees' energy, commitment, and focus on their tasks (Spreitzer et al., 2005 ; Albrecht & Bakker, 2018 ). Studies have also shown that engaged employees are more likely to go beyond their formal duties by helping coworkers or supporting customers when needed (Bhatnagar, 2012 ; Kim & Park, 2019). These findings suggest that work engagement might act as a bridge that connects empowerment with helping behavior. With this idea in mind, the following hypothesis is proposed: H3: Work engagement mediates the relationship between empowerment and helping behavior. 2.5 Direct Effect of Empowerment on Helping Behavior In addition to its indirect impact through work engagement, some research suggests that empowerment may also directly influence helping behavior. As a management practice that promotes autonomy and accountability, empowerment can encourage employees to go beyond their formal duties and support their coworkers when needed (Thomas & Velthouse, 1990 ). From the perspective of Self-Determination Theory (SDT), empowerment not only fuels intrinsic motivation but may also directly increase employees’ willingness to act in prosocial ways (Ryan & Deci, 2000 ). Empirical evidence supports this view. For instance, Chompukum and Vanichbuncha ( 2025 ) found that psychological empowerment not only boosted work engagement but also reduced turnover intentions, indicating both direct and indirect effects on employee behavior. Similarly, Dhanpat and Mkhwanazi ( 2024 ) highlighted the role of empowerment in encouraging proactive behavior, particularly in service-oriented settings. Although previous studies have suggested this link, it remains important to test the direct effect of empowerment on helping behavior in the unique cultural and organizational context of Chinese luxury hotels. H4: Empowerment is positively related to employees’ helping behavior. 2.6 Moderating Role of Psychological Safety Psychological safety is defined as the shared understanding among employees that they can voice opinions, request support, or acknowledge errors without fearing punishment or negative judgment (Edmondson, 1999 ). Prior research has consistently recognized psychological safety as a key enabler of open dialogue and interpersonal risk-taking in organizations. This view has been supported by multiple studies (e.g., Frazier et al., 2017 ; Newman et al., 2017 ). In service-intensive and highly interactive industries such as hospitality, psychological safety may significantly influence whether employees translate intrinsic motivation into actual behavior. According to Self-Determination Theory (SDT), work engagement reflects intrinsic motivation activated by the satisfaction of fundamental psychological needs and is typically associated with positive behavioral tendencies (Deci & Ryan, 2000 ; Ge, 2020 ). However, whether this motivation ultimately manifests as helping behavior often depends on the organizational context, such as the presence of psychological safety (Newman et al., 2017 ). In environments where psychological safety is perceived to be high, employees tend to be more inclined to exhibit voluntary helping behaviors (Yin, Qu, Li, & Liao, 2022 ). Conversely, in low-safety environments, even highly engaged employees may suppress discretionary behaviors due to fear of misunderstanding or judgment. Prior research has supported this moderating mechanism (Edmondson, 1999 ; Frazier et al., 2017 ; Ge, 2020 ; Newman et al., 2017 ). Psychological safety has been shown to amplify the beneficial linkages between work engagement and proactive work behaviors, such as voice and organizational citizenship behavior (Salman, Awan, & Habib, 2020 ; Yin et al., 2022 ). Given this conceptual foundation, the following hypothesis is advanced: H5: Psychological safety positively moderates the relationship between work engagement and helping behavior. 2.7 Conceptual Framework Grounded in Self-Determination Theory (SDT), the present study formulates a conceptual model illustrating how empowerment shapes frontline employees’ helping behavior in luxury hotel settings. The model outlines three central pathways: (1) work engagement operates as a mediator in the relationship between empowerment and helping behavior; (2) empowerment also has a direct influence on helping behavior; and (3) psychological safety serves as a moderator in the linkage between work engagement and helping behavior. This integrative framework combines motivational factors with contextual support elements, suggesting that employees’ behavioral responses are influenced not only by how empowered they feel and how engaged they are, but also by the degree of psychological safety present in their work environment. The conceptual model is visually presented in Fig. 1 . 3. Method 3.1 Participants and Procedure Data collection for the present study involved frontline employees from 18 five-star hotels located in Shandong Province, China, encompassing departments such as front office, housekeeping, and food and beverage. These positions were selected because they directly impact customer experience and service quality. A purposive sampling method was used, targeting employees who had worked in their current position for at least six months to ensure sample representativeness. In total, 400 survey forms were distributed, and 380 were successfully collected. After removing incomplete or inconsistent responses, 305 valid questionnaires remained, resulting in a usable response rate of 76.3%. Participation in the study was fully voluntary, and all respondents were guaranteed confidentiality and anonymity throughout the entire data collection process. 3.2 Measures Validated scales were used to measure all study variables. Empowerment was evaluated using a 7-item instrument originally proposed by Bae and Lawler ( 2000 ), which captures employees’ subjective perception of empowerment. All items were adapted to first-person phrasing to better align with employees’ work experiences and enhance comprehension and engagement. Work engagement was assessed through the Utrecht Work Engagement Scale (UWES-9), comprising 9 items developed by Schaufeli et al. ( 2002 ), which address multiple facets of this construct. Helping behavior was measured using a culturally tailored version of instruments developed by Podsakoff et al. ( 1990 ) and Bettencourt and Brown ( 1997 ), ensuring contextual relevance for the Chinese hospitality sector. Psychological safety was measured using a 6-item adapted version of Edmondson’s ( 1999 ) scale, with item PS5 removed due to potential cultural misinterpretations and redundancy with other items. Reverse-coded items (PS1, PS3, PS4) were properly handled during data analysis to ensure the accuracy and consistency of results. All items were rated using a 7-point Likert response format. To ensure both conceptual clarity and cultural appropriateness, all survey instruments were first translated into Chinese and subsequently back-translated into English, with necessary refinements made to enhance clarity and employee comprehension. 3.3 Data Analysis Quantitative data analysis was conducted using SPSS 28.0 and SmartPLS 4.0. First, descriptive statistics were used to present the background information of the respondents. The main analysis applied partial least squares structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM), which is suitable for analyzing complex constructs and is recommended for studies with moderate sample sizes (Hair, Hult, Ringle, & Sarstedt, 2019). The analysis followed a two-stage procedure. In the first stage, the measurement model was assessed by examining internal consistency using Cronbach’s alpha and composite reliability, along with convergent and discriminant validity. Convergent validity was established through the average variance extracted (AVE), and discriminant validity was evaluated based on the Fornell–Larcker criterion and the HTMT ratio (Hair et al., 2019 ; Henseler, Ringle, & Sarstedt, 2015 ). In the second stage, the structural model was tested by analyzing the strength and significance of the hypothesized paths. This included evaluating path coefficients, R² and Q² values, and using bootstrapping (5,000 resamples) to assess significance levels (Hair et al., 2019 ). To check for potential common method bias, variance inflation factors (VIFs) were calculated to ensure multicollinearity was not present, following the guidelines by Henseler et al. ( 2015 ). 4. Results 4.1 Demographic Profile of Respondents This study collected 305 valid responses from frontline employees working in 18 five-star hotels located in Shandong Province, China. As shown in Table 1 , 61.6% were female and 38.4% were male. Most participants were between the ages of 21 and 30 (41.6%), followed by those aged 31–40 (30.5%) and 41–50 (15.1%). Regarding education, 43.6% held a diploma, 23.3% had completed high school or vocational school, and 10.5% possessed a bachelor's degree or higher. Monthly income was primarily concentrated in the RMB 3,001–4,000 range (34.4%), followed by the RMB 4,001–5,000 range (28.2%) and the RMB 5,001–6,000 range (11.8%). In terms of tenure, 45.2% of respondents had worked at their current hotel for one to three years, 21.0% for six months to one year, and another 21.0% had over five years of work experience. Overall, the sample mainly consisted of younger, moderately educated, and moderately paid frontline service employees, providing a representative profile of the workforce in China's luxury hotel sector. Table 1 Demographic Characteristics Variable Category Frequency Percentage (%) Gender Male 117 38.4 Female 188 61.6 Age ≤ 20 9 3 21–30 127 41.6 31–40 93 30.5 41–50 46 15.1 ≥ 51 30 9.8 Education Junior high or below 69 22.6 High school/vocational 71 23.3 Diploma 133 43.6 Bachelor's and above 32 10.5 Monthly Income ≤ 3000 RMB 60 19.7 3001–4000 RMB 105 34.4 4001–5000 RMB 86 28.2 5001–6000 RMB 36 11.8 ≥ 6001 RMB 18 5.9 Tenure 6 months – 1 year 64 21 1–3 years 138 45.2 3–5 years 39 12.8 More than 5 years 64 21 4.2 Common Method Variance Due to the cross-sectional nature of this research, efforts were made at the outset to address potential measurement biases. One method applied was Harman’s single-factor test. Results from the exploratory factor analysis indicated that the first unrotated factor explained approximately 42.71% of the total variance, which is below the commonly accepted 50% threshold (Podsakoff et al., 2003 ). These results provide initial support that CMV is unlikely to pose a serious threat to the findings. To cross-validate this, VIF values were calculated for each latent variable using SmartPLS and reviewed according to Kock’s ( 2015 ) guideline. Since all VIF scores were below the 3.3 cutoff, neither multicollinearity nor CMV appear to be major issues in this analysis. Together, the two checks suggest that the study’s results are not materially influenced by common method bias (Podsakoff et al., 2003 ; Kock, 2015 ). 4.3 Measurement Model Evaluation The measurement model was first reviewed for reliability and convergent validity. As summarized in Table 2 , all constructs demonstrated adequate internal consistency, with both Cronbach’s alpha and composite reliability (CR) scores above the 0.70 benchmark (Hair et al., 2019 ; Cheung et al., 2024 ). Convergent validity was supported by average variance extracted (AVE) values, all of which surpassed the 0.50 criterion. To assess discriminant validity, the Fornell–Larcker method and the HTMT ratio were applied. As shown in Table 3 , each construct’s AVE square root was greater than its correlation values with other variables, and all HTMT values remained well below 0.85 (Table 4 ), confirming satisfactory discriminant validity. Table 2 CR and CV Variable Items (n) Cronbach's alpha CR AVE EMP 7 0.85 0.857 0.528 HB 6 0.924 0.927 0.725 PS 6 0.825 0.827 0.533 WE 9 0.904 0.905 0.566 Table 3 Discriminant Validity Variable EMP HB PS WE EMP 0.726 HB 0.62 0.851 PS 0.543 0.634 0.73 WE 0.581 0.69 0.728 0.752 Table 4 Discriminant Validity: HTMT Ratio Variable EMP HB PS WE EMP HB 0.695 PS 0.642 0.716 WE 0.658 0.75 0.844 PS x WE 0.057 0.17 0.119 0.055 4.4 Structural Model Evaluation To evaluate the research hypotheses, the structural model was tested (Hair et al., 2019 ). Table 5 summarizes the results, including path coefficients (β), t-values, p-values, and confidence intervals. The findings showed that all proposed paths were statistically significant (p < 0.001). Specifically, empowerment had a strong positive influence on work engagement (H1: β = 0.581, t = 17.404). In turn, work engagement was positively linked to helping behavior (H2: β = 0.391, t = 7.402). It also served as a significant mediator between empowerment and helping behavior (H3: β = 0.227, t = 6.618). In addition, empowerment showed a direct impact on helping behavior (H4: β = 0.289, t = 5.478). Regarding moderation, psychological safety significantly influenced the strength of the relationship between work engagement and helping behavior (H5: β = 0.151, t = 3.842). Table 5 Hypothesis Testing Results Hypothesis Path β t-value p-value 95% CI [2.5%, 97.5%] Hypothesis Result H1 EMP → WE 0.581 17.404 p < 0.001 [0.517, 0.647] Supported H2 WE → HB 0.391 7.402 p < 0.001 [0.286, 0.493] Supported H3 EMP → WE → HB 0.227 6.618 p < 0.001 [0.162, 0.297] Supported H4 EMP → HB 0.289 5.478 p < 0.001 [0.188, 0.392] Supported H5 PS × WE → HB 0.151 3.842 p < 0.001 [0.071, 0.227] Supported To further examine the moderating role of psychological safety, a simple slope analysis was conducted. As shown in Fig. 2 , the positive effect of work engagement on helping behavior is stronger under high psychological safety (+ 1 SD), and weaker when psychological safety is low (− 1 SD). This result supports Hypothesis 5 and emphasizes the significance of a supportive climate in enhancing prosocial behavior among engaged employees. The model demonstrated acceptable explanatory power, with R² values of 0.338 for work engagement and 0.583 for helping behavior, indicating moderate to substantial variance explained (Henseler et al., 2016 ; Hair et al., 2019 ). Predictive relevance was further supported by Q² values of 0.188 and 0.408 for the two outcomes, respectively, confirming the model’s predictive validity. 4.5 Structural Model Visualization Figure 3 illustrates the direct, mediating, and moderating pathways among the core variables in the research model. The effect of psychological safety as a moderator is shown by how it works together with work engagement to influence helping behavior. 5. Discussion 5.1 Summary of Key Findings This study explored how empowerment, work engagement, and helping behavior are connected among frontline employees in five-star hotels in Shandong Province, China, and examined how psychological safety affects these links. The findings support a clear motivational pathway: empowerment encourages helping behavior both directly and indirectly, with work engagement playing a key role in this process. First, empowerment was found to significantly boost work engagement (H1). This supports Self-Determination Theory (Deci & Ryan, 2000 ), which suggests that when employees’ basic psychological needs—such as feeling capable, autonomous, and connected—are met, they become more engaged at work. This result also echoes earlier research (Spreitzer, 1995 ; Albrecht & Bakker, 2018 ), and confirms that in demanding hotel settings, empowered employees are more likely to take initiative. Second, work engagement had a strong positive effect on helping behavior (H2). This aligns with the idea that engaged employees are more proactive (Schaufeli et al., 2002 ; Bakker et al., 2004 ). In hotel work, where quick responses and flexibility are essential, engagement clearly drives helpful actions. The analysis also showed that work engagement partly explains how empowerment leads to helping behavior (H3). This supports Gagné and Deci’s (2005) view that inner motivation helps convert support from management into real action. Similar findings were seen in Bhatnagar’s ( 2012 ) study in India. This means engagement isn’t just a result of empowerment—it’s also a key link between feeling empowered and choosing to help. At the same time, empowerment directly influenced helping behavior (H4), consistent with past work (Thomas & Velthouse, 1990 ; Ryan & Deci, 2000 ). Newer studies (Chompukum & Vanichbuncha, 2025 ; Dhanpat & Mkhwanazi, 2024 ) also found that empowered staff in service jobs often show more positive behavior. These results suggest that empowerment works in two ways—on its own, and by increasing engagement. Finally, psychological safety was found to shape the link between engagement and helping behavior (H5). This matches research by Edmondson ( 1999 ) and others (Frazier et al., 2017 ; Newman et al., 2017 ). When employees feel safe to speak up or take risks, they’re more likely to turn engagement into action. Without that safety, even motivated employees may hold back. 5.2 Theoretical Implications This study offers three key theoretical contributions to the literature on organizational behavior and employee motivation. First, it enriches Self-Determination Theory (SDT) by positioning psychological safety as a culturally contingent moderator in the link between empowerment and helping behavior. While SDT highlights how empowerment fulfills core psychological needs such as autonomy and competence (Deci & Ryan, 2000 ), our findings suggest that in high-pressure, collectivist service settings—like five-star hotels in China—the presence of psychological safety plays a decisive role in whether internal motivation translates into actual helping behaviors. In cultures where social harmony and risk avoidance are emphasized (Hofstede, 2001 ), employees may hesitate to act on their intrinsic motivation unless they feel secure from judgment or sanction. This insight adds cultural nuance to a well-established theoretical framework. Second, this study advances our understanding of work engagement as a psychological bridge. While previous research has examined links between empowerment and engagement, and between engagement and helping behavior, few have captured the entire pathway. By demonstrating how work engagement mediates the effect of empowerment on helping behavior, this study sheds light on the mechanism through which psychological resources evolve into prosocial discretionary actions. Third, by focusing on frontline staff in China’s luxury hotel sector—an understudied group in this domain—this research provides context-specific empirical evidence that expands theory across cultural and industrial boundaries. It emphasizes that the outcomes of empowerment are not universal but shaped by local norms and workplace conditions, reinforcing the need for culturally grounded applications of SDT in service-intensive industries. 5.3 Practical Implications This study offers several practical insights for hotel managers and HR professionals working in high-pressure service environments, especially within collectivist cultural contexts such as China. First, the findings highlight the strategic value of empowering frontline employees in luxury hospitality settings. Rather than merely assigning tasks, managers should create conditions that genuinely support autonomy—such as clarifying role expectations, involving staff in decision-making, and establishing regular feedback loops that enhance employees’ sense of ownership and purpose at work. Second, this research emphasizes psychological safety as a crucial enabler. In cultures where employees tend to be sensitive to hierarchy and hesitant to take interpersonal risks, it becomes essential to cultivate a workplace climate that encourages open communication without fear of blame. Managers can promote this by treating mistakes as learning opportunities, welcoming respectful dissent, and normalizing help-seeking behaviors. Tactics like anonymous suggestion systems, post-shift team reflections, and role modeling by supervisors can be especially effective. Finally, by identifying the psychological conditions that shape helping behavior, this study provides guidance for enhancing service quality and team collaboration under pressure. When employees feel both empowered and psychologically safe, they are more likely to step outside their formal duties and support their colleagues—an essential ingredient in delivering consistent, personalized guest experiences in a competitive industry. 5.4 Limitations and Future Research Directions While this study contributes to the understanding of prosocial behavior in service contexts, several limitations should be noted. First, the use of cross-sectional data limits our ability to infer causality. Future studies could adopt longitudinal or experimental designs to better capture how these relationships evolve over time. Second, the reliance on self-reported measures may introduce response bias; incorporating peer or supervisor assessments could provide a more balanced view. Third, as the sample was drawn from a specific region in China, cultural and contextual generalizability may be limited. Further research could explore different forms of empowerment, or examine this model in other sectors or countries to test its robustness across contexts. 6. Conclusion This study sheds light on how empowerment fosters helping behavior among frontline hotel employees, drawing on the framework of Self-Determination Theory. When staff feel empowered, they become more engaged in their work, and that engagement, in turn, enhances their willingness to assist others. Psychological safety emerges as a crucial contextual factor, enabling employees to act on their intrinsic motivation without fear of negative repercussions. These dynamics are especially relevant in high-contact, fast-paced hotel environments, and are further intensified in cultural settings like China, where harmony and risk avoidance are deeply embedded in workplace norms. By revealing how empowerment, work engagement, and psychological safety interact to drive prosocial behavior, this research offers both theoretical and practical value for scholars and practitioners in hospitality and organizational psychology. Declarations Institutional Review Board Statement The study was conducted in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki and was approved by Yanshan College, Shandong University of Finance and Economics on 5 March 2025 (Approval No. 20250305). Informed Consent Statement : Informed consent was obtained from all subjects involved in the study. Participation was voluntary and anonymous, and all respondents were informed about the purpose of the research prior to completing the questionnaire. Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflicts of interest. Funding: This research received no external funding. Author Contribution Conceptualization, S.C. and M.A.B.A.; methodology, S.C.; original draft writing, S.C.; review and editing, M.Z. and L.T.; supervision, M.A.B.A. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript. Acknowledgments: During the preparation of this manuscript, the authors used ChatGPT (OpenAI, GPT-4) to assist with language refinement. The authors have reviewed and edited the content and take full responsibility for the final version. Data Availability The datasets generated and analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request. References Albrecht SL, Bakker AB. Work engagement: Current trends. Career Dev Int. 2018;23(1):4–11. https://doi.org/10.1108/CDI-11-2017-0207 . Bae J, Lawler JJ. Organizational and HRM strategies in Korea: Impact on firm performance in an emerging economy. Acad Manag J. 2000;43(3):502–17. https://doi.org/10.5465/1556407 . Bakker AB, Demerouti E, Verbeke W. 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Gutermann D, Lehmann-Willenbrock N, Boer D, Born M, Voelpel SC. How leaders affect followers’ work engagement and performance: Integrating leader–member exchange and crossover theory. Br J Manag. 2017;28(2):299–314. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8551.12214 . Hair JF, Risher JJ, Sarstedt M, Ringle CM. When to use and how to report the results of PLS-SEM. Eur Bus Rev. 2019;31(1):2–24. https://doi.org/10.1108/EBR-11-2018-0203 . Henseler J, Ringle CM, Sarstedt M. A new criterion for assessing discriminant validity in variance-based structural equation modeling. J Acad Mark Sci. 2015;43(1):115–35. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11747-014-0403-8 . Henseler J, Hubona G, Ray PA. Using PLS path modeling in new technology research: Updated guidelines. Industrial Manage Data Syst. 2016;116(1):2–20. https://doi.org/10.1108/IMDS-09-2015-0382 . Hofstede G. Culture's consequences: Comparing values, behaviors, institutions, and organizations across nations. 2nd ed. Sage; 2001. Kahn WA. To be fully there: Psychological presence at work. Hum Relat. 1992;45(4):321–49. https://doi.org/10.1177/001872679204500402 . Ko C-H. Exploring how empowerment becomes critical success factor in hotel operation. OALib. 2025;12(3):1–12. https://doi.org/10.4236/oalib.1113105 . Kock N. Common method bias in PLS-SEM: A full collinearity assessment approach. Int J E-Collaboration. 2015;11(4):1–10. https://doi.org/10.4018/ijec.2015100101 . Luu TT. CSR and organizational citizenship behavior for the environment in hotel industry: The moderating roles of corporate entrepreneurship and employee attachment style. Int J Contemp Hospitality Manage. 2017;29(11):2867–900. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJCHM-02-2016-0080 . Makandwa G, Basera V. Customers perceptions, expectations and experiences of service quality for hotels in Mutare, Zimbabwe. J Gastronomy Hospitality Travel (JOGHAT). 2020;3(1):51–63. https://doi.org/10.33083/joghat.2020.30 . Newman A, Donohue R, Eva N. Psychological safety: A systematic review of the literature. Hum Resource Manage Rev. 2017;27(3):521–35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.hrmr.2017.01.001 . Organ DW. Organizational citizenship behavior: The good soldier syndrome. Lexington Books; 1988. Podsakoff NP, Whiting SW, Podsakoff PM, Blume BD. Individual- and organizational-level consequences of organizational citizenship behaviors: A meta-analysis. J Appl Psychol. 2009;94(1):122–41. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0013079 . Podsakoff PM, MacKenzie SB, Lee JY, Podsakoff NP. Common method biases in behavioral research: A critical review of the literature and recommended remedies. J Appl Psychol. 2003;88(5):879–903. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.88.5.879 . Podsakoff PM, MacKenzie SB, Moorman RH, Fetter R. Transformational leader behaviors and their effects on followers’ trust in leader, satisfaction, and organizational citizenship behaviors. Leadersh Q. 1990;1(2):107–42. https://doi.org/10.1016/1048-9843(90)90009-7 . Podsakoff PM, MacKenzie SB, Paine JB, Bachrach DG. Organizational citizenship behaviors: A critical review of the theoretical and empirical literature and suggestions for future research. J Manag. 2000;26(3):513–63. https://doi.org/10.1177/014920630002600307 . Saks AM. Antecedents and consequences of employee engagement. J Managerial Psychol. 2006;21(7):600–19. https://doi.org/10.1108/02683940610690169 . Saks AM. Antecedents and consequences of employee engagement revisited. J Organizational Effectiveness: People Perform. 2019;6(1):19–38. https://doi.org/10.1108/JOEPP-06-2018-0034 . Salman A, Awan U, Habib MD. Link between employee voice and organizational citizenship behavior: The moderating role of psychological safety. Int Rev Manage Bus Res. 2020;9(3):243–57. https://irmbrjournal.com/papers/1603973377.pdf . Schaufeli WB, Salanova M, González-Romá V, Bakker AB. The measurement of engagement and burnout: A two sample confirmatory factor analytic approach. J Happiness Stud. 2002;3(1):71–92. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1015630930326 . Seibert SE, Wang G, Courtright SH. Antecedents and consequences of psychological and team empowerment in organizations: A meta-analytic review. J Appl Psychol. 2011;96(5):981–1003. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0022676 . Spreitzer GM. Psychological empowerment in the workplace: Dimensions, measurement, and validation. Acad Manag J. 1995;38(5):1442–65. https://doi.org/10.2307/256865 . Spreitzer G, Sutcliffe K, Dutton J, Sonenshein S, Grant AM. A socially embedded model of thriving at work. Organ Sci. 2005;16(5):537–49. https://doi.org/10.1287/orsc.1050.0153 . Sun HJ, Yoon HH. Linking organizational virtuousness, engagement, and organizational citizenship behavior: The moderating role of individual and organizational factors. J Hospitality Tourism Res. 2022;46(5):879–904. https://doi.org/10.1177/1096348020963701 . Thomas KW, Velthouse BA. Cognitive elements of empowerment: An interpretive model of intrinsic task motivation. Acad Manage Rev. 1990;15(4):666–81. https://doi.org/10.5465/amr.1990.4310926 . Tóth-Király I, Bőthe B, Orosz G, Rigó A. Self-determination theory in the workplace: A meta-analysis. Motivation Emot. 2021;45(5):631–55. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11031-021-09852-4 . Van den Broeck A, Ferris DL, Chang CH, Rosen CC. A review of self-determination theory’s basic psychological needs at work. J Manag. 2016;42(5):1195–229. https://doi.org/10.1177/0149206316632058 . Yin J, Qu M, Li M, Liao G. Team leader's conflict management style and team innovation performance in remote R&D teams—With team climate perspective. Sustainability. 2022;14(17):10949. https://doi.org/10.3390/su141710949 . Zhu Y, Obeng AF, Azinga SA. Supportive supervisor behavior and helping behaviors in the hotel sector: Assessing the mediating effect of employee engagement and moderating influence of perceived organizational obstruction. Curr Psychol. 2024;43(1):757–73. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-023-04326-5 . Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Cite Share Download PDF Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. Our growing team is made up of researchers and industry professionals working together to solve the most critical problems facing scientific publishing. Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-6876582","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":477043136,"identity":"6da984ea-8b7a-4dd3-a1ea-fc76b8876d72","order_by":0,"name":"Shuxia Cao","email":"data:image/png;base64,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","orcid":"","institution":"Yanshan College, Shandong University of Finance and Economics","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Shuxia","middleName":"","lastName":"Cao","suffix":""},{"id":477043137,"identity":"5b94004f-38be-4538-b314-4c7f0c9e34bc","order_by":1,"name":"Mohd Anuar Bin Arshad","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Universiti Sains Malaysia","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Mohd","middleName":"Anuar Bin","lastName":"Arshad","suffix":""},{"id":477043138,"identity":"2ca7f77f-798d-405f-a4aa-5ecb8f6c11b0","order_by":2,"name":"Mengjiao Zhao","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Universiti Sains Malaysia","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Mengjiao","middleName":"","lastName":"Zhao","suffix":""},{"id":477043139,"identity":"161837e5-91ca-49c9-b2b4-e5ee0f898960","order_by":3,"name":"Lijuan Tao","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Qingdao University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Lijuan","middleName":"","lastName":"Tao","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2025-06-12 05:08:28","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6876582/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-6876582/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":85559390,"identity":"515595e5-54a5-4d33-972e-3164596273d1","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-06-27 12:21:05","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":37477,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eConceptual framework\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6876582/v1/f079d651cdc6e27e3ea0d37e.png"},{"id":85559395,"identity":"65fe2e54-62e8-488c-b608-f2fc23cdd7a1","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-06-27 12:21:06","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":56981,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eInteraction Effect on Helping Behavior\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6876582/v1/5b37eb0bd117912b8ff9b589.png"},{"id":85559980,"identity":"506c8235-f343-4737-9de3-38fe6586e240","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-06-27 12:29:06","extension":"png","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":19314,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eFinal Structural Model\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage3.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6876582/v1/e2db56fb6895d9508aab8182.png"},{"id":105056129,"identity":"1423cc7d-b840-4f37-b839-309d9f85cac8","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-03-20 11:41:09","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":1071380,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-6876582/v1/90318272-ec68-4f6a-bc5c-c7da5953949b.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Empowerment and Helping Behavior in Luxury Hotels: The Roles of Work Engagement and Psychological Safety","fulltext":[{"header":"1. Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eIn today\u0026rsquo;s highly competitive hotel industry, customers expect fast and personalized service (Makandwa \u0026amp; Basera, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). To meet these high demands, good teamwork among employees is especially important. One key behavior that supports this is helping behavior\u0026mdash;when employees take the initiative to assist colleagues or handle unexpected situations, even when it\u0026rsquo;s not part of their official job duties (Organ, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1988\u003c/span\u003e; Podsakoff et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2000\u003c/span\u003e). Studies have shown that helping behavior can improve team coordination, increase operational efficiency, and lead to better customer satisfaction and trust (Bettencourt \u0026amp; Brown, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1997\u003c/span\u003e; Bello et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). However, because this behavior is not formally required, many organizations find it difficult to encourage consistently (Podsakoff et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e). This makes it important to understand what factors influence employees\u0026rsquo; willingness to help, especially in service-focused workplaces like hotels (Zhu et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAgainst this backdrop, empowerment has been widely recognized as an important managerial practice for enhancing employees\u0026rsquo; proactivity and engagement (Spreitzer, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1995\u003c/span\u003e; Seibert, Wang, \u0026amp; Courtright, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e). Studies have identified work engagement as a key mediating mechanism in this process, translating managerial initiatives into tangible behavioral outcomes (Breevaart et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e; Albrecht \u0026amp; Bakker, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). Meanwhile, psychological safety has been acknowledged as a vital contextual condition that could influence whether employees who are engaged are also inclined to offer helping behaviors (Frazier et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e; Newman et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). Although research on empowerment has expanded in recent years, empirical work still falls short in systematically unpacking the mechanisms that connect empowerment with helping behaviors, especially in high-demand, high-standard service sectors such as five-star hotels operating within Chinese cultural environments (Zhu et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo address this research shortfall, the present study draws upon Self-Determination Theory (Deci \u0026amp; Ryan, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1985\u003c/span\u003e) to formulate a conceptual framework that elucidates the psychological mechanisms through which empowerment contributes to helping behavior. It focuses on how work engagement might help explain the link between empowerment and employees\u0026rsquo; willingness to help others (Bhatnagar, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e), and how psychological safety may influence the strength of this connection (Frazier et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). Drawing on data from frontline staff in China\u0026rsquo;s five-star hotels, the research aims to better understand the psychological factors that drive positive extra-role behaviors in demanding service settings, and to offer useful perspectives for both theory and practice related to employee empowerment in human resource management.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"2. Literature Review and Hypotheses Development","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.1 Self-Determination Theory\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eSelf-Determination Theory (SDT), introduced by Deci and Ryan (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1985\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2000\u003c/span\u003e), has become a foundational framework for exploring human motivation in organizational settings. It posits that individuals are more intrinsically motivated and likely to exhibit positive work behaviors when their basic psychological needs for autonomy, competence, and relatedness are adequately satisfied (Deci \u0026amp; Ryan, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2000\u003c/span\u003e; Deci, Olafsen, \u0026amp; Ryan, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). These needs are especially relevant in organizational contexts, where supportive practices such as delegating decision-making, offering feedback, and recognizing effort help fulfill them. Empirical reviews have confirmed that satisfying these needs leads to greater engagement and job performance across various industries (Van den Broeck et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e; T\u0026oacute;th-Kir\u0026aacute;ly et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). Empowerment practices that address these needs can therefore foster internal motivation and strengthen employee engagement (Deci et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec4\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.2 Empowerment and Work Engagement\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eEmpowerment involves organizational practices that give employees greater autonomy, participation in workplace decisions, and the ability to act independently, thereby reinforcing their perceived control and sense of agency in the workplace (Bae \u0026amp; Lawler, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2000\u003c/span\u003e; Spreitzer, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1995\u003c/span\u003e). In service-intensive industries, especially high-demand settings such as five-star hotels, empowered frontline staff can respond more effectively to customer needs, enhance service flexibility and quality, and experience a stronger sense of responsibility and purpose (Ko, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e; Bello, Bello, \u0026amp; Ifegbu, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). Grounded in Self-Determination Theory (Deci \u0026amp; Ryan, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1985\u003c/span\u003e), empowerment is understood to support employees\u0026rsquo; fundamental psychological needs, particularly autonomy and competence. This need satisfaction fosters intrinsic motivation, which in turn contributes to a high level of work engagement\u0026mdash;typically expressed through energy, dedication, and complete absorption in tasks (Deci \u0026amp; Ryan, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2000\u003c/span\u003e; Schaufeli, Salanova, Gonz\u0026aacute;lez-Rom\u0026aacute;, \u0026amp; Bakker, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2002\u003c/span\u003e). Recent evidence further suggests that psychological empowerment is significantly associated with employee engagement and creativity in the hospitality field (Chompukum \u0026amp; Vanichbuncha, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e). Similarly, empowering leadership has been found to strengthen both psychological empowerment and employee engagement (Seibert et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e), while perceptions of empowerment are associated with stronger emotional involvement and dedication to work (Spreitzer et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e; Albrecht \u0026amp; Bakker, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). While the positive association between empowerment and work engagement has been widely supported, the underlying mechanisms in high-demand service settings, such as five-star hotels in China, remain relatively underexplored. Thus, the following hypothesis is proposed:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eH1: Empowerment is positively related to employees\u0026rsquo; work engagement.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec5\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.3 Work Engagement and Helping Behavior\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eWork engagement reflects a positive and meaningful psychological state in which employees experience energy, dedication, and deep involvement in their work tasks (Schaufeli et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2002\u003c/span\u003e; Kahn, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1992\u003c/span\u003e; Saks, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e). Highly engaged employees typically demonstrate greater enthusiasm for their work and are more willing to exert extra effort beyond their formal job responsibilities (Breevaart et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e; Saks, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). Helping behavior refers to employees\u0026rsquo; voluntary actions aimed at assisting colleagues or customers and addressing problems proactively (Podsakoff et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2000\u003c/span\u003e; Organ, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1988\u003c/span\u003e). As a practically significant form of discretionary behavior, helping behavior is crucial for enhancing team collaboration and improving customer experiences in service-intensive industries. From the perspective of Self-Determination Theory (Deci \u0026amp; Ryan, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1985\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2000\u003c/span\u003e), work engagement can be seen as an expression of intrinsic motivation, which makes employees more inclined to engage in voluntary prosocial behaviors (Gutermann et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e; Sun \u0026amp; Yoon, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Previous studies have supported the positive relationship between work engagement and helping behavior (Bakker, Demerouti, \u0026amp; Verbeke, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2004\u003c/span\u003e; Kim \u0026amp; Park, 2019; Luu, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e; Zhu, Obeng, \u0026amp; Azinga, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). However, most existing research has focused on general industries, with limited empirical investigation in high-pressure, high-contact service contexts like five-star hotels. Based on this theoretical pathway and the context of the present study, the following hypothesis is proposed:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eH2: Employees\u0026rsquo; work engagement is positively related to helping behavior.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec6\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.4 Mediation Role of Work Engagement\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eWork engagement not only reflects employees' positive psychological states but also may serve as a key psychological mechanism through which empowerment influences employee behavior. Drawing from Self-Determination Theory (Deci \u0026amp; Ryan, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2000\u003c/span\u003e; Deci, Olafsen, \u0026amp; Ryan, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e), organizational efforts that foster autonomy, participation, and appreciation help satisfy core psychological needs for independence and capability, thereby encouraging internally driven motivation. This type of motivation often leads to higher levels of work engagement, which can be seen in employees' energy, commitment, and focus on their tasks (Spreitzer et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e; Albrecht \u0026amp; Bakker, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). Studies have also shown that engaged employees are more likely to go beyond their formal duties by helping coworkers or supporting customers when needed (Bhatnagar, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e; Kim \u0026amp; Park, 2019). These findings suggest that work engagement might act as a bridge that connects empowerment with helping behavior. With this idea in mind, the following hypothesis is proposed:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eH3: Work engagement mediates the relationship between empowerment and helping behavior.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec7\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.5 Direct Effect of Empowerment on Helping Behavior\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn addition to its indirect impact through work engagement, some research suggests that empowerment may also directly influence helping behavior. As a management practice that promotes autonomy and accountability, empowerment can encourage employees to go beyond their formal duties and support their coworkers when needed (Thomas \u0026amp; Velthouse, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1990\u003c/span\u003e). From the perspective of Self-Determination Theory (SDT), empowerment not only fuels intrinsic motivation but may also directly increase employees\u0026rsquo; willingness to act in prosocial ways (Ryan \u0026amp; Deci, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2000\u003c/span\u003e). Empirical evidence supports this view. For instance, Chompukum and Vanichbuncha (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e) found that psychological empowerment not only boosted work engagement but also reduced turnover intentions, indicating both direct and indirect effects on employee behavior. Similarly, Dhanpat and Mkhwanazi (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e) highlighted the role of empowerment in encouraging proactive behavior, particularly in service-oriented settings. Although previous studies have suggested this link, it remains important to test the direct effect of empowerment on helping behavior in the unique cultural and organizational context of Chinese luxury hotels.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eH4: Empowerment is positively related to employees\u0026rsquo; helping behavior.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.6 Moderating Role of Psychological Safety\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003ePsychological safety is defined as the shared understanding among employees that they can voice opinions, request support, or acknowledge errors without fearing punishment or negative judgment (Edmondson, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1999\u003c/span\u003e). Prior research has consistently recognized psychological safety as a key enabler of open dialogue and interpersonal risk-taking in organizations. This view has been supported by multiple studies (e.g., Frazier et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e; Newman et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). In service-intensive and highly interactive industries such as hospitality, psychological safety may significantly influence whether employees translate intrinsic motivation into actual behavior. According to Self-Determination Theory (SDT), work engagement reflects intrinsic motivation activated by the satisfaction of fundamental psychological needs and is typically associated with positive behavioral tendencies (Deci \u0026amp; Ryan, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2000\u003c/span\u003e; Ge, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). However, whether this motivation ultimately manifests as helping behavior often depends on the organizational context, such as the presence of psychological safety (Newman et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). In environments where psychological safety is perceived to be high, employees tend to be more inclined to exhibit voluntary helping behaviors (Yin, Qu, Li, \u0026amp; Liao, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Conversely, in low-safety environments, even highly engaged employees may suppress discretionary behaviors due to fear of misunderstanding or judgment. Prior research has supported this moderating mechanism (Edmondson, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1999\u003c/span\u003e; Frazier et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e; Ge, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Newman et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). Psychological safety has been shown to amplify the beneficial linkages between work engagement and proactive work behaviors, such as voice and organizational citizenship behavior (Salman, Awan, \u0026amp; Habib, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Yin et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Given this conceptual foundation, the following hypothesis is advanced:\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eH5: Psychological safety positively moderates the relationship between work engagement and helping behavior.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec9\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.7 Conceptual Framework\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eGrounded in Self-Determination Theory (SDT), the present study formulates a conceptual model illustrating how empowerment shapes frontline employees\u0026rsquo; helping behavior in luxury hotel settings. The model outlines three central pathways: (1) work engagement operates as a mediator in the relationship between empowerment and helping behavior; (2) empowerment also has a direct influence on helping behavior; and (3) psychological safety serves as a moderator in the linkage between work engagement and helping behavior. This integrative framework combines motivational factors with contextual support elements, suggesting that employees\u0026rsquo; behavioral responses are influenced not only by how empowered they feel and how engaged they are, but also by the degree of psychological safety present in their work environment. The conceptual model is visually presented in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"3. Method","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.1 Participants and Procedure\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eData collection for the present study involved frontline employees from 18 five-star hotels located in Shandong Province, China, encompassing departments such as front office, housekeeping, and food and beverage. These positions were selected because they directly impact customer experience and service quality. A purposive sampling method was used, targeting employees who had worked in their current position for at least six months to ensure sample representativeness. In total, 400 survey forms were distributed, and 380 were successfully collected. After removing incomplete or inconsistent responses, 305 valid questionnaires remained, resulting in a usable response rate of 76.3%. Participation in the study was fully voluntary, and all respondents were guaranteed confidentiality and anonymity throughout the entire data collection process.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.2 Measures\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eValidated scales were used to measure all study variables. Empowerment was evaluated using a 7-item instrument originally proposed by Bae and Lawler (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2000\u003c/span\u003e), which captures employees\u0026rsquo; subjective perception of empowerment. All items were adapted to first-person phrasing to better align with employees\u0026rsquo; work experiences and enhance comprehension and engagement. Work engagement was assessed through the Utrecht Work Engagement Scale (UWES-9), comprising 9 items developed by Schaufeli et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2002\u003c/span\u003e), which address multiple facets of this construct. Helping behavior was measured using a culturally tailored version of instruments developed by Podsakoff et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1990\u003c/span\u003e) and Bettencourt and Brown (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1997\u003c/span\u003e), ensuring contextual relevance for the Chinese hospitality sector. Psychological safety was measured using a 6-item adapted version of Edmondson\u0026rsquo;s (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1999\u003c/span\u003e) scale, with item PS5 removed due to potential cultural misinterpretations and redundancy with other items. Reverse-coded items (PS1, PS3, PS4) were properly handled during data analysis to ensure the accuracy and consistency of results. All items were rated using a 7-point Likert response format. To ensure both conceptual clarity and cultural appropriateness, all survey instruments were first translated into Chinese and subsequently back-translated into English, with necessary refinements made to enhance clarity and employee comprehension.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec13\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.3 Data Analysis\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eQuantitative data analysis was conducted using SPSS 28.0 and SmartPLS 4.0. First, descriptive statistics were used to present the background information of the respondents. The main analysis applied partial least squares structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM), which is suitable for analyzing complex constructs and is recommended for studies with moderate sample sizes (Hair, Hult, Ringle, \u0026amp; Sarstedt, 2019). The analysis followed a two-stage procedure. In the first stage, the measurement model was assessed by examining internal consistency using Cronbach\u0026rsquo;s alpha and composite reliability, along with convergent and discriminant validity. Convergent validity was established through the average variance extracted (AVE), and discriminant validity was evaluated based on the Fornell\u0026ndash;Larcker criterion and the HTMT ratio (Hair et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; Henseler, Ringle, \u0026amp; Sarstedt, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e). In the second stage, the structural model was tested by analyzing the strength and significance of the hypothesized paths. This included evaluating path coefficients, R\u0026sup2; and Q\u0026sup2; values, and using bootstrapping (5,000 resamples) to assess significance levels (Hair et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). To check for potential common method bias, variance inflation factors (VIFs) were calculated to ensure multicollinearity was not present, following the guidelines by Henseler et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"4. Results","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec15\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e4.1 Demographic Profile of Respondents\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study collected 305 valid responses from frontline employees working in 18 five-star hotels located in Shandong Province, China. As shown in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e, 61.6% were female and 38.4% were male. Most participants were between the ages of 21 and 30 (41.6%), followed by those aged 31\u0026ndash;40 (30.5%) and 41\u0026ndash;50 (15.1%). Regarding education, 43.6% held a diploma, 23.3% had completed high school or vocational school, and 10.5% possessed a bachelor's degree or higher. Monthly income was primarily concentrated in the RMB 3,001\u0026ndash;4,000 range (34.4%), followed by the RMB 4,001\u0026ndash;5,000 range (28.2%) and the RMB 5,001\u0026ndash;6,000 range (11.8%). In terms of tenure, 45.2% of respondents had worked at their current hotel for one to three years, 21.0% for six months to one year, and another 21.0% had over five years of work experience. Overall, the sample mainly consisted of younger, moderately educated, and moderately paid frontline service employees, providing a representative profile of the workforce in China's luxury hotel sector.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDemographic Characteristics\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"4\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVariable\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCategory\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFrequency\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePercentage (%)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGender\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMale\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e117\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e38.4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFemale\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e188\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e61.6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAge\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026le;\u0026thinsp;20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e21\u0026ndash;30\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e127\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e41.6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e31\u0026ndash;40\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e93\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e30.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e41\u0026ndash;50\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e46\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026ge;\u0026thinsp;51\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e30\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEducation\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eJunior high or below\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e69\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e22.6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHigh school/vocational\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e71\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e23.3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDiploma\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e133\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e43.6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBachelor's and above\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e32\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMonthly Income\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026le;\u0026thinsp;3000 RMB\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e60\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e19.7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3001\u0026ndash;4000 RMB\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e105\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e34.4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4001\u0026ndash;5000 RMB\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e86\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e28.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5001\u0026ndash;6000 RMB\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e36\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026ge;\u0026thinsp;6001 RMB\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e18\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTenure\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6 months \u0026ndash; 1 year\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e64\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e21\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u0026ndash;3 years\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e138\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e45.2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u0026ndash;5 years\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e39\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMore than 5 years\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e64\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e21\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec16\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e4.2 Common Method Variance\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eDue to the cross-sectional nature of this research, efforts were made at the outset to address potential measurement biases. One method applied was Harman\u0026rsquo;s single-factor test. Results from the exploratory factor analysis indicated that the first unrotated factor explained approximately 42.71% of the total variance, which is below the commonly accepted 50% threshold (Podsakoff et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2003\u003c/span\u003e). These results provide initial support that CMV is unlikely to pose a serious threat to the findings. To cross-validate this, VIF values were calculated for each latent variable using SmartPLS and reviewed according to Kock\u0026rsquo;s (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e) guideline. Since all VIF scores were below the 3.3 cutoff, neither multicollinearity nor CMV appear to be major issues in this analysis. Together, the two checks suggest that the study\u0026rsquo;s results are not materially influenced by common method bias (Podsakoff et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2003\u003c/span\u003e; Kock, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec17\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e4.3 Measurement Model Evaluation\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe measurement model was first reviewed for reliability and convergent validity. As summarized in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e, all constructs demonstrated adequate internal consistency, with both Cronbach\u0026rsquo;s alpha and composite reliability (CR) scores above the 0.70 benchmark (Hair et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; Cheung et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). Convergent validity was supported by average variance extracted (AVE) values, all of which surpassed the 0.50 criterion. To assess discriminant validity, the Fornell\u0026ndash;Larcker method and the HTMT ratio were applied. As shown in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e, each construct\u0026rsquo;s AVE square root was greater than its correlation values with other variables, and all HTMT values remained well below 0.85 (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e), confirming satisfactory discriminant validity.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCR and CV\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"5\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVariable\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eItems (n)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCronbach's alpha\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCR\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAVE\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEMP\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.85\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.857\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.528\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHB\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.924\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.927\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.725\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePS\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.825\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.827\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.533\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWE\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.904\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.905\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.566\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDiscriminant Validity\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"5\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVariable\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEMP\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHB\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePS\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWE\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEMP\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.726\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHB\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.62\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.851\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePS\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.543\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.634\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.73\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWE\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.581\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.69\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.728\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.752\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab4\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 4\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDiscriminant Validity: HTMT Ratio\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"5\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVariable\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEMP\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHB\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePS\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWE\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEMP\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHB\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.695\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePS\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.642\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.716\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWE\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.658\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.75\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.844\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePS x WE\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.057\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.17\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.119\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.055\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec18\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e4.4 Structural Model Evaluation\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo evaluate the research hypotheses, the structural model was tested (Hair et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e summarizes the results, including path coefficients (β), t-values, p-values, and confidence intervals. The findings showed that all proposed paths were statistically significant (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001). Specifically, empowerment had a strong positive influence on work engagement (H1: β\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.581, t\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;17.404). In turn, work engagement was positively linked to helping behavior (H2: β\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.391, t\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;7.402). It also served as a significant mediator between empowerment and helping behavior (H3: β\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.227, t\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;6.618). In addition, empowerment showed a direct impact on helping behavior (H4: β\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.289, t\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;5.478). Regarding moderation, psychological safety significantly influenced the strength of the relationship between work engagement and helping behavior (H5: β\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.151, t\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;3.842).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab5\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 5\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHypothesis Testing Results\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"7\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHypothesis\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePath\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eβ\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003et-value\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ep-value\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e95% CI\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e[2.5%, 97.5%]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHypothesis Result\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eH1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEMP \u0026rarr; WE\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.581\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e17.404\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ep\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e[0.517, 0.647]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSupported\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eH2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWE \u0026rarr; HB\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.391\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.402\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ep\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e[0.286, 0.493]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSupported\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eH3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEMP \u0026rarr; WE \u0026rarr; HB\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.227\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.618\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ep\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e[0.162, 0.297]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSupported\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eH4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEMP \u0026rarr; HB\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.289\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.478\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ep\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e[0.188, 0.392]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSupported\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eH5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePS \u0026times; WE \u0026rarr; HB\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.151\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.842\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ep\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e[0.071, 0.227]\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSupported\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo further examine the moderating role of psychological safety, a simple slope analysis was conducted. As shown in Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e, the positive effect of work engagement on helping behavior is stronger under high psychological safety (+\u0026thinsp;1 SD), and weaker when psychological safety is low (\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1 SD). This result supports Hypothesis 5 and emphasizes the significance of a supportive climate in enhancing prosocial behavior among engaged employees.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe model demonstrated acceptable explanatory power, with R\u0026sup2; values of 0.338 for work engagement and 0.583 for helping behavior, indicating moderate to substantial variance explained (Henseler et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e; Hair et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). Predictive relevance was further supported by Q\u0026sup2; values of 0.188 and 0.408 for the two outcomes, respectively, confirming the model\u0026rsquo;s predictive validity.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec19\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e4.5 Structural Model Visualization\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eFigure \u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e illustrates the direct, mediating, and moderating pathways among the core variables in the research model. The effect of psychological safety as a moderator is shown by how it works together with work engagement to influence helping behavior.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"5. Discussion","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec21\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e5.1 Summary of Key Findings\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study explored how empowerment, work engagement, and helping behavior are connected among frontline employees in five-star hotels in Shandong Province, China, and examined how psychological safety affects these links. The findings support a clear motivational pathway: empowerment encourages helping behavior both directly and indirectly, with work engagement playing a key role in this process.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFirst, empowerment was found to significantly boost work engagement (H1). This supports Self-Determination Theory (Deci \u0026amp; Ryan, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2000\u003c/span\u003e), which suggests that when employees\u0026rsquo; basic psychological needs\u0026mdash;such as feeling capable, autonomous, and connected\u0026mdash;are met, they become more engaged at work. This result also echoes earlier research (Spreitzer, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1995\u003c/span\u003e; Albrecht \u0026amp; Bakker, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e), and confirms that in demanding hotel settings, empowered employees are more likely to take initiative. Second, work engagement had a strong positive effect on helping behavior (H2). This aligns with the idea that engaged employees are more proactive (Schaufeli et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2002\u003c/span\u003e; Bakker et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2004\u003c/span\u003e). In hotel work, where quick responses and flexibility are essential, engagement clearly drives helpful actions. The analysis also showed that work engagement partly explains how empowerment leads to helping behavior (H3). This supports Gagn\u0026eacute; and Deci\u0026rsquo;s (2005) view that inner motivation helps convert support from management into real action. Similar findings were seen in Bhatnagar\u0026rsquo;s (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e) study in India. This means engagement isn\u0026rsquo;t just a result of empowerment\u0026mdash;it\u0026rsquo;s also a key link between feeling empowered and choosing to help. At the same time, empowerment directly influenced helping behavior (H4), consistent with past work (Thomas \u0026amp; Velthouse, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1990\u003c/span\u003e; Ryan \u0026amp; Deci, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2000\u003c/span\u003e). Newer studies (Chompukum \u0026amp; Vanichbuncha, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e; Dhanpat \u0026amp; Mkhwanazi, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e) also found that empowered staff in service jobs often show more positive behavior. These results suggest that empowerment works in two ways\u0026mdash;on its own, and by increasing engagement. Finally, psychological safety was found to shape the link between engagement and helping behavior (H5). This matches research by Edmondson (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1999\u003c/span\u003e) and others (Frazier et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e; Newman et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). When employees feel safe to speak up or take risks, they\u0026rsquo;re more likely to turn engagement into action. Without that safety, even motivated employees may hold back.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec22\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e5.2 Theoretical Implications\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study offers three key theoretical contributions to the literature on organizational behavior and employee motivation.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFirst, it enriches Self-Determination Theory (SDT) by positioning psychological safety as a culturally contingent moderator in the link between empowerment and helping behavior. While SDT highlights how empowerment fulfills core psychological needs such as autonomy and competence (Deci \u0026amp; Ryan, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2000\u003c/span\u003e), our findings suggest that in high-pressure, collectivist service settings\u0026mdash;like five-star hotels in China\u0026mdash;the presence of psychological safety plays a decisive role in whether internal motivation translates into actual helping behaviors. In cultures where social harmony and risk avoidance are emphasized (Hofstede, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2001\u003c/span\u003e), employees may hesitate to act on their intrinsic motivation unless they feel secure from judgment or sanction. This insight adds cultural nuance to a well-established theoretical framework.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSecond, this study advances our understanding of work engagement as a psychological bridge. While previous research has examined links between empowerment and engagement, and between engagement and helping behavior, few have captured the entire pathway. By demonstrating how work engagement mediates the effect of empowerment on helping behavior, this study sheds light on the mechanism through which psychological resources evolve into prosocial discretionary actions.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThird, by focusing on frontline staff in China\u0026rsquo;s luxury hotel sector\u0026mdash;an understudied group in this domain\u0026mdash;this research provides context-specific empirical evidence that expands theory across cultural and industrial boundaries. It emphasizes that the outcomes of empowerment are not universal but shaped by local norms and workplace conditions, reinforcing the need for culturally grounded applications of SDT in service-intensive industries.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec23\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e5.3 Practical Implications\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study offers several practical insights for hotel managers and HR professionals working in high-pressure service environments, especially within collectivist cultural contexts such as China.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFirst, the findings highlight the strategic value of empowering frontline employees in luxury hospitality settings. Rather than merely assigning tasks, managers should create conditions that genuinely support autonomy\u0026mdash;such as clarifying role expectations, involving staff in decision-making, and establishing regular feedback loops that enhance employees\u0026rsquo; sense of ownership and purpose at work.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSecond, this research emphasizes psychological safety as a crucial enabler. In cultures where employees tend to be sensitive to hierarchy and hesitant to take interpersonal risks, it becomes essential to cultivate a workplace climate that encourages open communication without fear of blame. Managers can promote this by treating mistakes as learning opportunities, welcoming respectful dissent, and normalizing help-seeking behaviors. Tactics like anonymous suggestion systems, post-shift team reflections, and role modeling by supervisors can be especially effective.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFinally, by identifying the psychological conditions that shape helping behavior, this study provides guidance for enhancing service quality and team collaboration under pressure. When employees feel both empowered and psychologically safe, they are more likely to step outside their formal duties and support their colleagues\u0026mdash;an essential ingredient in delivering consistent, personalized guest experiences in a competitive industry.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec24\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e5.4 Limitations and Future Research Directions\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eWhile this study contributes to the understanding of prosocial behavior in service contexts, several limitations should be noted. First, the use of cross-sectional data limits our ability to infer causality. Future studies could adopt longitudinal or experimental designs to better capture how these relationships evolve over time. Second, the reliance on self-reported measures may introduce response bias; incorporating peer or supervisor assessments could provide a more balanced view. Third, as the sample was drawn from a specific region in China, cultural and contextual generalizability may be limited. Further research could explore different forms of empowerment, or examine this model in other sectors or countries to test its robustness across contexts.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"6. Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis study sheds light on how empowerment fosters helping behavior among frontline hotel employees, drawing on the framework of Self-Determination Theory. When staff feel empowered, they become more engaged in their work, and that engagement, in turn, enhances their willingness to assist others. Psychological safety emerges as a crucial contextual factor, enabling employees to act on their intrinsic motivation without fear of negative repercussions. These dynamics are especially relevant in high-contact, fast-paced hotel environments, and are further intensified in cultural settings like China, where harmony and risk avoidance are deeply embedded in workplace norms. By revealing how empowerment, work engagement, and psychological safety interact to drive prosocial behavior, this research offers both theoretical and practical value for scholars and practitioners in hospitality and organizational psychology.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003ch2\u003eInstitutional Review Board Statement\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe study was conducted in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki and was approved by Yanshan College, Shandong University of Finance and Economics on 5 March 2025 (Approval No. 20250305).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eInformed Consent\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eStatement\u003c/strong\u003e: Informed consent was obtained from all subjects involved in the study. Participation was voluntary and anonymous, and all respondents were informed about the purpose of the research prior to completing the questionnaire.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eConflicts of Interest:\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors declare no conflicts of interest.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eFunding:\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis research received no external funding.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eAuthor Contribution\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eConceptualization, S.C. and M.A.B.A.; methodology, S.C.; original draft writing, S.C.; review and editing, M.Z. and L.T.; supervision, M.A.B.A. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eAcknowledgments:\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDuring the preparation of this manuscript, the authors used ChatGPT (OpenAI, GPT-4) to assist with language refinement. 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Curr Psychol. 2024;43(1):757\u0026ndash;73. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-023-04326-5\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1007/s12144-023-04326-5\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Empowerment, Work Engagement, Helping Behavior, Psychological Safety, Self-Determination Theory","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6876582/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-6876582/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eBackground\u003c/strong\u003e – In luxury hotels, where service demands are high and coordination among staff is critical, helping behavior voluntary support beyond formal job duties），is essential for delivering fast and personalized service. However, due to its discretionary nature, such behavior is difficult to sustain. Drawing on Self-Determination Theory (SDT), this study examines how employee empowerment fosters helping behavior, considering the mediating role of work engagement and the moderating role of psychological safety.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMethods\u003c/strong\u003e – The study surveyed 305 frontline employees across 18 five-star hotels in economically developed regions of Northern and Eastern China. Using Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modeling (PLS-SEM), we tested a moderated mediation model.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eResults\u003c/strong\u003e – Empowerment was found to promote helping behavior both directly and indirectly by enhancing work engagement. Moreover, psychological safety amplified the positive effect of engagement on helping behavior.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConclusion\u003c/strong\u003e – These findings highlight empowerment as a key managerial lever to enhance helping behavior in service settings. Work engagement acts as a psychological bridge in this process, while psychological safety ensures employees can translate their motivation into action without fear of negative consequences.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Empowerment and Helping Behavior in Luxury Hotels: The Roles of Work Engagement and Psychological Safety","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-06-27 12:21:01","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-6876582/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"ace5106a-7096-4b4a-8f69-596d4a78a281","owner":[],"postedDate":"June 27th, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-03-20T11:40:20+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2025-06-27 12:21:01","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-6876582","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-6876582","identity":"rs-6876582","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}