The Psychological well-being of students with sensory impairments in selected tertiary institutions in Ghana

The Psychological well-being of students with sensory impairments in selected tertiary institutions in Ghana | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article The Psychological well-being of students with sensory impairments in selected tertiary institutions in Ghana Richard Adade, Tshimaangadzo Sikhwari, Joseph Asamoah-Gyawu, Obed Appau This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-8564482/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Under Revision Version 1 posted 10 You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Psychological well-being (PWB) is essential for students’ academic and social adjustment, yet limited evidence exists on how it differs among Ghanaian students with sensory impairments. This study examined the PWB of students with sensory impairments in selected tertiary institutions in Ghana. A total of 214 students participated, including 127 blind and 87 deaf individuals, using a cross-sectional design with purposive and random sampling. Data were collected with the 18-item Ryff Psychological Well-Being Scale, adapted for accessibility, and analyzed using ANOVA, t-tests, and Mann–Whitney U tests. The instrument demonstrated acceptable reliability (Cronbach’s α = .77). Results showed significant differences in overall PWB between the two groups, with blind students reporting higher well-being than deaf students, F(1,212) = 94.963, p < .001, η² = .310. Blind students also scored higher across the six PWB dimensions, notably in purpose in life, autonomy, and self-acceptance. Gender differences were minimal, although males showed slightly higher environmental mastery and positive relations. The findings indicate that deaf students face greater psychosocial challenges, likely linked to communication barriers and limited institutional support. The study highlights the need for improved communication accessibility and gender-responsive interventions to promote equitable PWB among students with sensory impairments in Ghanaian tertiary institutions. psychological well-being sensory impairment blindness deafness Ghana Introduction and background Psychological well-being (PWB) reflects an individual’s optimal psychological functioning, positive emotional states, and capacity to navigate life’s demands (Ryff, 1989). From a positive psychology perspective, flourishing involves experiencing positive emotions, maintaining supportive relationships, meaningfully engaging in daily activities, pursuing purpose, and achieving personal goals. These five dimensions—Positive Emotion, Engagement, Relationships, Meaning, and Accomplishment—form Seligman’s PERMA model, a widely used framework for understanding well-being across diverse populations (Seligman, 2011). For individuals with disabilities, however, achieving optimal well-being is often shaped by complex social, educational, and environmental conditions that extend beyond the physical impairment itself (WHO, 2011). Sensory impairments, particularly deafness and blindness, significantly influence how students access education and participate in social and academic life, making them especially relevant to the study of PWB. Deaf students face substantial barriers globally, including limited communication access, inadequate sign language interpretation, and reduced opportunities for meaningful engagement and belonging (Hintermair, 2008). In Ghana, interpreter shortages, unclear interpreter role boundaries, and the dominance of medicalized views of deafness further constrain deaf students’ autonomy and participation in academic environments (Adade et al., 2022). These constraints often restrict opportunities for accomplishment, weaken social connectedness, and undermine positive emotional experiences. Students with visual impairments encounter a different set of challenges and supports that shape their well-being. Severe vision loss has been associated internationally with higher risks of depression and reduced participation in physical and social activities (Ishtiaq, 2016). Yet, compared to their deaf peers, visually impaired students often benefit from more established institutional supports, including mobility training, adaptive technologies, and structured peer mentoring, which strengthen independence and environmental mastery (Pinquart & Pfeiffer, 2011). Emerging evidence from Ghana indicates that such support systems contribute to strong peer networks, resilience, and lower levels of anxiety and depression among visually impaired students (Boadi-Kusi et al., 2023; Grischow et al., 2021). Despite these differing support structures, both blind and deaf students in Ghana continue to experience pervasive social stigma that threatens multiple dimensions of well-being. Cultural beliefs that frame disability as spiritual or socially deviant can undermine self-acceptance, limit engagement in social settings, and reduce opportunities for meaningful relationships (Nketsia, 2023). The schooling pathways of students with sensory impairments also differ in ways that influence their well-being. Deaf students typically experience segregated basic and secondary education and enter inclusive settings only at the tertiary level, making social integration difficult (Amoako, 2019). In contrast, many blind students attend inclusive senior high schools, where exposure to mixed-ability environments facilitates earlier social adjustment and stronger peer connections—factors known to promote well-being (Kef & Deković, 2004; Wickramaratne et al., 2022). Gender further shapes well-being experiences among students with sensory impairments. Research shows modest and context-dependent gender differences in PWB, with men often reporting stronger autonomy and women facing added marginalization due to intersecting gender and disability biases (Ampofo & Boateng, 2008; Mac-Seing & Zarowsky, 2018). Understanding how gender interacts with disability type remains important for developing targeted, equitable support strategies within tertiary education. Although disability research has expanded globally, empirical work on psychological well-being among students with sensory impairments in sub-Saharan Africa—particularly Ghana—remains limited. Resource constraints, inconsistent assistive technologies, and inadequate support services continue to undermine students’ ability to flourish in tertiary settings (Slikker, 2009). Guided by the PERMA model, the present study examines the psychological well-being of blind and deaf students in selected Ghanaian tertiary institutions. Specifically, the study assesses levels of PWB across the PERMA dimensions, compares well-being profiles between blind and deaf students, explores gender differences, and identifies contextual factors that facilitate or hinder flourishing. By addressing these gaps, the study contributes valuable insights to inform inclusive, equitable, and evidence-based support systems for students with sensory impairments in Ghana. Methods Participants and Biographical Information The study involved students with sensory impairments—specifically those with visual (blind) and hearing (deaf) impairments—enrolled in tertiary institutions in Ghana, including universities, colleges of education, and technical universities. Institutional records indicated a total population of 293 blind and 196 deaf students across the selected institutions. These students varied in the onset and severity of their impairments, as well as in coping strategies such as the use of interpreters, hearing aids, and other assistive technologies. Using Yamane’s (1967) formula with a 5% margin of error, a sample size of 220 was determined. After excluding six incomplete responses, the final sample comprised 214 participants, drawn through a two-stage sampling process: purposive selection of institutions with at least 15 students with sensory impairments, followed by simple random sampling within those institutions to ensure representativeness. Of the 214 participants, 127 were blind and 87 were deaf. Slightly more than half (56.0%) were male, and the largest age group (48.6%) was between 26 and 30 years. A majority (65.4%) had lived with their disability for over 15 years, while 12.1% had lived with it for five years or less. Regarding educational status, 84.6% were enrolled in universities, and 15.4% attended training colleges. Most respondents (75.2%) reported having no other family member with a disability. Interestingly, nearly all blind students (96.9%) reported having a classmate with a disability, compared to 69.8% of deaf students. These demographic characteristics provide useful context for interpreting variations in psychological well-being across the groups. Table 3.0: Biographical information of respondents Type of disability Blind (n=127) Deaf (87) Total (n=214) Variables Categories n % n % N % Age ≤ 25 years 47 37.0 27 31.0 71 33.2 26-30 years 64 50.4 43 49.4 104 48.6 31-35 years 14 11.0 13 14.9 27 12.6 ≥ 36 years 2 1.6 4 4.6 6 2.8 Sex Female 61 48.0% 34 39.0% 95 44.0% Male 66 52.0% 53 60.9% 119 56.0% Years living with disability ≤ 5 years 8 6.3 18 20.7 26 12.1 6-15 years 50 39.4 21 24.1 71 33.2 16-25 years 39 31.0 30 34.5 69 32.2 ≥ 26 years 30 23.6 18 20.7 48 22.4 Type of tertiary education Training college 18 14.1% 15 17.5% 33 15.4% University 110 85.9% 71 82.6% 181 84.6% Other family members with a disability No 88 68.8% 61 70.9% 161 75.2% Yes 38 29.7% 23 26.7% 61 28.5% Have a classmate with a disability No 4 3.1% 24 27.9% 28 13% Yes 124 96.9% 60 69.8% 184 85.9% Source: Field data, 2024 Development of Data Collection Tool The final questionnaire included four sections: demographic information (age, sex, years living with disability, type of tertiary education, family history of disability, and presence of classmates with disabilities), psychological well-being, and related measures. The demographic section provided essential background for interpreting well-being outcomes. Psychological well-being was measured using the 18-item Ryff Psychological Well-Being Scale (Ryff & Keyes, 1995), which assesses six dimensions: self-acceptance, positive relations with others, autonomy, environmental mastery, personal growth, and purpose in life. Responses were rated on a 6-point Likert scale ranging from Strongly Disagree (1) to Strongly Agree (6) . The scale has been widely validated across populations (Ryff, 2014), including studies among African Americans (Ryff et al., 2016). In this study, the instrument produced a Cronbach’s alpha of 0.77, indicating acceptable internal consistency. Data Collection Procedures Ethical clearance was obtained from the UNISA-CES Health Research Ethics Committee and approval was granted by participating institutions. Recruitment was coordinated through institutional resource units, with participants selected randomly and supported by resource staff. A pilot study was conducted prior to data collection, which helped identify accessibility needs. As a result, trained research assistants read questions aloud for visually impaired students, and sign language interpreters assisted hearing impaired students when necessary. Resource personnel were excluded from administering the questionnaires to minimize bias. Most responses were completed in resource rooms, and the study achieved a response rate of over 95%. Data Analysis Data were analyzed using SPSS version 26. Descriptive statistics (frequencies, percentages, means, and standard deviations) summarized respondents’ biographical information. Differences in overall psychological well-being by disability type were examined using one-way ANOVA. Item-level comparisons between blind and deaf students were conducted with the Mann–Whitney U test due to the ordinal nature of the items. Subscale differences across Ryff’s six psychological well-being domains were assessed using ANOVA. Independent samples t -tests were used to explore gender differences. Effect sizes (η²) were reported to estimate the magnitude of group differences. Statistical significance was set at p < .05. Results Overall Psychological Well-Being by Disability Type As presented in Table 3.10, an Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) was performed to determine whether type of disability (blind versus deaf) influenced overall psychological well-being. The results indicated a statistically significant difference, F(1,212) = 94.963, p < .001, with a large effect size (η² = 0.310). This suggests that approximately 31% of the variance in psychological well-being scores can be explained by disability type, with blind students reporting higher overall well-being than their deaf counterparts. Table 3.10: ANOVA results for psychological well-being scores by disability type Source of Variation Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig. (η²) Between Groups 13745.247 1 13745.247 94.963 .000 0.310 Within Groups 30685.468 212 144.743 Total 44430.715 213 Source: Field data, 2024 Item-Level Comparisons of Psychological Well-Being Further insights are provided in Table 3.2, which reports Mann–Whitney U test results for individual psychological well-being items. Blind students reported significantly higher scores across several indicators, including satisfaction with personality (U = 3450.000, p < .001), sense of purpose in life (U = 2790.000, p < .001), and effective management of daily demands (U = 4042.000, p = .001). They also expressed fewer disappointments about life achievements (U = 3403.000, p < .001), greater ease in maintaining close relationships (U = 3427.000, p < .001), and stronger confidence in their opinions (U = 3864.000, p < .001). However, no significant differences were observed for satisfaction with life achievements, control over life situations, management of daily responsibilities, or continuous growth, indicating that both groups shared similar experiences in these areas. Table 3.2: Comparisons of Psychological Well-Being Type of disability Mann-Whitney U Z Asymp. Sig. (2-tailed) Sig. (p < .05) Items Blind Deaf I like most parts of my personality. 123.55 83.62 3450.000 -5.081 .000 Yes When I look at the story of my life, I am pleased with how things have turned out so far 113.90 97.98 4685.000 -1.950 .051 No Some people wander aimlessly through life, but I am not one of them 128.70 75.94 2790.000 -6.680 .000 Yes The demands of everyday life often get me down. 118.92 90.50 4042.000 -3.365 .001 Yes In many ways I feel disappointed about my achievements in life 123.91 83.07 3403.000 -4.819 .000 Yes Maintaining close relationships has been difficult and frustrating for me 124.51 82.19 3427.000 -4.998 .000 Yes I live life one day at a time and don't really think about the future. 117.00 93.36 4288.000 -2.832 .005 Yes In general, I feel I am in charge of the situation in which I live. 114.05 97.76 4666.000 -1.954 .051 No I am good at managing the responsibilities of daily life. 110.90 102.44 5069.000 -1.059 .290 No I sometimes feel as if I've done all there is to do in life. 123.17 84.17 3498.000 -4.621 .000 Yes For me, life has been a continuous process of learning, changing, and growth. 109.54 104.47 5243.000 -.692 .489 No I think it is important to have new experiences that challenge how I think about the world and I 122.73 84.84 3555.000 -4.874 .000 Yes People would describe me as a giving person, willing to share my time with others. 118.26 91.49 4127.000 -3.265 .001 Yes I gave up trying to make big improvements or changes in my life a long time ago 126.89 78.64 3022.000 -5.705 .000 Yes I tend to be influenced by people with strong opinions 121.35 86.88 3731.000 -4.078 .000 Yes I have not experienced many warm and trusting relationships with others. 116.20 94.56 4391.000 -2.547 .011 Yes I have confidence in my own opinions, even if they are different from the way most other people think. 120.31 88.43 3864.000 -4.093 .000 Yes I judge myself by what I think is important, not by the values of what others think is important. 121.01 87.40 3775.000 -4.227 0.00 Yes Source: Field data, 2024 Subscale-Level Comparisons of Psychological Well-Being As summarized in Table 3.3, mean scores across the six psychological well-being subscales were compared using ANOVA. Blind students consistently scored higher than deaf students in Self-Acceptance, Environmental Mastery, Personal Growth, Positive Relations, Purpose in Life, and Autonomy (all p < .001). The largest difference was observed in Purpose in Life (η² = 0.196), followed by Autonomy (η² = 0.188) and Self-Acceptance (η² = 0.161). These findings suggest that disparities in well-being between the two groups are not limited to isolated items but extend across all major dimensions. Table 3.3: Descriptive statistics and ANOVA results of the psychological well-being sub scales Variables Total Blind Deaf (N=214) (n=128) (n=86) F Sig (η²) M SD M SD M SD Self-Acceptance 16.266 3.088 17.281 2.967 14.756 2.625 40.822 .000 .161 Environmental Mastery 15.285 3.013 15.922 3.166 14.337 2.499 15.176 .000 .067 Personal Growth 16.528 3.312 17.531 3.324 15.034 2.685 33.697 .000 .137 Positive Relations with Others 13.885 3.977 15.031 4.123 12.081 2.994 32.472 .000 .133 Purpose in Life 13.8178 4.430 15.422 4.306 11.430 3.441 51.677 .000 .196 Autonomy 15.906 3.172 17.031 2.990 14.232 2.669 49.055 .000 .188 Source: Field data, 2024 Gender Differences in Psychological Well-Being Gender differences are presented in Table 3.4. Results of an Independent Samples t-test revealed that males reported significantly higher scores than females in Environmental Mastery (t(209.127) = 2.818, p = .005) and Positive Relations (t(210) = 2.190, p = .030). No significant gender differences were found in Self-Acceptance, Personal Growth, Purpose in Life, or Autonomy. These findings suggest that while type of disability is the strongest predictor of psychological well-being, gender also contributes to differences in certain aspects, particularly mastery of life environments and social connectedness. Table 3.4: Independent samples t-test results for sex on psychological well-being Variable Total Mean T Df Sig. (2-tailed) Mean Difference Self-Acceptance Male 16.5294 1.544 210 0.124 0.658 Female 15.8710 Environmental Mastery Male 15.7563 2.818* 209.127 0.005 1.133 Female 14.6237 Personal Growth Male 16.7983 1.439 208.379 0.152 0.648 Female 16.1505 Positive Relations Male 14.3613 2.190* 210 0.030 1.200 Female 13.1613 Purpose in life Male 13.4538 -1.343 210 0.181 -0.826 Female 14.2796 Autonomy Male 16.2185 1.574 210 0.117 0.692 Female 15.5269 *P< 0.05 Discussion To the best of our knowledge, this study is the first in Ghana to examine the psychological well-being (PWB) of students with sensory impairments (SI) in tertiary education while also assessing gender-related differences. Several significant findings emerged, and importantly, these findings align strongly with Seligman’s PERMA model of well-being, which emphasizes positive emotion, engagement, relationships, meaning, and accomplishment. The results demonstrate that disability type—specifically, being deaf versus blind—strongly shapes students’ capacity to experience the PERMA components within higher education environments. Foremost, blind students reported significantly higher overall PWB than deaf students, with disability type accounting for more than 30% of the variance in well-being. This substantial effect size indicates that deaf students face systemic challenges that undermine several PERMA elements simultaneously—especially positive emotion, engagement, relationships, and meaning. These findings align with prior research documenting that deaf individuals often encounter communication barriers, social exclusion, and inconsistent service access, all of which hinder flourishing (Hintermair, 2008 ). While blindness increasingly benefits from adaptive technologies, accessible materials, and curricular modifications (Tripathi & Thakkar, 2025 ), deafness is still characterized by persistent communication challenges and limited interpreter availability in tertiary institutions (Hendry et al., 2020 ). Because most deaf students in Ghana first encounter inclusive education only at the tertiary level (Amoako, 2019 ), their opportunities to build meaningful relationships and develop engaged, purposeful academic identities are delayed, thereby reducing multiple dimensions of PERMA-related well-being. In contrast, the comparatively higher PWB reported by blind students may be partly explained by stronger access to inclusive peer networks and greater social presence. Nearly all blind respondents reported having classmates with disabilities—unlike their deaf peers—which enhances relationships, a core PERMA pillar. Blind students also tend to outnumber deaf students in Ghanaian tertiary institutions, offering more opportunities for belonging, role modeling, and collective identity formation. Social connectedness is well-established as a key predictor of well-being (Wickramaratne et al., 2022 ), and this is particularly true for visually impaired individuals, whose peer support networks are often more robust (Kef & Deković, 2004). The greater availability of academic and resource-based supports for blind students (Fadda et al., 2024 ) further strengthens their engagement and accomplishment within higher education. Subscale-level comparisons further confirm that blind students score higher across all six Ryff dimensions, showing that disparities in well-being are broad and pervasive rather than isolated. The largest difference emerged in purpose in life, directly reflecting PERMA’s meaning component. Blind students appear more likely to view their lives as meaningful and future-oriented, consistent with findings that purposeful engagement enhances resilience among college students (Sharma & Yukhymenko-Lescroart, 2022 ). Their stronger sense of meaning may stem from the greater presence of blind peers, wider availability of adaptive resources, and more supportive academic structures available to them in Ghanaian tertiary institutions—all facilitating deeper engagement in meaningful academic journeys. The second largest gap emerged in autonomy, which closely corresponds to PERMA’s accomplishment and engagement pillars. Blind students’ higher autonomy may reflect increased independence enabled by assistive technologies such as screen readers, Braille displays, text-to-speech tools, navigation apps, and AI-based mobility supports (Abner & Lahm, 2002 ). These technologies enable direct access to information and reduce reliance on others, thereby enhancing self-determination. While deaf students also rely on certain assistive technologies, their autonomy is frequently mediated by interpreters, captions, and communication supports that are inconsistently available (Napier & Barker, 2004 ). In Ghana, irregular interpreter provision, lack of standardized professional practices, and misunderstandings of interpreter roles (Fobi et al., 2022 ; Adade et al., 2022 ) limit deaf students’ ability to exercise independent agency—reflecting reduced accomplishment and engagement, and consequently weaker PERMA outcomes. Differences in self-acceptance also aligned with PERMA’s positive emotion dimension. Although disability stigma remains pervasive in Ghana—especially toward blindness (Nketsia, 2023 )—blind students in this study reported higher self-acceptance than deaf students. This suggests that academic inclusion and supportive peer networks may help cultivate resilience and promote positive emotional functioning (Grischow et al., 2021 ). In contrast, deaf students may experience reduced self-acceptance due to limited recognition of Deaf cultural identity in Ghana and the dominance of a medical view of deafness (Adjei, 2021 ). This lack of a cultural-linguistic community undermines core PERMA components, particularly relationships and meaning. This study also revealed gender differences: males scored significantly higher than females in environmental mastery and positive relations. These correspond to PERMA’s accomplishment and relationships pillars. Similar gendered patterns have been found in other populations (Ryff, 2022 ). In the Ghanaian sociocultural context, men are socialized to be more independent, assertive, and resource-seeking (Ampofo & Boateng, 2008 ), which may enhance their sense of mastery and perceived ability to manage life demands. Women with disabilities, however, often experience “double discrimination” (Mac-Seing & Zarowsky, 2018 ), reducing opportunities to form supportive networks and diminishing certain PERMA components—especially relationships and accomplishment. Importantly, no significant gender differences emerged in self-acceptance, personal growth, autonomy, or purpose in life. These findings reflect consistent global patterns where gender differences in psychological well-being are small and context-dependent (Karasawa et al., 2011 ). The lack of consistent gender effects across all subscales suggests that underlying psychological resources—including core elements of PERMA—may remain relatively stable across genders, while disability type remains the stronger determinant of well-being (Emerson & Llewellyn, 2022 ). Conclusion This study provides the first systematic evidence from Ghana on the influence of disability type and gender on the psychological well-being of tertiary students with sensory impairments. The findings demonstrate that blind students consistently report higher PWB than deaf students, particularly in autonomy, purpose in life, and self-acceptance. Gender differences were less pronounced, though males reported stronger environmental mastery and positive relations. While these findings should be interpreted with caution due to the cross-sectional design, reliance on self-reports, and the focus on tertiary students only, they highlight critical disparities that warrant policy and institutional attention. Recommendations Based on the findings, the following recommendations are proposed: Inclusive education settings, especially at the tertiary level where many activities occur outside the regular classroom, should strengthen communication support for students with sensory impairments, particularly those who are deaf. Sign language interpretation and captioning services should not be limited to lectures but extended to extracurricular and campus-wide activities. In addition, peer-support initiatives should be encouraged, as many of the challenges observed in students’ psychological well-being were linked to limited communication access. Students should be motivated to learn sign language, and tertiary institutions could integrate basic sign language into the curriculum across programs. This will help normalize its use, enhance participation of deaf students, foster a sense of belonging, and increase autonomy. Furthermore, periodic counselling programs should be organized, with particular emphasis on self-acceptance and coping strategies. Successful role models—students or graduates with sensory impairments who have adapted effectively—could be invited to share their experiences during such sessions. Moreover, special attention should be given to female students with sensory impairments by providing safe spaces, empowerment workshops, and leadership training. These initiatives can strengthen their environmental mastery and improve social well-being. At the policy level, the Ministry of Education and the Ghana Tertiary Education Commission should adopt comprehensive disability inclusion policies that address both academic and psychosocial support needs. Institutions admitting students with sensory impairments should be required to meet minimum accessibility and support standards prior to enrollment. This will ensure that tertiary education environments are fully prepared to foster both learning and psychological growth. Finally, future research should examine how factors such as family background, socioeconomic status, and institutional support systems influence psychological well-being among students with sensory impairments. Longitudinal studies are also recommended to track changes in well-being over time. Further research could additionally extend to individuals outside formal education to provide a broader understanding of psychological well-being among people with sensory impairments in Ghana. Declarations Ethics approval and consent to participate Ethical approval for this study was obtained from the University of South Africa (UNISA) College of Education Ethics Review Committee. The study was reviewed as a medium-risk application and approved in accordance with the UNISA Policy on Research Ethics and the Standard Operating Procedure on Research Ethics Risk Assessment. Ethics clearance was granted on 8 February 2023 and is valid until 8 February 2028 (Reference number: 2023/02/08/13507109/32/AM). Informed consent was obtained from all participants prior to data collection. Participants received clear information regarding the purpose of the study, procedures involved, voluntary participation, confidentiality of responses, and their right to withdraw at any time without any negative consequences. All data were collected and analysed in de-identified form to ensure participant anonymity and confidentiality, in line with UNISA ethics regulations and applicable data protection principles. Consent for publication Not applicable. The manuscript does not contain any individual person’s identifiable data, images, or videos. Availability of data and materials The datasets generated and/or analysed during the current study are not publicly available due to ethical restrictions and the need to protect participant confidentiality, but are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request. Competing interests The authors declare that they have no competing interests. Funding The study did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors. Authors’ contributions Richard Adade conceived and designed the study, conducted data collection, performed data analysis and interpretation, and drafted the manuscript. This work forms part of his PhD research. Tshimaangadzo Sikhwari provided overall supervision of the study and contributed to the conceptual development, methodological guidance, and critical revision of the manuscript for important intellectual content. Joseph Asamoah-Gyawu contributed as a consultant by providing expert input on data interpretation and offering critical feedback during manuscript development and final review. Obed Appau contributed as a consultant by providing intellectual input, methodological advice, and critical review of the final manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript and agree to be accountable for all aspects of the work. Acknowledgements The authors wish to thank the management and resource units of the participating tertiary institutions for their cooperation and support during data collection. We are also grateful to the students with sensory impairments who generously shared their time and experiences, making this study possible. Special appreciation is extended to the research assistants and sign language interpreters who supported the data collection process. References Abner, G. H., & Lahm, E. A. (2002). 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Journal of Adolescence, 27 (4), 453–466. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2003.12.005 Mac-Seing, M., & Zarowsky, C. (2018). Une méta-synthèse sur le genre, le handicap et la santé reproductive en Afrique subsaharienne. Santé Publique , Vol. 29 (6), 909–919. https://doi.org/10.3917/spub.176.0909 Napier, J., & Barker, R. (2004). Accessing university education: Perceptions, preferences, and expectations for interpreting by deaf students. Journal of Deaf Studies and Deaf Education, 9 (2), 228–238. https://doi.org/10.1093/deafed/enh024 Nketsia, W. (2023). The experiences of children with disabilities in the Ashanti Region of Ghana: A qualitative study. Social Sciences, 12 (3), 64. https://doi.org/10.3390/socsci12030064 Pinquart, M., & Pfeiffer, J. P. (2011). Psychological well-being in visually impaired and unimpaired individuals: A meta-analysis. British Journal of Visual Impairment, 29 (1), 27–45. https://doi.org/10.1177/0264619610389572 Ryff, C. D. (1989). Happiness is everything, or is it? Explorations on the meaning of psychological well-being. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , 57(6), 1069–1081. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.57.6.1069 Ryff, C. D. (2014). Psychological well-being revisited: Advances in the science and practice of eudaimonia. Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, 83 (1), 10–28. https://doi.org/10.1159/000353263 PubMed Ryff, C. D. (2022). Gender differences in well-being dimensions among university students: Autonomy, environmental mastery, and positive relations. Research Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences, 13 (4), 67–75 Ryff, C. D., & Keyes, C. L. M. (1995). The structure of psychological well-being revisited. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 69 (4), 719–727. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.69.4.719 Positive Psychology Center+1 Seligman, M. E. P. (2008). Positive psychology: Positive education and the new prosperity. In C. R. Snyder & S. J. Lopez (Eds.), Handbook of positive psychology (pp. 147–159). Oxford University Press. Seligman, M. E. P. (2011). Flourish: A visionary new understanding of happiness and well-being . Free Press. Sharma, G., & Yukhymenko-Lescroart, M. A. (2022). Life purpose as a predictor of resilience and persistence in college students during the COVID-19 pandemic. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19 (17), Article 10735. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph191710735 Slikker, J. (2009). Attitudes towards persons with disability in Ghana. VSO Ghana . Retrieved from https://vsointernational.org/sites/default/files/attitudes-towards-persons-with-disability-in-ghana_tcm76-22651.pdf Tripathi, V., & Thakkar, A. (2025). Accessibility beyond accommodations: A systematic redesign of Introduction to Computer Science for students with visual impairments. arXiv . https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.2508.05056 Wickramaratne, P. J., Yangchen, T., Lepow, L., Patra, B. G., Glicksburg, B., Talati, A., Adekkanattu, P., Ryu, E., Biernacka, J. M., Charney, A., Mann, J. J., Pathak, J., Olfson, M., & Weissman, M. M. (2022). Social connectedness as a determinant of mental health: A scoping review. PLoS ONE, 17 (10), e0275004. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0275004 World Health Organization. (2011). World report on disability . WHO Press. Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-8564482","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":618490991,"identity":"915414b2-e91f-4ccd-bf17-41492a8edf2c","order_by":0,"name":"Richard Adade","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAA+0lEQVRIiWNgGAWjYHACAwYeMMl8GCHCwHCAGC1sySCeBClaeIyJ02LefnjjhzcVDPLm/Gc+Gxe21dUxsDdvk2D4dQenFpkzacWSc84wGO6ckbs5eWbbYQkGnmNlEox9z3BqkWDIMZDmbWNIMLjBu/kwb9sBCQaJHDMJxp7DuLXwvzH+zfsPqOX8mcdALXUSDPJvCGgBminN2wDUciCHOZm3jRloC4+ZBMMPfFqelVnOOSZhuOFGmrExz7nDkm08acUWiQ34HJa8+cabGht5g/OHH0vzlNXx87Mf3njjwx/cWuChAAdsICKxjZAOTPCHdC2jYBSMglEwbAEARuZPgfb1iPwAAAAASUVORK5CYII=","orcid":"","institution":"Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Richard","middleName":"","lastName":"Adade","suffix":""},{"id":618490992,"identity":"4fc49c12-b7fc-4a23-b345-8964316f8d66","order_by":1,"name":"Tshimaangadzo Sikhwari","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"University of South Africa","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Tshimaangadzo","middleName":"","lastName":"Sikhwari","suffix":""},{"id":618490993,"identity":"cf8c6b49-53ec-46fd-9dfa-9ef7542b5de9","order_by":2,"name":"Joseph Asamoah-Gyawu","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Joseph","middleName":"","lastName":"Asamoah-Gyawu","suffix":""},{"id":618490994,"identity":"d90887c1-0b78-4baa-95ae-cdabd53f2c3a","order_by":3,"name":"Obed Appau","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"University of Education, Winneba","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Obed","middleName":"","lastName":"Appau","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2026-01-09 22:23:12","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8564482/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-8564482/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":106959651,"identity":"66973d5d-5461-4a5a-ad72-549d12029488","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-04-15 09:12:55","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":1176470,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-8564482/v1/023c7c7e-8849-4b12-b632-21abe3139c39.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"The Psychological well-being of students with sensory impairments in selected tertiary institutions in Ghana ","fulltext":[{"header":"Introduction and background ","content":"\u003cp\u003ePsychological well-being (PWB) reflects an individual\u0026rsquo;s optimal psychological functioning, positive emotional states, and capacity to navigate life\u0026rsquo;s demands (Ryff, 1989). From a positive psychology perspective, flourishing involves experiencing positive emotions, maintaining supportive relationships, meaningfully engaging in daily activities, pursuing purpose, and achieving personal goals. These five dimensions\u0026mdash;Positive Emotion, Engagement, Relationships, Meaning, and Accomplishment\u0026mdash;form Seligman\u0026rsquo;s PERMA model, a widely used framework for understanding well-being across diverse populations (Seligman, 2011). For individuals with disabilities, however, achieving optimal well-being is often shaped by complex social, educational, and environmental conditions that extend beyond the physical impairment itself (WHO, 2011).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSensory impairments, particularly deafness and blindness, significantly influence how students access education and participate in social and academic life, making them especially relevant to the study of PWB. Deaf students face substantial barriers globally, including limited communication access, inadequate sign language interpretation, and reduced opportunities for meaningful engagement and belonging (Hintermair, 2008). In Ghana, interpreter shortages, unclear interpreter role boundaries, and the dominance of medicalized views of deafness further constrain deaf students\u0026rsquo; autonomy and participation in academic environments (Adade et al., 2022). These constraints often restrict opportunities for accomplishment, weaken social connectedness, and undermine positive emotional experiences.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eStudents with visual impairments encounter a different set of challenges and supports that shape their well-being. Severe vision loss has been associated internationally with higher risks of depression and reduced participation in physical and social activities (Ishtiaq, 2016). Yet, compared to their deaf peers, visually impaired students often benefit from more established institutional supports, including mobility training, adaptive technologies, and structured peer mentoring, which strengthen independence and environmental mastery (Pinquart \u0026amp; Pfeiffer, 2011). Emerging evidence from Ghana indicates that such support systems contribute to strong peer networks, resilience, and lower levels of anxiety and depression among visually impaired students (Boadi-Kusi et al., 2023; Grischow et al., 2021).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDespite these differing support structures, both blind and deaf students in Ghana continue to experience pervasive social stigma that threatens multiple dimensions of well-being. Cultural beliefs that frame disability as spiritual or socially deviant can undermine self-acceptance, limit engagement in social settings, and reduce opportunities for meaningful relationships (Nketsia, 2023). The schooling pathways of students with sensory impairments also differ in ways that influence their well-being. Deaf students typically experience segregated basic and secondary education and enter inclusive settings only at the tertiary level, making social integration difficult (Amoako, 2019). In contrast, many blind students attend inclusive senior high schools, where exposure to mixed-ability environments facilitates earlier social adjustment and stronger peer connections\u0026mdash;factors known to promote well-being (Kef \u0026amp; Deković, 2004; Wickramaratne et al., 2022).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eGender further shapes well-being experiences among students with sensory impairments. Research shows modest and context-dependent gender differences in PWB, with men often reporting stronger autonomy and women facing added marginalization due to intersecting gender and disability biases (Ampofo \u0026amp; Boateng, 2008; Mac-Seing \u0026amp; Zarowsky, 2018). Understanding how gender interacts with disability type remains important for developing targeted, equitable support strategies within tertiary education.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAlthough disability research has expanded globally, empirical work on psychological well-being among students with sensory impairments in sub-Saharan Africa\u0026mdash;particularly Ghana\u0026mdash;remains limited. Resource constraints, inconsistent assistive technologies, and inadequate support services continue to undermine students\u0026rsquo; ability to flourish in tertiary settings (Slikker, 2009). Guided by the PERMA model, the present study examines the psychological well-being of blind and deaf students in selected Ghanaian tertiary institutions. Specifically, the study assesses levels of PWB across the PERMA dimensions, compares well-being profiles between blind and deaf students, explores gender differences, and identifies contextual factors that facilitate or hinder flourishing. By addressing these gaps, the study contributes valuable insights to inform inclusive, equitable, and evidence-based support systems for students with sensory impairments in Ghana.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Methods","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eParticipants and Biographical Information\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe study involved students with sensory impairments\u0026mdash;specifically those with visual (blind) and hearing (deaf) impairments\u0026mdash;enrolled in tertiary institutions in Ghana, including universities, colleges of education, and technical universities. Institutional records indicated a total population of 293 blind and 196 deaf students across the selected institutions. These students varied in the onset and severity of their impairments, as well as in coping strategies such as the use of interpreters, hearing aids, and other assistive technologies. Using Yamane\u0026rsquo;s (1967) formula with a 5% margin of error, a sample size of 220 was determined. After excluding six incomplete responses, the final sample comprised 214 participants, drawn through a two-stage sampling process: purposive selection of institutions with at least 15 students with sensory impairments, followed by simple random sampling within those institutions to ensure representativeness.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOf the 214 participants, 127 were blind and 87 were deaf. Slightly more than half (56.0%) were male, and the largest age group (48.6%) was between 26 and 30 years. A majority (65.4%) had lived with their disability for over 15 years, while 12.1% had lived with it for five years or less. Regarding educational status, 84.6% were enrolled in universities, and 15.4% attended training colleges. Most respondents (75.2%) reported having no other family member with a disability. Interestingly, nearly all blind students (96.9%) reported having a classmate with a disability, compared to 69.8% of deaf students. These demographic characteristics provide useful context for interpreting variations in psychological well-being across the groups.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch5\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable 3.0: Biographical information of respondents\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/h5\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" width=\"642\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" rowspan=\"2\" valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 294px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"4\" valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 210px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eType of disability\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 42px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 96px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 102px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eBlind (n=127)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 108px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eDeaf (87)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 42px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 96px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTotal (n=214)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 192px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eVariables\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 102px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCategories\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 36px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003en\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 48px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003en\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 60px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 42px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eN\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 96px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 192px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAge\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 102px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u0026le; 25 years\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 36px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e47\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e37.0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 48px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e27\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 60px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e31.0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 42px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e71\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 96px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e33.2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 192px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 102px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e26-30 years\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 36px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e64\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e50.4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 48px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e43\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 60px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e49.4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 42px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e104\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 96px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e48.6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 192px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 102px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e31-35 years\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 36px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e14\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e11.0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 48px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e13\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 60px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e14.9\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 42px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e27\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 96px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12.6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 192px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 102px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u0026ge; 36 years\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 36px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 48px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 60px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 42px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 96px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 192px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSex\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 102px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFemale\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 36px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e61\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e48.0%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 48px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e34\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 60px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e39.0%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 42px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e95\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 96px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e44.0%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 192px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 102px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMale\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 36px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e66\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e52.0%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 48px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e53\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 60px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e60.9%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 42px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e119\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 96px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e56.0%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 192px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eYears living with disability\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 102px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026le; 5 years\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 36px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e8\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6.3\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 48px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e18\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 60px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e20.7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 42px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e26\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 96px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12.1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 192px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 102px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e6-15 years\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 36px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e50\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e39.4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 48px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e21\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 60px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e24.1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 42px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e71\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 96px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e33.2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 192px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 102px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e16-25 years\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 36px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e39\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e31.0\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 48px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e30\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 60px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e34.5\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 42px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e69\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 96px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e32.2\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 192px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 102px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026ge; 26 years\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 36px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e30\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e23.6\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 48px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e18\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 60px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e20.7\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 42px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e48\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 96px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e22.4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 192px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eType of tertiary education\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 102px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eTraining college\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 36px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e18\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e14.1%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 48px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e15\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 60px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e17.5%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 42px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e33\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 96px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e15.4%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 102px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eUniversity\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 36px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e110\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e85.9%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 48px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e71\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 60px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e82.6%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 42px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e181\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 96px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e84.6%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 192px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eOther family members with a disability\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 102px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 36px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e88\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e68.8%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 48px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e61\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 60px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e70.9%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 42px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e161\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 96px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e75.2%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 102px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 36px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e38\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e29.7%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 48px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e23\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 60px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e26.7%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 42px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e61\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 96px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e28.5%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 192px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eHave a classmate with a disability\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 102px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 36px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.1%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 48px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e24\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 60px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e27.9%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 42px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e28\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 96px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e13%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 102px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 36px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e124\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e96.9%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 48px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e60\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 60px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e69.8%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 42px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e184\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 96px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e85.9%\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSource: Field data, 2024\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eDevelopment of Data Collection Tool\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe final questionnaire included four sections: demographic information (age, sex, years living with disability, type of tertiary education, family history of disability, and presence of classmates with disabilities), psychological well-being, and related measures. The demographic section provided essential background for interpreting well-being outcomes. Psychological well-being was measured using the 18-item Ryff Psychological Well-Being Scale (Ryff \u0026amp; Keyes, 1995), which assesses six dimensions: self-acceptance, positive relations with others, autonomy, environmental mastery, personal growth, and purpose in life. Responses were rated on a 6-point Likert scale ranging from \u003cem\u003eStrongly Disagree (1)\u003c/em\u003e to \u003cem\u003eStrongly Agree (6)\u003c/em\u003e. The scale has been widely validated across populations (Ryff, 2014), including studies among African Americans (Ryff et al., 2016). In this study, the instrument produced a Cronbach\u0026rsquo;s alpha of 0.77, indicating acceptable internal consistency.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eData Collection Procedures\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eEthical clearance was obtained from the UNISA-CES Health Research Ethics Committee and approval was granted by participating institutions. Recruitment was coordinated through institutional resource units, with participants selected randomly and supported by resource staff. A pilot study was conducted prior to data collection, which helped identify accessibility needs. As a result, trained research assistants read questions aloud for visually impaired students, and sign language interpreters assisted hearing impaired students when necessary. Resource personnel were excluded from administering the questionnaires to minimize bias. Most responses were completed in resource rooms, and the study achieved a response rate of over 95%.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eData Analysis\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eData were analyzed using SPSS version 26. Descriptive statistics (frequencies, percentages, means, and standard deviations) summarized respondents\u0026rsquo; biographical information. Differences in overall psychological well-being by disability type were examined using one-way ANOVA. Item-level comparisons between blind and deaf students were conducted with the Mann\u0026ndash;Whitney U test due to the ordinal nature of the items. Subscale differences across Ryff\u0026rsquo;s six psychological well-being domains were assessed using ANOVA. Independent samples \u003cem\u003et\u003c/em\u003e-tests were used to explore gender differences. Effect sizes (\u0026eta;\u0026sup2;) were reported to estimate the magnitude of group differences. Statistical significance was set at p \u0026lt; .05.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Results","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eOverall Psychological Well-Being by Disability Type\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAs presented in Table 3.10, an Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) was performed to determine whether type of disability (blind versus deaf) influenced overall psychological well-being. The results indicated a statistically significant difference, F(1,212) = 94.963, p \u0026lt; .001, with a large effect size (\u0026eta;\u0026sup2; = 0.310). This suggests that approximately 31% of the variance in psychological well-being scores can be explained by disability type, with blind students reporting higher overall well-being than their deaf counterparts.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch5 id=\"_Toc201680836\"\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable 3.10: ANOVA results for psychological well-being scores by disability type\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/h5\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" width=\"624\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 159px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSource of Variation\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 138px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSum of Squares\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 48px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003edf\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 108px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMean Square\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 63px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eF\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 51px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSig.\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;(\u0026eta;\u0026sup2;)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 159px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eBetween Groups\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 138px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e13745.247\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 48px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 108px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e13745.247\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 63px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e94.963\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 51px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.310\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 159px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eWithin Groups\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 138px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e30685.468\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 48px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e212\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 108px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e144.743\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 63px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 51px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 159px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTotal\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 138px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e44430.715\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 48px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e213\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 108px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 63px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 51px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd style=\"width: 57px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSource: Field data, 2024\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eItem-Level Comparisons of Psychological Well-Being\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFurther insights are provided in Table 3.2, which reports Mann\u0026ndash;Whitney U test results for individual psychological well-being items. Blind students reported significantly higher scores across several indicators, including satisfaction with personality (U = 3450.000, p \u0026lt; .001), sense of purpose in life (U = 2790.000, p \u0026lt; .001), and effective management of daily demands (U = 4042.000, p = .001). They also expressed fewer disappointments about life achievements (U = 3403.000, p \u0026lt; .001), greater ease in maintaining close relationships (U = 3427.000, p \u0026lt; .001), and stronger confidence in their opinions (U = 3864.000, p \u0026lt; .001). However, no significant differences were observed for satisfaction with life achievements, control over life situations, management of daily responsibilities, or continuous growth, indicating that both groups shared similar experiences in these areas.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTable 3.2:\u0026nbsp;\u003cstrong\u003eComparisons of Psychological Well-Being\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" width=\"672\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 252px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd colspan=\"2\" valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 126px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp; \u0026nbsp; Type of disability\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 78px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMann-Whitney U\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eZ\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 96px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAsymp. Sig. (2-tailed)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 54px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSig. (p \u0026lt; .05)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 252px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eItems\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 54px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eBlind\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 72px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eDeaf\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 78px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"bottom\" style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 96px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 54px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 252px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eI like most parts of my personality.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 54px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e123.55\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 72px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e83.62\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 78px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3450.000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-5.081\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 96px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 54px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 252px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eWhen I look at the story of my life, I am pleased with how things have turned out so far\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 54px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e113.90\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 72px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e97.98\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 78px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4685.000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-1.950\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 96px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.051\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 54px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 252px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSome people wander aimlessly through life, but I am not one of them\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 54px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e128.70\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 72px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e75.94\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 78px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2790.000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-6.680\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 96px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 54px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 252px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eThe demands of everyday life often get me down.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 54px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e118.92\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 72px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e90.50\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 78px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4042.000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-3.365\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 96px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 54px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 252px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIn many ways I feel disappointed about my achievements in life\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 54px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e123.91\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 72px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e83.07\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 78px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3403.000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-4.819\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 96px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 54px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 252px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMaintaining close relationships has been difficult and frustrating for me\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 54px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e124.51\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 72px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e82.19\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 78px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3427.000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-4.998\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 96px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 54px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 252px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eI live life one day at a time and don\u0026apos;t really think about the future.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 54px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e117.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 72px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e93.36\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 78px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4288.000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-2.832\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 96px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.005\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 54px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 252px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eIn general, I feel I am in charge of the situation in which I live.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 54px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e114.05\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 72px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e97.76\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 78px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4666.000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-1.954\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 96px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.051\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 54px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 252px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eI am good at managing the responsibilities of daily life.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 54px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e110.90\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 72px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e102.44\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 78px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5069.000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-1.059\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 96px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.290\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 54px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 252px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eI sometimes feel as if I\u0026apos;ve done all there is to do in life.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 54px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e123.17\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 72px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e84.17\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 78px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3498.000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-4.621\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 96px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 54px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 252px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFor me, life has been a continuous process of learning, changing, and growth.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 54px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e109.54\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 72px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e104.47\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 78px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e5243.000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-.692\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 96px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.489\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 54px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eNo\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 252px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eI think it is important to have new experiences that challenge how I think about the world and I\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 54px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e122.73\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 72px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e84.84\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 78px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3555.000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-4.874\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 96px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 54px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 252px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePeople would describe me as a giving person, willing to share my time with others.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 54px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e118.26\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 72px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e91.49\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 78px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4127.000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-3.265\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 96px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.001\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 54px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 252px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eI gave up trying to make big improvements or changes in my life a long time ago\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 54px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e126.89\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 72px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e78.64\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 78px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3022.000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-5.705\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 96px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 54px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 252px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eI tend to be influenced by people with strong opinions\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 54px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e121.35\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 72px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e86.88\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 78px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3731.000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-4.078\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 96px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 54px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 252px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eI have not experienced many warm and trusting relationships with others.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 54px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e116.20\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 72px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e94.56\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 78px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4391.000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-2.547\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 96px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.011\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 54px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 252px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eI have confidence in my own opinions, even if they are different from the way most other people think.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 54px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e120.31\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 72px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e88.43\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 78px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3864.000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-4.093\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 96px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 54px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 252px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eI judge myself by what I think is important, not by the values of what others think is important.\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 54px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e121.01\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 72px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e87.40\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 78px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3775.000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 66px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-4.227\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 96px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.00\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 54px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eYes\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSource: Field data, 2024\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSubscale-Level Comparisons of Psychological Well-Being\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAs summarized in Table 3.3, mean scores across the six psychological well-being subscales were compared using ANOVA. Blind students consistently scored higher than deaf students in Self-Acceptance, Environmental Mastery, Personal Growth, Positive Relations, Purpose in Life, and Autonomy (all p \u0026lt; .001). The largest difference was observed in Purpose in Life (\u0026eta;\u0026sup2; = 0.196), followed by Autonomy (\u0026eta;\u0026sup2; = 0.188) and Self-Acceptance (\u0026eta;\u0026sup2; = 0.161). These findings suggest that disparities in well-being between the two groups are not limited to isolated items but extend across all major dimensions.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable 3.3: Descriptive statistics and ANOVA results of the psychological well-being sub scales\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\" width=\"666\" class=\"fr-table-selection-hover\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 183px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eVariables\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 65px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTotal\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 53px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 63px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eBlind\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 53px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 55px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eDeaf\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 48px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 49px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 48px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 48px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 183px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 65px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e(N=214)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 53px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 63px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e(n=128)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 53px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 55px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e(n=86)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 48px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 49px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eF\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 48px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSig\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 48px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e(\u0026eta;\u0026sup2;)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 183px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 65px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eM\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 53px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSD\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 63px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eM\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 53px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSD\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 55px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eM\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 48px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSD\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 49px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 48px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 48px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 183px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp id=\"_Toc202538017\"\u003eSelf-Acceptance\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 65px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e16.266\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 53px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.088\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 63px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e17.281\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 53px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.967\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 55px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e14.756\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 48px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.625\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 49px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e40.822\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 48px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 48px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.161\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 183px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp id=\"_Toc202538018\"\u003eEnvironmental Mastery\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 65px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e15.285\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 53px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.013\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 63px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e15.922\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 53px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.166\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 55px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e14.337\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 48px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.499\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 49px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e15.176\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 48px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 48px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.067\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 183px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp id=\"_Toc202538019\"\u003ePersonal Growth\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 65px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e16.528\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 53px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.312\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 63px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e17.531\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 53px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.324\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 55px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e15.034\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 48px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.685\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 49px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e33.697\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 48px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 48px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.137\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 183px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp id=\"_Toc202538020\"\u003ePositive Relations with Others\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 65px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e13.885\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 53px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.977\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 63px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e15.031\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 53px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.123\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 55px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e12.081\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 48px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.994\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 49px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e32.472\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 48px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 48px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.133\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 183px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp id=\"_Toc202538021\"\u003ePurpose in Life\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 65px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e13.8178\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 53px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.430\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 63px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e15.422\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 53px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e4.306\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 55px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e11.430\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 48px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.441\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 49px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e51.677\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 48px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 48px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.196\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 183px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp id=\"_Toc202538022\"\u003eAutonomy\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 65px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e15.906\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 53px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e3.172\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 63px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e17.031\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 53px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.990\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 55px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e14.232\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 48px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.669\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 49px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e49.055\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 48px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.000\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 48px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e.188\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSource: Field data, 2024\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eGender Differences in Psychological Well-Being\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eGender differences are presented in Table 3.4. Results of an Independent Samples t-test revealed that males reported significantly higher scores than females in Environmental Mastery (t(209.127) = 2.818, p = .005) and Positive Relations (t(210) = 2.190, p = .030). No significant gender differences were found in Self-Acceptance, Personal Growth, Purpose in Life, or Autonomy. These findings suggest that while type of disability is the strongest predictor of psychological well-being, gender also contributes to differences in certain aspects, particularly mastery of life environments and social connectedness.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch5 id=\"_Toc201680842\"\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTable 3.4: Independent samples t-test results for sex on psychological well-being\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/h5\u003e\n\u003ctable border=\"1\" cellspacing=\"0\" cellpadding=\"0\"\u003e\n \u003ctbody\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 117px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eVariable\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 96px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eTotal Mean\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 67px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eT\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 80px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eDf\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 84px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eSig. (2-tailed)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 96px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMean Difference\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 117px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eSelf-Acceptance\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMale\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 96px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e16.5294\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 67px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.544\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 80px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e210\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 84px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.124\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 96px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.658\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFemale\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 96px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e15.8710\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 117px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eEnvironmental Mastery\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMale\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 96px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e15.7563\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 67px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.818*\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 80px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e209.127\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 84px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.005\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 96px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.133\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFemale\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 96px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e14.6237\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 67px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 80px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 84px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 96px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 117px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePersonal Growth\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMale\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 96px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e16.7983\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 67px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.439\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 80px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e208.379\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 84px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.152\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 96px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.648\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFemale\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 96px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e16.1505\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 117px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePositive Relations\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMale\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 96px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e14.3613\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 67px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e2.190*\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 80px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e210\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 84px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.030\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 96px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.200\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFemale\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 96px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e13.1613\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 117px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003ePurpose in life\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMale\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 96px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e13.4538\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 67px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-1.343\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 80px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e210\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 84px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.181\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 96px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e-0.826\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFemale\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 96px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e14.2796\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 117px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eAutonomy\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eMale\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 96px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e16.2185\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 67px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e1.574\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 80px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e210\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 84px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.117\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd rowspan=\"2\" valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 96px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e0.692\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003ctr\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 76px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003eFemale\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003ctd valign=\"top\" style=\"width: 96px;\"\u003e\n \u003cp\u003e15.5269\u003c/p\u003e\n \u003c/td\u003e\n \u003c/tr\u003e\n \u003c/tbody\u003e\n\u003c/table\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e*P\u0026lt; 0.05\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eTo the best of our knowledge, this study is the first in Ghana to examine the psychological well-being (PWB) of students with sensory impairments (SI) in tertiary education while also assessing gender-related differences. Several significant findings emerged, and importantly, these findings align strongly with Seligman\u0026rsquo;s PERMA model of well-being, which emphasizes positive emotion, engagement, relationships, meaning, and accomplishment. The results demonstrate that disability type\u0026mdash;specifically, being deaf versus blind\u0026mdash;strongly shapes students\u0026rsquo; capacity to experience the PERMA components within higher education environments.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eForemost, blind students reported significantly higher overall PWB than deaf students, with disability type accounting for more than 30% of the variance in well-being. This substantial effect size indicates that deaf students face systemic challenges that undermine several PERMA elements simultaneously\u0026mdash;especially positive emotion, engagement, relationships, and meaning. These findings align with prior research documenting that deaf individuals often encounter communication barriers, social exclusion, and inconsistent service access, all of which hinder flourishing (Hintermair, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e). While blindness increasingly benefits from adaptive technologies, accessible materials, and curricular modifications (Tripathi \u0026amp; Thakkar, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e), deafness is still characterized by persistent communication challenges and limited interpreter availability in tertiary institutions (Hendry et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). Because most deaf students in Ghana first encounter inclusive education only at the tertiary level (Amoako, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e), their opportunities to build meaningful relationships and develop engaged, purposeful academic identities are delayed, thereby reducing multiple dimensions of PERMA-related well-being.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn contrast, the comparatively higher PWB reported by blind students may be partly explained by stronger access to inclusive peer networks and greater social presence. Nearly all blind respondents reported having classmates with disabilities\u0026mdash;unlike their deaf peers\u0026mdash;which enhances relationships, a core PERMA pillar. Blind students also tend to outnumber deaf students in Ghanaian tertiary institutions, offering more opportunities for belonging, role modeling, and collective identity formation. Social connectedness is well-established as a key predictor of well-being (Wickramaratne et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e), and this is particularly true for visually impaired individuals, whose peer support networks are often more robust (Kef \u0026amp; Deković, 2004). The greater availability of academic and resource-based supports for blind students (Fadda et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e) further strengthens their engagement and accomplishment within higher education.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSubscale-level comparisons further confirm that blind students score higher across all six Ryff dimensions, showing that disparities in well-being are broad and pervasive rather than isolated. The largest difference emerged in purpose in life, directly reflecting PERMA\u0026rsquo;s meaning component. Blind students appear more likely to view their lives as meaningful and future-oriented, consistent with findings that purposeful engagement enhances resilience among college students (Sharma \u0026amp; Yukhymenko-Lescroart, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Their stronger sense of meaning may stem from the greater presence of blind peers, wider availability of adaptive resources, and more supportive academic structures available to them in Ghanaian tertiary institutions\u0026mdash;all facilitating deeper engagement in meaningful academic journeys.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe second largest gap emerged in autonomy, which closely corresponds to PERMA\u0026rsquo;s accomplishment and engagement pillars. Blind students\u0026rsquo; higher autonomy may reflect increased independence enabled by assistive technologies such as screen readers, Braille displays, text-to-speech tools, navigation apps, and AI-based mobility supports (Abner \u0026amp; Lahm, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2002\u003c/span\u003e). These technologies enable direct access to information and reduce reliance on others, thereby enhancing self-determination. While deaf students also rely on certain assistive technologies, their autonomy is frequently mediated by interpreters, captions, and communication supports that are inconsistently available (Napier \u0026amp; Barker, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2004\u003c/span\u003e). In Ghana, irregular interpreter provision, lack of standardized professional practices, and misunderstandings of interpreter roles (Fobi et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Adade et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e) limit deaf students\u0026rsquo; ability to exercise independent agency\u0026mdash;reflecting reduced accomplishment and engagement, and consequently weaker PERMA outcomes.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDifferences in self-acceptance also aligned with PERMA\u0026rsquo;s positive emotion dimension. Although disability stigma remains pervasive in Ghana\u0026mdash;especially toward blindness (Nketsia, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e)\u0026mdash;blind students in this study reported higher self-acceptance than deaf students. This suggests that academic inclusion and supportive peer networks may help cultivate resilience and promote positive emotional functioning (Grischow et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). In contrast, deaf students may experience reduced self-acceptance due to limited recognition of Deaf cultural identity in Ghana and the dominance of a medical view of deafness (Adjei, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). This lack of a cultural-linguistic community undermines core PERMA components, particularly relationships and meaning.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study also revealed gender differences: males scored significantly higher than females in environmental mastery and positive relations. These correspond to PERMA\u0026rsquo;s accomplishment and relationships pillars. Similar gendered patterns have been found in other populations (Ryff, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). In the Ghanaian sociocultural context, men are socialized to be more independent, assertive, and resource-seeking (Ampofo \u0026amp; Boateng, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e), which may enhance their sense of mastery and perceived ability to manage life demands. Women with disabilities, however, often experience \u0026ldquo;double discrimination\u0026rdquo; (Mac-Seing \u0026amp; Zarowsky, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e), reducing opportunities to form supportive networks and diminishing certain PERMA components\u0026mdash;especially relationships and accomplishment.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eImportantly, no significant gender differences emerged in self-acceptance, personal growth, autonomy, or purpose in life. These findings reflect consistent global patterns where gender differences in psychological well-being are small and context-dependent (Karasawa et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e). The lack of consistent gender effects across all subscales suggests that underlying psychological resources\u0026mdash;including core elements of PERMA\u0026mdash;may remain relatively stable across genders, while disability type remains the stronger determinant of well-being (Emerson \u0026amp; Llewellyn, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis study provides the first systematic evidence from Ghana on the influence of disability type and gender on the psychological well-being of tertiary students with sensory impairments. The findings demonstrate that blind students consistently report higher PWB than deaf students, particularly in autonomy, purpose in life, and self-acceptance. Gender differences were less pronounced, though males reported stronger environmental mastery and positive relations. While these findings should be interpreted with caution due to the cross-sectional design, reliance on self-reports, and the focus on tertiary students only, they highlight critical disparities that warrant policy and institutional attention.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eRecommendations\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eBased on the findings, the following recommendations are proposed:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eInclusive education settings, especially at the tertiary level where many activities occur outside the regular classroom, should strengthen communication support for students with sensory impairments, particularly those who are deaf. Sign language interpretation and captioning services should not be limited to lectures but extended to extracurricular and campus-wide activities.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn addition, peer-support initiatives should be encouraged, as many of the challenges observed in students\u0026rsquo; psychological well-being were linked to limited communication access. Students should be motivated to learn sign language, and tertiary institutions could integrate basic sign language into the curriculum across programs. This will help normalize its use, enhance participation of deaf students, foster a sense of belonging, and increase autonomy.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFurthermore, periodic counselling programs should be organized, with particular emphasis on self-acceptance and coping strategies. Successful role models\u0026mdash;students or graduates with sensory impairments who have adapted effectively\u0026mdash;could be invited to share their experiences during such sessions.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMoreover, special attention should be given to female students with sensory impairments by providing safe spaces, empowerment workshops, and leadership training. These initiatives can strengthen their environmental mastery and improve social well-being.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAt the policy level, the Ministry of Education and the Ghana Tertiary Education Commission should adopt comprehensive disability inclusion policies that address both academic and psychosocial support needs. Institutions admitting students with sensory impairments should be required to meet minimum accessibility and support standards prior to enrollment. This will ensure that tertiary education environments are fully prepared to foster both learning and psychological growth.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFinally, future research should examine how factors such as family background, socioeconomic status, and institutional support systems influence psychological well-being among students with sensory impairments. Longitudinal studies are also recommended to track changes in well-being over time. Further research could additionally extend to individuals outside formal education to provide a broader understanding of psychological well-being among people with sensory impairments in Ghana.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEthics approval and consent to participate\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eEthical approval for this study was obtained from the University of South Africa (UNISA) College of Education Ethics Review Committee. The study was reviewed as a medium-risk application and approved in accordance with the UNISA Policy on Research Ethics and the Standard Operating Procedure on Research Ethics Risk Assessment. Ethics clearance was granted on 8 February 2023 and is valid until 8 February 2028 (Reference number: 2023/02/08/13507109/32/AM).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eInformed consent was obtained from all participants prior to data collection. Participants received clear information regarding the purpose of the study, procedures involved, voluntary participation, confidentiality of responses, and their right to withdraw at any time without any negative consequences. All data were collected and analysed in de-identified form to ensure participant anonymity and confidentiality, in line with UNISA ethics regulations and applicable data protection principles.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConsent for publication\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNot applicable. The manuscript does not contain any individual person\u0026rsquo;s identifiable data, images, or videos.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAvailability of data and materials\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe datasets generated and/or analysed during the current study are not publicly available due to ethical restrictions and the need to protect participant confidentiality, but are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCompeting interests\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors declare that they have no competing interests.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFunding\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe study did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAuthors\u0026rsquo; contributions\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eRichard Adade conceived and designed the study, conducted data collection, performed data analysis and interpretation, and drafted the manuscript. This work forms part of his PhD research. Tshimaangadzo Sikhwari provided overall supervision of the study and contributed to the conceptual development, methodological guidance, and critical revision of the manuscript for important intellectual content. Joseph Asamoah-Gyawu contributed as a consultant by providing expert input on data interpretation and offering critical feedback during manuscript development and final review. Obed Appau contributed as a consultant by providing intellectual input, methodological advice, and critical review of the final manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript and agree to be accountable for all aspects of the work.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAcknowledgements\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors wish to thank the management and resource units of the participating tertiary institutions for their cooperation and support during data collection. We are also grateful to the students with sensory impairments who generously shared their time and experiences, making this study possible. Special appreciation is extended to the research assistants and sign language interpreters who supported the data collection process.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAbner, G. H., \u0026amp; Lahm, E. A. (2002). Implementation of assistive technology with students who are visually impaired: Teachers\u0026rsquo; readiness. \u003cem\u003eJournal of Visual Impairment \u0026amp; Blindness, 96\u003c/em\u003e(2), 98\u0026ndash;105.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAdade, Richard; Appau, Obed; Mprah, Wisdom Kwadwo; Fobi, Daniel; Marfo, Portia Serwaa; and Atta-Osei, Godfred (2022) \u0026quot;Factors Influencing Sign Language Interpretation Service in Ghana: The Interpreters\u0026rsquo; Perspective,\u0026quot; Journal of Interpretation: Vol. 30: Iss. 1, Article 1. 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Marchand (Eds.), \u003cem\u003eGlobal empowerment of women: Responses to globalization and politicized religions\u003c/em\u003e (pp. 151\u0026ndash;170). Routledge.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eBoadi-Kusi, S. B., Ntodie, M., Mashige, K. P., \u0026amp; Owusu, W. (2023). Psychosocial well-being of visually impaired and sighted students in Ghana: A mixed-methods study. \u003cem\u003eBMC Psychology, 11\u003c/em\u003e(1), 110. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-023-01091-w\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eEmerson, E., \u0026amp; Llewellyn, G. (2022). The wellbeing of women and men with and without disabilities: Evidence from cross-sectional national surveys in 27 low- and middle-income countries. \u003cem\u003eQuality of Life Research, 32\u003c/em\u003e(2), 357\u0026ndash;371. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11136-022-03268-y\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eFadda, R., Piu, T., Congiu, S., Papakonstantinou, D., Motzo, G., Sechi, C., Lucarelli, L., Tatulli, I., Pedditzi, M. L., Petretto, D. R., Freire, A. 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WHO Press.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"bmc-psychology","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"psyo","sideBox":"Learn more about [BMC Psychology](http://bmcpsychology.biomedcentral.com/)","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"","title":"BMC Psychology","twitterHandle":"BMC_series","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"stoa","reportingPortfolio":"BMC Series","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"psychological well-being, sensory impairment, blindness, deafness, Ghana","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8564482/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-8564482/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003ePsychological well-being (PWB) is essential for students\u0026rsquo; academic and social adjustment, yet limited evidence exists on how it differs among Ghanaian students with sensory impairments. This study examined the PWB of students with sensory impairments in selected tertiary institutions in Ghana. A total of 214 students participated, including 127 blind and 87 deaf individuals, using a cross-sectional design with purposive and random sampling. Data were collected with the 18-item Ryff Psychological Well-Being Scale, adapted for accessibility, and analyzed using ANOVA, t-tests, and Mann\u0026ndash;Whitney U tests. The instrument demonstrated acceptable reliability (Cronbach\u0026rsquo;s α\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.77). Results showed significant differences in overall PWB between the two groups, with blind students reporting higher well-being than deaf students, F(1,212)\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;94.963, p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.001, η\u0026sup2; = .310. Blind students also scored higher across the six PWB dimensions, notably in purpose in life, autonomy, and self-acceptance. Gender differences were minimal, although males showed slightly higher environmental mastery and positive relations. The findings indicate that deaf students face greater psychosocial challenges, likely linked to communication barriers and limited institutional support. The study highlights the need for improved communication accessibility and gender-responsive interventions to promote equitable PWB among students with sensory impairments in Ghanaian tertiary institutions.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"The Psychological well-being of students with sensory impairments in selected tertiary institutions in Ghana","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2026-04-08 17:13:57","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8564482/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"decision","content":"Revision requested","date":"2026-04-27T03:11:44+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2026-04-03T08:24:26+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2026-04-02T14:20:49+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"205834231298083518200790124034796626127","date":"2026-04-02T14:14:42+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"29466008347122816250431462346898343247","date":"2026-04-02T12:12:29+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2026-04-02T10:56:26+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvited","content":"","date":"2026-01-13T17:25:39+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2026-01-12T21:52:44+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"checksComplete","content":"","date":"2026-01-12T21:51:21+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"BMC Psychology","date":"2026-01-09T22:05:39+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"bmc-psychology","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"psyo","sideBox":"Learn more about [BMC Psychology](http://bmcpsychology.biomedcentral.com/)","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"","title":"BMC Psychology","twitterHandle":"BMC_series","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"stoa","reportingPortfolio":"BMC Series","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"ca7b8025-24c1-4abd-b3b1-ef5177eaa1b8","owner":[],"postedDate":"April 8th, 2026","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"in-revision","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-04-27T03:24:58+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2026-04-08 17:13:57","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-8564482","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-8564482","identity":"rs-8564482","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"XKTyCvWXoU3ODBz1xrDgd","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}