Passive Massive MIMO Hybrid RF-Perovskite Energy Harvesting Frontend for LEO Satellite Applications

Passive Massive MIMO Hybrid RF-Perovskite Energy Harvesting Frontend for LEO Satellite Applications | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Passive Massive MIMO Hybrid RF-Perovskite Energy Harvesting Frontend for LEO Satellite Applications Fanuel Elias, Sunday Ekpo, Mfonobong Uko, Stephen Alabi, Sunday Enahoro, and 4 more This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-8264383/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Under Review Version 1 posted 13 You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Low-Earth orbit (LEO) satellites encounter significant energy challenges during eclipse periods and low solar illumination, limiting mission autonomy, operational lifespan, and functionality. This paper presents a novel hybrid perovskite photovoltaic (PPV) energy harvester designed to enhance energy sustainability for small satellites in LEO and satellite-based sensor networks. The proposed system integrates multiple-input multiple-output (MIMO) RF harvesting antennas, 3D-printed integrated passive devices, and perovskite tandem photovoltaic cells to maximise energy capture from both sub-6 GHz RF and solar sources. A comprehensive mathematical model is developed to optimise passive subsystem efficiencies, accounting for variations in solar flux and ambient RF power within the LEO environment. The integrated passive technology includes a 16-element MIMO antenna array, a power divider–combiner, and an energy beamforming topology that facilitates efficient inter-satellite wireless energy transfer. The 3D-printed hybrid power combiner–divider is tuned to 2.4 GHz, GHz, 5.0 GHz, 5.8 GHz and 6.0 GHz, corresponding to the Wi-Fi 4/5/6/6E bands and 5G sub-6 GHz spectrum, enabling simultaneous wireless energy and data exchange within constellation networks. The adopted perovskite tandem cell exhibits strong I–V and P–V performance, with the compact 6×6 passive array producing 12.5 V and delivering a maximum power output of 1.56 W. The hybrid RF–PPV system achieves an overall conversion efficiency of 98% at 0 dBm input power. These results represent a significant advancement in compact, high-efficiency, and additive-manufactured energy-harvesting architectures for LEO satellites, supporting sustained operation during eclipse conditions and enabling future satellite–cellular convergence for energy-aware space communications. Energy Harvesting Hybrid Internet of Things MIMO Perovskite Photovoltaic LEO Full Text Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Cite Share Download PDF Status: Under Review Version 1 posted Editorial decision: Revision requested 17 Jan, 2026 Reviews received at journal 29 Dec, 2025 Reviewers agreed at journal 24 Dec, 2025 Reviews received at journal 23 Dec, 2025 Reviewers agreed at journal 22 Dec, 2025 Reviewers agreed at journal 19 Dec, 2025 Reviewers agreed at journal 17 Dec, 2025 Reviews received at journal 16 Dec, 2025 Reviewers agreed at journal 15 Dec, 2025 Reviewers invited by journal 15 Dec, 2025 Editor assigned by journal 05 Dec, 2025 Submission checks completed at journal 05 Dec, 2025 First submitted to journal 02 Dec, 2025 You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-8264383","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":561802227,"identity":"fbcb63d5-1391-4e37-ad37-ce87bac448e6","order_by":0,"name":"Fanuel 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Applications","fulltext":[],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":false,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":true,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":true,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":true,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"discover-electronics","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"Learn more about [Discover Electronics](https://www.springer.com/journal/44291)","snPcode":"44291","submissionUrl":"https://submission.nature.com/new-submission/44291","title":"Discover Electronics","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"stoa","reportingPortfolio":"Discover Series","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Energy Harvesting, Hybrid, Internet of Things, MIMO, Perovskite Photovoltaic, LEO","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8264383/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-8264383/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eLow-Earth orbit (LEO) satellites encounter significant energy challenges during eclipse periods and low solar illumination, limiting mission autonomy, operational lifespan, and functionality. This paper presents a novel hybrid perovskite photovoltaic (PPV) energy harvester designed to enhance energy sustainability for small satellites in LEO and satellite-based sensor networks. The proposed system integrates multiple-input multiple-output (MIMO) RF harvesting antennas, 3D-printed integrated passive devices, and perovskite tandem photovoltaic cells to maximise energy capture from both sub-6 GHz RF and solar sources. A comprehensive mathematical model is developed to optimise passive subsystem efficiencies, accounting for variations in solar flux and ambient RF power within the LEO environment. The integrated passive technology includes a 16-element MIMO antenna array, a power divider\u0026ndash;combiner, and an energy beamforming topology that facilitates efficient inter-satellite wireless energy transfer. The 3D-printed hybrid power combiner\u0026ndash;divider is tuned to 2.4 GHz, GHz, 5.0 GHz, 5.8 GHz and 6.0 GHz, corresponding to the Wi-Fi 4/5/6/6E bands and 5G sub-6 GHz spectrum, enabling simultaneous wireless energy and data exchange within constellation networks. The adopted perovskite tandem cell exhibits strong I\u0026ndash;V and P\u0026ndash;V performance, with the compact 6\u0026times;6 passive array producing 12.5 V and delivering a maximum power output of 1.56 W. The hybrid RF\u0026ndash;PPV system achieves an overall conversion efficiency of 98% at 0 dBm input power. These results represent a significant advancement in compact, high-efficiency, and additive-manufactured energy-harvesting architectures for LEO satellites, supporting sustained operation during eclipse conditions and enabling future satellite\u0026ndash;cellular convergence for energy-aware space communications.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Passive Massive MIMO Hybrid RF-Perovskite Energy Harvesting Frontend for LEO Satellite Applications","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-12-18 19:54:03","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-8264383/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"decision","content":"Revision requested","date":"2026-01-17T07:20:15+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2025-12-29T16:53:24+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"172947305039990913904700950061660726637","date":"2025-12-24T16:08:10+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2025-12-24T04:44:58+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"124883101497077622583198315906806507949","date":"2025-12-23T03:56:11+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"294958477100613523385650866838181713865","date":"2025-12-19T08:43:55+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"24984854230854243774668343541261181686","date":"2025-12-17T13:14:05+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2025-12-17T01:51:42+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"51315329059955894485561496696128706521","date":"2025-12-15T12:30:38+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2025-12-15T12:10:26+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2025-12-05T11:02:31+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"checksComplete","content":"","date":"2025-12-05T11:00:02+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"Discover Electronics","date":"2025-12-02T22:34:59+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"discover-electronics","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"Learn more about [Discover Electronics](https://www.springer.com/journal/44291)","snPcode":"44291","submissionUrl":"https://submission.nature.com/new-submission/44291","title":"Discover Electronics","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"stoa","reportingPortfolio":"Discover Series","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"6aab68ed-03d9-4ff4-9b95-38402e0459f5","owner":[],"postedDate":"December 18th, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"under-review","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-04-09T05:54:30+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2025-12-18 19:54:03","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-8264383","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-8264383","identity":"rs-8264383","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}