Pollination Efficiency of Apis mellifera and Hypotrigona gribodoi on Capsicum annuum Fruit Set and Yield.

Pollination Efficiency of Apis mellifera and Hypotrigona gribodoi on Capsicum annuum Fruit Set and Yield. | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Pollination Efficiency of Apis mellifera and Hypotrigona gribodoi on Capsicum annuum Fruit Set and Yield . Paschal H Mbazi, Pantaleo K.T. Munishi, Cosmas J. Emily This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-4823434/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Pollination by insects accounts for over 70% of global food crop production. Among insect species, bees are one of the most efficient pollinators though their pollination efficiency varies between species. Amidst rising worries about declining pollinator populations due to human activities, comprehending diverse pollinator capabilities is crucial for conservation. While stingless bees show promise as commercial pollinators, their capacities compared to Apis mellifera remain insufficiently understood. This study evaluated the pollination efficiency of Apis mellifera and Hypotrigona gribodoi on fruit set and yield in Capsicum annuum . A randomized complete block design experiment was conducted with three replications and three caged treatments involving Apis mellifera, Hypotrigona gribodoi , and a control plot without pollinators on Capsicum annum . Analysis of variance (ANOVA) and Kruskal-Wallis were used to compare the differences in fruit quality, seed quality, and fruit set rate between the two species. Tukey's Honestly Significant Difference (HSD) and Dunn tests were used for normally distributed and non-normally distributed data respectively. The results show significant differences in the number of fruits per plant, fruit transverse circumference, fruit vertical circumference, fruit weight and percentage fruit set rate per plant between control plot without a pollinator, Apis melifera and Hypotrigona gribodoi pollinated Capsicum annuum (P 0.05). These findings suggest that Hypotrigona gribodoi is a more efficient pollinator of Capsicum annum L. More research on the differential pollination efficiency among different species in crop production is imperative. Agroecology Pollination Apis mellifera Hypotrigona gribodoi Capsicum annuum L. yield fruit set rate Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 1 Introduction Pollination is an essential ecosystem service primarily carried out by insects such as bees, butterflies, moths, flies (Elizalde et al., 2020 ; Rader et al., 2016 , Bronstein et al., 2006 ; Magwira, 2021 ), wind (Culley et al., 2002 ), birds and bats (Kunz et al., 2011 and Ollerton & Coulthard, 2009 ) and humans through artificial means (Broussard et al., 2023 ). Pollination is considered as an important input to crop production and ecosystem functioning as it improves crop quality and quantity and maintenance of biodiversity and ecosystem resilience respectively (Alemberhe & Gebremeskel, 2016 ). It is through pollination that pollen from the male part of a flower (the stamen) is transferred to the female part (the stigma) of the same species (Asiko, 2012 ), which results in the fertilization of the ovules and production of seeds (Bronstein et al., 2006 ). Pollination enables the transfer of genetic material between plants (Abrol, 2012). A pollinator’s successful transfer of pollen is referred to as pollination efficiency (Brunet and Holmquist, 2009 and Keys et al ., 2008). Over 70% of global food crops depend on pollinators (Ricketts et al., 2008 ) and without them, crop yields would be significantly reduced, impacting food security and the global economy (Gallai et al., 2009 and Khanna et al., 2021 ). Insects particularly bees, are the most efficient pollinators (Osterman et al., 2021 ; Breeze et al., 2011 ; Stein et al., 2017 ). Their remarkable ability to transfer pollen between flowers significantly enhance the yield and fruit set of numerous crops (Dymond et al., 2021 ; Rauf et al., 2021 ; Fijen et al., 2018 ). Their pollination performance is largely attributed to their adeptness in moving from one flower to another (Cheng et al., 2016 ), their wide range availability (Musharraf et al., 2021 ) across different geographical conditions, their foraging behaviour and floral constancy (Alemberhe and Gebremeskel, 2016 ). Furthermore, their propensity to visit a diverse array of plant species further underscores their importance as pollinators (Stanley et al., 2020 ). Apis mellifera is a species of bees belonging to the family Apidae and Genus Apis (Hilleman, 2009 ). They live in colonies and are known as eusocial insects (Papa et al., 2022 ) with a division of labour among the colony members. The body structure of Apis mellifera is highly adapted for pollination. This adaptation includes specialised hairs that facilitate pollen (Cheng et al., 2016 ). Additionally, they possess long tongues, enabling them to reach the nectar located at the base of flowers with long corollas (Borrell, 2005 ). Furthermore, their excellent color vision makes them particularly attracted to flowers with bright colors (Reser et al., 2012 ). Apis mellifera is a pollinator of Capsicum annum as they enhance productivity in fruit set and quality (Dag and Kammer, 2001 ). Hypotrigona gribodoi margaretti are small, about 2–3 mm in body length (Asiko, 2012 ), dark-colored, stingless bees found in tropical, subtropical regions of the world and savanna ecosystems (Malovechko et al., 1995 ). They are eusocial insects (Chakuya et al., 2022 ) belonging to the family Apidae and subfamily Meliponinae. They forage on nectar and pollen enhancing pollination of more than 60% of different commercial crops (Heard, 1999 , Atmowidi et al., 2022 ; Ramalho, 2004 ). Stingless bees have specialized structures called corbicula on their legs (Asiko, 2012 ) which enable them to efficiently gather and carry pollen. Their small body size allows them to pollinate small and delicate flowers that larger insects could potentially damage, thus making them important pollinators of many plant species in their natural habitats (Kasiera et al ., 2022; Wakhungu et al., 2022 and Ndungu et al., 2019 ) and valuable contributors to the ecosystem (Slaa et al ,. 2006). Hypotrigona gribodoi are pollinators of Capsicum annum as they enhance productivity by increasing the quality of fruit and fruit set rate ( Kiatoko et al., 2014 ). Capsicum annuum belongs to the genus Capsicum and the family Solanaceae (Pandey et al., 2012 ). It is a widely cultivated vegetable crop in different tropical and subtropical parts of the world (Pandey et al., 2012 ). Their flowers do not have poricidal anthers thus they do not require buzz pollination (Slaa et al ,. 2006). Capsicum annum flowers produce both nectar and pollen (Greco et al., 2011 ) as flower reward to pollinators (Simpson and Neff, 1981). While the plant is capable of self-pollination, insect pollination can significantly enhance its productivity (Cruz et al., 2005 ; Greco et al., 2011 ). An increase in agricultural activity leads to an increased demand for pollination services while activities associated with agriculture lead to pollinator decline (Aizen et al., 2009 ) thus creating a gap between pollination service demand and pollinators available to provide the services. Given the global concern over declining pollinator populations (Villanueva-G et al., 2005 ; Steffan-Dewenter et al., 2005 ) due to anthropogenic activities, including deforestation, habitat fragmentation, the use of pesticides (Chacoff, 2006 ; Li, 2019 ) and land use intensification and the expanding human population (Picanço et al., 2017 ), there is a growing global concern regarding the continuity of essential pollination services by insects (Allen-Wardell et al., 1998 ). As results, understanding the varying capacities of different pollinators has become imperative to effectively prioritize their conservation efforts. The ecological role of stingless bees as pollinators for various plants (Norowi and Fahimie, 2010 .) highlights their potential as promising alternatives for commercial crop pollination, emphasizing their importance (Slaa, 2006). Considering the importance of pollination services provided by bees, which enhance both the quality and quantity of crops and have a direct positive impact on the global economy and dietary outcomes (Musharraf et al., 2021 ), as well as their contribution to maintain plant species diversity, ensuring ecosystem resilience (Senapathi et al., 2015 ) and as outlined in the objectives of the Tanzania National Beekeeping Policy Implementation Strategy of 2021–2030 (URT, 2021 ), it is crucial to adopt conservation strategies that go beyond solely focusing on Apis mellifera as the only potential pollinator species. However, there is limited understanding of the pollination capacities of different bee species. While stingless bees show promise as commercial pollinators, their capacities compared to Apis mellifera remain insufficiently understood. This study aims to assess the differential efficiency of Apis mellifera and Hypotrigona gribodoi in pollinating Capsicum annuum and their impact on fruit set and yield. Finding from this study will have significance in improving the conservation of pollinators, ecosystem productivity, and crop production. 2 Materials and Methods 2.1 Description of Study Site This study was conducted at the Crop Museum Organic Experimental Farm, located in the main campus of Sokoine University of Agriculture (SUA) in Morogoro Municipality. Morogoro municipal is situated approximately 200 km west of Dar es-salaam, the major business town of Tanzania. The farm is positioned at latitude 6° 45' south and longitude 37° 40' east, with an elevation of 525 meters above sea level. The average temperature in the district ranges from 21.9°C to 27.3°C. Additionally, Morogoro experiences an average annual rainfall of around 900 mm to 1000 mm (NBS Census, 2012). 2.2 Experimental Design Experimental plots were arranged in randomized complete block design (RCBD) with three treatments and three replications. The experimental area was 56 m 2 with 4 m 2 (2 m x 2 m) plots and the cage were 2 m x 2 m x 2.5 m. Plots were 0.5 m apart in replication and blocks were 1 m. On 14th December 2022 “Hercules F1 Capsicum annuum ” seeds from Seed.Co were planted in a nursery bed in greenhouse. Horticultural substrates (potting soil) from kekkilaOy.ratatie 11, FI-01300 Vantaa were used in the nursery. Prior to seed sowing, organic fertilizers (Bio-genic fertilizer) were applied. Land preparation was performed on 2nd January 2023 involving weed removal and soil digging in the areas designated for the experimental plots. Land preparation was carried out manually using a hand hoe. On 16th January 2023 seedlings were planted in experimental plots. Each plot was planted with 20 Capsicum annum plants in five columns and four rows with plant spacing of 0.5 m between plants and rows were 0.6 m apart. Weeding was done three times on 31st January 2023, 15th February 2023 and 1st March 2023. Two weeks after sowing, the plots were covered with a mosquito net, before the initiation of flowering, and bee colonies were introduced to the plots immediately after installing the mosquito nets. Subsequently, treatments of Hypotrigona gribodoi, Apis mellifera , and a caged control plot without a pollinator were randomized in three replications. Bee colonies were fed with 1.5 L (50% w/v) sugar syrup solution every morning to ensure their survival as nectar available on pepper was not enough for their survival (Kwon and Saeed, 2003 ). First and second harvests of mature fruits were done 57 and 71 days after initial planting. The experiment was conducted within 75 days. Yield parameter measurements were conducted in a laboratory. Harvesting was done two times to aggregate the number of fruits from each plot at interval of 14 days. 2.3 Data collection To determine Capsicum annum fruit set rate after pollination with Apis mellifera and Hypotrigona gribodoi the sample of the number of flowers that emerged throughout the experiment from the six middle plants was counted to avoid edge effect, and after the fruit set, the total number of fruits from the same plant in each plot was counted. To determine yield after pollination with Apis mellifera and Hypotrigona gribodoi the 154 Capsicum annum fruit were harvested for data collection. The transverse circumference, vertical circumference and weight of ten sample fruits from each plot were measured. Additionally, seeds from ten sample fruits were extracted and counted, oven dried over night at 103°C. The weight of 100 dry seeds per fruit and fruit weight was measured using an electronic balance (Sawe et al., 2020 ) with precision of 0.0005 g. 2.4 Data analysis The fruit set rate per plant, expressed in percentage, was calculated by dividing the mean number of fruits per plant harvested by the mean number of flowers per plant and then multiplied by hundred (Magwira, 2021 ). Data were tested for normality using the Shapiro–Wilk test. For normally distributed data, such as the number of fruits per plant, fruit transverse circumference, and fruit vertical circumference, one-way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) was employed to determine the differences between variables. This was followed by a post hoc test using Tukey's HSD (Honestly Significant Difference) for pairwise comparisons. On the other hand, the Kruskal-Wallis ranks test was employed for data that were not normally distributed, including the weight of fruit per plant, the number of seeds per fruit, and the weight of the 100 dry seeds per plant. Post hoc pairwise analysis was conducted using Dunn’s test. All analyses were performed using Microsoft excel and R Version 4.2.3 for windows (R Core Team 2023) computer software. 2.5 Results 2.5.1 Effect of Hypotrigona gribodoi and Apis mellifera on the Capsicum annum Yield (fruit and seed quality). The number of fruits per plant was higher in plots pollinated by Hypotrigona gribodoi (21.39 ± 0.8) followed by Apis mellifera (15.94 ± 0.5) and lastly control plot (13.5 ± 0.7) (Fig. 1 A). ANOVA results reveal that number of fruits per plant was significantly different among treatments (P < 0.001) (Table 1 ). The Turkey post hoc results showed that the higher difference was between treatments pollinated by Hypotrigona gribodoi and control plot without pollinator (P = 0.0000000), followed by Hypotrigona gribodoi and Apis mellifera (P = 0.0000024), and lastly, between Apis mellifera and control plots without pollinator (P = 0.03889) (Fig. 1 A). Fruit transverse circumference was higher in treatments pollinated by Hypotrigona gribodoi (21.49 ± 0.5 cm), followed by Apis mellifera (19.54 ± 0.5 cm) and control plot (18.07 ± 0.5 cm) (Fig. 1 B). ANOVA results revealed that fruit transverse circumference was significantly different among the treatments (P < 0.001) (Table 1 ). The Turkey post hoc results showed that the most significant difference was between the treatments pollinated by Hypotrigona gribodoi and the control plot without a pollinator (P = 0.0000485), followed by Hypotrigona gribodoi and Apis mellifera (P = 0.0293909). There was no significant difference between Apis mellifera and the control plots without a pollinator P = 0.1268336 (Fig. 1 B). Fruit vertical circumference was higher in treatments pollinated by Hypotrigona gribodoi (21.49 ± 3.5 cm), followed by Apis mellifera (18.96 ± 0.5 cm), and the control plot (17.93 ± 0.5 cm) (Fig. 1 C). ANOVA results reveal that fruit vertical circumference was significantly different among treatments (P < 0.001) (Table 1 ). The Turkey post hoc results showed that most significant difference was between the treatments pollinated by Hypotrigona gribodoi and the control plot without a pollinator (P = 0.0010029), followed by Hypotrigona gribodoi and Apis mellifera (P = 0.0385193). While no significant difference was observed between Apis mellifera and control plots without a pollinator P = 0.4368058 (Fig. 1 C). The weight of fruit per plant was higher in treatments pollinated by Hypotrigona gribodoi (80.32 ± 5.6 g), followed by Apis mellifera (58.05 ± 5.5 g), and lastly the control plot (50.80 ± 4.5 g) (Fig. 1 D). Kruskal-Wallis results revealed that the number of fruits per plant was significantly different among the treatments ( X 2 = 16.065, df = 2, P = 0.0003247). The Dunn's post hoc results showed that the most difference was between the treatments pollinated by Hypotrigona gribodoi and the control plot without a pollinator (P = 0.0002), followed by Hypotrigona gribodoi and Apis mellifera (P = 0.0044). While no significant difference was observed between Apis mellifera and control plots without a pollinator P = 0.6055 (Fig. 1 D). Table 1 Analysis of Variance on the pollination effect of Hypotrigona gribodoi and Apis mellifera on Capsicum annum in the number of fruits per plant, fruit transverse circumference (cm) and fruit vertical circumference (cm) Parameter Response Df Sum Sq Mean Sq F Value Pr(> F) Number of fruits per plant Treatment 2 587.11 293.556 34.678 3.098e-10 *** Fruit Transverse circumference (cm) Residuals 51 431.72 8.465 Treatment 2 176.57 88.283 10.479 8.366e-05 *** Fruit Vertical circumference (cm) Residuals 87 732.95 8.425 Treatment 2 150.59 75.297 7.1993 0.001279 ** Residuals 87 909.93 10.459 The number of seeds per fruit was higher in plots pollinated by Apis mellifera (189.73 ± 18.14), followed by the control plot without a pollinator (189.53 ± 13.42) and lastly, Hypotrigona gribodoi (153.8 ± 11.94) (Fig. 2 A). Kruskal-Wallis results reveal that the difference in the number of seeds per fruit was statistically insignificant among the plots ( X 2 = 2.2744, df = 2, P = 0.3207) (Fig. 2 A). The weight of the 100 dry seeds per plant was higher in plots pollinated by Hypotrigona gribodoi , (2.22 ± 0.19 g), followed by the control plot without a pollinator (1.01 ± 0.09 g), and lastly Apis mellifera (0.966 ± 0.1 g) (Fig. 2 B). Kruskal-Wallis results reveal that 100 dry seed weight per plant difference was statistically insignificant among the plots ( X 2 = 0.66743, df = 2, P = 0.7163) (Fig. 2 B). 2.5.2 Effect of Apis mellifera and Hypotrigona gribodoi Pollination on Capsicum annuum Percentage fruit set. The Percentage of fruit set rate per plant was higher in treatments pollinated by Hypotrigona gribodoi (72.89 ± 1.4), followed by Apis mellifera (65.33 ± 0.9), and lastly, the control plot without a pollinator (45.93 ± 1.1) (Fig. 5 ). Kruskal-Wallis results revealed that the percentage of fruit set rate per plant was significantly different among the treatments ( X 2 = 43.03, df = 2 and P = 4.53e-10) (Fig. 5 ).The Dunn's post hoc results showed that the most significant difference was between the treatments pollinated by Hypotrigona gribodoi and the control plot without a pollinator (P = 0.0000), followed by the caged control plot and Apis mellifera (P = 0.0002), and lastly, between Hypotrigona gribodoi and Apis mellifera treatments (P = 0.0085) (Fig. 5 ). 3 Discussion 3.1 Effect of Hypotrigona gribodoi and Apis mellifera on the Capsicum annum Yield (fruit and seed quality). The findings show that treatments pollinated by Hypotrigona gribodoi have higher mean number of fruits, fruit transverse circumference, fruit vertical circumference, and weight of fruit. These results signify the successful pollination of Capsicum annum by stingless bees such as Hypotrigona gribodoi , resulting in the production of a greater quantity of larger and heavier fruits. The difference in fruit quality is attributed to the pollinator's flower visit rate, which affects the quantity of pollen deposited on the stigma of the flower ( Rolda´n, 2006 ). The success of Hypotrigona gribodoi pollination on Capsicum annum is attributed to the higher flower handling exhibited by stingless bees, as documented by Putra et al., ( 2014 ), with their relatively constant rate of flower visitation throughout the day and the associated consistent visitation pattern, coupled with flower constancy, increasing the likelihood of pollen deposition onto the stigma. In contrast, the honey bee Apis mellifera tends to prefer visiting flowers in the morning, as reported by Idrees et al. , (2023). Our findings are also similar to study by Putra et al. (2016) on stingless bees where Trigona minangkabau and Tetragonula leaviceps increases in Capsicum annum L number of fruits by 29.31% and 25.06% and fruit weight per plant 66.46% and 49.75%, respectively. Atmowidi et al., ( 2022 ) found stingless bee Heterotrigona itama increase in number of fruits in melon. Cruz et al., ( 2005 ) found that sweet pepper pollinated by Melipona subnitida produce heavier, wider, and higher quality fruits with a lower percentage of malformed fruits compared to self-pollinated sweet pepper. Stingless bee Melipona Fasciculate improves fruit yield and quality of Solanum melongena L (Nunes-Silva et al., 2013 ). Stingless bees Trigona carbonaria , are efficient pollinator of macadamia compared to Apis mellifera due to the fact that they mainly collect pollen, resulting in intimate contact with the stigma while honey bees like Apis mellifera mainly collect nectar, resulting in less frequent contact with the stigma (Heard, 2016 ). These outcomes collectively indicate that effective pollination by stingless bees contributes to a reduction in fruit malformation, as supported by (Cruz et al., 2005 ). This improved pollination is crucial for raising crop quality standards as similar findings in passion fruit were found in other studies (Shahidah, 2018 ; Wietzke et al., 2018 ). Contrary to our findings, stingless bees Nannotrigona perilampoides have similar Lycopersicon esculentum fruit weight as control plots without pollinators (Cauich et al., 2004 ). Additionally study by Kendall et al. ( 2022 ) demonstrates similar blueberry fruit weights between plots visited by honey bees and stingless bees as results of similar trend in flower visits in two bees species. Furthermore, studies reveal that the stingless bee Trigona iridipennis and honey bee Apis cerana exhibit similar efficacy in yielding Capsicum annum pollination (Putra & Kinasih, 2014) as results of similar visitation rate. this are caused by stingless bee loss of population in green house environment leading to singnificant reduction in their foraging activities, low amont of nector and also stingless bees needs several types of polein (Cauich et al., 2004 ) Findings from this study show that Hypotrigona gribodoi and Apis mellifera have similar effect on number of seeds per fruit but seed weight was higher in plot pollinated by Hypotrigona gribodoi . Despite insignificant difference observed in this study, dry seed weight were slightly higher in plot pollinated by Hypotrigona gribodoi compared to Apis mellifera and caged control plot, indicating successful fertilization and resulting in improved reproductive fitness through the quantity of pollen deposited by the pollinator on the stigma of the flower (Dogterom et al., 2000 ). Stingless bees primarily carry pollen from flowers (Puteri et al., 2022 ), thereby increasing the chances of successful pollination for the plants. Contrary to our findings, study conducted by Kiatoko et al. ( 2014 ) reported that Hypotrigona gribodoi produce Capsicum annum fruit with higher seed quality in terms of number and weight compared to self-pollination and unmanaged pollination (by feral insects) attributed by difference in floral visit by different pollinator ( Rolda´n, 2006 ). Additionally stingless bees Trigona minangkabau and Tetragonula leaviceps increase Capsicum annum L . number of seeds by 56.36% and 45.91%, respectively compared to wind pollination (Putra et al. , 2016). Futhermore, Lycopersicon esculentum number of seed were different in plot pollinated by stingless bee Nannotrigona perilampoides , plot without pollinator and mechanical vibration plot (Cauich et al., 2004 ). 3.2 Hypotrigona gribodoi and Apis mellifera pollination impact on Capsicum annum fruit set rate Our finding shows that fruit set rate was higher in treatments pollinated by Hypotrigona gribodoi compared to Apis mellifera and the caged control plot. This indicates that Hypotrigona gribodoi is more efficient pollinator of Capsicum annum compared to Apis mellifera . Our findings are similar to those of Putra et al. (2016), where stingless bees Trigona minangkabau and Tetragonula leaviceps increased the fruit set rate of Capsicum annum L . by 12.32% and 9.66% respectively. Cauich et al. ( 2004 ) finds that Nannotrigona perilampoides yielded a higher fruit set in the pollination of tomato Lycopersicon esculentum while Atmowidi et al. ( 2022 ) report that Tetragonula laeviceps increased strawberry fruit set rates and reduced abnormal fruits. Additionally, stingless bees Lepidotrigona terminate were reported to have increased the fruit set rate of Coffee arabica and Coffea by 80% and 84%, among coffee varieties (Slaa, 2006; Klein, 2003). Successful pollination of flowers by Hypotrigona gribodoi increases the fruit set rate. The ability of insect pollinators to deliver pollen to flower stigmas (Vit et al., 2018 ) is influenced by morphological and behavioural traits, such as larger body length, increased hairiness, and longer visits durations ( Phillips et al., 2018 ). Hypotrigona gribodi , being smaller in size (Eardley, 2004 ; Kajobe, 2007), is associated with a higher pollen carrying capacity (Mayes et al., 2019 ; Ramalho et al., 1998 ), enabling them to efficiently navigate and access flowers compared to Apis mellifera. This size difference could be one of the determinants of successful pollination, as suggested by (Kiatoko et al., 2022 ), that body size is a factor that influences pollination. Their ability to adapt to environmental stress allows them to thrive and perform well even in challenging conditions, enhancing their suitability as pollinators in diverse agricultural environments (Atmowidi et al., 2022 ). 4 Conclusion Apis mellifera and Hypotrigona gribodoi enhance the pollination of Capsicum annum . Our findings suggest that Hypotrigona gribodoi is a more effective pollinator of Capsicum annum compared to Apis mellifera . Hypotrigona gribodoi exhibits higher yields, particularly in terms of fruit quality and fruit set, for Capsicum annum . Capsicum annum seed quality is similar between the two bee species. Moreover, the findings suggest that Hypotrigona gribodoi and Apis mellifera are crucial for cross-pollination. The study underscores the importance of enhanced pollination, primarily facilitated by the stingless bee Hypotrigona gribodoi . This underscores their role in elevating crop quality standards, as evidenced by increased fruit production, larger and heavier fruits, and improved seed quality. Recommendation More research is needed to understand the biology, behaviour, and ecological needs of stingless bees. Conducting research on the diversity and distribution of stingless bees, their role in pollination, and their response to different management practices can help inform conservation efforts. Conservation strategies for pollinator protection should encompass both stingless bees and honey bees, acknowledging their significant roles in enhancing commercial crop yields, ensuring food security, and preserving ecosystem health. Raising public awareness about the crucial role of stingless bees and honey bees in pollination and advocating for their conservation is essential. This involves educating farmers, decision-makers, and the general public about the importance of these insects. Additionally, fostering a favourable environment for the conservation of stingless bees includes preserving natural habitats like forests, mangroves, and wetlands to create safe habitats for their thriving. Declarations Acknowledgements We would like to express our gratitude to the Tanzania Forest Services Agency (TFS) for funding this research, and to the Department of Ecosystem and Conservation (DEC), College of Forestry, Wildlife, and Tourism at Sokoine University of Agriculture (SUA), for their valuable supervision. Data availability: The data is available from the corresponding author upon request. Conflict of interest On behalf of all authors, the corresponding author states that there is no conflict of interest. References Aizen MA, Garibaldi LA, Cunningham SA, Klein AM (2009) How much does agriculture depend on pollinators? Lessons from long-term trends in crop production. Ann Botany 103(9):1579–1588 Alemberhe K, Gebremeskel K (2016) A Review on: role of honey bee pollination in improving crop productivity and seed quality in the Northern Ethiopia. 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Agric Ecosyst Environ 322:107–653 Pandey SK, Yadav SK, Singh VK (2012) A overview on Capsicum annuum L. J Pharm Sci Technol 4(2):821–828 Papa G, Maier R, Durazzo A, Lucarini M, Karabagias IK, Plutino M, Bianchetto E, Aromolo R, Pignatti G, Ambrogio A, Pellecchia M, Negri I (2022) The Honey Bee Apis mellifera : An insect at the interface between human and ecosystem health. Biology 11(2):1–24 Phillips BB, Williams A, Osborne JL, Shaw RF (2018) Shared traits make fl ies and bees effective pollinators of oilseed rape (Brassica napus L). Basic Appl Ecol 2017:1–11 Picanço A, Gil A, Rigal F, Borges PAV (2017) Pollination services mapping and economic valuation from insect communities: a case study in the Azores (Terceira Island). Nat Conserv 25:1–25 Puteri G, Herwina H, Mairawita, Janra MN (2022) Foraging Activity of Tetragonula laeviceps Workers for Natural Resources and Nest Materials at a Polyculture Cropland in Batusangkar, Tanah Datar Regency, West Sumatra. The 4th international Conference on Sustainability Agriculture and Biosystem. pp. 1–7 Putra DP, Swasti E (2016) Pollination in chili pepper ( Capsicum annuum L.) by Trigona laeviceps and T. minangkabau . J Entomol Zool Stud 4(4):191–194 Putra RE, Permana AD, Kinasih I (2014) Application of asiatic honey bees ( Apis cerana ) and stingless bees ( Trigona laeviceps ) as pollinator agents of hot pepper ( Capsicum annuum L.) at Local Indonesia farm system. Psyche 2014: 1–5 Rader R, Bartomeus I, Garibaldi LA, Garratt MPD, Howlett BG, Winfree R, Cunningham SA, Mayfield MM, Arthur AD, Andersson GKS, Bommarco R, Brittain C, Carvalheiro LG, Chacoff NP, Entling MH, Foully B, Freitas BM, Gemmill-Herren B, Ghazoul J, Woyciechowski M (2016) Non-bee insects are important contributors to global crop pollination. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 113(1):146–151 Ramalho M (2004) Stingless bees and mass flowering trees in the canopy of Atlantic Forest: a tight relationship. Acta Bot Brasilica 18(1):37–47 Ramalho M, Imperatriz-Fonseca VL, Giannini TC (1998) Within-colony size variation of foragers and pollen load capacity in the stingless bee Melipona quadrifasciata anthidioides Lepeletier (Apidae, Hymenoptera). Apidologie 29(3):221–228 Rauf A, Saeed S, Ali M, Hammad M, Tahir N (2021) Comparative efficiency of native insect pollinators in reproductive performance of Medicago sativa L. Pakistan Insect 12(1029):1–13 Reser DH, Wijesekara Witharanage R, Rosa MGP, Dyer AG (2012) Honeybees ( Apis mellifera ) learn color discriminations via differential conditioning independent of long wavelength (Green). Photoreceptor Modulation PLoS One 7(11):1–8 Ricketts TH, Regetz J, Steffan-Dewenter I, Cunningham SA, Kremen C, Bogdanski A, Gemmill-Herren B, Greenleaf SS, Klein AM, Mayfield MM, Morandin LA, Ochieng’ A, Viana BF (2008) Landscape effects on crop pollination services: Are there general patterns? Ecol Lett 11(5):499–515 Robet K (2007) Original article Botanical sources and sugar concentration of the nectar collected by two stingless bee species in a tropical African rain forest. Apidologie 38:110–121 Rolda´n AS, Jose´ MG (2006) Quality fruit improvement in sweet pepper culture by bumblebee pollination. 110:160–166. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scienta.2006.06.024 Sawe T, Eldegard K, Totland Ø, Macrice S, Nielsen A (2020) Enhancing pollination is more effective than increased conventional agriculture inputs for improving watermelon yields. Ecol Evaluation 10(12):1–11 Senapathi D, Biesmeijer JC, Breeze TD, Kleijn D, Potts SG, Carvalheiro LG (2015) Pollinator conservation - The difference between managing for pollination services and preserving pollinator diversity. Curr Opin Insect Sci 12:93–101 Shahidah MN, Phebe D (2018) Role of assisted pollination in fruit shape of purple passion fruit (Passiflora Edulis Sims). Int J Agric Forestry Plantation 8:128–131 Slaa EJ, Chaves SLA, Malagodi-Braga SK, Hosfstede FE (2006) Review article Stingless bees in applied pollination: practice and perspectives of pollination in commercially grown. Apidologie 37:293–315 Society BE (2008) Pollination effectiveness and pollination efficiency of insects foraging prosopis velutina in South-Eastern Arizona. Society 32(3):519–527 Stanley DA, Msweli SM, Johnson SD (2020) Native honeybees as flower visitors and pollinators in wild plant communities in a biodiversity hotspot. Ecosphere 11(2) Steffan-Dewenter I, Potts SG, Packer L, Ghazoul J (2005) Pollinator diversity and crop pollination services are at risk [3] (multiple letters). Trends Ecol Evol 20(12):651–652 Stein K, Coulibaly D, Stenchly K, Goetze D, Porembski S, Lindner A, Konaté S, Linsenmair EK (2017) Bee pollination increases yield quantity and quality of cash crops in Burkina Faso, West Africa. Sci Rep 2017:1–10 URT (2013) Tanzania in Figs. 2012. National bureau statistics. Dar es Salaam, Tanzania, p 81 URT (2021) National Forest Policy Implementation Strategy. Ministry of Natural Resources and Tourism, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania, p 73 Villanueva-G R, Roubik DW, Colli-Ucán W (2005) Extinction of Melipona beecheii and traditional beekeeping in the Yucatán peninsula. Bee World 86(2):35–41 Vit P, Pedro SRM, Roubik DW (2018) Pot-pollen in stingless bee melittology. Pot-Pollen Stingless Bee Melittology, 1–481 Wakhungu DA, Namikoye ES, Lattorff HMG (2022) Foraging range of an African stingless bee, Hypotrigona gribodoi (Apidae: Meliponini). Afr J Ecol 60(4):1094–1098 Wietzke A, Westphal C, Gras P, Kraft M, Pfohl K, Karlovsky P, Pawelzik E, Tscharntke T, Smit I (2018) Insect pollination as a key factor for strawberry physiology and marketable fruit quality. Agric Ecosyst Environ 258:197–204 Zurawski VR, Kohr WJ, Foster JF (1975) Conformational Properties of Bovine Plasma Albumin with a Cleaved Internal Peptide Bond. Biochemistry 14(26):5579–5586 Plates Plate 2.1 is available in the Supplementary Files section Additional Declarations The authors declare no competing interests. Supplementary Files Plates.docx Cite Share Download PDF Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. Our growing team is made up of researchers and industry professionals working together to solve the most critical problems facing scientific publishing. Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-4823434","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":333329346,"identity":"6158ca55-7416-426f-9151-e1401d32298d","order_by":0,"name":"Paschal H Mbazi","email":"","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0009-0007-2583-9290","institution":"Sokoine University of Agriculture","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Paschal","middleName":"H","lastName":"Mbazi","suffix":""},{"id":333330058,"identity":"a19330f5-f15b-4dd8-98df-228c43766d5f","order_by":1,"name":"Pantaleo K.T. Munishi","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAA6klEQVRIiWNgGAWjYLCCBIYDPPzMjA0HPoDYRGuRbG8+eHAG0VoYGA4wGJw5lnyYhxgt5mJnzB48+HNHhuFGjsFh2za7PH72BsYPH3Nwa7GcnWNukNj2jIdxBlBLbltysWTPAWbJmdtwazG4nWMmkdhwmIdZAqyFOXHDjQQ2Zl5CWhL+HOZhA2mxbKsnVgvbYR4enmMJhxnbDhPWYjk7rUwise0wjwR784GDPeeOJ87sOdiM1y/m0snbJH/8OWxvf5ix+cOPsurEfvbmgx8+4nMYCo+RDUw24FaPoYXhD17Fo2AUjIJRMEIBAPhtWeLcIw4aAAAAAElFTkSuQmCC","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4066-7400","institution":"Sokoine University of Agriculture","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Pantaleo","middleName":"K.T.","lastName":"Munishi","suffix":""},{"id":333331316,"identity":"765896f8-bcbe-417c-b31d-ff692f19cb8c","order_by":2,"name":"Cosmas J. Emily","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAA7UlEQVRIiWNgGAWjYFADZuYGhg8kamFsYJwB4xwgTg9jAzMPMVr429ufbvjxh0FOt52xTdrmz2F5BvbDD5g//MGtReLMGbObvW0MxmaHgVpy2w4bNvCkGTAc4MGtxUAih+0GbwND4jawlobDjA0MOUCHSeDTkv7s5p8/DPVgLRZ/Dts38L8BajHApyXB7DYPG0MC2GEMbIcTGyRAtiTg98tt2TYJQ6AtzZa9benJbRLPDA6cOYBbCzDEnt1888dG3uz84YM3fvyxtu3nT374oAJPiMEsAxEsYJKNgeiYBMY/iellFIyCUTAKRgoAAPpGUXpyCTQ5AAAAAElFTkSuQmCC","orcid":"","institution":"Sokoine University of Agriculture","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Cosmas","middleName":"J.","lastName":"Emily","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2024-07-29 16:22:26","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":{"humanSubjects":false,"vertebrateSubjects":true,"conflictsOfInterestStatement":false,"humanSubjectEthicalGuidelines":false,"humanSubjectConsent":false,"humanSubjectClinicalTrial":false,"humanSubjectCaseReport":false,"vertebrateSubjectEthicalGuidelines":true},"doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-4823434/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-4823434/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":61396117,"identity":"33fdaf9a-c815-4f7e-8263-06d4f3a3a706","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-07-30 09:06:33","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":502517,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMorogoro urban map showing study area location\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4823434/v1/5ffafba96a5cccf164cac10c.png"},{"id":61397167,"identity":"8f78857b-8918-4a50-b361-069e8eb48073","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-07-30 09:14:34","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":43590,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eExperimental layout pollination treatments\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4823434/v1/89bee99355a79e02b9e310d9.png"},{"id":61396118,"identity":"2fd5875b-6432-4305-9eba-be9d47ba7cc6","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-07-30 09:06:34","extension":"png","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":161315,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eBoxplot showing differences fruit quality (A) fruit number per plant (B) transverse circumference (C) vertical circumference and (D) fruit weight per plant in \u003cem\u003eCapsicum annum \u003c/em\u003ewhen\u003cem\u003e \u003c/em\u003epollinated by \u003cem\u003eHypotrigona gribodoi\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eApis mellifera \u003c/em\u003eand caged control plot without pollinator. The horizontal line across the box represents the median, the box represents the 25\u003csup\u003eth\u003c/sup\u003e and 75\u003csup\u003eth\u003c/sup\u003e percentiles, the vertical line outside the box represent the minimum and maximum values, and letters (a, b, and c) indicate statistical significance among treatment groups.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"3.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4823434/v1/af1a39649489e8056bb87557.png"},{"id":61396124,"identity":"2d96ca91-0c70-43a6-85b3-be63c775323b","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-07-30 09:06:34","extension":"png","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":96143,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eBoxplot showing (A) The number of seeds per fruit (B) weight of the 100 dry seeds per plant difference in \u003cem\u003eCapsicum annum \u003c/em\u003epollinated by\u003cem\u003e Hypotrigona gribodoi\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eApis mellifera\u003c/em\u003e and the caged control plot without a pollinator. The horizontal line across the box shows the median, the box represents 25\u003csup\u003eth\u003c/sup\u003e and 75\u003csup\u003eth\u003c/sup\u003e percentiles, the vertical line outside the box represents the minimum and maximum values, and letters (a, b and c) indicates statistical significance among the treatment groups.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"4.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4823434/v1/a7dbd8e42f25cf2ab04e5077.png"},{"id":61396121,"identity":"7705e06b-0436-4adb-9d2e-5514765da53f","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-07-30 09:06:34","extension":"png","order_by":5,"title":"Figure 5","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":43950,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eBoxplot showing percentage fruit set rate difference in \u003cem\u003eCapsicum annum \u003c/em\u003epollinated by \u003cem\u003eHypotrigona gribodoi\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eApis mellifera \u003c/em\u003eand the caged control plot without a pollinator. The horizontal line across the box shows the median, the box represents 25\u003csup\u003eth\u003c/sup\u003e and 75\u003csup\u003eth\u003c/sup\u003e percentiles, the vertical line outside the box represents the minimum and maximum values, and letters (a, b and c) indicates statistical significance among the treatment groups.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"5.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4823434/v1/5044e376b51da52a00b0c93c.png"},{"id":61398101,"identity":"de0bb713-d60f-4744-a19a-50157d6b04ac","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-07-30 09:22:34","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":1457794,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4823434/v1/06c4a628-18cb-4095-ba8c-ce2484bab086.pdf"},{"id":61396123,"identity":"b339066e-6c3b-4803-84b0-07249599a910","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-07-30 09:06:34","extension":"docx","order_by":1,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":310472,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Plates.docx","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-4823434/v1/b40853223e23fe64a3342e6a.docx"}],"financialInterests":"The authors declare no competing interests.","formattedTitle":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ePollination Efficiency of \u003c/strong\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eApis mellifera\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/em\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e and \u003c/strong\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eHypotrigona gribodoi\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/em\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e on \u003c/strong\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCapsicum annuum\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/em\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e Fruit Set and Yield\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e.\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","fulltext":[{"header":"1 Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003ePollination is an essential ecosystem service primarily carried out by insects such as bees, butterflies, moths, flies (Elizalde et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e; Rader et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR54\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e, Bronstein et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e; Magwira, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e), wind (Culley et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2002\u003c/span\u003e), birds and bats (Kunz et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e and Ollerton \u0026amp; Coulthard, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e) and humans through artificial means (Broussard et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). Pollination is considered as an important input to crop production and ecosystem functioning as it improves crop quality and quantity and maintenance of biodiversity and ecosystem resilience respectively (Alemberhe \u0026amp; Gebremeskel, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). It is through pollination that pollen from the male part of a flower (the stamen) is transferred to the female part (the stigma) of the same species (Asiko, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e), which results in the fertilization of the ovules and production of seeds (Bronstein et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e). Pollination enables the transfer of genetic material between plants (Abrol, 2012). A pollinator\u0026rsquo;s successful transfer of pollen is referred to as pollination efficiency (Brunet and Holmquist, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e and Keys \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2008). Over 70% of global food crops depend on pollinators (Ricketts et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR59\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e) and without them, crop yields would be significantly reduced, impacting food security and the global economy (Gallai et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e and Khanna et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eInsects particularly bees, are the most efficient pollinators (Osterman et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Breeze et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e; Stein et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR69\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). Their remarkable ability to transfer pollen between flowers significantly enhance the yield and fruit set of numerous crops (Dymond et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Rauf et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR57\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Fijen et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). Their pollination performance is largely attributed to their adeptness in moving from one flower to another (Cheng et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e), their wide range availability (Musharraf et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e) across different geographical conditions, their foraging behaviour and floral constancy (Alemberhe and Gebremeskel, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). Furthermore, their propensity to visit a diverse array of plant species further underscores their importance as pollinators (Stanley et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR67\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cem\u003eApis mellifera\u003c/em\u003e is a species of bees belonging to the family Apidae and Genus \u003cem\u003eApis\u003c/em\u003e (Hilleman, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e). They live in colonies and are known as eusocial insects (Papa et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR48\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e) with a division of labour among the colony members. The body structure of \u003cem\u003eApis mellifera\u003c/em\u003e is highly adapted for pollination. This adaptation includes specialised hairs that facilitate pollen (Cheng et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). Additionally, they possess long tongues, enabling them to reach the nectar located at the base of flowers with long corollas (Borrell, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e). Furthermore, their excellent color vision makes them particularly attracted to flowers with bright colors (Reser et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR58\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e). \u003cem\u003eApis mellifera\u003c/em\u003e is a pollinator of \u003cem\u003eCapsicum annum\u003c/em\u003e as they enhance productivity in fruit set and quality (Dag and Kammer, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2001\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cem\u003eHypotrigona gribodoi margaretti\u003c/em\u003e are small, about 2\u0026ndash;3 mm in body length (Asiko, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e), dark-colored, stingless bees found in tropical, subtropical regions of the world and savanna ecosystems (Malovechko et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1995\u003c/span\u003e). They are eusocial insects (Chakuya et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e) belonging to the family Apidae and subfamily Meliponinae. They forage on nectar and pollen enhancing pollination of more than 60% of different commercial crops (Heard, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1999\u003c/span\u003e, Atmowidi et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Ramalho, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR55\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2004\u003c/span\u003e). Stingless bees have specialized structures called corbicula on their legs (Asiko, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e) which enable them to efficiently gather and carry pollen. Their small body size allows them to pollinate small and delicate flowers that larger insects could potentially damage, thus making them important pollinators of many plant species in their natural habitats (Kasiera \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e., 2022; Wakhungu et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR74\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e and Ndungu et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e) and valuable contributors to the ecosystem (Slaa \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e,. 2006). \u003cem\u003eHypotrigona gribodoi\u003c/em\u003e are pollinators of \u003cem\u003eCapsicum annum\u003c/em\u003e as they enhance productivity by increasing the quality of fruit and fruit set rate \u003cem\u003e(\u003c/em\u003eKiatoko et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cem\u003eCapsicum annuum\u003c/em\u003e belongs to the genus \u003cem\u003eCapsicum\u003c/em\u003e and the family \u003cem\u003eSolanaceae\u003c/em\u003e (Pandey et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR47\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e). It is a widely cultivated vegetable crop in different tropical and subtropical parts of the world (Pandey et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR47\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e). Their flowers do not have poricidal anthers thus they do not require buzz pollination (Slaa \u003cem\u003eet al\u003c/em\u003e,. 2006). \u003cem\u003eCapsicum annum\u003c/em\u003e flowers produce both nectar and pollen (Greco et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e) as flower reward to pollinators (Simpson and Neff, 1981). While the plant is capable of self-pollination, insect pollination can significantly enhance its productivity (Cruz et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e; Greco et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAn increase in agricultural activity leads to an increased demand for pollination services while activities associated with agriculture lead to pollinator decline (Aizen et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e) thus creating a gap between pollination service demand and pollinators available to provide the services. Given the global concern over declining pollinator populations (Villanueva-G et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR72\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e; Steffan-Dewenter et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR68\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e) due to anthropogenic activities, including deforestation, habitat fragmentation, the use of pesticides (Chacoff, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e; Li, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e) and land use intensification and the expanding human population (Pican\u0026ccedil;o et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e), there is a growing global concern regarding the continuity of essential pollination services by insects (Allen-Wardell et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1998\u003c/span\u003e). As results, understanding the varying capacities of different pollinators has become imperative to effectively prioritize their conservation efforts.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe ecological role of stingless bees as pollinators for various plants (Norowi and Fahimie, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e.) highlights their potential as promising alternatives for commercial crop pollination, emphasizing their importance (Slaa, 2006). Considering the importance of pollination services provided by bees, which enhance both the quality and quantity of crops and have a direct positive impact on the global economy and dietary outcomes (Musharraf et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e), as well as their contribution to maintain plant species diversity, ensuring ecosystem resilience (Senapathi et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR63\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e) and as outlined in the objectives of the Tanzania National Beekeeping Policy Implementation Strategy of 2021\u0026ndash;2030 (URT, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR71\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e), it is crucial to adopt conservation strategies that go beyond solely focusing on \u003cem\u003eApis mellifera\u003c/em\u003e as the only potential pollinator species. However, there is limited understanding of the pollination capacities of different bee species. While stingless bees show promise as commercial pollinators, their capacities compared to \u003cem\u003eApis mellifera\u003c/em\u003e remain insufficiently understood. This study aims to assess the differential efficiency of \u003cem\u003eApis mellifera\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eHypotrigona gribodoi\u003c/em\u003e in pollinating \u003cem\u003eCapsicum annuum\u003c/em\u003e and their impact on fruit set and yield. Finding from this study will have significance in improving the conservation of pollinators, ecosystem productivity, and crop production.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"2 Materials and Methods","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.1 Description of Study Site\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study was conducted at the Crop Museum Organic Experimental Farm, located in the main campus of Sokoine University of Agriculture (SUA) in Morogoro Municipality. Morogoro municipal is situated approximately 200 km west of Dar es-salaam, the major business town of Tanzania. The farm is positioned at latitude 6\u0026deg; 45' south and longitude 37\u0026deg; 40' east, with an elevation of 525 meters above sea level. The average temperature in the district ranges from 21.9\u0026deg;C to 27.3\u0026deg;C. Additionally, Morogoro experiences an average annual rainfall of around 900 mm to 1000 mm (NBS Census, 2012).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec4\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.2 Experimental Design\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eExperimental plots were arranged in randomized complete block design (RCBD) with three treatments and three replications. The experimental area was 56 m\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e with 4 m\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e (2 m x 2 m) plots and the cage were 2 m x 2 m x 2.5 m. Plots were 0.5 m apart in replication and blocks were 1 m. On 14th December 2022 \u0026ldquo;Hercules F1 \u003cem\u003eCapsicum annuum\u003c/em\u003e\u0026rdquo; seeds from Seed.Co were planted in a nursery bed in greenhouse. Horticultural substrates (potting soil) from kekkilaOy.ratatie 11, FI-01300 Vantaa were used in the nursery. Prior to seed sowing, organic fertilizers (Bio-genic fertilizer) were applied. Land preparation was performed on 2nd January 2023 involving weed removal and soil digging in the areas designated for the experimental plots. Land preparation was carried out manually using a hand hoe. On 16th January 2023 seedlings were planted in experimental plots. Each plot was planted with 20 \u003cem\u003eCapsicum annum\u003c/em\u003e plants in five columns and four rows with plant spacing of 0.5 m between plants and rows were 0.6 m apart. Weeding was done three times on 31st January 2023, 15th February 2023 and 1st March 2023. Two weeks after sowing, the plots were covered with a mosquito net, before the initiation of flowering, and bee colonies were introduced to the plots immediately after installing the mosquito nets. Subsequently, treatments of \u003cem\u003eHypotrigona gribodoi, Apis mellifera\u003c/em\u003e, and a caged control plot without a pollinator were randomized in three replications. Bee colonies were fed with 1.5 L (50% w/v) sugar syrup solution every morning to ensure their survival as nectar available on pepper was not enough for their survival (Kwon and Saeed, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2003\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFirst and second harvests of mature fruits were done 57 and 71 days after initial planting. The experiment was conducted within 75 days. Yield parameter measurements were conducted in a laboratory. Harvesting was done two times to aggregate the number of fruits from each plot at interval of 14 days.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec5\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.3 Data collection\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo determine \u003cem\u003eCapsicum annum\u003c/em\u003e fruit set rate after pollination with \u003cem\u003eApis mellifera\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eHypotrigona gribodoi\u003c/em\u003e the sample of the number of flowers that emerged throughout the experiment from the six middle plants was counted to avoid edge effect, and after the fruit set, the total number of fruits from the same plant in each plot was counted.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo determine yield after pollination with \u003cem\u003eApis mellifera\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eHypotrigona gribodoi\u003c/em\u003e the 154 \u003cem\u003eCapsicum annum\u003c/em\u003e fruit were harvested for data collection. The transverse circumference, vertical circumference and weight of ten sample fruits from each plot were measured. Additionally, seeds from ten sample fruits were extracted and counted, oven dried over night at 103\u0026deg;C. The weight of 100 dry seeds per fruit and fruit weight was measured using an electronic balance (Sawe et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR62\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e) with precision of 0.0005 g.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec6\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.4 Data analysis\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe fruit set rate per plant, expressed in percentage, was calculated by dividing the mean number of fruits per plant harvested by the mean number of flowers per plant and then multiplied by hundred (Magwira, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eData were tested for normality using the Shapiro\u0026ndash;Wilk test. For normally distributed data, such as the number of fruits per plant, fruit transverse circumference, and fruit vertical circumference, one-way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) was employed to determine the differences between variables. This was followed by a post hoc test using Tukey's HSD (Honestly Significant Difference) for pairwise comparisons. On the other hand, the Kruskal-Wallis ranks test was employed for data that were not normally distributed, including the weight of fruit per plant, the number of seeds per fruit, and the weight of the 100 dry seeds per plant. Post hoc pairwise analysis was conducted using Dunn\u0026rsquo;s test. All analyses were performed using Microsoft excel and R Version 4.2.3 for windows (R Core Team 2023) computer software.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec7\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.5 Results\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003e2.5.1 Effect of\u003c/b\u003e \u003cb\u003eHypotrigona gribodoi\u003c/b\u003e \u003cb\u003eand\u003c/b\u003e \u003cb\u003eApis mellifera\u003c/b\u003e \u003cb\u003eon the\u003c/b\u003e \u003cb\u003eCapsicum annum\u003c/b\u003e \u003cb\u003eYield (fruit and seed quality).\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe number of fruits per plant was higher in plots pollinated by \u003cem\u003eHypotrigona gribodoi\u003c/em\u003e (21.39\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.8) followed by \u003cem\u003eApis mellifera\u003c/em\u003e (15.94\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.5) and lastly control plot (13.5\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.7) (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003eA). ANOVA results reveal that number of fruits per plant was significantly different among treatments (P\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001) (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e). The Turkey post hoc results showed that the higher difference was between treatments pollinated by \u003cem\u003eHypotrigona gribodoi\u003c/em\u003e and control plot without pollinator (P\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.0000000), followed by \u003cem\u003eHypotrigona gribodoi\u003c/em\u003e and Apis \u003cem\u003emellifera\u003c/em\u003e (P\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.0000024), and lastly, between \u003cem\u003eApis mellifera\u003c/em\u003e and control plots without pollinator (P\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.03889) (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003eA).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFruit transverse circumference was higher in treatments pollinated by \u003cem\u003eHypotrigona gribodoi\u003c/em\u003e (21.49\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.5 cm), followed by \u003cem\u003eApis mellifera\u003c/em\u003e (19.54\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.5 cm) and control plot (18.07\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.5 cm) (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003eB). ANOVA results revealed that fruit transverse circumference was significantly different among the treatments (P\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001) (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e). The Turkey post hoc results showed that the most significant difference was between the treatments pollinated by \u003cem\u003eHypotrigona gribodoi\u003c/em\u003e and the control plot without a pollinator (P\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.0000485), followed by \u003cem\u003eHypotrigona gribodoi\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eApis mellifera\u003c/em\u003e (P\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.0293909). There was no significant difference between \u003cem\u003eApis mellifera\u003c/em\u003e and the control plots without a pollinator P\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.1268336 (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003eB).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFruit vertical circumference was higher in treatments pollinated by \u003cem\u003eHypotrigona gribodoi\u003c/em\u003e (21.49\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;3.5 cm), followed by \u003cem\u003eApis mellifera\u003c/em\u003e (18.96\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.5 cm), and the control plot (17.93\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.5 cm) (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003eC). ANOVA results reveal that fruit vertical circumference was significantly different among treatments (P\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001) (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e). The Turkey post hoc results showed that most significant difference was between the treatments pollinated by \u003cem\u003eHypotrigona gribodoi\u003c/em\u003e and the control plot without a pollinator (P\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.0010029), followed by \u003cem\u003eHypotrigona gribodoi and Apis mellifera\u003c/em\u003e (P\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.0385193). While no significant difference was observed between \u003cem\u003eApis mellifera\u003c/em\u003e and control plots without a pollinator P\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.4368058 (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003eC).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe weight of fruit per plant was higher in treatments pollinated by \u003cem\u003eHypotrigona gribodoi\u003c/em\u003e (80.32\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;5.6 g), followed by \u003cem\u003eApis mellifera\u003c/em\u003e (58.05\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;5.5 g), and lastly the control plot (50.80\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;4.5 g) (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003eD). Kruskal-Wallis results revealed that the number of fruits per plant was significantly different among the treatments (\u003cem\u003eX\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u003cem\u003e2\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;16.065, df\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;2, P\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.0003247). The Dunn's post hoc results showed that the most difference was between the treatments pollinated by \u003cem\u003eHypotrigona gribodoi\u003c/em\u003e and the control plot without a pollinator (P\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.0002), followed by \u003cem\u003eHypotrigona gribodoi\u003c/em\u003e and Apis \u003cem\u003emellifera\u003c/em\u003e (P\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.0044). While no significant difference was observed between \u003cem\u003eApis mellifera\u003c/em\u003e and control plots without a pollinator P\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.6055 (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003eD).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAnalysis of Variance on the pollination effect of \u003cem\u003eHypotrigona gribodoi\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eApis mellifera\u003c/em\u003e on \u003cem\u003eCapsicum annum\u003c/em\u003e in the number of fruits per plant, fruit transverse circumference (cm) and fruit vertical circumference (cm)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"7\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eParameter\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eResponse\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDf\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSum\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSq\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMean Sq\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eF\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eValue\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePr(\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;F)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNumber of fruits per plant\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTreatment\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003e2\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e587.11\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e293.556\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e34.678\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.098e-10 ***\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFruit Transverse circumference (cm)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eResiduals\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e51\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e431.72\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.465\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTreatment\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e176.57\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e88.283\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.479\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.366e-05 ***\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFruit Vertical circumference (cm)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eResiduals\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e87\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e732.95\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.425\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTreatment\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e150.59\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e75.297\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.1993\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.001279 **\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eResiduals\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e87\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e909.93\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.459\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe number of seeds per fruit was higher in plots pollinated by \u003cem\u003eApis mellifera\u003c/em\u003e (189.73\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;18.14), followed by the control plot without a pollinator (189.53\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;13.42) and lastly, \u003cem\u003eHypotrigona gribodoi\u003c/em\u003e (153.8\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;11.94) (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003eA). Kruskal-Wallis results reveal that the difference in the number of seeds per fruit was statistically insignificant among the plots (\u003cem\u003eX\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u003cem\u003e2\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;2.2744, df\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;2, P\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.3207) (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003eA).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe weight of the 100 dry seeds per plant was higher in plots pollinated by \u003cem\u003eHypotrigona gribodoi\u003c/em\u003e, (2.22\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.19 g), followed by the control plot without a pollinator (1.01\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.09 g), and lastly \u003cem\u003eApis mellifera\u003c/em\u003e (0.966\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.1 g) (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003eB). Kruskal-Wallis results reveal that 100 dry seed weight per plant difference was statistically insignificant among the plots (\u003cem\u003eX\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u003cem\u003e2\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.66743, \u003cem\u003edf\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;2, P\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.7163) (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003eB).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.5.2 Effect of \u003cem\u003eApis mellifera\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eHypotrigona\u003c/em\u003e gribodoi Pollination on \u003cem\u003eCapsicum annuum\u003c/em\u003e Percentage fruit set.\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe Percentage of fruit set rate per plant was higher in treatments pollinated by \u003cem\u003eHypotrigona gribodoi\u003c/em\u003e (72.89\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.4), followed by \u003cem\u003eApis mellifera\u003c/em\u003e (65.33\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.9), and lastly, the control plot without a pollinator (45.93\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.1) (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e). Kruskal-Wallis results revealed that the percentage of fruit set rate per plant was significantly different among the treatments (\u003cem\u003eX\u003c/em\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u003cem\u003e2\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;43.03, \u003cem\u003edf\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;2 and P\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;4.53e-10) (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e).The Dunn's post hoc results showed that the most significant difference was between the treatments pollinated by \u003cem\u003eHypotrigona gribodoi\u003c/em\u003e and the control plot without a pollinator (P\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.0000), followed by the caged control plot and \u003cem\u003eApis mellifera\u003c/em\u003e (P\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.0002), and lastly, between \u003cem\u003eHypotrigona gribodoi\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eApis mellifera\u003c/em\u003e treatments (P\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.0085) (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"3 Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003e3.1 Effect of\u003c/b\u003e \u003cb\u003eHypotrigona gribodoi\u003c/b\u003e \u003cb\u003eand\u003c/b\u003e \u003cb\u003eApis mellifera\u003c/b\u003e \u003cb\u003eon the\u003c/b\u003e \u003cb\u003eCapsicum annum\u003c/b\u003e \u003cb\u003eYield (fruit and seed quality).\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe findings show that treatments pollinated by \u003cem\u003eHypotrigona gribodoi\u003c/em\u003e have higher mean number of fruits, fruit transverse circumference, fruit vertical circumference, and weight of fruit. These results signify the successful pollination of \u003cem\u003eCapsicum annum\u003c/em\u003e by stingless bees such as \u003cem\u003eHypotrigona gribodoi\u003c/em\u003e, resulting in the production of a greater quantity of larger and heavier fruits. The difference in fruit quality is attributed to the pollinator's flower visit rate, which affects the quantity of pollen deposited on the stigma of the flower ( Rolda\u0026acute;n, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR61\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e). The success of \u003cem\u003eHypotrigona gribodoi\u003c/em\u003e pollination on \u003cem\u003eCapsicum annum\u003c/em\u003e is attributed to the higher flower handling exhibited by stingless bees, as documented by Putra et al., (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR53\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e), with their relatively constant rate of flower visitation throughout the day and the associated consistent visitation pattern, coupled with flower constancy, increasing the likelihood of pollen deposition onto the stigma. In contrast, the honey bee \u003cem\u003eApis mellifera\u003c/em\u003e tends to prefer visiting flowers in the morning, as reported by \u003cem\u003eIdrees et al.\u003c/em\u003e, (2023).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOur findings are also similar to study by Putra \u003cem\u003eet al.\u003c/em\u003e (2016) on stingless bees where \u003cem\u003eTrigona minangkabau\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eTetragonula leaviceps\u003c/em\u003e increases in \u003cem\u003eCapsicum annum L\u003c/em\u003e number of fruits by 29.31% and 25.06% and fruit weight per plant 66.46% and 49.75%, respectively. Atmowidi et al., (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e) found stingless bee \u003cem\u003eHeterotrigona itama\u003c/em\u003e increase in number of fruits in melon. Cruz et al., (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e) found that sweet pepper pollinated by \u003cem\u003eMelipona subnitida\u003c/em\u003e produce heavier, wider, and higher quality fruits with a lower percentage of malformed fruits compared to self-pollinated sweet pepper. Stingless bee \u003cem\u003eMelipona Fasciculate\u003c/em\u003e improves fruit yield and quality of \u003cem\u003eSolanum melongena L\u003c/em\u003e (Nunes-Silva et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e). Stingless bees \u003cem\u003eTrigona carbonaria\u003c/em\u003e, are efficient pollinator of \u003cem\u003emacadamia\u003c/em\u003e compared to \u003cem\u003eApis mellifera\u003c/em\u003e due to the fact that they mainly collect pollen, resulting in intimate contact with the stigma while honey bees like \u003cem\u003eApis mellifera\u003c/em\u003e mainly collect nectar, resulting in less frequent contact with the stigma (Heard, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). These outcomes collectively indicate that effective pollination by stingless bees contributes to a reduction in fruit malformation, as supported by (Cruz et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e). This improved pollination is crucial for raising crop quality standards as similar findings in passion fruit were found in other studies (Shahidah, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR64\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; Wietzke et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR75\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eContrary to our findings, stingless bees \u003cem\u003eNannotrigona perilampoides\u003c/em\u003e have similar \u003cem\u003eLycopersicon esculentum\u003c/em\u003e fruit weight as control plots without pollinators (Cauich et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2004\u003c/span\u003e). Additionally study by Kendall et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e) demonstrates similar blueberry fruit weights between plots visited by honey bees and stingless bees as results of similar trend in flower visits in two bees species. Furthermore, studies reveal that the stingless bee \u003cem\u003eTrigona iridipennis\u003c/em\u003e and honey bee \u003cem\u003eApis cerana\u003c/em\u003e exhibit similar efficacy in yielding \u003cem\u003eCapsicum annum\u003c/em\u003e pollination (Putra \u0026amp; Kinasih, 2014) as results of similar visitation rate. this are caused by stingless bee loss of population in green house environment leading to singnificant reduction in their foraging activities, low amont of nector and also stingless bees needs several types of polein (Cauich et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2004\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFindings from this study show that \u003cem\u003eHypotrigona gribodoi\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eApis mellifera\u003c/em\u003e have similar effect on number of seeds per fruit but seed weight was higher in plot pollinated by \u003cem\u003eHypotrigona gribodoi\u003c/em\u003e. Despite insignificant difference observed in this study, dry seed weight were slightly higher in plot pollinated by \u003cem\u003eHypotrigona gribodoi\u003c/em\u003e compared to \u003cem\u003eApis mellifera\u003c/em\u003e and caged control plot, indicating successful fertilization and resulting in improved reproductive fitness through the quantity of pollen deposited by the pollinator on the stigma of the flower (Dogterom et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2000\u003c/span\u003e). Stingless bees primarily carry pollen from flowers (Puteri et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR51\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e), thereby increasing the chances of successful pollination for the plants.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eContrary to our findings, study conducted by Kiatoko et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e) reported that \u003cem\u003eHypotrigona gribodoi\u003c/em\u003e produce \u003cem\u003eCapsicum annum\u003c/em\u003e fruit with higher seed quality in terms of number and weight compared to self-pollination and unmanaged pollination (by feral insects) attributed by difference in floral visit by different pollinator ( Rolda\u0026acute;n, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR61\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e). Additionally stingless bees \u003cem\u003eTrigona minangkabau\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eTetragonula leaviceps\u003c/em\u003e increase \u003cem\u003eCapsicum annum L\u003c/em\u003e. number of seeds by 56.36% and 45.91%, respectively compared to wind pollination (Putra \u003cem\u003eet al.\u003c/em\u003e, 2016). Futhermore, \u003cem\u003eLycopersicon esculentum\u003c/em\u003e number of seed were different in plot pollinated by stingless bee \u003cem\u003eNannotrigona perilampoides\u003c/em\u003e, plot without pollinator and mechanical vibration plot (Cauich et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2004\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec10\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.2 \u003cem\u003eHypotrigona gribodoi\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eApis mellifera\u003c/em\u003e pollination impact on \u003cem\u003eCapsicum annum\u003c/em\u003e fruit set rate\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eOur finding shows that fruit set rate was higher in treatments pollinated by \u003cem\u003eHypotrigona gribodoi\u003c/em\u003e compared to \u003cem\u003eApis mellifera\u003c/em\u003e and the caged control plot. This indicates that \u003cem\u003eHypotrigona gribodoi\u003c/em\u003e is more efficient pollinator of \u003cem\u003eCapsicum annum\u003c/em\u003e compared to \u003cem\u003eApis mellifera\u003c/em\u003e. Our findings are similar to those of Putra \u003cem\u003eet al.\u003c/em\u003e (2016), where stingless bees \u003cem\u003eTrigona minangkabau\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eTetragonula leaviceps\u003c/em\u003e increased the fruit set rate of \u003cem\u003eCapsicum annum L\u003c/em\u003e. by 12.32% and 9.66% respectively. Cauich et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2004\u003c/span\u003e) finds that \u003cem\u003eNannotrigona perilampoides\u003c/em\u003e yielded a higher fruit set in the pollination of tomato \u003cem\u003eLycopersicon esculentum\u003c/em\u003e while Atmowidi et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e) report that \u003cem\u003eTetragonula laeviceps\u003c/em\u003e increased strawberry fruit set rates and reduced abnormal fruits. Additionally, stingless bees \u003cem\u003eLepidotrigona terminate\u003c/em\u003e were reported to have increased the fruit set rate of \u003cem\u003eCoffee arabica and\u003c/em\u003e Coffea by 80% and 84%, among coffee varieties (Slaa, 2006; Klein, 2003). Successful pollination of flowers by \u003cem\u003eHypotrigona gribodoi\u003c/em\u003e increases the fruit set rate. The ability of insect pollinators to deliver pollen to flower stigmas (Vit et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR73\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e) is influenced by morphological and behavioural traits, such as larger body length, increased hairiness, and longer visits durations \u003cem\u003e(\u003c/em\u003ePhillips et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR49\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e). \u003cem\u003eHypotrigona gribodi\u003c/em\u003e, being smaller in size (Eardley, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2004\u003c/span\u003e; Kajobe, 2007), is associated with a higher pollen carrying capacity (Mayes et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; Ramalho et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR56\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1998\u003c/span\u003e), enabling them to efficiently navigate and access flowers compared to \u003cem\u003eApis mellifera.\u003c/em\u003e This size difference could be one of the determinants of successful pollination, as suggested by (Kiatoko et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e), that body size is a factor that influences pollination. Their ability to adapt to environmental stress allows them to thrive and perform well even in challenging conditions, enhancing their suitability as pollinators in diverse agricultural environments (Atmowidi et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"4 Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003e \u003cem\u003eApis mellifera\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eHypotrigona gribodoi\u003c/em\u003e enhance the pollination of \u003cem\u003eCapsicum annum\u003c/em\u003e. Our findings suggest that \u003cem\u003eHypotrigona gribodoi\u003c/em\u003e is a more effective pollinator of \u003cem\u003eCapsicum annum\u003c/em\u003e compared to \u003cem\u003eApis mellifera\u003c/em\u003e. \u003cem\u003eHypotrigona gribodoi\u003c/em\u003e exhibits higher yields, particularly in terms of fruit quality and fruit set, for \u003cem\u003eCapsicum annum\u003c/em\u003e. \u003cem\u003eCapsicum annum\u003c/em\u003e seed quality is similar between the two bee species. Moreover, the findings suggest that \u003cem\u003eHypotrigona gribodoi\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eApis mellifera\u003c/em\u003e are crucial for cross-pollination. The study underscores the importance of enhanced pollination, primarily facilitated by the stingless bee \u003cem\u003eHypotrigona gribodoi\u003c/em\u003e. This underscores their role in elevating crop quality standards, as evidenced by increased fruit production, larger and heavier fruits, and improved seed quality.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003eRecommendation\u003c/b\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cul\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eMore research is needed to understand the biology, behaviour, and ecological needs of stingless bees. Conducting research on the diversity and distribution of stingless bees, their role in pollination, and their response to different management practices can help inform conservation efforts.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003cli\u003e \u003cp\u003eConservation strategies for pollinator protection should encompass both stingless bees and honey bees, acknowledging their significant roles in enhancing commercial crop yields, ensuring food security, and preserving ecosystem health. Raising public awareness about the crucial role of stingless bees and honey bees in pollination and advocating for their conservation is essential. This involves educating farmers, decision-makers, and the general public about the importance of these insects. Additionally, fostering a favourable environment for the conservation of stingless bees includes preserving natural habitats like forests, mangroves, and wetlands to create safe habitats for their thriving.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/li\u003e \u003c/ul\u003e \u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAcknowledgements\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWe would like to express our gratitude to the Tanzania Forest Services Agency (TFS) for funding this research, and to the Department of Ecosystem and Conservation (DEC), College of Forestry, Wildlife, and Tourism at Sokoine University of Agriculture (SUA), for their valuable supervision.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eData availability:\u003c/strong\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe data is available from the corresponding author upon request.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConflict of interest\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOn behalf of all authors, the corresponding author states that there is no conflict of interest.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAizen MA, Garibaldi LA, Cunningham SA, Klein AM (2009) How much does agriculture depend on pollinators? 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Biochemistry 14(26):5579\u0026ndash;5586\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"},{"header":"Plates","content":"\u003cp\u003ePlate 2.1 is available in the Supplementary Files section\u003c/p\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":true,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"Sokoine University of Agriculture","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Pollination, Apis mellifera, Hypotrigona gribodoi, Capsicum annuum L., yield, fruit set rate","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-4823434/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-4823434/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003ePollination by insects accounts for over 70% of global food crop production. Among insect species, bees are one of the most efficient pollinators though their pollination efficiency varies between species. Amidst rising worries about declining pollinator populations due to human activities, comprehending diverse pollinator capabilities is crucial for conservation. While stingless bees show promise as commercial pollinators, their capacities compared to \u003cem\u003eApis mellifera\u003c/em\u003e remain insufficiently understood. This study evaluated the pollination efficiency of \u003cem\u003eApis mellifera\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eHypotrigona gribodoi\u003c/em\u003e on fruit set and yield in \u003cem\u003eCapsicum annuum\u003c/em\u003e. A randomized complete block design experiment was conducted with three replications and three caged treatments involving \u003cem\u003eApis mellifera, Hypotrigona gribodoi\u003c/em\u003e, and a control plot without pollinators on \u003cem\u003eCapsicum annum\u003c/em\u003e. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) and Kruskal-Wallis were used to compare the differences in fruit quality, seed quality, and fruit set rate between the two species. Tukey's Honestly Significant Difference (HSD) and Dunn tests were used for normally distributed and non-normally distributed data respectively. The results show significant differences in the number of fruits per plant, fruit transverse circumference, fruit vertical circumference, fruit weight and percentage fruit set rate per plant between control plot without a pollinator, \u003cem\u003eApis melifera\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eHypotrigona gribodoi\u003c/em\u003e pollinated \u003cem\u003eCapsicum annuum\u003c/em\u003e (P\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05). However, there was no significant difference in the number of seeds in the fruit and the weight of 100 dry seeds per fruit among the two species (P\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;0.05). These findings suggest that \u003cem\u003eHypotrigona gribodoi\u003c/em\u003e is a more efficient pollinator of \u003cem\u003eCapsicum annum L.\u003c/em\u003e More research on the differential pollination efficiency among different species in crop production is imperative.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Pollination Efficiency of Apis mellifera and Hypotrigona gribodoi on Capsicum annuum Fruit Set and Yield.","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2024-07-30 09:06:29","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-4823434/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"15262866-c682-41f1-86a8-5e499168f1f1","owner":[],"postedDate":"July 30th, 2024","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[{"id":35297798,"name":"Agroecology"}],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2024-07-30T09:06:29+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2024-07-30 09:06:29","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-4823434","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-4823434","identity":"rs-4823434","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"qtupq5eGEP_6zYnWcrvyt","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}