Ancient Defensive Structures Shape Long Term Land Use in Damghan Iran

Ancient Defensive Structures Shape Long Term Land Use in Damghan Iran | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Article Ancient Defensive Structures Shape Long Term Land Use in Damghan Iran Hadi Jarahi, Donya Namdar This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-7586286/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Under Review Version 1 posted 9 You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Unregulated land-use change complicates the management of historic cities in seismic regions. Damghan, northeastern Iran, enclosed by an ~ 8.8-km defensive wall, provides a testbed to examine how fortifications shape long-term urban form. We integrated historical maps, 1955 aerial photos, declassified CORONA imagery (1972, 1981), and recent very-high-resolution satellite data to reconstruct land-use trajectories from the medieval period to 2025. All datasets were georeferenced and orthorectified; object-based image analysis with SVM classification supported change detection. Urban area grew slowly until the mid-20th century, then accelerated after the 1970s, with a persistent west–southwest bias. Despite its lost military role, the wall continued to act as a spatial boundary limiting expansion, especially along northern and southern sectors. Limited growth to the east likely reflects early wall destruction and local hydro-geomorphic constraints. Results show that historical defensive structures can shape urban development for centuries and demonstrate the value of multi-temporal remote sensing for managing heritage cities in arid regions. Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 Figure 6 Figure 7 Figure 8 Figure 9 Introduction Unregulated land-use change in urban and rural areas constitutes a major challenge confronting contemporary societies. Both natural phenomena and human factors can significantly influence the direction and rate of land-use transformations. Iran possesses a profound historical legacy, with numerous ancient cities dating back thousands of years that remain unparalleled from an engineering perspective. These settlements were invariably protected by defensive walls constructed to repel external threats. Even today, such fortifications play an important role in shaping urban development patterns. Damghan formerly the administrative center of the small province of Qumis [ 1 , 2 ] is one of these historic cities. According to tradition, it was founded by Hushang , the second mythological king of the Pishdadian dynasty of Iran [ 3 ]. Considering the high seismicity of northeastern Iran, understanding long-term land-use dynamics and the persistence of ancient structures can also inform modern seismic risk assessments. Located in northeastern Iran at the foothills of the Alborz Mountains, Damghan has been subject to a combination of arid climate, proximity to active faults, destructive seismic events, and the presence of ancient lake basins. These factors have alternately fostered and hindered human settlement over millennia. The city’s rectangular defensive wall, measuring approximately 8.8 kilometers in length and originally featuring 147 watchtowers and three main gates, ranks among the most formidable urban fortifications of ancient Iran. The history of Damghan is highly complex. Accordingly, to clarify the context and illustrate how this historical legacy has shaped urban development, a selected portion of this heritage is presented here (Fig. 1 ). Damghan is an ancient settlement south of the Alborz Mountains, with evidence of human presence dating back at least 60,000 years [ 4 ]. Field surveys have identified lithic tools potentially 250,000 years old. The earliest urban habitation traces are found at Tepe Hissar , south of the present city, dated between ca. 6000 BCE and 1500 BCE [ 5 ]. Prior to the major 9th-century earthquake, this site likely extended to the area now occupied by modern Damghan. About 40 km west of Damghan, near Amirabad, lie the remains of Hecatompylos, a large ancient city (~ 11×11 km) that served as the first Parthian capital [ 6 ]. Contrary to some claims, Damghan itself was not Hecatompylos, as Greek sources reserved this name for cities with more than four gates, while Damghan historically had only three gates. In 651 CE, Arab armies conquered the region, establishing a new Islamic urban framework [ 7 ]. The first defensive wall was built in the late Sasanian period [ 8 ] but later deteriorated or was destroyed. In 921 CE, it was rebuilt with three gates to defend against Alid incursions [ 8 ]. On 20 December 856 CE, a magnitude ~ 7.4 earthquake struck 25 km east of Damghan, destroying nearly all structures in a wide area [ 9 – 11 ]. Despite the destruction, the great Tārīkhāna Fire Temple, later converted into a mosque, partially survived. Its main minaret, sometimes called the Fire Tower, collapsed in the quake and was reconstructed in 1027 CE by Abuharb Bakhtiyar [ 12 , 13 ]. During the medieval period, Damghan repeatedly changed hands among the Ziyarids, Seljuks , Nizari Ismailis of Girdkuh Fortress, Khwarezmians , Mongols, and Timurids , experiencing cycles of destruction and rebuilding [ 8 , 14 ]. Timur’s assault in 1404 CE was among the most devastating, sharply reducing the population. In the 16th century, the city was briefly occupied by Uzbeks and then recaptured by Shah Tahmasp I. After the Safavid decline, Damghan endured several decades of instability and depopulation. On 2 October 1729 CE, Nader Shah Afshar entered Damghan after defeating Ashraf Afghan. Dissatisfied with the local governor, he ordered bombardment of residential quarters and sections of the defensive wall, causing severe damage [ 15 ]. Under the Qajars , the city gradually stabilized, though its population in the late 18th and early 19th centuries remained under 1,500 [ 8 ]. The last major violent episode occurred during the Constitutional Revolution, when, on 30 December 1911 CE, constitutionalist forces defeated Mohammad Ali Shah’s loyalists [ 15 ]. To the south, Hecatompylos Lake sustained fishing and transport for at least 4,500 years [ 16 – 18 ]. Archaeological and sedimentary studies indicate the lake began to shrink about 1,500 years ago and eventually dried up completely [ 19 – 21 ]. Overall, Damghan’s history has been shaped by major earthquakes, invasions, shifting regional powers, and climatic transformations, resulting in alternating periods of prosperity and decline. All historical data, including records of conquests, conflicts, destruction, demographic changes, and related events, are illustrated in Figs. 2 and 3 . The maps reconstructed from historical records of this region (13th to 17th centuries) provide valuable data on historical land use patterns. They reveal the location of the main fortress, known as the " Arg " or " Qala ," the old Damghan gold bazaar that, prior to the earthquake, was situated adjacent to the Zarjub River, and the pistachio orchards called " Kuche Baq ," among many other features that no longer exist today. In general, ancient cities tended to develop from a central core, typically adopting a circular layout. However, the historical center of Damghan was located precisely behind the Rey Gate on the western side of the city. Historical and archaeological studies have demonstrated that the Damghan Plain has been a center of settlement and land-use transformations from millennia before the Common Era to the later Islamic periods. Schmidt [ 5 ], through excavations at Tepe Hissar , documented evidence of continuous occupation by agricultural communities and the gradual evolution of land use from the fifth millennium BCE to the Sassanian era. Findings by Waters [ 29 ], based on environmental indicators and sediment layers, showed that climate change and diminishing water resources during the second millennium BCE led to the displacement of settlement centers and the progressive conversion of agricultural lands into drylands. During the Parthian and Sassanian periods, according to the research of Hansman [ 1 ], the defensive structure of Hecatompylos, located 40 kilometers west of Damghan, exemplified large-scale fortifications that simultaneously organized residential boundaries and surrounding agricultural areas. Although this city was distinct from Damghan, architectural evidence suggests that the use of defensive walls as a structuring element of land persisted into later periods in Damghan itself. According to historical records [ 1 , 3 ], the rectangular wall of Damghan served until the early Islamic centuries as a boundary for urban development and agricultural expansion, influencing access routes and irrigation distribution networks. The direct impact of historical earthquakes on land-use change and urban spatial reorganization in Damghan is notably documented by Ambraseys and Melville [ 9 ]. The devastating earthquake of 856 CE, recorded as the largest historical seismic event in the region, resulted in widespread destruction of residential areas and alterations in irrigation networks and land utilization. Historical transformations of land use in arid central Iran have long been intertwined with the emergence of fortified settlements, environmental shifts, and seismic hazards. Hillenbrand [ 30 ] underlined that Iranian and Turco-Iranian defensive architecture evolved not only as a military necessity but also as an organizing framework that influenced settlement distribution and land tenure systems over centuries. Complementary research by Manohar [ 31 ] on comparable fortified urban complexes in South Asia illustrates the broader regional pattern wherein fortification walls delineated economic zones and agricultural hinterlands, a phenomenon that also resonates in the Damghan Plain. The application of declassified CORONA satellite imagery for reconstructing past landscapes has become a pivotal method in Middle Eastern archaeology. Day [ 32 ] was among the first to demonstrate the utility of CORONA data to document lost irrigation networks and settlement perimeters. Later, Comer et al. [ 33 ] advanced this approach by developing an orthorectified CORONA atlas facilitating quantitative analysis of temporal land-cover change. These methods have proved especially valuable in Iran, where aerial reconnaissance was limited prior to declassification. Research by Welch [ 34 ] emphasized that the caravanserais and defensive towers of central Iranian deserts, played a dual role in providing protection and controlling resource distribution along trade corridors. Their spatial arrangement shaped patterns of land use and urban expansion over centuries. Daiber [ 35 ] further highlighted that recurrent seismic events and socio-political upheavals periodically disrupted settlement systems and induced reconfiguration of agricultural lands, particularly during the medieval period. In addition, geoarchaeological studies by Waters [ 36 ] have demonstrated that environmental factors, notably Holocene climatic fluctuations, were critical drivers of long-term land-use transformation in arid Iran. Integration of geomorphological evidence and historical documentation has provided a nuanced understanding of how fortified cities adapted their subsistence strategies in response to environmental stressors[ 37 ]. Collectively, these studies underscore that land-use dynamics in Damghan cannot be attributed to a single factor. Furthermore, integrating seismic hazard models with historical urban development has been highlighted by researchers such as Coburn et al. [ 38 ] and Bilham [ 39 ] as critical for preserving built heritage in active tectonic regions. Instead, the evolution of settlement patterns reflects the interaction of defensive architecture, climatic variability, seismic hazards, and socio-economic factors. The integration of high-resolution satellite imagery and multi-disciplinary historical sources enables a comprehensive reconstruction of these complex processes. The necessity of this research is justified on several grounds. First, despite the millennia-long history of Damghan, no systematic and quantitative studies have addressed the influence of defensive structures on patterns of land-use change. Second, due to the scarcity of precise spatial datasets and limited access to historical maps, there has been no clear and documented understanding of the spatial dynamics of urban development in this area. Third, the results of this study can serve as a model for sustainable development management in other historical settlements across Iran and comparable arid regions. Furthermore, the integration of declassified CORONA satellite imagery and advanced data-processing techniques enables a more accurate reconstruction of past transformations and a deeper understanding of how ancient structures have shaped the present spatial configuration[ 40 , 41 ]. In this paper, a multi-temporal reconstruction of land-use changes and urban expansion in Damghan from the 13th century CE to 2025 is conducted using declassified CORONA and GeoEye-1 satellite imagery, historical maps, and aerial photographs[ 42 ]. The imagery was geometrically corrected and orthorectified, followed by object-based image analysis and spatial change detection. The results demonstrate that the ancient defensive wall of Damghan, although no longer serving a military function, continues to act as a significant boundary shaping urban development. Furthermore, historical data reveal that climatic shifts and major seismic events have been decisive factors influencing settlement patterns and land-use transformations. By integrating historical documentation with high-resolution satellite datasets, this study provides a new perspective on the interactions between defensive architecture and spatial dynamics in ancient urban environments. The findings of this research align with prior studies [ 32 – 34 ] that demonstrated the value of CORONA imagery for documenting land-use change. However, compared to these works, this study represents the first systematic effort to reconstruct the long-term urban development of a historic Iranian city through an integrated multi-source approach combining CORONA and GeoEye-1 imagery, aerial photographs, and historical maps. Unlike most comparable studies that have focused on relatively short temporal spans, this research covers an approximately 700-year period and quantitatively assesses the relationships between historical earthquakes, climatic shifts, and the role of defensive architecture. Additionally, the application of object-based classification and support vector machine models has enhanced the analytical accuracy relative to earlier research. These characteristics distinguish this study in terms of temporal scale, spatial resolution, and the comprehensiveness of its dataset. Methods In this study, a comprehensive multi-temporal remote sensing and GIS-based approach was implemented to assess the influence of ancient urban fortifications on land use change dynamics in Damghan, Iran. The workflow integrated historical cartographic analysis, high-resolution declassified satellite imagery, aerial photography, GPS surveying, and object-based classification. Initially, historical maps from the 13th to 17th centuries were acquired and critically evaluated to delineate the probable extent of the ancient city walls and associated urban structures. The earliest available vertical aerial photographs, captured in 1955, were retrieved from the Iranian Army Geographic Organization archives. For subsequent temporal snapshots, CORONA KH-4B satellite images from July 11, 1972, and January 27, 1981, were procured, providing sub-meter spatial resolution critical for the detailed reconstruction of wall remnants and urban morphology. To establish contemporary land-use conditions, we used GeoEye-1 imagery (22 March 2025; panchromatic 0.41 m, multispectral 1.65 m), pan-sharpened to ~ 0.5 m for mapping. Additionally, the proximity of mapped land-use changes to known fault traces was evaluated using available tectonic datasets (e.g., the Iranian National Seismic Hazard Map), though this component was not the primary focus of the present study [ 43 – 46 ]. All imagery and historical maps lacked geospatial referencing. Accordingly, geometric rectification was conducted in ArcGIS Pro 3.1 using ground control points derived from a dual-frequency GNSS survey and stable topographic features, including river meanders and extant architectural remains (e.g., the Tārīkhāna Fire Temple). The rectified imagery was orthorectified against a 12.5-meter ALOS PALSAR DEM. Subsequently, an object-based image analysis (OBIA) pipeline was implemented [ 47 , 48 ]. Multiresolution segmentation and feature extraction were performed in eCognition Developer 10.4, followed by classification with a support vector machine (SVM) kernel optimized for radial basis function (RBF). The classes included urban fabric, pistachio orchards, cultivated fields, and undeveloped areas. Post-classification refinement utilized manual digitization and ancillary field observations. Validation entailed a stratified random sampling protocol, with ground truth data acquired during field campaigns in 2023–2024. Overall classification accuracy exceeded 90%, confirmed via confusion matrix analysis. Change detection was conducted by overlaying vectorized land use polygons across all temporal datasets, enabling the quantification of urban expansion and agricultural transformation relative to the location and persistence of ancient defensive structures (Fig. 4 ). Results The results derived from the multi-temporal analysis of historical maps, declassified satellite imagery, and aerial photographs demonstrate substantial transformations in the extent, spatial orientation, and land-use configuration of Damghan over the past seven centuries. The quantitative assessment indicates that the urban area and agricultural lands have expanded markedly, while the ancient defensive wall has retained a persistent influence on spatial development patterns. According to the measurements presented in Table 1 , during the 13th–17th centuries, the estimated area of the urban core was approximately 0.30 km², which, in proportion to the combined agricultural and orchard areas, was relatively limited. Pistachio orchards during this period occupied 1.05 km², and cultivated fields covered 2.32 km². By 1955, the urban footprint had grown to 0.95 km², and the areas under orchards and agricultural cultivation reached 2.20 km² and 2.50 km², respectively. This gradual expansion indicates that prior to the modern era, land-use change occurred incrementally with no significant shifts in spatial orientation. The CORONA imagery acquired in 1972 and 1981 documents a pronounced acceleration of urban development. In 1972, the urban area expanded to 1.34 km², while by 1981 it increased to 3.72 km². Concurrently, the extent of agricultural fields expanded to over 12 km², while pistachio orchards declined moderately. By 2025, according to the high-resolution GeoEye-1 imagery, the urban footprint reached 10.77 km², the largest extent recorded during the study period. At the same time, pistachio orchards expanded to 3.10 km², and cultivated fields remained extensive, measuring 12.34 km². Figure 5 illustrates the temporal trajectory of land-use categories, indicating negligible changes between the medieval period and 1955, followed by a substantial increase in urban area after the 1970s. With respect to the spatial orientation of development, historical and satellite evidence consistently indicates that the earliest urban nucleus formed around the Rey Gate on the western perimeter of the defensive wall. Table 1 Calculated area of the urban zone (built-up areas), pistachio orchards, and agricultural fields based on historical documentation and CORONA and GeoEye-1 satellite imagery. No. Date Area (Km 2 ) Urban Garden Farm Total 1 13th-17th Centuries 0.30 1.05 2.32 3.67 2 1955 0.95 2.20 2.50 5.65 3 1972 1.34 2.10 9.22 12.66 4 1981 3.72 1.40 12.41 17.53 5 2025 10.77 3.10 12.34 26.21 Over time, expansion was predominantly oriented west-southwest (Fig. 6 to 9 ). In contrast, growth toward the eastern sectors was markedly limited. This restriction likely reflects the early destruction of the eastern wall segment and the presence of a perennial river channel in this area, as corroborated by historical accounts and geomorphological observations. Throughout all assessed time intervals, the surviving segments of the ancient defensive wall have continued to function as a discernible spatial boundary. Even as of 2025, development patterns largely respect the alignment of the historical fortifications, particularly along the northern and southern sectors (Fig. 8 ). This persistence underscores the enduring structuring role of defensive architecture despite its loss of military function. The CORONA and GeoEye-1 datasets, with sub-meter spatial resolution, facilitated precise mapping of land-use transitions, and classification accuracy was verified through field surveys conducted in 2023–2024. The overall accuracy of the object-based classification exceeded 90%, as confirmed by confusion matrix analysis. In summary, the results reveal several key patterns: A progressive and subsequently accelerated expansion of the urban area , especially after the 1970s A significant increase in agricultural land , accompanied by fluctuating pistachio orchard extents The continued influence of the ancient defensive wall in delineating urban growth A dominant westward orientation of expansion , contrasted by limited development toward the east Collectively, these findings, grounded in high-resolution geospatial evidence and systematic multi-temporal analysis, provide robust documentation of the complex interplay among ancient fortifications, seismic events (notably the 856 CE earthquake), climatic shifts, and land-use dynamics in Damghan. These land-use transformations partly coincide with major historical earthquakes (e.g., the 856 CE event), suggesting a potential link between seismic disruption and subsequent urban expansion, although further statistical modeling is needed. Discussion The findings of this study demonstrate that the ancient defensive wall of Damghan, despite the loss of its original military function, has continued to exert a significant influence as a spatial boundary guiding and constraining urban development. This observation aligns with prior research documenting the lasting effects of military architecture on settlement organization [ 1 , 30 , 34 ]. The present analysis offers a clear example of how the persistence of historical built structures can shape land-use patterns over centuries. A comparative assessment of multi-temporal data revealed that urban expansion from the 13th century through the mid-20th century remained limited and gradual, primarily concentrated around the Rey Gate in the western sector of the defensive enclosure. This relatively static trajectory can be attributed to cumulative constraints, including economic stagnation, demographic fluctuations, and repeated destructive events. The large 856 CE earthquake, with an estimated magnitude of ~ 7.4 [ 9 ], stands out as the most severe historical seismic event in Iran and exerted a lasting impact on settlement disruption and the reorganization of land use. This interpretation is consistent with the findings of Schmidt [ 5 ] and Waters [ 29 ], who emphasized the sensitivity of settlement systems in the Iranian plateau to seismic hazards and environmental variability. The analysis shows that following the 1970s, urban development accelerated markedly, with the built-up area more than tripling in less than five decades. This rapid growth reflects broader national socioeconomic transformations during the second half of the 20th century, including increased urbanization and the concentration of services and infrastructure in regional centers. The observed pattern of pistachio orchard area a decline between 1955 and 1981 followed by renewed expansion can be attributed to agricultural modernization policies and improved water resource management implemented in recent decades. One of the study’s most notable outcomes is the enduring role of the defensive wall as a structuring element. Even in the contemporary period, the alignment of development continues to respect the remnants of the ancient fortifications, particularly along the northern and southern sectors. This persistence underscores the lasting imprint of historical spatial frameworks, even as their functional significance has transformed over time. Comparable evidence has been documented by Hillenbrand [ 30 ] and Manohar [ 31 ] in the context of fortified settlements in West and South Asia, further reinforcing the broader relevance of this phenomenon. In contrast, the conspicuous limitation of development toward the east and the early destruction of the eastern wall segment represent an important and potentially understudied factor. The working hypothesis proposed in this study that a severe flooding event in the catchment of the perennial river east of the city contributed to the collapse of this section is consistent with geomorphological evidence and the region’s paleoclimatic history. Such an event, particularly in conjunction with prolonged drought episodes (e.g., the 4.2 ka and 3.2 ka events) [ 51 , 52 ], warrants further investigation through targeted geoarchaeological surveys. The use of declassified CORONA and high-resolution GeoEye-1 imagery in this study with overall classification accuracy exceeding 90% enabled precise reconstruction of temporal and spatial land-use transitions. This capability affirms the value of remote sensing approaches in documenting transformations in arid, historically complex landscapes such as those of central Iran [ 32 , 33 ]. Furthermore, the findings are consistent with the observations of Welch et al. [ 34 ], who demonstrated the dual role of caravanserais and watchtowers in structuring agricultural and residential spaces across the Iranian central deserts. Nevertheless, several limitations of the study merit attention. First, the absence of aerial photography predating the 1950s constrained the ability to reconstruct early land-use dynamics with finer temporal resolution. Second, the lack of detailed archaeological data on the timing and processes of the eastern wall’s destruction and associated demographic shifts limits the certainty with which causal inferences can be drawn. Third, although classification accuracy was high, validation relied in part on limited field observations conducted during 2023–2024 field campaigns. Collectively, these results enhance understanding of long-term land-use trajectories in Damghan and underscore the importance of historical defensive structures as persistent organizing elements. The study also offers a useful reference framework for sustainable development planning in other historic settlements in Iran and comparable arid environments. Future research should incorporate expanded archaeological surveys, refined demographic reconstructions, and integration of emerging high-resolution satellite datasets to further illuminate the complex interactions among environmental, socio-political, and infrastructural drivers of land-use change. From a seismic hazard mitigation perspective, understanding how ancient defensive walls continue to influence urban morphology is crucial for modeling potential damage patterns during future earthquakes. This aspect warrants integration with probabilistic seismic risk assessments in heritage cities. Similar applications of high-resolution remote sensing for monitoring and managing historic urban environments have been reported in other contexts, for example in Alba Iulia, Romania, where VHR imagery was successfully employed for cultural heritage assessment[ 53 ]. Conclusion This study has demonstrated that the ancient defensive wall of Damghan, despite the collapse of its original military function, has continued to serve as an effective spatial boundary guiding patterns of urban development over a period exceeding seven centuries. The integration of multi-temporal data including historical cartographic records, aerial photographs, and high-resolution satellite imagery enabled the precise reconstruction of land-use transformations and the delineation of spatial growth trajectories. The findings indicate that urban expansion remained limited and gradual until the mid-20th century, followed by a pronounced acceleration beginning in the 1970s. This growth has been primarily oriented toward the west-southwest, in contrast to the relatively constrained development observed in the eastern sector, which was likely influenced by the early destruction of the eastern wall segment and environmental factors. This research underscores that historical defensive structures, even after the cessation of their primary function, can persist as enduring frameworks that shape the spatial organization of urban environments. This insight carries important implications for urban planning and sustainable management of historic settlements, particularly in regions facing the combined challenges of climatic variability and seismic hazards. Ultimately, the study highlights the necessity of continued interdisciplinary research in this field. The integration of emerging satellite datasets, detailed archaeological investigations, and refined reconstructions of historical demographic dynamics will enable a more comprehensive understanding of how environmental, social, and architectural factors have interacted to shape land-use patterns over the long term. Future efforts should also explore integrating high-resolution seismic hazard models with historical urban development data to enhance preparedness and resilience strategies. Declarations Acknowledgment The authors express their sincere gratitude to F. Mohammadi and H. Taslimi for their unwavering support and invaluable moral and financial contributions toward the scientific investigations presented in this study. Author Contributions: Hadi Jarahi: formal analysis, fieldwork, methodology, investigation, and writing the first draft of the manuscript; Donya Namdar: fieldwork, conceptualization and design of the study, review, and editing. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript. All authors contributed to the research and preparation of the manuscript and approved the submitted version. Funding: This research received no external funding. Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable. Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable. Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest. References Hansman J. The measure of Hecatompylos. Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain & Ireland, 1981. 113(1): pp. 3–9 https://doi.org/10.1017/S0035869X00136792 Momenzadeh M. Etymology of 1500 ancient placements. Iran: Sepidar; 2023. p. 600. Meshkāti N. Fehrest-e Banāha-ye Tārikhi va Amāken-e Bāstāni-e Irān [Catalogue of Historical Buildings and Ancient Places of Iran]. 1970. Akhavan Kharazian M, et al. 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Cite Share Download PDF Status: Under Review Version 1 posted Editorial decision: Revision requested 27 Oct, 2025 Reviews received at journal 27 Oct, 2025 Reviews received at journal 20 Oct, 2025 Reviewers agreed at journal 23 Sep, 2025 Reviewers agreed at journal 22 Sep, 2025 Reviewers invited by journal 21 Sep, 2025 Editor assigned by journal 19 Sep, 2025 Submission checks completed at journal 19 Sep, 2025 First submitted to journal 19 Sep, 2025 You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. 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1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":264379,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eLocation of the Damghan region and Hecatompylos Lake overlaid on a digital elevation model (12.5-meter resolution from ALOS PALSAR satellite).\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage1.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7586286/v1/5e62402f117e604e882c03db.jpeg"},{"id":92800247,"identity":"74eb49e4-61ac-4de9-9e5b-2e978bf81fa1","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-05 11:31:37","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":39253,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eThis timeline illustrates the history of Damghan from the Parthian era (247 BCE) up to the end of the Pahlavi dynasty. It contains three distinct rows: \u003cstrong\u003eTop (Dynasties):\u003c/strong\u003eThe major ruling dynasties and imperial periods governing the region. \u003cstrong\u003eMiddle (Rulers):\u003c/strong\u003e Local rulers and notable governors who held regional power. \u003cstrong\u003eBottom (Events):\u003c/strong\u003e Key historical events, including wars, earthquakes, and significant transitions. To read the full names and references for each code (such as D1, R2, E3), please refer to the separate legend provided below the timeline. \u003cstrong\u003eDynasties (D) D1:\u003c/strong\u003eParthian Dynasty [6]\u003cem\u003e \u003c/em\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eD2:\u003c/strong\u003eSasanian Dynasty [5] \u003cstrong\u003eD3:\u003c/strong\u003eUmayyad Caliphate [22] \u003cstrong\u003eD4:\u003c/strong\u003e Abbasid Caliphate [22] \u003cstrong\u003eD5:\u003c/strong\u003e Local Dynasties / \u003cem\u003eZiyarids\u003c/em\u003e [23] \u003cstrong\u003eD6:\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cem\u003eSeljuks\u003c/em\u003e [24]\u003cstrong\u003e:\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cem\u003eKhwarezmian\u003c/em\u003e Dynasty [8] \u003cstrong\u003eD8:\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cem\u003eIlkhanate\u003c/em\u003e Mongols [14] \u003cstrong\u003eD9:\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cem\u003eSarbadars\u003c/em\u003e [14] \u003cstrong\u003eD10:\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cem\u003eTimurids\u003c/em\u003e [25]\u003cem\u003e \u003c/em\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eD11:\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cem\u003eSafavids\u003c/em\u003e [26] \u003cstrong\u003eD12:\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cem\u003eAfsharids\u003c/em\u003e [26]\u003cem\u003e \u003c/em\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eD13:\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cem\u003eQajar\u003c/em\u003eDynasty [8]\u003cem\u003e \u003c/em\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eD14:\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cem\u003ePahlavi\u003c/em\u003e Dynasty [8]\u003cem\u003e \u003c/em\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eRulers (R) R1:\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cem\u003eBistam\u003c/em\u003e [5] \u003cstrong\u003eR2:\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cem\u003eMardavij\u003c/em\u003e b. \u003cem\u003eZiyar\u003c/em\u003e [23] \u003cstrong\u003eR3:\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cem\u003eManuchihr\u003c/em\u003e \u003cem\u003eZiyarid\u003c/em\u003e [24] \u003cstrong\u003eR4:\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cem\u003eAnushirvan\u003c/em\u003e \u003cem\u003eZiyarid\u003c/em\u003e [24] \u003cstrong\u003eR5:\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cem\u003eKutalmish\u003c/em\u003e [24] \u003cstrong\u003eR6:\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cem\u003eAsfar\u003c/em\u003eb. \u003cem\u003eKurduyih\u003c/em\u003e [24] \u003cstrong\u003eR7:\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cem\u003eNizari\u003c/em\u003e \u003cem\u003eIsmailis\u003c/em\u003e (\u003cem\u003eGirdkuh\u003c/em\u003e) [27] \u003cstrong\u003eR8:\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cem\u003eSarbadars\u003c/em\u003e [14] \u003cstrong\u003eR9:\u003c/strong\u003e Nader Shah Afshar [26] \u003cstrong\u003eR10:\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cem\u003eAgha Mohammad Khan Qajar\u003c/em\u003e [8] \u003cstrong\u003eEvents (E)\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cstrong\u003eE1:\u003c/strong\u003e 856 Earthquake [9]\u003cem\u003e \u003c/em\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eE2:\u003c/strong\u003e1040 \u003cem\u003eSeljuk\u003c/em\u003e victory at \u003cem\u003eDandanaqan\u003c/em\u003e [24] \u003cstrong\u003eE3:\u003c/strong\u003e 1096 \u003cem\u003eGirdkuh\u003c/em\u003efortress seized [27] \u003cstrong\u003eE4:\u003c/strong\u003e 1381 \u003cem\u003eTimur\u003c/em\u003econquest and massacre [25] \u003cstrong\u003eE5:\u003c/strong\u003e 1528 \u003cem\u003eUzbek\u003c/em\u003eoccupation [28] \u003cstrong\u003eE6:\u003c/strong\u003e 1722 Afghan rebellion [26] \u003cstrong\u003eE7:\u003c/strong\u003e 1729 \u003cem\u003eNader\u003c/em\u003eenters Damghan [26] \u003cstrong\u003eE8:\u003c/strong\u003e 1911 Constitutional Revolution conflict [15]\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7586286/v1/875d5abd82074a5fbe9805c0.png"},{"id":92800248,"identity":"e869faa0-c423-412f-a5f5-27f4abe6a2d6","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-05 11:31:37","extension":"png","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":28877,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eEstimated population trends of Damghan city from the 11th century CE to 2023. Data are compiled from authoritative historical sources, academic research, and official censuses by the Iran Statistical Center. The figure illustrates a significant decline during the Timurid and Qajar periods, followed by substantial growth from the mid-20th century onward.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage3.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7586286/v1/4ac017d25d1e132691366416.png"},{"id":92800252,"identity":"840fb786-9d73-4173-865e-a8acf234f9c6","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-05 11:31:37","extension":"png","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":1455663,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eWorkflow diagram illustrating the sequential methodology adopted for land-use change detection in Damghan. The process integrates historical cartographic data, aerial imagery, and high-resolution satellite datasets, followed by geometric correction, object-based image analysis, and accuracy assessment. The final stages encompass temporal change detection and thematic reporting of spatial transformations.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage4.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7586286/v1/78683694747eb5239a0cd4ce.png"},{"id":92801845,"identity":"a3ebb7de-44dd-4990-a7df-1683a56ec9fa","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-05 11:39:37","extension":"png","order_by":5,"title":"Figure 5","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":22380,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eComparative chart illustrating land-use changes in Damghan from the 13th century to the present. Practically no significant alterations in land use are observed between the 13th century and 1955. Urban expansion exhibits a consistent upward trend over time. In contrast, pistachio orchards experienced a decline in area between 1955 and 1981, while agricultural fields expanded substantially during the same period. From 1981 to 2025, the area under pistachio cultivation nearly doubled, whereas cropland area shows only a slight decrease. Overall, the city continues to expand.\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage5.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7586286/v1/59a1c70c9c53af0fa168a473.png"},{"id":92801844,"identity":"15d52071-7da0-430d-a252-a5c727c15578","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-05 11:39:37","extension":"jpeg","order_by":6,"title":"Figure 6","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":185243,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eThe city of Damghan between the 13th and 17th centuries, enclosed by an 8.8-kilometer defensive wall reinforced with 147 watchtowers. The locations of the three primary gates are indicated with green circles. No gate was constructed along the northern side due to the absence of adjacent settlements or significant population centers. A southern gate provided access to the ancient Hecatompylos Lake [17]. Major structures were concentrated around the Rey Gate on the western perimeter. Buildings such as the Safavid caravanserai and the Imamzadeh Jafar shrine, which were constructed in later periods, are situated outside the original walls. All positions are derived from Dyson and Howard [49]and Meder [50].\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage6.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7586286/v1/f10381d63b285a735d8d6294.jpeg"},{"id":92800273,"identity":"55de37bf-a45b-4c02-b624-3a1b7b6e6d75","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-05 11:31:37","extension":"jpeg","order_by":7,"title":"Figure 7","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":559101,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eThe location of Damghan overlaid on a temporal sequence of imagery, including the aerial photograph dated July 21, 1955; CORONA satellite images acquired on July 11, 1972, and January 27, 1981; and the GeoEye-1 satellite image from March 22, 2025. The black polygon delineates the historical core area of the city. The progressive expansion of the urban fabric and conversion of surrounding agricultural lands over seven decades are clearly visible.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage7.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7586286/v1/eb8b9d45c5577c43222eb916.jpeg"},{"id":92801846,"identity":"087f6125-1131-4ade-8704-46b31905f4eb","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-05 11:39:37","extension":"jpeg","order_by":8,"title":"Figure 8","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":432866,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eTemporal evolution of land use and transportation networks in the study area between 1955 and 2025. Maps illustrate the progressive expansion of urban areas (grey), the modification of road networks (red, orange, cyan, and blue lines representing roads built in 1955, 1972, 1981, and 2020 respectively), and the persistence of agricultural and garden land uses (light and dark green). The Damghan Wall (bold black line) delineates the historical core area. This sequence demonstrates urban growth, increasing infrastructural complexity, and land use change over seven decades.\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage8.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7586286/v1/16b62b92f3f9d77f9179523a.jpeg"},{"id":92800255,"identity":"da9d0373-edbb-4c8e-a819-c851ec198868","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-05 11:31:37","extension":"jpeg","order_by":9,"title":"Figure 9","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":178605,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eUrban boundary expansion of Damghan from the 13th century through 2025 CE. The progression of urban growth has been distinctly oriented toward the west.\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"floatimage9.jpeg","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7586286/v1/ddceecdf7a79e841d597f0b4.jpeg"},{"id":92803328,"identity":"f563cfd8-9da0-4404-a25e-ca70e0a88e1e","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-10-05 11:55:39","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":4200297,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7586286/v1/a0aa7b0c-9035-4b1e-9cd1-a77ecee30d88.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Ancient Defensive Structures Shape Long Term Land Use in Damghan Iran","fulltext":[{"header":"Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eUnregulated land-use change in urban and rural areas constitutes a major challenge confronting contemporary societies. Both natural phenomena and human factors can significantly influence the direction and rate of land-use transformations. Iran possesses a profound historical legacy, with numerous ancient cities dating back thousands of years that remain unparalleled from an engineering perspective. These settlements were invariably protected by defensive walls constructed to repel external threats. Even today, such fortifications play an important role in shaping urban development patterns. Damghan formerly the administrative center of the small province of Qumis [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e] is one of these historic cities. According to tradition, it was founded by \u003cem\u003eHushang\u003c/em\u003e, the second mythological king of the \u003cem\u003ePishdadian\u003c/em\u003e dynasty of Iran [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e]. Considering the high seismicity of northeastern Iran, understanding long-term land-use dynamics and the persistence of ancient structures can also inform modern seismic risk assessments.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eLocated in northeastern Iran at the foothills of the Alborz Mountains, Damghan has been subject to a combination of arid climate, proximity to active faults, destructive seismic events, and the presence of ancient lake basins. These factors have alternately fostered and hindered human settlement over millennia. The city\u0026rsquo;s rectangular defensive wall, measuring approximately 8.8 kilometers in length and originally featuring 147 watchtowers and three main gates, ranks among the most formidable urban fortifications of ancient Iran. The history of Damghan is highly complex. Accordingly, to clarify the context and illustrate how this historical legacy has shaped urban development, a selected portion of this heritage is presented here (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eDamghan is an ancient settlement south of the Alborz Mountains, with evidence of human presence dating back at least 60,000 years [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e]. Field surveys have identified lithic tools potentially 250,000 years old. The earliest urban habitation traces are found at \u003cem\u003eTepe Hissar\u003c/em\u003e, south of the present city, dated between ca. 6000 BCE and 1500 BCE [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e]. Prior to the major 9th-century earthquake, this site likely extended to the area now occupied by modern Damghan. About 40 km west of Damghan, near Amirabad, lie the remains of Hecatompylos, a large ancient city (~\u0026thinsp;11\u0026times;11 km) that served as the first Parthian capital [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e]. Contrary to some claims, Damghan itself was not Hecatompylos, as Greek sources reserved this name for cities with more than four gates, while Damghan historically had only three gates. In 651 CE, Arab armies conquered the region, establishing a new Islamic urban framework [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e]. The first defensive wall was built in the late Sasanian period [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e] but later deteriorated or was destroyed. In 921 CE, it was rebuilt with three gates to defend against \u003cem\u003eAlid\u003c/em\u003e incursions [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e]. On 20 December 856 CE, a magnitude\u0026thinsp;~\u0026thinsp;7.4 earthquake struck 25 km east of Damghan, destroying nearly all structures in a wide area [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR10\" citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e]. Despite the destruction, the great \u003cem\u003eTārīkhāna\u003c/em\u003e Fire Temple, later converted into a mosque, partially survived. Its main minaret, sometimes called the Fire Tower, collapsed in the quake and was reconstructed in 1027 CE by \u003cem\u003eAbuharb Bakhtiyar\u003c/em\u003e [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e]. During the medieval period, Damghan repeatedly changed hands among the \u003cem\u003eZiyarids, Seljuks\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eNizari Ismailis\u003c/em\u003e of \u003cem\u003eGirdkuh\u003c/em\u003e Fortress, \u003cem\u003eKhwarezmians\u003c/em\u003e, Mongols, and \u003cem\u003eTimurids\u003c/em\u003e, experiencing cycles of destruction and rebuilding [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e]. \u003cem\u003eTimur\u0026rsquo;s\u003c/em\u003e assault in 1404 CE was among the most devastating, sharply reducing the population. In the 16th century, the city was briefly occupied by Uzbeks and then recaptured by \u003cem\u003eShah Tahmasp\u003c/em\u003e I. After the \u003cem\u003eSafavid\u003c/em\u003e decline, Damghan endured several decades of instability and depopulation. On 2 October 1729 CE, \u003cem\u003eNader Shah Afshar\u003c/em\u003e entered Damghan after defeating Ashraf Afghan. Dissatisfied with the local governor, he ordered bombardment of residential quarters and sections of the defensive wall, causing severe damage [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e15\u003c/span\u003e]. Under the \u003cem\u003eQajars\u003c/em\u003e, the city gradually stabilized, though its population in the late 18th and early 19th centuries remained under 1,500 [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e]. The last major violent episode occurred during the Constitutional Revolution, when, on 30 December 1911 CE, constitutionalist forces defeated \u003cem\u003eMohammad Ali Shah\u0026rsquo;s\u003c/em\u003e loyalists [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e15\u003c/span\u003e]. To the south, Hecatompylos Lake sustained fishing and transport for at least 4,500 years [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR17\" citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e]. Archaeological and sedimentary studies indicate the lake began to shrink about 1,500 years ago and eventually dried up completely [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR20\" citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e]. Overall, Damghan\u0026rsquo;s history has been shaped by major earthquakes, invasions, shifting regional powers, and climatic transformations, resulting in alternating periods of prosperity and decline. All historical data, including records of conquests, conflicts, destruction, demographic changes, and related events, are illustrated in Figs.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e and \u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe maps reconstructed from historical records of this region (13th to 17th centuries) provide valuable data on historical land use patterns. They reveal the location of the main fortress, known as the \"\u003cem\u003eArg\u003c/em\u003e\" or \"\u003cem\u003eQala\u003c/em\u003e,\" the old Damghan gold bazaar that, prior to the earthquake, was situated adjacent to the \u003cem\u003eZarjub\u003c/em\u003e River, and the pistachio orchards called \"\u003cem\u003eKuche Baq\u003c/em\u003e,\" among many other features that no longer exist today. In general, ancient cities tended to develop from a central core, typically adopting a circular layout. However, the historical center of Damghan was located precisely behind the Rey Gate on the western side of the city.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eHistorical and archaeological studies have demonstrated that the Damghan Plain has been a center of settlement and land-use transformations from millennia before the Common Era to the later Islamic periods. Schmidt [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e], through excavations at \u003cem\u003eTepe Hissar\u003c/em\u003e, documented evidence of continuous occupation by agricultural communities and the gradual evolution of land use from the fifth millennium BCE to the Sassanian era. Findings by Waters [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e29\u003c/span\u003e], based on environmental indicators and sediment layers, showed that climate change and diminishing water resources during the second millennium BCE led to the displacement of settlement centers and the progressive conversion of agricultural lands into drylands. During the Parthian and Sassanian periods, according to the research of Hansman [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e], the defensive structure of Hecatompylos, located 40 kilometers west of Damghan, exemplified large-scale fortifications that simultaneously organized residential boundaries and surrounding agricultural areas. Although this city was distinct from Damghan, architectural evidence suggests that the use of defensive walls as a structuring element of land persisted into later periods in Damghan itself. According to historical records [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e], the rectangular wall of Damghan served until the early Islamic centuries as a boundary for urban development and agricultural expansion, influencing access routes and irrigation distribution networks. The direct impact of historical earthquakes on land-use change and urban spatial reorganization in Damghan is notably documented by Ambraseys and Melville [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e]. The devastating earthquake of 856 CE, recorded as the largest historical seismic event in the region, resulted in widespread destruction of residential areas and alterations in irrigation networks and land utilization. Historical transformations of land use in arid central Iran have long been intertwined with the emergence of fortified settlements, environmental shifts, and seismic hazards. Hillenbrand [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e30\u003c/span\u003e] underlined that Iranian and Turco-Iranian defensive architecture evolved not only as a military necessity but also as an organizing framework that influenced settlement distribution and land tenure systems over centuries. Complementary research by Manohar [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e31\u003c/span\u003e] on comparable fortified urban complexes in South Asia illustrates the broader regional pattern wherein fortification walls delineated economic zones and agricultural hinterlands, a phenomenon that also resonates in the Damghan Plain. The application of declassified CORONA satellite imagery for reconstructing past landscapes has become a pivotal method in Middle Eastern archaeology. Day [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e32\u003c/span\u003e] was among the first to demonstrate the utility of CORONA data to document lost irrigation networks and settlement perimeters. Later, Comer et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e33\u003c/span\u003e] advanced this approach by developing an orthorectified CORONA atlas facilitating quantitative analysis of temporal land-cover change. These methods have proved especially valuable in Iran, where aerial reconnaissance was limited prior to declassification. Research by Welch [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e34\u003c/span\u003e] emphasized that the caravanserais and defensive towers of central Iranian deserts, played a dual role in providing protection and controlling resource distribution along trade corridors. Their spatial arrangement shaped patterns of land use and urban expansion over centuries. Daiber [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e35\u003c/span\u003e] further highlighted that recurrent seismic events and socio-political upheavals periodically disrupted settlement systems and induced reconfiguration of agricultural lands, particularly during the medieval period. In addition, geoarchaeological studies by Waters [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e36\u003c/span\u003e] have demonstrated that environmental factors, notably Holocene climatic fluctuations, were critical drivers of long-term land-use transformation in arid Iran. Integration of geomorphological evidence and historical documentation has provided a nuanced understanding of how fortified cities adapted their subsistence strategies in response to environmental stressors[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e37\u003c/span\u003e]. Collectively, these studies underscore that land-use dynamics in Damghan cannot be attributed to a single factor. Furthermore, integrating seismic hazard models with historical urban development has been highlighted by researchers such as Coburn et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e38\u003c/span\u003e] and Bilham [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e39\u003c/span\u003e] as critical for preserving built heritage in active tectonic regions. Instead, the evolution of settlement patterns reflects the interaction of defensive architecture, climatic variability, seismic hazards, and socio-economic factors. The integration of high-resolution satellite imagery and multi-disciplinary historical sources enables a comprehensive reconstruction of these complex processes.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe necessity of this research is justified on several grounds. First, despite the millennia-long history of Damghan, no systematic and quantitative studies have addressed the influence of defensive structures on patterns of land-use change. Second, due to the scarcity of precise spatial datasets and limited access to historical maps, there has been no clear and documented understanding of the spatial dynamics of urban development in this area. Third, the results of this study can serve as a model for sustainable development management in other historical settlements across Iran and comparable arid regions. Furthermore, the integration of declassified CORONA satellite imagery and advanced data-processing techniques enables a more accurate reconstruction of past transformations and a deeper understanding of how ancient structures have shaped the present spatial configuration[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e40\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e41\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn this paper, a multi-temporal reconstruction of land-use changes and urban expansion in Damghan from the 13th century CE to 2025 is conducted using declassified CORONA and GeoEye-1 satellite imagery, historical maps, and aerial photographs[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e42\u003c/span\u003e]. The imagery was geometrically corrected and orthorectified, followed by object-based image analysis and spatial change detection. The results demonstrate that the ancient defensive wall of Damghan, although no longer serving a military function, continues to act as a significant boundary shaping urban development. Furthermore, historical data reveal that climatic shifts and major seismic events have been decisive factors influencing settlement patterns and land-use transformations. By integrating historical documentation with high-resolution satellite datasets, this study provides a new perspective on the interactions between defensive architecture and spatial dynamics in ancient urban environments.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe findings of this research align with prior studies [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR33\" citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e32\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e34\u003c/span\u003e] that demonstrated the value of CORONA imagery for documenting land-use change. However, compared to these works, this study represents the first systematic effort to reconstruct the long-term urban development of a historic Iranian city through an integrated multi-source approach combining CORONA and GeoEye-1 imagery, aerial photographs, and historical maps. Unlike most comparable studies that have focused on relatively short temporal spans, this research covers an approximately 700-year period and quantitatively assesses the relationships between historical earthquakes, climatic shifts, and the role of defensive architecture. Additionally, the application of object-based classification and support vector machine models has enhanced the analytical accuracy relative to earlier research. These characteristics distinguish this study in terms of temporal scale, spatial resolution, and the comprehensiveness of its dataset.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Methods","content":"\u003cp\u003eIn this study, a comprehensive multi-temporal remote sensing and GIS-based approach was implemented to assess the influence of ancient urban fortifications on land use change dynamics in Damghan, Iran. The workflow integrated historical cartographic analysis, high-resolution declassified satellite imagery, aerial photography, GPS surveying, and object-based classification. Initially, historical maps from the 13th to 17th centuries were acquired and critically evaluated to delineate the probable extent of the ancient city walls and associated urban structures. The earliest available vertical aerial photographs, captured in 1955, were retrieved from the Iranian Army Geographic Organization archives. For subsequent temporal snapshots, CORONA KH-4B satellite images from July 11, 1972, and January 27, 1981, were procured, providing sub-meter spatial resolution critical for the detailed reconstruction of wall remnants and urban morphology. To establish contemporary land-use conditions, we used GeoEye-1 imagery (22 March 2025; panchromatic 0.41 m, multispectral 1.65 m), pan-sharpened to ~\u0026thinsp;0.5 m for mapping. Additionally, the proximity of mapped land-use changes to known fault traces was evaluated using available tectonic datasets (e.g., the Iranian National Seismic Hazard Map), though this component was not the primary focus of the present study [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR44 CR45\" citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e43\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e46\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAll imagery and historical maps lacked geospatial referencing. Accordingly, geometric rectification was conducted in ArcGIS Pro 3.1 using ground control points derived from a dual-frequency GNSS survey and stable topographic features, including river meanders and extant architectural remains (e.g., the \u003cem\u003eTārīkhāna\u003c/em\u003e Fire Temple). The rectified imagery was orthorectified against a 12.5-meter ALOS PALSAR DEM. Subsequently, an object-based image analysis (OBIA) pipeline was implemented [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR47\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e47\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR48\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e48\u003c/span\u003e]. Multiresolution segmentation and feature extraction were performed in eCognition Developer 10.4, followed by classification with a support vector machine (SVM) kernel optimized for radial basis function (RBF). The classes included urban fabric, pistachio orchards, cultivated fields, and undeveloped areas. Post-classification refinement utilized manual digitization and ancillary field observations. Validation entailed a stratified random sampling protocol, with ground truth data acquired during field campaigns in 2023\u0026ndash;2024. Overall classification accuracy exceeded 90%, confirmed via confusion matrix analysis. Change detection was conducted by overlaying vectorized land use polygons across all temporal datasets, enabling the quantification of urban expansion and agricultural transformation relative to the location and persistence of ancient defensive structures (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Results","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe results derived from the multi-temporal analysis of historical maps, declassified satellite imagery, and aerial photographs demonstrate substantial transformations in the extent, spatial orientation, and land-use configuration of Damghan over the past seven centuries. The quantitative assessment indicates that the urban area and agricultural lands have expanded markedly, while the ancient defensive wall has retained a persistent influence on spatial development patterns. According to the measurements presented in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e, during the 13th\u0026ndash;17th centuries, the estimated area of the urban core was approximately 0.30 km\u0026sup2;, which, in proportion to the combined agricultural and orchard areas, was relatively limited. Pistachio orchards during this period occupied 1.05 km\u0026sup2;, and cultivated fields covered 2.32 km\u0026sup2;. By 1955, the urban footprint had grown to 0.95 km\u0026sup2;, and the areas under orchards and agricultural cultivation reached 2.20 km\u0026sup2; and 2.50 km\u0026sup2;, respectively. This gradual expansion indicates that prior to the modern era, land-use change occurred incrementally with no significant shifts in spatial orientation. The CORONA imagery acquired in 1972 and 1981 documents a pronounced acceleration of urban development. In 1972, the urban area expanded to 1.34 km\u0026sup2;, while by 1981 it increased to 3.72 km\u0026sup2;. Concurrently, the extent of agricultural fields expanded to over 12 km\u0026sup2;, while pistachio orchards declined moderately. By 2025, according to the high-resolution GeoEye-1 imagery, the urban footprint reached 10.77 km\u0026sup2;, the largest extent recorded during the study period. At the same time, pistachio orchards expanded to 3.10 km\u0026sup2;, and cultivated fields remained extensive, measuring 12.34 km\u0026sup2;. Figure\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e illustrates the temporal trajectory of land-use categories, indicating negligible changes between the medieval period and 1955, followed by a substantial increase in urban area after the 1970s. With respect to the spatial orientation of development, historical and satellite evidence consistently indicates that the earliest urban nucleus formed around the Rey Gate on the western perimeter of the defensive wall.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCalculated area of the urban zone (built-up areas), pistachio orchards, and agricultural fields based on historical documentation and CORONA and GeoEye-1 satellite imagery.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"6\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNo.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDate\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"4\" nameend=\"c6\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eArea (Km\u003csup\u003e2\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eUrban\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eGarden\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eFarm\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTotal\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e13th-17th Centuries\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.30\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.05\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.32\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.67\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1955\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.95\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.20\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.50\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5.65\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1972\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.34\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.10\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e9.22\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e12.66\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1981\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.72\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.40\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e12.41\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e17.53\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2025\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e10.77\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.10\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e12.34\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e26.21\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eOver time, expansion was predominantly oriented west-southwest (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e to \u003cspan refid=\"Fig9\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e). In contrast, growth toward the eastern sectors was markedly limited. This restriction likely reflects the early destruction of the eastern wall segment and the presence of a perennial river channel in this area, as corroborated by historical accounts and geomorphological observations. Throughout all assessed time intervals, the surviving segments of the ancient defensive wall have continued to function as a discernible spatial boundary. Even as of 2025, development patterns largely respect the alignment of the historical fortifications, particularly along the northern and southern sectors (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig8\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e). This persistence underscores the enduring structuring role of defensive architecture despite its loss of military function. The CORONA and GeoEye-1 datasets, with sub-meter spatial resolution, facilitated precise mapping of land-use transitions, and classification accuracy was verified through field surveys conducted in 2023\u0026ndash;2024. The overall accuracy of the object-based classification exceeded 90%, as confirmed by confusion matrix analysis.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn summary, the results reveal several key patterns:\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cul\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003eA \u003cb\u003eprogressive and subsequently accelerated expansion of the urban area\u003c/b\u003e, especially after the 1970s\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003eA \u003cb\u003esignificant increase in agricultural land\u003c/b\u003e, accompanied by fluctuating pistachio orchard extents\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe \u003cb\u003econtinued influence of the ancient defensive wall\u003c/b\u003e in delineating urban growth\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003eA \u003cb\u003edominant westward orientation of expansion\u003c/b\u003e, contrasted by limited development toward the east\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ul\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eCollectively, these findings, grounded in high-resolution geospatial evidence and systematic multi-temporal analysis, provide robust documentation of the complex interplay among ancient fortifications, seismic events (notably the 856 CE earthquake), climatic shifts, and land-use dynamics in Damghan.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThese land-use transformations partly coincide with major historical earthquakes (e.g., the 856 CE event), suggesting a potential link between seismic disruption and subsequent urban expansion, although further statistical modeling is needed.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe findings of this study demonstrate that the ancient defensive wall of Damghan, despite the loss of its original military function, has continued to exert a significant influence as a spatial boundary guiding and constraining urban development. This observation aligns with prior research documenting the lasting effects of military architecture on settlement organization [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e30\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e34\u003c/span\u003e]. The present analysis offers a clear example of how the persistence of historical built structures can shape land-use patterns over centuries. A comparative assessment of multi-temporal data revealed that urban expansion from the 13th century through the mid-20th century remained limited and gradual, primarily concentrated around the Rey Gate in the western sector of the defensive enclosure. This relatively static trajectory can be attributed to cumulative constraints, including economic stagnation, demographic fluctuations, and repeated destructive events. The large 856 CE earthquake, with an estimated magnitude of ~\u0026thinsp;7.4 [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e], stands out as the most severe historical seismic event in Iran and exerted a lasting impact on settlement disruption and the reorganization of land use. This interpretation is consistent with the findings of Schmidt [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e] and Waters [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e29\u003c/span\u003e], who emphasized the sensitivity of settlement systems in the Iranian plateau to seismic hazards and environmental variability. The analysis shows that following the 1970s, urban development accelerated markedly, with the built-up area more than tripling in less than five decades. This rapid growth reflects broader national socioeconomic transformations during the second half of the 20th century, including increased urbanization and the concentration of services and infrastructure in regional centers. The observed pattern of pistachio orchard area a decline between 1955 and 1981 followed by renewed expansion can be attributed to agricultural modernization policies and improved water resource management implemented in recent decades. One of the study\u0026rsquo;s most notable outcomes is the enduring role of the defensive wall as a structuring element. Even in the contemporary period, the alignment of development continues to respect the remnants of the ancient fortifications, particularly along the northern and southern sectors. This persistence underscores the lasting imprint of historical spatial frameworks, even as their functional significance has transformed over time. Comparable evidence has been documented by Hillenbrand [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e30\u003c/span\u003e] and Manohar [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e31\u003c/span\u003e] in the context of fortified settlements in West and South Asia, further reinforcing the broader relevance of this phenomenon.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn contrast, the conspicuous limitation of development toward the east and the early destruction of the eastern wall segment represent an important and potentially understudied factor. The working hypothesis proposed in this study that a severe flooding event in the catchment of the perennial river east of the city contributed to the collapse of this section is consistent with geomorphological evidence and the region\u0026rsquo;s paleoclimatic history. Such an event, particularly in conjunction with prolonged drought episodes (e.g., the 4.2 ka and 3.2 ka events) [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR51\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e51\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR52\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e52\u003c/span\u003e], warrants further investigation through targeted geoarchaeological surveys. The use of declassified CORONA and high-resolution GeoEye-1 imagery in this study with overall classification accuracy exceeding 90% enabled precise reconstruction of temporal and spatial land-use transitions. This capability affirms the value of remote sensing approaches in documenting transformations in arid, historically complex landscapes such as those of central Iran [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e32\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e33\u003c/span\u003e]. Furthermore, the findings are consistent with the observations of Welch et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e34\u003c/span\u003e], who demonstrated the dual role of caravanserais and watchtowers in structuring agricultural and residential spaces across the Iranian central deserts. Nevertheless, several limitations of the study merit attention. First, the absence of aerial photography predating the 1950s constrained the ability to reconstruct early land-use dynamics with finer temporal resolution. Second, the lack of detailed archaeological data on the timing and processes of the eastern wall\u0026rsquo;s destruction and associated demographic shifts limits the certainty with which causal inferences can be drawn. Third, although classification accuracy was high, validation relied in part on limited field observations conducted during 2023\u0026ndash;2024 field campaigns. Collectively, these results enhance understanding of long-term land-use trajectories in Damghan and underscore the importance of historical defensive structures as persistent organizing elements. The study also offers a useful reference framework for sustainable development planning in other historic settlements in Iran and comparable arid environments. Future research should incorporate expanded archaeological surveys, refined demographic reconstructions, and integration of emerging high-resolution satellite datasets to further illuminate the complex interactions among environmental, socio-political, and infrastructural drivers of land-use change. From a seismic hazard mitigation perspective, understanding how ancient defensive walls continue to influence urban morphology is crucial for modeling potential damage patterns during future earthquakes. This aspect warrants integration with probabilistic seismic risk assessments in heritage cities. Similar applications of high-resolution remote sensing for monitoring and managing historic urban environments have been reported in other contexts, for example in Alba Iulia, Romania, where VHR imagery was successfully employed for cultural heritage assessment[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR53\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e53\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis study has demonstrated that the ancient defensive wall of Damghan, despite the collapse of its original military function, has continued to serve as an effective spatial boundary guiding patterns of urban development over a period exceeding seven centuries. The integration of multi-temporal data including historical cartographic records, aerial photographs, and high-resolution satellite imagery enabled the precise reconstruction of land-use transformations and the delineation of spatial growth trajectories. The findings indicate that urban expansion remained limited and gradual until the mid-20th century, followed by a pronounced acceleration beginning in the 1970s. This growth has been primarily oriented toward the west-southwest, in contrast to the relatively constrained development observed in the eastern sector, which was likely influenced by the early destruction of the eastern wall segment and environmental factors. This research underscores that historical defensive structures, even after the cessation of their primary function, can persist as enduring frameworks that shape the spatial organization of urban environments. This insight carries important implications for urban planning and sustainable management of historic settlements, particularly in regions facing the combined challenges of climatic variability and seismic hazards. Ultimately, the study highlights the necessity of continued interdisciplinary research in this field. The integration of emerging satellite datasets, detailed archaeological investigations, and refined reconstructions of historical demographic dynamics will enable a more comprehensive understanding of how environmental, social, and architectural factors have interacted to shape land-use patterns over the long term. Future efforts should also explore integrating high-resolution seismic hazard models with historical urban development data to enhance preparedness and resilience strategies.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAcknowledgment\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors express their sincere gratitude to F. Mohammadi and H. Taslimi for their unwavering support and invaluable moral and financial contributions toward the scientific investigations presented in this study.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAuthor Contributions:\u003c/strong\u003e Hadi Jarahi: formal analysis, fieldwork, methodology, investigation, and writing the first draft of the manuscript; Donya Namdar: fieldwork, conceptualization and design of the study, review, and editing. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript. All authors contributed to the research and preparation of the manuscript and approved the submitted version.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFunding:\u003c/strong\u003e This research received no external funding.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eInstitutional Review Board Statement:\u003c/strong\u003e Not applicable.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eInformed Consent Statement:\u003c/strong\u003e Not applicable.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConflicts of Interest:\u003c/strong\u003e The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eHansman J. \u003cem\u003eThe measure of Hecatompylos.\u003c/em\u003e Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain \u0026amp; Ireland, 1981. 113(1): pp. 3\u0026ndash;9 \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.1017/S0035869X00136792\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.1017/S0035869X00136792\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eMomenzadeh M. 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Sustainability. 2021;13:1406. \u003cspan class=\"ExternalRef\"\u003e\u003cspan class=\"RefSource\"\u003ehttps://doi.org/10.3390/su13031406\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan address=\"10.3390/su13031406\" targettype=\"DOI\" class=\"RefTarget\"\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"npj-heritage-science","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"hsci","sideBox":"Learn more about [Heritage Science](http://heritagesciencejournal.springeropen.com)","snPcode":"40494","submissionUrl":"https://submission.nature.com/new-submission/40494/3","title":"npj Heritage Science","twitterHandle":"@SpringerOpen","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"BMC/SO AJ","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7586286/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-7586286/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eUnregulated land-use change complicates the management of historic cities in seismic regions. Damghan, northeastern Iran, enclosed by an ~\u0026thinsp;8.8-km defensive wall, provides a testbed to examine how fortifications shape long-term urban form. We integrated historical maps, 1955 aerial photos, declassified CORONA imagery (1972, 1981), and recent very-high-resolution satellite data to reconstruct land-use trajectories from the medieval period to 2025. All datasets were georeferenced and orthorectified; object-based image analysis with SVM classification supported change detection. Urban area grew slowly until the mid-20th century, then accelerated after the 1970s, with a persistent west\u0026ndash;southwest bias. Despite its lost military role, the wall continued to act as a spatial boundary limiting expansion, especially along northern and southern sectors. Limited growth to the east likely reflects early wall destruction and local hydro-geomorphic constraints. Results show that historical defensive structures can shape urban development for centuries and demonstrate the value of multi-temporal remote sensing for managing heritage cities in arid regions.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Ancient Defensive Structures Shape Long Term Land Use in Damghan Iran","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-10-05 11:31:32","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7586286/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"decision","content":"Revision requested","date":"2025-10-27T14:03:44+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2025-10-27T05:03:52+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2025-10-20T15:48:17+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"336945159885896099658709373360857962690","date":"2025-09-23T14:10:09+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"61097437513180018014322319877372071032","date":"2025-09-22T14:46:45+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2025-09-21T14:19:28+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2025-09-19T14:22:17+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"checksComplete","content":"","date":"2025-09-19T13:38:13+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"npj heritage science","date":"2025-09-19T13:34:17+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"npj-heritage-science","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"hsci","sideBox":"Learn more about [Heritage Science](http://heritagesciencejournal.springeropen.com)","snPcode":"40494","submissionUrl":"https://submission.nature.com/new-submission/40494/3","title":"npj Heritage Science","twitterHandle":"@SpringerOpen","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"BMC/SO AJ","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"f782fd4d-5fdf-48e9-8794-77a0d033b9da","owner":[],"postedDate":"October 5th, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"under-review","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-02-22T10:23:18+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2025-10-05 11:31:32","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-7586286","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-7586286","identity":"rs-7586286","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}