Understanding of Germination Duration and Cereal Type on the Quality and Sensory Attributes of Bread during Primary Fermentation

Understanding of Germination Duration and Cereal Type on the Quality and Sensory Attributes of Bread during Primary Fermentation | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Understanding of Germination Duration and Cereal Type on the Quality and Sensory Attributes of Bread during Primary Fermentation Hagos Hailu Kassegn, Birhanu Kahsay Meresa, Daniel Balema Tesfu This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-5659961/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract This study evaluated the impact of germination time and cereal type on nutrient content and sensory attributes of bread using germinated flours as a natural starter culture. Wheat varieties (Ashehan and Global) and oats were soaked for 12 hours, and then germinated for 48, 72, and 96 hours. After drying (27–30°C) for 48 hours, grains were milled into whole flour. Breads made from these germinated flours were analyzed for proximate composition, minerals, and sensory qualities. Bread made with Ashehan germinated flour (48–96 hours) showed fat (2.91–3.08%), protein (13.79–14.38%), carbohydrate (61.08–62.13%), and energy (328.03–331.49 kcal/100g) content. Global wheat showed similar trends, while oats had higher values, with fat (4.36–4.59%), protein (16.18–19.26%), and energy (336.48–359.99 kcal/100g). Germination significantly increased protein, energy, and mineral contents, especially in oats germinated for 96 hours (calcium 24.51 mg/100g, zinc 1.85 mg/100g, iron 2.44 mg/100g). Sensory tests indicated that germination at 72 hours improved bread acceptability, particularly in taste, with Ashehan, Global, and oats achieving the highest scores. Non-germinated (yeast-fermented) samples were least preferred. This study suggests that germination, especially at 72 hours, enhances bread quality and could be effective in traditional starter development. Oat Germination Bread Protein Density Crust-texture Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 1. INTRODUCTION Bread-making is one of humanity's oldest culinary technologies, dating back to ancient civilizations such as the Greeks, Egyptians, Romans, Abyssinnians and Babylonians, where it formed a staple part of the diet [ 1 ]. Traditional bread-making often uses sourdough as a biological leavening agent, involving both yeasts and lactic acid bacteria (LAB) to enhance flavor, acidity, and texture [ 2 ]. In contrast, straight-dough methods rely solely on commercial yeast for leavening, which lacks the complex fermentation characteristics provided by LAB [ 3 ]. Recent studies have continued to explore the benefits of sourdough fermentation, showing that it enhances nutritional quality and sensory attributes while extending bread's shelf life [ 4 , 5 ]. The traditional sourdough starter, or back-slopping, is an ancient leavening method involving a simple mixture of flour and water, which undergoes spontaneous fermentation by naturally occurring mainly lactic acid bacteria (LAB) and in few amount of yeast. In this method, a small amount of fermented dough is mixed into fresh ingredients and allowed to ferment at room temperature. After several cycles, a stable microbial community develops, enhancing the sourdough’s functional properties [ 6 ]. LAB plays a critical role in acidifying the dough by producing lactic acid, while yeast contributes carbon dioxide, which increases dough volume. Sourdough fermentation enhances bread quality by extending shelf life, increasing loaf volume, delaying staling, and improving both sensory and nutritional qualities [ 7 ]. Germinated grains demonstrate significantly increased levels of vitamins, phenolic compounds, high-quality proteins, aromatic amino acids, and polyunsaturated fatty acids [ 8 ]. Germinated brown rice, for example, has shown substantial increases in bioactive compounds, including dietary fiber, magnesium, zinc, potassium, tocotrienols, GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid), γ-oryzanol, and ferulic acid [ 9 ]. Additionally, germination reduces triglyceride levels and total energy in dry matter while boosting ash content, crude fiber, diglycerides, select amino acids, and essential minerals [ 10 ]. Germination also effectively reduces anti-nutritional factors, such as phytic acid (by up to 25%) and trypsin inhibitors, with reductions noted in soybeans, beans [ 11 ], and peas [ 12 ]. These improvements make germinated grains valuable for enhancing the functional and nutritional properties of various food products, supporting consumer demand for healthier, nutrient-dense options [ 13 ]. In the southern highlands of Tigray, Northern Ethiopia, germinated barley flour is traditionally used as a natural fermenting agent when preparing injera, a staple flatbread. Local knowledge, though largely undocumented, suggests that adding a small amount of germinated barley flour enhances injera’s softness, improves porosity, and reduces dehydration during storage (Hagos Hailu Kassegn, unpublished). Despite its widespread use, this indigenous technique remains scientifically underexplored, with limited experimental validation of its effects. Research has shown that adding sourdough and starter cultures can enhance bread’s nutritional value, microbial properties, and sensory qualities [ 14 ]. While fats are often incorporated into dough to slow staling in modern bread, traditional methods in Ethiopia, especially in Tigray, rely on indigenous back-sloping starter cultures to improve quality and extend shelf-life. However, detailed studies on these traditional methods are limited. The potential benefits of germinated cereal flours as fermentation starters (ersho) in bread-making, especially with refined wheat flour, are not well understood. This study aims to fill that gap by evaluating the effects of different germination times and grain types on the chemical composition, nutritional value, and sensory attributes of bread. Developing and optimizing traditional germinated flour starters could offer a sustainable way to enhance bread quality and sensory characteristics. This study aims to develop and optimize traditional starter cultures to enhance bread quality by evaluating the effects of different germination times and grain types on the chemical composition, nutritional profile, and sensory characteristics of bread. 2. MATERIALS AND METHODS 2.1. Cereal Sample Collection Three cereal samples two local wheat cultivars (Ashehan and Global) and oats were randomly selected and purchased from local markets in Derga-Ajen and Mekelle City. These samples were cultivated on arable land in the Enderta District, located in the Tigray province of northern Ethiopia, during the 2022–2023 crop years, in compliance with Mekelle University's institutional guidelines. The samples were chosen to ensure uniformity in size and shape. Refined wheat flour with a 72% extraction rate, sourced from the Fitig Bread Wheat Flour Factory, was used as a reference sample. Samples were packed in ten kg labeled cheese cloth bags and delivered to the Food Science and Post-harvest Technology Laboratory at Mekelle University, Ethiopia. The collected three sample cereal grains were manually cleaned to remove other grains, dust, dirt, broken and as well as immature grains and stored in dry, dark and clean place of the laboratory room. 2.2. Survey on the Utilization of Traditional Fermenters for Local Bread Production The survey aimed to investigate the utilization of traditional fermenters in local bread production. A random selection procedure was employed to identify potential areas and elder mothers (60–75 years old), resulting in a total of fifteen respondents providing valuable insights. A structured questionnaire was developed to assess the use of local starter cultures for home-based bread production. 2.3. Sample Collection and Preparation In this experiment there was no involvement of human participants. Bread wheat flour, widely used by consumers and bread producers in Mekelle City, was selected and purchased for this study. The flour had a 72% extraction rate and was sourced from the Fitig Bread Wheat Flour factory, a common supplier in the region. Additionally, cereal cultivars Ashehan, Global, and Oats along with other necessary ingredients for bread-making were acquired from the local markets of Derga-Ajen and Mekelle. The developed dough was then baked at Lacasa Bakery PLC in Mekelle city, Tigray, Ethiopia. 2.4. Experimental Design and Treatments The experiment was structured using a full factorial design, incorporating two factors: cereal germination time and cereal type. Germination time was tested at three levels (48, 72, and 96 hours), while three cereal types (Ashehan, Global, and oats) were included as treatments (see Table 3 ). The study aimed to evaluate the effects of these factors on various outcome variables, including the functional properties, chemical composition, and sensory acceptability of the resulting breads. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) was employed to assess the simultaneous impacts of the independent variables on response functions (Y), which included protein, fat, carbohydrates, minerals, as well as sensory attributes such as chewiness, density (g/cm³), color, taste, and crust firmness. Each treatment combination was replicated three times to ensure robust statistical analysis. 2.5. Germination of Cereals and Flour Extraction The cereal varieties Ashehan, Global, and oats were thoroughly cleaned to remove any external grains, stones, soil, and broken seeds. The kernels were then steeped in potable water for 12 hours at a temperature of 25°C. After steeping, the water was drained using a sieve, and the cereals were spread on a moistened muslin cloth to initiate germination. The germination process was conducted at room temperature (25–27°C) for periods of 2, 3, and 4 days. The moisture content of the germinated kernels was measured using a handheld laser radiation device (Raytek 2000, USA, 630–670 nm wavelengths). Following germination, the kernels were dried in an oven at 50°C for approximately 12 hours. The dried, germinated cereals were then milled using a laboratory universal grain miller to produce flour that passed through a 0.2 mm mesh. The resulting flours from the germinated Ashehan, Global, and oats, beside with the sample bread flours, were packaged in airtight plastic containers and stored under refrigerated conditions (5–7°C) until further use. For comparative purposes, non-germinated seeds from each cereal type were also retained as controls. 2.6. Formulation of Starters for Bread Fermentation 2.6.1. Primary Fermentation Starter Preparation The preparation of the primary fermentation starter (Gebeto/Ersho) was repeated multiple times to optimize the starter quality for each of the three grains across three different germination periods. The ingredients for Ersho (starter) included 10 grams of germinated flour, 10 grams of non-germinated refined flour, 40 ml of water, and 1 gram of salt. These components were combined and fermented for 12 hours to produce the germinated starters (Ersho). For the flour blend, refined flour and germinated flour were mixed in a 1:1 ratio using a manual blender. A control sample was prepared using 72% refined wheat flour and commercial yeast. The nine different starter treatments were placed in small plastic containers and then subjected to a secondary fermentation process. 2.6.3. Secondary Fermentation and Bread Making A modified version of the straight dough method Chauhan et al.[ 15 ] was used, combining 1000 g of flour blend, 27 g of starter, 15 g of salt, and 690 ml of water, which was mixed manually for 6 minutes until uniform dough formed. The dough was initially rested for 1 hour, covered by cheese cloth, at room temperature. It was then portioned into 125 g balls, rested again for 45 minutes, and flattened to 20 cm diameter. The loaves were proofed for 15 minutes and baked at 220°C for 25 minutes. After cooling for 60 minutes at ambient temperature, the breads were packed and stored at 18°C for further analysis and sensory evaluation method adopted by Rezaei et al. [ 16 ]. 2.7. Functional Properties of Flours The functional properties of refined wheat and germinated cereal flours were assessed, focusing on swelling capacity (ml), water absorption capacity (WAC, %), oil absorption capacity (OAC, %), water solubility index (WSI,%) and bulk density (g/cc) to evaluate the effects of germination time and grain type. The bulk density which is using Tharise et al.[ 17 ]10 g of flour was added to a 25 ml graduated cylinder, tapped to a stable volume, and calculated as weight per volume and a swelling capacity also adapted from Benmeziane-Derradji et al.[ 18 ]), 0.35 g flour slurry was heated at 60°C for 30 minutes, and then centrifuged. Swelling power was calculated from the sediment weight relative to initial dry flour weight. The oil absorption capacity (OAC) determined using Olayinka et al. [ 19 ], 500 mg of flour was mixed with 10 ml oil, centrifuged, and weighed to determine oil absorbed per gram of flour and in a similar manner the water absorption capacity (WAC) was following Ashogbon and Akintayo [ 20 ], 500 mg of flour in 10 ml water was stirred, centrifuged, and weighed to calculate gel weight per gram of flour. 2.8. Proximate Composition Analysis Refined bread wheat, germinated flours, and prepared bread samples were analyzed for moisture, protein, ash, crude fiber, and crude fat contents following AOAC standard methods using Godswill[ 21 ] and using an NIR Grain Analyzer. Carbohydrate content was calculated by difference, and total energy was determined by applying Atwater factors: carbohydrate and protein values were multiplied by 4 kcal/g and fat by 9 kcal/g [ 22 ]. 2.9. Sensory Evaluation of Bread A sensory evaluation of the bread samples was conducted by a panel of 15 participants (5 faculty and 10 undergraduate students, aged 20–45) from the Food Science and Post-Harvest Technology Department, using a 5-point hedonic scale (1 = dislike extremely to 5 = like extremely) as described by Tobin et al. [ 23 ]. Panelists, experienced in bread consumption, were instructed to rinse their mouths with water before beginning and between sample evaluations. A brief orientation on evaluation techniques and product selection criteria was provided, and samples were served on clean, odor-free plates to ensure objective assessment. The evaluation aimed to assess consumer preference and acceptability of the bread samples. 2.10. Statistical Analyses The experiment was conducted with at least three replicates, yielding data on the physicochemical, functional, and nutritional properties of flours and breads, as well as sensory acceptability scores. A factorial ANOVA was used to analyze the physicochemical and nutritional data, while sensory data were analyzed using a randomized complete block design (RCBD) to control for panelist variation. Mean differences were identified with Tukey's HSD test at a significance level of p < 0.05. 3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 3.1. Survey result of starters used in making of local bread A survey was conducted in the Ethiopia/ Tigray, Enderta District, specifically in Quiha, Aynalem, and Ashegoda communities, to gather valid information on local starters used for bread production. A total of 15 respondents were selected through a purposive sampling method. Structured questionnaires and interviews were conducted with local mothers to identify the preferred starters for home bread production based on their traditional knowledge and skill. The survey revealed that germinated cereal flours, including oat, Ashehan, and Global, along with back-sloped starters from tella and injera batter, were commonly used in local bread-making. Among the respondents, 66.67% preferred using germinated grain flours as starters, 20% used starters back-sloped from tella (a traditional Ethiopian beer), and 13.33% utilized starters back-sloped from injera batter. The respondents overwhelmingly favored germinated cereal flours for producing high-quality homemade bread. These findings indicate that germination of grains is a widely accepted traditional technique for enhancing bread quality at the household level. Germinated starters, known for their contribution to improved fermentation and enhanced nutritional value, are well-regarded in local bread production [ 24 , 25 ]. This highlights the significance of traditional knowledge in developing effective fermentation starters for bread-making, which aligns with recent studies emphasizing the benefits of germination in improving both the texture and nutrient content of fermented foods [ 26 ]. 3.2. Effect of germination on functional properties of selected wheat cultivars The functional properties of the cereal flours were presented in Table 1 . The bulk density of non-germinated Ashehan, Global, and oats flours were 0.51, 0.53, and 0.54 g/ml, respectively. After germination for 48, 72, and 96 hours, these values decreased to 0.48–0.46 g/ml for Ashehan, 0.53–0.49 g/ml for Globa, and 0.51–0.47 g/ml for oats. Although there was a reduction in bulk density, the change was not statistically significant (P > 0.05). The values obtained in this study are comparable to those reported by Akubor and Badifu [ 27 ], who found a bulk density of 0.71 g/ml for wheat flour. Bulk density plays an important role in packaging and processing. Higher bulk density allows for more efficient packaging by fitting more products into a given volume, which reduces storage and transportation costs reported by Olawoye and Gbadamosi, [ 28 ]. However, from a nutritional perspective, lower bulk density is advantageous, especially for foods targeted at children, as it promotes easy digestibility. Gopaldas and John [29] noted that foods with lower bulk density are ideal for children with immature digestive systems, as they reduce the strain on digestion and improve nutrient absorption. Additionally, germination reduces bulk density due to enzymatic activities that break down complex carbohydrates, making the flour lighter and more digestible [ 30 ]. This is consistent with recent findings that show germination improves the nutritional quality of cereals by enhancing the bioavailability of nutrients and reducing anti-nutritional factors [ 24 ]. As a result, the slight reduction in bulk density observed in this study reflects both practical benefits for processing and packaging, as well as potential improvements in the digestibility and nutritional value of the flour The water solubility index (WSI) of flour increased with germination. Initially, the WSI for non-germinated Ashehan, Global, and oats flours were 3.64%, 5.33%, and 5.28%, respectively. After germination, these values rose to 4.69–5.75%, 5.65–5.73%, and 5.61–6.04%. Although the WSI increased during germination, the values observed in this study were lower compared to the 18.45% reported by Dhillon et al. [ 31 ]. The increase in WSI during germination is attributed to the breakdown of starch and protein by amylases and proteases, resulting in lower molecular weight compounds that are more water-soluble [ 32 , 33 ]. Germination activates intrinsic enzymes that hydrolyze starch, producing dextrins and fermentable sugars. These sugars form cross-links between starch chains, reducing starch swelling and water absorption [ 34 , 35 ]. The moderate increase in WSI observed in this study suggests an improvement in solubility, which enhances the digestibility and functionality of the flour, particularly in bread-making applications. The oil absorption capacity (OAC) of flour is an important parameter that influences the sensory and functional properties of baked goods. In this study, the OAC of whole flours from Ashehan, Global, and oats was found to increase with germination. The initial OAC values were 5.9 g/g for Ashehan, 5.1 g/g for Global, and 6.15 g/g for oats. Following 48 to 96 hours of germination, these values significantly increased (p < 0.05) to ranges of 6.9–9.99 g/g for Ashehan, 5.25–8.9 g/g for Global, and 7.9–10.10 g/g for oats. The highest OAC among both non-germinated and germinated flours was observed in oats, which had an OAC of 6.15 g/g before germination and increased to 10.10 g/g afterward. In contrast, Global wheat exhibited the lowest OAC. This variation in OAC can be attributed to the structural changes in the flour proteins that occur during the germination process. Specifically, germination enhances the availability of non-polar sites on proteins that interact with hydrocarbon chains in oils [ 36 ]. Higher OAC is particularly desirable in food products as it enhances flavor and improves mouth feel, which are key sensory attributes linked to fat content [ 37 ]. Recent research indicates that oils and fats contribute to flavor release during consumption, and their binding capacity is closely associated with the overall consumer experience of baked goods [ 38 ]. Furthermore, Fregolente et al. [ 39 ] investigated and highlights that increasing OAC in flour not only improves the textural properties of bread but also contributes to better moisture retention and shelf-life. These findings underscore the potential of germinated grains, particularly oats, in developing high-quality, nutritious food products that meet consumer demands for enhanced sensory experiences. In conclusion, the significant increase in OAC observed with germination suggests that utilizing germinated cereal flours can provide functional benefits, making them advantageous for enhancing the sensory qualities and overall acceptability of baked products. This aligns with recent trends toward incorporating functional ingredients that improve both nutrition and flavor in food formulation. Table 1 The functional properties of germinated and non-germinated cereal flours Cereals Type Pro. Ger.hrs OAC ,g/g Density, ml/g WAC, g/g Swelling WSI,% Ashahan Non 5.90±1.41 e 0.51±0.01 cd 6.15±2.12 f 4.99±0.02 b 3.64±0.01 i 48 6.90±1.41 d 0.48±0.01 e 6.95±0.7 e 3.64±0.01 f 4.69±0.02 h 72 8.05±0.7 c 0.47±0.01 ef 7.95±0.7 c 3.32±0.01 h 4.84±0.01 g 96 9.90±1.41 a 0.46±0.01 f 9.95±0.7 a 3.06±0.04 i 5.75±0.07 b Global Non 5.10±1.41 f 0.53±0.01 bc 4.95±0.7 g 5.33±0.02 a 5.58±0.02 ef 48 5.25±3.53 f 0.53±0.01 bc 5.05±0.7 g 4.13±0.02 c 5.65±0.07 cd 72 7.35±2.12 d 0.56±0.01 a 5.10±1.41 g 3.78±0.04 e 5.65±0.0 cd 96 8.90±1.41 a 0.49±0.0 de 7.45±0.7 d 3.50±0.01 g 5.73±0.03 b Oat Non 6.15±2.12 e 0.54±0.02 b 5.95±0.7 f 5.28±0.04 a 5.54±0.01 f 48 7.90±1.41 c 0.51±0.01 c 9.05± 0.7 b 3.99±0.01 d 5.61±0.02 de 72 8.75±3.53 b 0.51±0.01 dc 9.80±2.82 a 3.54±0.02 g 5.66±0.02 c 96 10.10±1.41 a 0.47±0.0 ef 10.05±0.7 a 3.04±0.01 i 6.04±0.02 a CV,% 0.30 0.21 0.85 0.68 0.39 LSD 0.47 0.02 0.30 0.06 0.047 Pro., Process; Ger., germination; hrs. Hours; OAC, Oil absorption capacity; Water absorption capacity (WAC); Water solubility index (WSI); CV, coefficient of variances; LSD, least significant difference of mean separation tools, Data are expressed as mean standard error of replicate (n ¼ 3); Means that do not share the same letter down the column are significantly different. 3.3. Effect of germination on the proximate contents of wheat (Asheha & Global) and Oat Proximate analysis is a crucial aspect of food science, as it delivers essential information regarding the composition of food samples, including moisture, ash, fat, protein, and carbohydrate contents. This data is invaluable across various sectors of the food industry, including product development, quality control, and regulatory compliance. In this study, the proximate composition of Ashehan wheat, Global wheat, and oats was assessed according to standardized methods. The results detailing the effects of germination on the proximate composition of these grains are presented in Table 2 . The protein content of germinated seeds varied significantly from 7.5 to 18.1 g/100 g dry basis (db), with oats germinated for 96 hours showing the highest protein levels, while un-germinated Ashehan wheat had the lowest. Germination resulted in significantly higher protein levels compared to non-germinated samples. This increase is due to enzyme production in the germinating seeds, which breaks down starch and proteins, while respiration contributes to the synthesis of new amino acids [ 40 , 41 ]. All cereal samples showed increased protein, gluten, and energy content after three germination periods, while moisture, crude lipids, fiber, total carbohydrates, and ash contents decreased. For example, crude protein in oats rose from 10.15–18.1%, and gluten increased from 36.06–54.42%, with energy content rising from 332.68 kcal to 353.48 kcal after four days of germination. While raw oats contained higher levels of protein, ash, and gluten, Global wheat samples had greater crude fat and energy content. Similar results were reported by Anaemene and Fadupin [ 42 ], who observed significant protein increases in germinated corn. These findings corroborate earlier research by Saastamoinen et al. [ 43 ], noting that oats generally contain lipid levels ranging from 5–9%. Fat content decreased in all germinated samples, with significant reductions observed in germinated Ashehan, Global, and oats. This finding aligns with previous studies by 44 El-Adawy et al.[ 44 ]; Ghavidel and Prakash [ 45 ]; Hahm et al. [ 46 ], which reported a decrease in fat content with prolonged germination. This reduction may occur because fats serve as a primary carbon source for seedling growth [ 47 ]. Additionally, fatty acids are oxidized to carbon dioxide and water, providing the necessary energy for the germination process [ 46 ]. Ash content also significantly decreased in all germinated samples (Table 2 ). This reduction is likely due to the leaching of soluble minerals into soaking water during germination, as noted by Ghavidel and Prakash [ 45 ]. Wang et al. [ 48 ] observed similar reductions in ash content following germination over specified time periods. Furthermore, a research conducted by Kassegn et al. [ 49 ] demonstrated the crude fiber increased in malt barley, purple barley and purple wheat germinated in 72hrs, which is in contrast to this results and yet a study observed by Azizah and Zainon [ 50 ] demonstrated that total dietary fiber decreased in soaked wheat, barley, peanuts, and mung beans, which is consistent with our findings presented in Table 2 . This indicates that the germination process impacts the total dietary fiber levels during both the soaking phase and the actual germination phase [ 51 ]. These results highlight the complex biochemical changes occurring during germination, which affect not only fat and ash content but also the overall nutritional profile of the grains. Understanding these changes is essential for optimizing the nutritional value of germinated grains for food applications. In this study, we observed notable compositional changes in both germinated samples, including decreases in ash, moisture, fiber, carbohydrate, and lipid content, alongside a significant increase in gluten content. The germ of grain seeds typically contains a substantial proportion of crude lipids. During germination, enzymes hydrolyze triacylglycerols, resulting in the production of free fatty acids. These fatty acids undergo β-oxidation within the cytosol and mitochondria, generating essential energy to support seedling development. Consequently, a decrease in crude fat content is expected during germination, which aligns with our findings; we observed a decrease in lipid content reliable with reductions reported during legume germination [ 40 ]. The carbohydrate content, crucial for the digestibility of cereals, also significantly decreased during germination in Ashehan wheat, Global wheat, and oats. This reduction can be attributed to increased activity of amylase and pullulanase enzymes, which break down carbohydrate molecules into maltose, maltotriose, and other oligosaccharides. Key enzymes such as α-amylase, glucosidase, dextranase (produced in the aleurone), and β-amylase (produced in the endosperm) are activated during germination and play a vital role in carbohydrate hydrolysis [ 52 , 40 ]. Our findings are coherent with those of Xu et al. [ 40 ] and Oskaybas-Emlek et al. [ 53 ], reinforcing the understanding that germination significantly alters the biochemical composition of grains, enhancing their digestibility and nutritional value. These compositional changes underscore the importance of germination as a processing technique that not only enhances the nutritional profile of grains but also improves their functional properties, making them more suitable for various food applications. Further research should focus on optimizing germination conditions to maximize these benefits while preserving the quality of the grains. Table 2 Effect of germination on the proximate contents of wheat (Ashehan and global) and oat grain (g/100 g dry basis) Cereal Type Germ. Time (hrs) Moisture Protein Fat Ash Fiber Gluten CHO Energy (Kcal/100 g) Ashehan C 11.02 ± 0.16 b 7.55±0.014 j 1.13±0.00 d 2.75±0.09 ab 6.77±0.02 a 27.29 ± 0.07 h 70.80±0.23 b 323.50±0.92 g 48 10.83±0.01 c 12.28 ±0.00 f 0.96 ±0.00 de 2.62 ±0.09 bcd 6.38 ± 0.01 b 32.45±0.01 g 66.94±0.09 e 325.47±0.40 g 72 9.36 ±0.00 f 12.65±0.00 e 0.89±0.00 de 2.51±0.11 bcde 6.14±0.03 c 32.72 ±0.01 f 68.45±0.15 d 332.43±0.58 f 96 9.65±0.04e 12.85±0.01 d 0.66±0.01 e 2.24±0.07 fg 5.10±0.14 f 32.95±0.00 e 69.51±0.03 c 335.36±0.21 e Global C 11.64±0.00 a 5.35 ±0.02 k 2.83 ±0.05 a 2.67±0.02 abc 5.16 ±0.00 f 18.11±0.02 l 72.40±0.12 a 336.09± 0.72 de 48 10.49±0.08 d 10.10±0.14i 2.79±0.12 a 2.39±0.13 def 6.16±0.03 c 22.84 ±0.00 k 68.04±0.11 d 338.03±0.62 d 72 9.26 ±0.00 f 10.61±0.00 h 2.69±0.02 a 2.33±0.07 efg 5.53 ±0.02 d 22.92 ± 0.01 j 69.59±0.07 c 344.94± 0.50 c 96 8.77 ±0.00 g 10.92±0.02 g 2.48±0.00 abc 2.12±0.02 g 4.64±0.07 gh 23.830 ± 0.04 i 71.08±0.02 b 350.32±0.16 b Oat C 10.75 ± 0.21c 10.15±0.01 i 2.77 ±0.14 a 2.87±0.26a 6.67± 0.00 a 36.06 ± 0.01 d 66.80±0.33 e 332.68± 2.63 f 48 10.70 ±0.14 c 14.68±0.04 c 2.55 ±0.028 ab 2.67±0.01 abc 5.34 ± 0.02 e 44.85 ±0.01 c 65.45 ±0.45 f 337.93± 0.56 de 72 9.61±0.01 e 16.52±0.00 b 2.25±0.36 bc 2.66 ±0.02 abc 4.67±0.014 g 49.92±0.00 b 64.29±0.39 g 343.49±1.72 c 96 7.32 ±0.00 h 18.10±0.07 a 2.14±0.45 c 2.46±0.07 cdef 4.53±0.0 h 54.42±0.01 a 64.06±0.02 g 353.48±1.95 a CV% 0.76 0.41 8.95 4.32 0.96 0 .0 0.34 0.35 LSD 0.17 0.11 0.40 0.24 0.12 0.0 0.51 2.66 Pro. Process, Ger., germination. hrs. Hours, CHO, carbohydrate, C, control, CV, coefficient of variances, LSD, least significant difference of mean separation tools, Data are expressed as mean standard error of replicate (n ¼ 3). Means that do not share the same letter down the column are significantly different. 3.4. Contribution of germination durations on nutritional enhancements of bread The ANOVA results for the bread samples fermented for 4–5 hours at room temperature, following primary fermentation, are presented in Table 3 . The bread was prepared using Gebeto, a local starter culture developed over a 12-hour period by mixing 10 g of germinated flour with 10 g of refined wheat flour, 40 ml of water, and 1 g of salt. Additionally, the effects of 2–4 days of germination on the composition of germinated seed flours and their incorporation levels on the properties of the bread samples were compared to control bread made using standard procedures. The fat, protein, carbohydrate, and energy contents of the developed bread from Ashehan wheat, baked at 220°C for 24 hours after germination periods of 48, 72, and 96 hours, varied as follows: fat content ranged from 2.91–3.08%, protein from 2.90–5.95%, carbohydrate from 13.79–14.38%, and energy content from 331.49–328.03 kcal. For Global wheat, the corresponding values for the same germination periods were fat content between 3.85% and 4.25%, protein between 11.6% and 12.45%, carbohydrates from 62.08–63.48%, and energy content from 332.77–340.75 kcal. Similarly, oats demonstrated fat content was ranging from 4.36–4.59%, protein levels between 16.18% and 19.26%, carbohydrate content from 55.85–63.48%, and energy values ranging from 336.48 to 359.99 kcal. The addition of germinated ingredients to bread production resulted in significant changes (P < 0.05) in the protein and energy content of breads made with germinated starters from Ashehan, Global, and oats. The protein percentage increases in bread made with these germinated starters, compared to the control samples made with regular procedure flours, were as follows: 209–223% for Ashehan, 160–179% for Global, and 263–332% for oats. All germinated cereals exhibited notably higher protein content, with germinated oats showing the highest levels, while bread made with refined wheat flour had the lowest protein content. The significant differences (p < 0.05) among and between the bread samples can be attributed to the effects of germination. Descriptive analysis from interviews with local mothers revealed a strong preference for using local starter preparations, particularly with oats, for making traditional bread. The increase in crude protein content during germination can be explained by several factors with the activation of enzymes during seed development, compositional changes due to the breakdown of anti-nutritional factors, and the synthesis of new proteins. For example, α-amylase enzymes hydrolyze starch granules, liberating proteins previously embedded in the seed structure. Additionally, enhanced protease activity during germination promotes the breakdown of peptide chains into amino acids, further boosting the protein content of germinated grains such valued reports were conducted by Kayisoglu et al. [ 54 ]. These findings emphasize the nutritional advantages of incorporating germinated ingredients in bread-making, aligning with recent research that supports the use of fermentation and germination to improve the protein quality of cereal-based products. The fat content of refined bread wheat flour used as a control sample in this study was 2.07%. However, the addition of germinated ingredients significantly increased the fat content in the developed breads made from Ashehan, Global, and oats. Despite this increase, longer germination durations resulted in a notable decline in fat content, with differences among treatments being statistically significant (P < 0.05). This reduction in fat content during germination is attributed to biochemical and physiological changes that occur as energy is allocated for the development of new plant tissues. Specifically, increased lipolytic enzyme activity during germination converts fats into fatty acids and glycerol, which serve as energy sources for emerging seedlings [ 55 ]. The inclusion of germinated ingredients also resulted in a slight decrease in total carbohydrate content while increasing the caloric value compared to the refined bread control samples. The carbohydrates, crucial for the digestibility of Ashehan, Global, and oats, decreased during germination. This reduction can be explained by the enhanced activity of amylase and pullulanase enzymes, which break down starch molecules into maltose, maltotriose, and other oligosaccharides. Key enzymes such as α-amylase, glucosidase, dextranase (produced in the aleurone), and β-amylase (produced in the endosperm) are activated during germination, facilitating carbohydrate hydrolysis [ 52 , 40 ]. Our findings align closely with previous studies by Kaur et al. [ 52 ] ,Xu et al. [ 40 ], and 53 Oskaybaş-Emlek et al.[ 53 ], demonstrating that the slight increase in energy value in the samples resulted from a modest elevation in protein content during germination at 48, 72, and 96 hours. These results highlight the significant biochemical transformations that occur during the germination process, enhancing both the nutritional quality and energy value of the bread produced. Table 3 Proximate contents of bread fermented from germinated cereal starters Fermenters Pro. Ger. Fat Protein CHO Energy Ashehan 48 3.09±0.11 e 13.79±0.02 e 62.13±1.15ab c 331.49±4.37 d 72 3.07±0.16 e 14.18±0.05 d 62.23±0.67ab c 333.27±4.07 d 96 2.91±0.14 e 14.38±0.05 d 61.08±0.68 bcd 328.03±4.02 e Global 48 4.25±0.04 bc 11.60±0.10 g 63.48±2.12 ab 338.57±8.42 c 72 4.15 ±0.02 cd 12.12 ±0.01 f 63.73± 1.75 a 340.75±6.86 c 96 3.85 ±0.07 d 12.45 ±0.05 f 62.08 ±1.17 abc 332.77±5.17 d Oat 48 4.59 ±0.08 a 16.19 ±0.04 c 63.48±2.83 ab 359.99±9.2 3a 72 4.40 ±0.28 ab 17.81±0.36 b 58.74±1.42 d 345.80±7.76 b 96 4.36 ±0.37 ab 19.26±0.59 a 55.05±0.82 e 336.46±4.10 c Control Refined 2.07± 0.01 f 4.45±0.08 h 60.25 ±0.10 cd 277.47±0.35 f CV% 3.89 1.66 2.44 0.45 LSD 0.25 0.38 2.56 2.56 Pro. Process, Ger., germination. hrs. Hours, CHO, carbohydrate, CV, coefficient of variances, LSD, least significant difference of mean separation tools, Data are expressed as mean standard error of replicate (n ¼ 3). Means that do not share the same letter down the column are significantly different. 3.5. Effect of germination time on mineral-elements of produced bread with added ingredients of Ashehan wheat, Global wheat and oats The mineral contents of germinated seed flours are presented in Table 4 . ANOVA results indicated that the variation in mineral content due to the addition of ingredients at different germination periods was significant (p < 0.05). The highest levels of calcium (24.51 mg/100 g), zinc (1.85 mg/100 g), and iron (2.44 mg/100 g) were found in the germinated oats seed flour at 96 hours. Among the added ingredients, germinated oats provided the highest calcium content, followed by iron and zinc. Notably, the concentrations of calcium, zinc, and iron increased with longer germination times, reflecting the positive effects of germination on mineral bioavailability. These findings are coherent with recent research, which demonstrates that germination can enhance mineral content and absorption in cereals and legumes [56, 57]. Moreover, the process of germination has been shown to break down anti-nutritional factors, facilitating greater mineral availability [ 58 ]. Overall, this study highlights the benefits of germinating oats for improving the mineral profile of seed flours, contributing to enhanced nutritional quality. The results of this study revealed significantly higher mineral content than those reported by Assenova et al. [ 59 ], who found calcium, iron, and zinc levels in soft wheat flour to be 52 mg/100 g, 5.2 mg/100 g, and 2.75 mg/100 g, respectively. The higher mineral levels observed in our study can be attributed to the enhanced bioavailability resulting from the germination process. Elliott et al. [ 56 ] and Kumari and Roy [ 60 ] noted that the increase in inorganic elements after sprouting is primarily due to phytase activity, which degrades phytic acid a known chelator of divalent and trivalent cations such as iron, zinc, calcium, magnesium, copper, and manganese. This enzymatic breakdown facilitates the release of these minerals, making them more bioavailable. Furthermore, Bewley et al. [61] emphasized that phytase activity begins during the early stages of germination and intensifies as the germination process continues, thereby increasing mineral bioavailability. Variations in the bioavailability of inorganic minerals in cereals and legumes post-germination may result from differences in phytate content, phytase activity and the degree to which minerals are bound in complexes. In contrast to our findings, Luo et al. [ 62 ] reported lower mineral content in hard wheat after germination, with zinc, iron, copper, and calcium levels of 3.31 mg/g, 2.21 mg/g, 0.82 mg/g, and 39.64 mg/g, respectively. These discrepancies underscore the complex interactions between germination conditions and the mineral profiles of different grain types, suggesting that specific germination practices can significantly enhance mineral content and bioavailability in certain cereal varieties. This highlights the importance of optimizing germination conditions to maximize the nutritional benefits of grains. The trace minerals specifically iron (Fe) and zinc (Zn), are detailed in Table 4 . Iron content significantly differed among the treatments (p 0.05). Ozcan et al. [ 63 ] reported iron content in various oat varieties ranging from 3.0 to 8.1 mg/100 g; however, the results from this study were slightly lower than those figures but comparable to maize, which contained 2.4 mg/100 g [ 64 ]. McKevith [ 65 ], reported that lower iron contents for wheat (2 mg/100 g), rice (1.4 mg/100 g), and corn (1.1 mg/100 g), further highlighting the superior iron levels in oats from this study. The zinc content in the breads made with germinated flours from Ashehan wheat, Global wheat, and oats (after 48, 72, and 96 hours of germination) ranged from 1.72 to 1.82 mg/100 g for Ashehan, 1.62 to 1.72 mg/100 g for Global, and 1.77 to 1.85 mg/100 g for oats. Similar to other trace minerals, germination enhanced the mineral content of the bread, resulting in significant differences (p < 0.05) in zinc levels compared to the control sample. Oat bread made with ingredients germinated for 96 hours exhibited the highest zinc content, while the global wheat at the same germination duration recorded the lowest. Ozcan et al [ 63 ] found zinc contents in oats to range between 1.5 mg/100 g and 3.8 mg/100 g, aligning closely with our results. However, our findings are slightly lower than those reported by Sangwan et al [ 66 ], which ranged from 3.3 to 4.5 mg/100 g. This variation may be attributed to amount added, genetic differences and agronomic practices during production. McKevith [ 65 ], reported zinc contents for rice (1.8 mg/100 g), corn (1.7 mg/100 g), and barley (2.1 mg/100 g), which are comparable to the zinc contents observed in Ashehan, Global, and oats in this study. Zinc is essential for the proper growth and maintenance of the human body, functioning as a vital component of over 300 enzymes involved in the synthesis and degradation of carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids [ 67 ]. It plays a crucial role in various biological processes, including immune function, wound healing, blood clotting, and thyroid regulation. Therefore, the application of germination significantly improved the zinc content across all samples, enhancing their nutritional value. Table (4) presents the calcium (Ca) content measured across different germination periods. Calcium is essential for building bones and teeth and plays a crucial role in muscle function, with over 99% of the body’s calcium found in bones and teeth [ 68 ]. The calcium content in Ashehan, Global, and oats ranged from 22.07 to 23.05 mg/100 g, 20.51 to 23.04 mg/100 g, and 22.01 to 24.51 mg/100 g, respectively. Oats germinated for 96 hours and used in bread showed the highest calcium content at 24.51 mg/100 g. These findings contrast with those of Youssef et al. [ 69 ], who reported calcium levels of 54–71 mg/100 g, and are lower than the values reported by Sangwan et al.[ 66 ], (53.9 mg/100 g) and. Tok and Ertaş, [ 70 ], (54.9 mg/100 g). Higher calcium contents, ranging from 56.9 to 127 mg/100 g, were reported by Ozcan et al.[ 66 ], likely due to variations in growth conditions, genetics, geographical factors, analytical methods and used refine wheat flour as main ingredients. According to the Ethiopian food composition table, calcium contents in barley, corn, wheat, rice, sorghum, and teff are 28, 16, 12, 12, 9, and 1.2 mg/100 g, respectively reported by Sheehy et al [ 71 ], which are significantly lower than the calcium levels found in the germinated samples of this study. Table 4 Assessment of Mineral Content in Bread Developed with Three Developed Fermentation Starters Fermenters Pro. Ger. hrs. Ca,, mg/100gm Zn, mg/100gm Fe, mg/100gm Ashehan 48 22.07±0.37c 1.72 ±0.04bc 2.04±0.06de 72 22.77±0.46bc 1.71 ±0.05bc 2.20±0.06c 96 23.05 ±0.33bc 1.82± 0.13ab 2.29±0.08bc Global 48 20.51±0.44d 1.62±0.11c 1.77±0.03 72 22.01±0.00d 1.61±1.0.06c 1.93±0.16e 96 23.04 ±0.50bc 1.72±0.05bc 2.17±0.00cd Oat 48 22.01±1.69 1.77±0.00ab 2.24±0.11bc 72 23.54 ±0.03ab 1.77±0.02ab 2.36±0.07ab 96 24.51±0.00a 1.85±0.00a 2.44 ±0.11a Control Refined 12.67 ±0.60e 0.71± 0.06 0.85±0.05g CV,% 3.13 4.36 4.18 LSD 1.16 0.12 0.14 Pro. Process, Ger., germination. hrs. Hours, Ca, calcium, Zn, zinc, Fe, iron, CV, coefficient of variances, LSD, least significant difference of mean separation tools, Data are expressed as mean standard error of replicate (n ¼ 3). Means that do not share the same letter down the column are significantly different. 3.6. Assessment of Sensory Qualities in Bread Samples used three Germinated Cereal Starters Sensory acceptability testing is crucial in the assessment of food products, as it provides insight into the sensory characteristics that significantly influence overall quality. Key attributes such as appearance, taste, odor, flavor, and texture directly affect consumer acceptability. In the case of bread, aspects such as aroma, color, texture, and taste play a vital role in both consumption and production. This study specifically evaluates the impact of incorporating germinated starter ingredients on the sensory quality attributes of bread. The results of this evaluation are summarized in Table 5 . The color scores of bread samples made with the addition of germinated ingredients Ashehan, Global, and oats were measured at 48, 72, and 96 hours. The scores recorded were as follows: Ashehan (3.85, 3.89, 3.35), Global (4.07, 3.98, 3.77), and oats (3.36, 3.81, 3.83), respectively. Statistical analysis revealed no significant differences in color among the samples. Notably, the bread fermented with germinated Global ingredients at 48 hours achieved the highest color score of 4.07, followed by Ashehan and oats, which scored 3.89 and 3.83 at 72 and 96 hours, respectively. This variation in color can be attributed to the Maillard reaction, a complex interaction between proteins and carbohydrates that occurs during germination, resulting in browning or darkening of the food products reported by Schefer et al. [ 72 ] and Stern et al. [73]. The effects of this reaction became more pronounced with the extension of the germination period, supporting findings that longer germination times enhance the development of desirable color attributes in baked goods [ 74 ]. The mean scores for crust texture of the bread samples varied significantly, ranging from 3.53 to 4.35, indicating a notable difference in sensory quality influenced by the germination duration of the starters used. The bread sample fermented with the Global starter, which underwent 72 hours of germination, received the highest preference score from the panelists, reflecting its superior textural attributes. In contrast, the control sample, which contained no germinated ingredients, scored only 3.38, marking it as the least preferred option among the evaluated samples (see Table 5 ). This preference for the Global starter could be attributed to the enhanced development of gluten structure and overall bread aeration, which are critical for achieving desirable crust texture and the result is similar to findings reported by Acharya [ 75 ]. Germination not only increases the enzyme activity in the flour but also modifies the protein composition, resulting in improved dough handling properties and final product texture [ 76 ]. The findings align with previous studies that highlight the benefits of utilizing germinated ingredients in bread production to enhance sensory qualities [77]. Table 5 Sensory Qualities panel test of sample bread developed by three Germinated Cereal Starters Bread Sample Pro. Ger. hrs Smell Color Crust Texture Taste(Flavor/aroma) Chew General Acceptance Ashehan 48 3.57±0.62ab 3.85±0.66ab 3.58±0.96a 3.70±0.45bcd 3.20±0.94ab 3.52± 0.58ab 72 3.73±0.99ab 3.89±0.76ab 3.68±0.66a 4.06±0.56ab 3.52±0.94ab 3.76 ±0.73ab 96 3.39±0.72b 3.35±0.84b 3.55±0.86a 3.53±0.55d 3.19±0.91ab 3.47 ±0.66ab Global 48 3.79±0.88ab 4.07± 0.71a 3.91±0.76a 3.66±0.48cd 3.64±1.04ab 3.84 ±0.72ab 72 4.01±0.72a 3.98 ±0.80a 4.0 ±0.93a 3.97±0.49bc 3.83±1.02a 3.94 ± 0.81a 96 3.66±0.78ab 3.77±0.62ab 3.47±0.69a 3.73±0.52bcd 3.64±1.0ab 3.81±0.69ab Oats 48 3.68±1.07ab 3.36± 1.11b 3.57±0.97a 4.00±0.54bc 3.57±1.07ab 3.77±0.70ab 72 3.64±0.71ab 3.81±0.81ab 3.48±1.13a 4.35±0.47a 3.33±0.85ab 3.88 ± 0 .83 ab 96 3.92±0.93ab 3.83±0.74ab 3.89±0.72a 3.89± 0.51bcd 3.53±0.96ab 3.84±0.81ab Control 3.59±0.55ab 3.58±0.70ab 3.38±0.69a 2.97±0.53e 3.03±0.73b 3.37±0.44b CV% 21.60 21.46 23.77 13.28 27.39 18.89 LSD 0.57 0.58 0.62 0.36 0.68 0.50 Pro. Process, Ger., germination. hrs. Hours, CV, coefficient of variances, LSD, least significant difference of mean separation tools, Data are expressed as mean standard error of replicate (n ¼ 3). Means that do not share the same letter down the column are significantly different. The taste (flavor and aroma) of bread samples varied significantly based on the germination period. Samples made with 72 hours of germinated cereal flour received the highest ratings, with mean scores of 4.06 for Ashehan, 3.97 for Global, and 4.35 for oats. The oat sample at 72 hours achieved the highest flavor score of 4.35. All treatments with germinated cereals were statistically significant (P < 0.05). In contrast, the control sample scored only 2.97, making it the least preferred option among panelists. The flavor and aroma of bread samples were significantly influenced by the germination period. Samples made with 72 hours of germinated cereal flour scored the highest, with mean ratings of 4.06 for Ashehan, 3.97 for Global, and 4.35 for oats. The oat sample stood out with a score of 4.35, indicating a strong preference from panelists. All germinated cereal treatments were statistically significant (P < 0.05), whereas the control sample, which received a score of only 2.97, was the least favored. 4. CONCLUSION This investigation focused on the development of bread using traditional starters from germinated cereal grains while evaluating their functional, chemical, nutritional, and sensory characteristics. The study found that germination of cereal grains significantly enhanced the protein, gluten, and energy content across all samples, with longer germination periods leading to these improvements. In contrast, moisture, crude lipids, fiber, total carbohydrates, and ash content decreased. The incorporation of germinated ingredients into bread formulation resulted in notable increases in protein and caloric value, with a slight reduction in total carbohydrate content. Additionally, extending the germination period resulted in increased levels of essential minerals such as calcium, zinc, and iron. Notably, bread fermented with germinated flour showed superior zinc and iron content compared to bread produced with conventional yeast fermentation, highlighting the potential health benefits of using germinated starters. Sensory evaluation indicated that the bread samples were generally acceptable, with those made from 72 hours of germinated cereal flour receiving the highest taste scores, while the control bread scored the lowest. Overall, this study demonstrates that utilizing germination combined with careful grain selection for starter development can enhance the nutritional quality of bread without compromising sensory acceptability, making it a valuable approach in bread production. Declarations Acknowledgements The authors acknowledge Mekelle University for funding this research project through Grant Number: CRPO/CDANR/ Large/Recu/001/2021. Author contributions We state and affirm that this Research Article is our own work. When gathering, analyzing, and compiling the data for this study, we adhered to all ethical and technical academic standards. Every source of information utilized to write this article has been duly acknowledged. HK developed the concept, undertook the raw material collection and most of the analysis, and wrote the paper. DT provides data collection and laboratory analysis. BM provided advisory services and commented on previous versions of the manuscript. Finally, all authors read and approved the final manuscript. Data availability Data is available upon request. In this experiment there was no involvement of human participants. The research and examiner committee of Mekelle University evaluated and approved the study’s methodology and laboratory methods. The study protocols were in accordance with the ethical guidelines of Mekelle University. Informed consent The authors confirm that all the sensory panels participated in this research in the age range between 20-45 years old and provided informed consent to participate in this sensory evaluation test. Competing interests The authors declare no competing interests. References Pétel C, Onno B, and Prost C. Sourdough volatile compounds and their contribution to bread: A review. Trends in Food Science Technology. 2017; 59: 105-123. Jayaram VB, Cuyvers S, Lagrain, B., Verstrepen K J, Delcour JA, Courtin CM. 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Food chemistry. 1997;58(1-2):59-68. Kassegn HH, Hshe BG, Meresa BK, Berhe MH, Tadesse HA. Germination process impact on proximate, minerals, and phytochemicals of malt barley, Abyssinian purple-colored barley and wheat. Discover Food. 2024;4(1):1-1. Azizah AH, Zainon H. Effect of processing on dietary fiber contents of selected legumes and cereals. Malaysian Journal of Nutrition. 1997;3(2):131-6. Megat Rusydi MR, Noraliza CW, Azrina A, Zulkhairi A. Nutritional changes in germinated legumes and rice varieties. International Food Research Journal. 2011; 18(2). Kaur N, Singh B, Kaur A, Yadav MP, Singh N, Ahlawat AK, Singh AM. Effect of growing conditions on proximate, mineral, amino acid, phenolic composition and antioxidant properties of wheatgrass from different wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) varieties. Food Chemistry. 2021;341:128201. Oskaybaş-Emlek B, Özbey A, Kahraman K. Effects of germination on the physicochemical and nutritional characteristics of lentil and its utilization potential in cookie-making. Journal of Food Measurement and Characterization. 2021;15(5):4245-55. Kayisoglu C, Altikardes E, Guzel N, Uzel S. Germination: A powerful way to improve the nutritional, functional, and molecular properties of white-and red-colored sorghum grains. Foods. 2024;13(5):662. Singh A, Sharma S, Singh B. Effect of germination time and temperature on the functionality and protein solubility of sorghum flour. Journal of Cereal Science. 2017;76:131-9. Elliott H, Woods P, Green BD, Nugent AP. Can sprouting reduce phytate and improve the nutritional composition and nutrient bioaccessibility in cereals and legumes? Nutrition Bulletin. 2022; 47(2):138-56. Nkhata SG, Ayua E, Kamau EH, Shingiro JB. Fermentation and germination improve nutritional value of cereals and legumes through activation of endogenous enzymes. Food science & nutrition. 2018;6(8):2446-58. Samtiya M, Aluko RE, Dhewa T. Plant food anti-nutritional factors and their reduction strategies: an overview. Food Production, Processing and Nutrition. 2020; 2:1-4. Assenova B, Smolnikova F, Nurgazezova A, Kassymov S, Atambayeva Z, Kuderinova N, Igenbayev A, Mustafayeva A. Nutritive and biological value of the germinated wheat grain. EurAsian Journal of BioSciences. 2019; 13(2). Kumari A, Roy A. Enhancing micronutrient absorption through simultaneous fortification and phytic acid degradation. Food Science and Biotechnology. 2023;32(9):1235-56. Bewley JD, Black M. Seeds: physiology of development and germination. Springer Science & Business Media; 2013. Luo YW, Xie WH, Jin XX, Wang Q, He YJ. Effects of germination on iron, zinc, calcium, manganese, and copper availability from cereals and legumes. CyTA-Journal of Food. 2014;12(1):22-6. Özcan MM, Bağcı A, Dursun N, Gezgin S, Hamurcu M, Dumlupınar Z, Uslu N. Macro and micro element contents of several oat (Avena sativa L.) genotype and variety grains. Iran. J. Chem. Chem. Eng. Research Article Vol. 2017;36(3). Meherunnahar M, Chowdhury RS, Hoque MM, Satter MA, Islam MF. Comparison of nutritional and functional properties of BK2 foxtail millet with rice, wheat and maize flour. Progressive Agriculture. 2018; 29(2):186-94. McKevith B. Nutritional aspects of cereals. Nutrition Bulletin. 2004;29(2):111-42. Sangwan S, Singh R, Tomar SK. Nutritional and functional properties of oats: An update. Journal of Innovative Biology. 2014 Mar; 1(1):3-14. Alemayehu GF, Forsido SF, Tola YB, Teshager MA, Assegie AA, Amare E. Proximate, mineral and anti-nutrient compositions of oat grains (Avena sativa) cultivated in Ethiopia: Implications for nutrition and mineral bioavailability. Heliyon. 2021; 7(8). Berdanier CD. Handbook of nutrition and food. CRC Press; 2007. Youssef MK, Nassar AG, El–Fishawy FA, Mostafa MA. Assessment of proximate chemical composition and nutritional status of wheat biscuits fortified with oat powder. Assiut J. Agric. Sci. 2016; 47(5):83-94. Tok H, Ertaş N. The effects of germinated seeds on nutritional and technological properties of bread. Journal of the Institute of Science and Technology. 2021; 11(2):1183-93. Sheehy T, Carey E, Sharma S, Biadgilign S. Trends in energy and nutrient supply in Ethiopia: a perspective from FAO food balance sheets. Nutrition journal. 2019; 18:1-2. Schefer S, Oest M, Rohn S. Interactions between phenolic acids, proteins, and carbohydrates—Influence on dough and bread properties. Foods. 2021; 10(11):2798. Stern AL, Berstein J, Jones SS, Blumberg JB, Griffin TS. The impacts of germinating organic wheat: effects on phytic acid, resistant starch, and functional properties of flour, and sensory attributes of sourdough bread. International Journal of Food Science & Technology. 2021; 56(8):3858-65. Yang B, Yin Y, Liu C, Zhao Z, Guo M. Effect of germination time on the compositional, functional and antioxidant properties of whole wheat malt and its end-use evaluation in cookie-making. Food Chemistry. 2021; 349:129125. Acharya D. Preparation and quality evaluation f malted sorghum incorporated bread (Doctoral Dissertation, Department of Food Technology Central Campus of Technology Institute Of Science and Technology Tribhuvan University, Nepal 2021). Gänzle MG, Loponen J, Gobbetti M. Proteolysis in sourdough fermentations: mechanisms and potential for improved bread quality. Trends in food science & technology. 2008;19 (10):513-21. Maqbool Z, Khalid W, Mahum, Khan A, Azmat M, Sehrish A, Zia S, Koraqi H, AL‐Farga A, Aqlan F, Khan KA. Cereal sprout‐based food products: Industrial application, novel extraction, consumer acceptance, antioxidant potential, sensory evaluation, and health perspective. Food Science & Nutrition. 2024; 12(2):707-21. Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-5659961","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":398924085,"identity":"f2f3d4b4-b489-42d2-860e-053c5213959c","order_by":0,"name":"Hagos Hailu Kassegn","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAA8ElEQVRIiWNgGAWjYBACAwh1gIGNnYHxAZRNrBZmBmYDuBZ82uBaGJgZ2CSI0mLOfvziwx8Md+T5mHnMqm62Mcjx3UhgfPwBjxbLnpxiYx6GZ4ZtQC23c9sYjCVvJDAb4HXYgZw0aQaGw4wwLYkbbiSwSeDVcv5NmuQPhsP2IC3FQC31QC3sP/BquZF+TIKH4XAiSAszUEuCAdAW/CF24w2zMY/B4eQ2ZrZi6ZxzEoYzzzxsljiD12HpDx/+qDhsO7+9eePnnDIbeb7jyQc/VODRwsDAYwCPHSAARQ1jA14NDAzsDwgoGAWjYBSMghEPAO5STiShxAzNAAAAAElFTkSuQmCC","orcid":"","institution":"Mekelle University","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Hagos","middleName":"Hailu","lastName":"Kassegn","suffix":""},{"id":398924086,"identity":"310c7939-71ed-4189-879a-8948fba2ca18","order_by":1,"name":"Birhanu Kahsay Meresa","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Mekelle University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Birhanu","middleName":"Kahsay","lastName":"Meresa","suffix":""},{"id":398924087,"identity":"3652aa73-3ad2-443b-997d-78990f8d0ed9","order_by":2,"name":"Daniel Balema Tesfu","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Mekelle University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Daniel","middleName":"Balema","lastName":"Tesfu","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2024-12-17 08:53:16","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-5659961/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-5659961/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":73289326,"identity":"eaa31c41-0f29-48f7-a9bf-728ba7ac7caa","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-01-08 14:04:09","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":123818,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eBaked Bread Samples Fermented with Germinated Grain Starters and Refined Wheat Flour\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5659961/v1/8b6ab96cef15865c737c2876.png"},{"id":73290531,"identity":"07b9313d-74f9-4a98-ab7e-c9e56883d01c","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-01-08 14:12:09","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":17433,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003ePercent of respondents using local starters/fermenters to produce quality bread at home\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5659961/v1/c96c1fc17893d9ab5c335ee8.png"},{"id":103403892,"identity":"6633a0a5-5690-4b1f-9c0e-ca42ac16647e","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-02-25 09:44:04","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":1572408,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5659961/v1/4c7f8bd8-bcf4-4a1c-a65f-da4d0ca2bacd.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"\u003cp\u003eUnderstanding of Germination Duration and Cereal Type on the Quality and Sensory Attributes of Bread during Primary Fermentation\u003c/p\u003e","fulltext":[{"header":"1. INTRODUCTION","content":"\u003cp\u003eBread-making is one of humanity's oldest culinary technologies, dating back to ancient civilizations such as the Greeks, Egyptians, Romans, Abyssinnians and Babylonians, where it formed a staple part of the diet [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e]. Traditional bread-making often uses sourdough as a biological leavening agent, involving both yeasts and lactic acid bacteria (LAB) to enhance flavor, acidity, and texture [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e]. In contrast, straight-dough methods rely solely on commercial yeast for leavening, which lacks the complex fermentation characteristics provided by LAB [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e]. Recent studies have continued to explore the benefits of sourdough fermentation, showing that it enhances nutritional quality and sensory attributes while extending bread's shelf life [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe traditional sourdough starter, or back-slopping, is an ancient leavening method involving a simple mixture of flour and water, which undergoes spontaneous fermentation by naturally occurring mainly lactic acid bacteria (LAB) and in few amount of yeast. In this method, a small amount of fermented dough is mixed into fresh ingredients and allowed to ferment at room temperature. After several cycles, a stable microbial community develops, enhancing the sourdough\u0026rsquo;s functional properties [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e]. LAB plays a critical role in acidifying the dough by producing lactic acid, while yeast contributes carbon dioxide, which increases dough volume. Sourdough fermentation enhances bread quality by extending shelf life, increasing loaf volume, delaying staling, and improving both sensory and nutritional qualities [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eGerminated grains demonstrate significantly increased levels of vitamins, phenolic compounds, high-quality proteins, aromatic amino acids, and polyunsaturated fatty acids [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e]. Germinated brown rice, for example, has shown substantial increases in bioactive compounds, including dietary fiber, magnesium, zinc, potassium, tocotrienols, GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid), γ-oryzanol, and ferulic acid [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e]. Additionally, germination reduces triglyceride levels and total energy in dry matter while boosting ash content, crude fiber, diglycerides, select amino acids, and essential minerals [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eGermination also effectively reduces anti-nutritional factors, such as phytic acid (by up to 25%) and trypsin inhibitors, with reductions noted in soybeans, beans [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e], and peas [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e]. These improvements make germinated grains valuable for enhancing the functional and nutritional properties of various food products, supporting consumer demand for healthier, nutrient-dense options [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn the southern highlands of Tigray, Northern Ethiopia, germinated barley flour is traditionally used as a natural fermenting agent when preparing injera, a staple flatbread. Local knowledge, though largely undocumented, suggests that adding a small amount of germinated barley flour enhances injera\u0026rsquo;s softness, improves porosity, and reduces dehydration during storage (Hagos Hailu Kassegn, unpublished). Despite its widespread use, this indigenous technique remains scientifically underexplored, with limited experimental validation of its effects. Research has shown that adding sourdough and starter cultures can enhance bread\u0026rsquo;s nutritional value, microbial properties, and sensory qualities [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e]. While fats are often incorporated into dough to slow staling in modern bread, traditional methods in Ethiopia, especially in Tigray, rely on indigenous back-sloping starter cultures to improve quality and extend shelf-life. However, detailed studies on these traditional methods are limited.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe potential benefits of germinated cereal flours as fermentation starters (ersho) in bread-making, especially with refined wheat flour, are not well understood. This study aims to fill that gap by evaluating the effects of different germination times and grain types on the chemical composition, nutritional value, and sensory attributes of bread. Developing and optimizing traditional germinated flour starters could offer a sustainable way to enhance bread quality and sensory characteristics.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study aims to develop and optimize traditional starter cultures to enhance bread quality by evaluating the effects of different germination times and grain types on the chemical composition, nutritional profile, and sensory characteristics of bread.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"2. MATERIALS AND METHODS","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.1. Cereal Sample Collection\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThree cereal samples two local wheat cultivars (Ashehan and Global) and oats were randomly selected and purchased from local markets in Derga-Ajen and Mekelle City. These samples were cultivated on arable land in the Enderta District, located in the Tigray province of northern Ethiopia, during the 2022\u0026ndash;2023 crop years, in compliance with Mekelle University's institutional guidelines. The samples were chosen to ensure uniformity in size and shape. Refined wheat flour with a 72% extraction rate, sourced from the Fitig Bread Wheat Flour Factory, was used as a reference sample. Samples were packed in ten kg labeled cheese cloth bags and delivered to the Food Science and Post-harvest Technology Laboratory at Mekelle University, Ethiopia. The collected three sample cereal grains were manually cleaned to remove other grains, dust, dirt, broken and as well as immature grains and stored in dry, dark and clean place of the laboratory room.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec4\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.2. Survey on the Utilization of Traditional Fermenters for Local Bread Production\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe survey aimed to investigate the utilization of traditional fermenters in local bread production. A random selection procedure was employed to identify potential areas and elder mothers (60\u0026ndash;75 years old), resulting in a total of fifteen respondents providing valuable insights. A structured questionnaire was developed to assess the use of local starter cultures for home-based bread production.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec5\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.3. Sample Collection and Preparation\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn this experiment there was no involvement of human participants. Bread wheat flour, widely used by consumers and bread producers in Mekelle City, was selected and purchased for this study. The flour had a 72% extraction rate and was sourced from the Fitig Bread Wheat Flour factory, a common supplier in the region. Additionally, cereal cultivars Ashehan, Global, and Oats along with other necessary ingredients for bread-making were acquired from the local markets of Derga-Ajen and Mekelle. The developed dough was then baked at Lacasa Bakery PLC in Mekelle city, Tigray, Ethiopia.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec6\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.4. Experimental Design and Treatments\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe experiment was structured using a full factorial design, incorporating two factors: cereal germination time and cereal type. Germination time was tested at three levels (48, 72, and 96 hours), while three cereal types (Ashehan, Global, and oats) were included as treatments (see Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe study aimed to evaluate the effects of these factors on various outcome variables, including the functional properties, chemical composition, and sensory acceptability of the resulting breads. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) was employed to assess the simultaneous impacts of the independent variables on response functions (Y), which included protein, fat, carbohydrates, minerals, as well as sensory attributes such as chewiness, density (g/cm\u0026sup3;), color, taste, and crust firmness. Each treatment combination was replicated three times to ensure robust statistical analysis.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec7\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.5. Germination of Cereals and Flour Extraction\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe cereal varieties Ashehan, Global, and oats were thoroughly cleaned to remove any external grains, stones, soil, and broken seeds. The kernels were then steeped in potable water for 12 hours at a temperature of 25\u0026deg;C. After steeping, the water was drained using a sieve, and the cereals were spread on a moistened muslin cloth to initiate germination. The germination process was conducted at room temperature (25\u0026ndash;27\u0026deg;C) for periods of 2, 3, and 4 days. The moisture content of the germinated kernels was measured using a handheld laser radiation device (Raytek 2000, USA, 630\u0026ndash;670 nm wavelengths).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFollowing germination, the kernels were dried in an oven at 50\u0026deg;C for approximately 12 hours. The dried, germinated cereals were then milled using a laboratory universal grain miller to produce flour that passed through a 0.2 mm mesh. The resulting flours from the germinated Ashehan, Global, and oats, beside with the sample bread flours, were packaged in airtight plastic containers and stored under refrigerated conditions (5\u0026ndash;7\u0026deg;C) until further use. For comparative purposes, non-germinated seeds from each cereal type were also retained as controls.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.6. Formulation of Starters for Bread Fermentation\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec9\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.6.1. Primary Fermentation Starter Preparation\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe preparation of the primary fermentation starter (Gebeto/Ersho) was repeated multiple times to optimize the starter quality for each of the three grains across three different germination periods. The ingredients for Ersho (starter) included 10 grams of germinated flour, 10 grams of non-germinated refined flour, 40 ml of water, and 1 gram of salt. These components were combined and fermented for 12 hours to produce the germinated starters (Ersho).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFor the flour blend, refined flour and germinated flour were mixed in a 1:1 ratio using a manual blender. A control sample was prepared using 72% refined wheat flour and commercial yeast. The nine different starter treatments were placed in small plastic containers and then subjected to a secondary fermentation process.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec10\" class=\"Section3\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.6.3. Secondary Fermentation and Bread Making\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eA modified version of the straight dough method Chauhan et al.[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e15\u003c/span\u003e] was used, combining 1000 g of flour blend, 27 g of starter, 15 g of salt, and 690 ml of water, which was mixed manually for 6 minutes until uniform dough formed. The dough was initially rested for 1 hour, covered by cheese cloth, at room temperature. It was then portioned into 125 g balls, rested again for 45 minutes, and flattened to 20 cm diameter. The loaves were proofed for 15 minutes and baked at 220\u0026deg;C for 25 minutes. After cooling for 60 minutes at ambient temperature, the breads were packed and stored at 18\u0026deg;C for further analysis and sensory evaluation method adopted by Rezaei et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.7. Functional Properties of Flours\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe functional properties of refined wheat and germinated cereal flours were assessed, focusing on swelling capacity (ml), water absorption capacity (WAC, %), oil absorption capacity (OAC, %), water solubility index (WSI,%) and bulk density (g/cc) to evaluate the effects of germination time and grain type.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe bulk density which is using Tharise et al.[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e]10 g of flour was added to a 25 ml graduated cylinder, tapped to a stable volume, and calculated as weight per volume and a swelling capacity also adapted from Benmeziane-Derradji et al.[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e]), 0.35 g flour slurry was heated at 60\u0026deg;C for 30 minutes, and then centrifuged. Swelling power was calculated from the sediment weight relative to initial dry flour weight. The oil absorption capacity (OAC) determined using Olayinka et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e], 500 mg of flour was mixed with 10 ml oil, centrifuged, and weighed to determine oil absorbed per gram of flour and in a similar manner the water absorption capacity (WAC) was following Ashogbon and Akintayo [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e], 500 mg of flour in 10 ml water was stirred, centrifuged, and weighed to calculate gel weight per gram of flour.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.8. Proximate Composition Analysis\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eRefined bread wheat, germinated flours, and prepared bread samples were analyzed for moisture, protein, ash, crude fiber, and crude fat contents following AOAC standard methods using Godswill[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e21\u003c/span\u003e] and using an NIR Grain Analyzer. Carbohydrate content was calculated by difference, and total energy was determined by applying Atwater factors: carbohydrate and protein values were multiplied by 4 kcal/g and fat by 9 kcal/g [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e22\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec13\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.9. Sensory Evaluation of Bread\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eA sensory evaluation of the bread samples was conducted by a panel of 15 participants (5 faculty and 10 undergraduate students, aged 20\u0026ndash;45) from the Food Science and Post-Harvest Technology Department, using a 5-point hedonic scale (1\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;dislike extremely to 5\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;like extremely) as described by Tobin et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e23\u003c/span\u003e]. Panelists, experienced in bread consumption, were instructed to rinse their mouths with water before beginning and between sample evaluations. A brief orientation on evaluation techniques and product selection criteria was provided, and samples were served on clean, odor-free plates to ensure objective assessment. The evaluation aimed to assess consumer preference and acceptability of the bread samples.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec14\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e2.10. Statistical Analyses\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe experiment was conducted with at least three replicates, yielding data on the physicochemical, functional, and nutritional properties of flours and breads, as well as sensory acceptability scores. A factorial ANOVA was used to analyze the physicochemical and nutritional data, while sensory data were analyzed using a randomized complete block design (RCBD) to control for panelist variation. Mean differences were identified with Tukey's HSD test at a significance level of p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec16\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.1. Survey result of starters used in making of local bread\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eA survey was conducted in the Ethiopia/ Tigray, Enderta District, specifically in Quiha, Aynalem, and Ashegoda communities, to gather valid information on local starters used for bread production. A total of 15 respondents were selected through a purposive sampling method. Structured questionnaires and interviews were conducted with local mothers to identify the preferred starters for home bread production based on their traditional knowledge and skill.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe survey revealed that germinated cereal flours, including oat, Ashehan, and Global, along with back-sloped starters from \u003cem\u003etella\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003einjera\u003c/em\u003e batter, were commonly used in local bread-making. Among the respondents, 66.67% preferred using germinated grain flours as starters, 20% used starters back-sloped from \u003cem\u003etella\u003c/em\u003e (a traditional Ethiopian beer), and 13.33% utilized starters back-sloped from \u003cem\u003einjera\u003c/em\u003e batter. The respondents overwhelmingly favored germinated cereal flours for producing high-quality homemade bread.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e These findings indicate that germination of grains is a widely accepted traditional technique for enhancing bread quality at the household level. Germinated starters, known for their contribution to improved fermentation and enhanced nutritional value, are well-regarded in local bread production [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e24\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e25\u003c/span\u003e]. This highlights the significance of traditional knowledge in developing effective fermentation starters for bread-making, which aligns with recent studies emphasizing the benefits of germination in improving both the texture and nutrient content of fermented foods [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e26\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec17\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.2. Effect of germination on functional properties of selected wheat cultivars\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe functional properties of the cereal flours were presented in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e. The bulk density of non-germinated Ashehan, Global, and oats flours were 0.51, 0.53, and 0.54 g/ml, respectively. After germination for 48, 72, and 96 hours, these values decreased to 0.48\u0026ndash;0.46 g/ml for Ashehan, 0.53\u0026ndash;0.49 g/ml for Globa, and 0.51\u0026ndash;0.47 g/ml for oats. Although there was a reduction in bulk density, the change was not statistically significant (P\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;0.05). The values obtained in this study are comparable to those reported by Akubor and Badifu [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e27\u003c/span\u003e], who found a bulk density of 0.71 g/ml for wheat flour.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eBulk density plays an important role in packaging and processing. Higher bulk density allows for more efficient packaging by fitting more products into a given volume, which reduces storage and transportation costs reported by Olawoye and Gbadamosi, [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e28\u003c/span\u003e]. However, from a nutritional perspective, lower bulk density is advantageous, especially for foods targeted at children, as it promotes easy digestibility. Gopaldas and John [29] noted that foods with lower bulk density are ideal for children with immature digestive systems, as they reduce the strain on digestion and improve nutrient absorption.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAdditionally, germination reduces bulk density due to enzymatic activities that break down complex carbohydrates, making the flour lighter and more digestible [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e30\u003c/span\u003e]. This is consistent with recent findings that show germination improves the nutritional quality of cereals by enhancing the bioavailability of nutrients and reducing anti-nutritional factors [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e24\u003c/span\u003e]. As a result, the slight reduction in bulk density observed in this study reflects both practical benefits for processing and packaging, as well as potential improvements in the digestibility and nutritional value of the flour\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe water solubility index (WSI) of flour increased with germination. Initially, the WSI for non-germinated Ashehan, Global, and oats flours were 3.64%, 5.33%, and 5.28%, respectively. After germination, these values rose to 4.69\u0026ndash;5.75%, 5.65\u0026ndash;5.73%, and 5.61\u0026ndash;6.04%. Although the WSI increased during germination, the values observed in this study were lower compared to the 18.45% reported by Dhillon et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e31\u003c/span\u003e]. The increase in WSI during germination is attributed to the breakdown of starch and protein by amylases and proteases, resulting in lower molecular weight compounds that are more water-soluble [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e32\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e33\u003c/span\u003e]. Germination activates intrinsic enzymes that hydrolyze starch, producing dextrins and fermentable sugars. These sugars form cross-links between starch chains, reducing starch swelling and water absorption [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e34\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e35\u003c/span\u003e]. The moderate increase in WSI observed in this study suggests an improvement in solubility, which enhances the digestibility and functionality of the flour, particularly in bread-making applications.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe oil absorption capacity (OAC) of flour is an important parameter that influences the sensory and functional properties of baked goods. In this study, the OAC of whole flours from Ashehan, Global, and oats was found to increase with germination. The initial OAC values were 5.9 g/g for Ashehan, 5.1 g/g for Global, and 6.15 g/g for oats. Following 48 to 96 hours of germination, these values significantly increased (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05) to ranges of 6.9\u0026ndash;9.99 g/g for Ashehan, 5.25\u0026ndash;8.9 g/g for Global, and 7.9\u0026ndash;10.10 g/g for oats.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe highest OAC among both non-germinated and germinated flours was observed in oats, which had an OAC of 6.15 g/g before germination and increased to 10.10 g/g afterward. In contrast, Global wheat exhibited the lowest OAC. This variation in OAC can be attributed to the structural changes in the flour proteins that occur during the germination process. Specifically, germination enhances the availability of \u003cb\u003enon-polar\u003c/b\u003e sites on proteins that interact with hydrocarbon chains in oils [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e36\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eHigher OAC is particularly desirable in food products as it enhances flavor and improves mouth feel, which are key sensory attributes linked to fat content [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e37\u003c/span\u003e]. Recent research indicates that oils and fats contribute to flavor release during consumption, and their binding capacity is closely associated with the overall consumer experience of baked goods [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e38\u003c/span\u003e]. Furthermore, Fregolente et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e39\u003c/span\u003e] investigated and highlights that increasing OAC in flour not only improves the textural properties of bread but also contributes to better moisture retention and shelf-life. These findings underscore the potential of germinated grains, particularly oats, in developing high-quality, nutritious food products that meet consumer demands for enhanced sensory experiences. In conclusion, the significant increase in OAC observed with germination suggests that utilizing germinated cereal flours can provide functional benefits, making them advantageous for enhancing the sensory qualities and overall acceptability of baked products. This aligns with recent trends toward incorporating functional ingredients that improve both nutrition and flavor in food formulation.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe functional properties of germinated and non-germinated cereal flours\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"7\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCereals\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eType\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePro. Ger.hrs\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOAC ,g/g\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDensity, ml/g\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWAC, g/g\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSwelling\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWSI,%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"3\" rowspan=\"4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eAshahan\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNon\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.90\u0026plusmn;1.41\u003csup\u003ee\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.51\u0026plusmn;0.01\u003csup\u003ecd\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.15\u0026plusmn;2.12\u003csup\u003ef\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.99\u0026plusmn;0.02\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.64\u0026plusmn;0.01\u003csup\u003ei\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e48\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.90\u0026plusmn;1.41\u003csup\u003ed\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.48\u0026plusmn;0.01\u003csup\u003ee\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.95\u0026plusmn;0.7\u003csup\u003ee\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.64\u0026plusmn;0.01\u003csup\u003ef\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.69\u0026plusmn;0.02\u003csup\u003eh\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e72\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.05\u0026plusmn;0.7\u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.47\u0026plusmn;0.01\u003csup\u003eef\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.95\u0026plusmn;0.7\u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.32\u0026plusmn;0.01\u003csup\u003eh\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.84\u0026plusmn;0.01\u003csup\u003eg\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e96\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.90\u0026plusmn;1.41\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.46\u0026plusmn;0.01\u003csup\u003ef\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.95\u0026plusmn;0.7\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.06\u0026plusmn;0.04\u003csup\u003ei\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.75\u0026plusmn;0.07\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"3\" rowspan=\"4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eGlobal\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNon\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.10\u0026plusmn;1.41\u003csup\u003ef\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.53\u0026plusmn;0.01\u003csup\u003ebc\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.95\u0026plusmn;0.7\u003csup\u003eg\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.33\u0026plusmn;0.02\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.58\u0026plusmn;0.02\u003csup\u003eef\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e48\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.25\u0026plusmn;3.53\u003csup\u003ef\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.53\u0026plusmn;0.01\u003csup\u003ebc\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.05\u0026plusmn;0.7\u003csup\u003eg\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.13\u0026plusmn;0.02\u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.65\u0026plusmn;0.07\u003csup\u003ecd\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e72\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.35\u0026plusmn;2.12\u003csup\u003ed\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.56\u0026plusmn;0.01\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.10\u0026plusmn;1.41\u003csup\u003eg\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.78\u0026plusmn;0.04\u003csup\u003ee\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.65\u0026plusmn;0.0\u003csup\u003ecd\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e96\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.90\u0026plusmn;1.41\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.49\u0026plusmn;0.0\u003csup\u003ede\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.45\u0026plusmn;0.7\u003csup\u003ed\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.50\u0026plusmn;0.01\u003csup\u003eg\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.73\u0026plusmn;0.03\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"3\" rowspan=\"4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eOat\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNon\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.15\u0026plusmn;2.12\u003csup\u003ee\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.54\u0026plusmn;0.02\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.95\u0026plusmn;0.7\u003csup\u003ef\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.28\u0026plusmn;0.04\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.54\u0026plusmn;0.01\u003csup\u003ef\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e48\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.90\u0026plusmn;1.41\u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.51\u0026plusmn;0.01\u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.05\u0026plusmn; 0.7\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.99\u0026plusmn;0.01\u003csup\u003ed\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.61\u0026plusmn;0.02\u003csup\u003ede\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e72\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.75\u0026plusmn;3.53\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.51\u0026plusmn;0.01\u003csup\u003edc\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.80\u0026plusmn;2.82\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.54\u0026plusmn;0.02\u003csup\u003eg\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.66\u0026plusmn;0.02\u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e96\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.10\u0026plusmn;1.41\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.47\u0026plusmn;0.0\u003csup\u003eef\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.05\u0026plusmn;0.7\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.04\u0026plusmn;0.01\u003csup\u003ei\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.04\u0026plusmn;0.02\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eCV,%\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.30\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.21\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.85\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.68\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.39\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eLSD\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.47\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.02\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.30\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.06\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.047\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePro., Process; Ger., germination; hrs. Hours; OAC, Oil absorption capacity; Water absorption capacity (WAC); Water solubility index (WSI); CV, coefficient of variances; LSD, least significant difference of mean separation tools, Data are expressed as mean standard error of replicate (n \u0026frac14; 3); Means that do not share the same letter down the column are significantly different.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec18\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.3. Effect of germination on the proximate contents of wheat (Asheha \u0026amp; Global) and Oat\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eProximate analysis is a crucial aspect of food science, as it delivers essential information regarding the composition of food samples, including moisture, ash, fat, protein, and carbohydrate contents. This data is invaluable across various sectors of the food industry, including product development, quality control, and regulatory compliance. In this study, the proximate composition of Ashehan wheat, Global wheat, and oats was assessed according to standardized methods. The results detailing the effects of germination on the proximate composition of these grains are presented in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe protein content of germinated seeds varied significantly from 7.5 to 18.1 g/100 g dry basis (db), with oats germinated for 96 hours showing the highest protein levels, while un-germinated Ashehan wheat had the lowest. Germination resulted in significantly higher protein levels compared to non-germinated samples. This increase is due to enzyme production in the germinating seeds, which breaks down starch and proteins, while respiration contributes to the synthesis of new amino acids [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e40\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e41\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAll cereal samples showed increased protein, gluten, and energy content after three germination periods, while moisture, crude lipids, fiber, total carbohydrates, and ash contents decreased. For example, crude protein in oats rose from 10.15\u0026ndash;18.1%, and gluten increased from 36.06\u0026ndash;54.42%, with energy content rising from 332.68 kcal to 353.48 kcal after four days of germination. While raw oats contained higher levels of protein, ash, and gluten, Global wheat samples had greater crude fat and energy content. Similar results were reported by Anaemene and Fadupin [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e42\u003c/span\u003e], who observed significant protein increases in germinated corn. These findings corroborate earlier research by Saastamoinen et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e43\u003c/span\u003e], noting that oats generally contain lipid levels ranging from 5\u0026ndash;9%.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFat content decreased in all germinated samples, with significant reductions observed in germinated Ashehan, Global, and oats. This finding aligns with previous studies by 44 El-Adawy et al.[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e44\u003c/span\u003e]; Ghavidel and Prakash [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e45\u003c/span\u003e]; Hahm et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e46\u003c/span\u003e], which reported a decrease in fat content with prolonged germination. This reduction may occur because fats serve as a primary carbon source for seedling growth [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e47\u003c/span\u003e]. Additionally, fatty acids are oxidized to carbon dioxide and water, providing the necessary energy for the germination process [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e46\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAsh content also significantly decreased in all germinated samples (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e). This reduction is likely due to the leaching of soluble minerals into soaking water during germination, as noted by Ghavidel and Prakash [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e45\u003c/span\u003e]. Wang et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR47\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e48\u003c/span\u003e] observed similar reductions in ash content following germination over specified time periods.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFurthermore, a research conducted by Kassegn et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR48\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e49\u003c/span\u003e] demonstrated the crude fiber increased in malt barley, purple barley and purple wheat germinated in 72hrs, which is in contrast to this results and yet a study observed by Azizah and Zainon [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR49\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e50\u003c/span\u003e] demonstrated that total dietary fiber decreased in soaked wheat, barley, peanuts, and mung beans, which is consistent with our findings presented in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e. This indicates that the germination process impacts the total dietary fiber levels during both the soaking phase and the actual germination phase [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e51\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThese results highlight the complex biochemical changes occurring during germination, which affect not only fat and ash content but also the overall nutritional profile of the grains. Understanding these changes is essential for optimizing the nutritional value of germinated grains for food applications.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn this study, we observed notable compositional changes in both germinated samples, including decreases in ash, moisture, fiber, carbohydrate, and lipid content, alongside a significant increase in gluten content. The germ of grain seeds typically contains a substantial proportion of crude lipids. During germination, enzymes hydrolyze triacylglycerols, resulting in the production of free fatty acids. These fatty acids undergo β-oxidation within the cytosol and mitochondria, generating essential energy to support seedling development. Consequently, a decrease in crude fat content is expected during germination, which aligns with our findings; we observed a decrease in lipid content reliable with reductions reported during legume germination [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e40\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe carbohydrate content, crucial for the digestibility of cereals, also significantly decreased during germination in Ashehan wheat, Global wheat, and oats. This reduction can be attributed to increased activity of amylase and pullulanase enzymes, which break down carbohydrate molecules into maltose, maltotriose, and other oligosaccharides. Key enzymes such as α-amylase, glucosidase, dextranase (produced in the aleurone), and β-amylase (produced in the endosperm) are activated during germination and play a vital role in carbohydrate hydrolysis [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR51\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e52\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e40\u003c/span\u003e]. Our findings are coherent with those of Xu et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e40\u003c/span\u003e] and Oskaybas-Emlek et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR52\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e53\u003c/span\u003e], reinforcing the understanding that germination significantly alters the biochemical composition of grains, enhancing their digestibility and nutritional value.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThese compositional changes underscore the importance of germination as a processing technique that not only enhances the nutritional profile of grains but also improves their functional properties, making them more suitable for various food applications. Further research should focus on optimizing germination conditions to maximize these benefits while preserving the quality of the grains.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEffect of germination on the proximate contents of wheat (Ashehan and global) and oat grain (g/100 g dry basis)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"10\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c9\" colnum=\"9\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c10\" colnum=\"10\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCereal Type\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGerm. Time\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(hrs)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMoisture\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eProtein\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFat\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAsh\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFiber\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGluten\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCHO\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEnergy (Kcal/100 g)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"3\" rowspan=\"4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAshehan\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eC\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.02 \u0026plusmn; 0.16\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.55\u0026plusmn;0.014\u003csup\u003ej\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.13\u0026plusmn;0.00\u003csup\u003ed\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.75\u0026plusmn;0.09\u003csup\u003eab\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.77\u0026plusmn;0.02\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e27.29 \u0026plusmn; 0.07\u003csup\u003eh\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e70.80\u0026plusmn;0.23\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e323.50\u0026plusmn;0.92\u003csup\u003eg\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e48\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.83\u0026plusmn;0.01\u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.28 \u0026plusmn;0.00\u003csup\u003ef\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.96 \u0026plusmn;0.00\u003csup\u003ede\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.62 \u0026plusmn;0.09\u003csup\u003ebcd\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.38 \u0026plusmn; 0.01\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e32.45\u0026plusmn;0.01\u003csup\u003eg\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e66.94\u0026plusmn;0.09\u003csup\u003ee\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e325.47\u0026plusmn;0.40\u003csup\u003eg\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e72\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.36 \u0026plusmn;0.00\u003csup\u003ef\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.65\u0026plusmn;0.00\u003csup\u003ee\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.89\u0026plusmn;0.00\u003csup\u003ede\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.51\u0026plusmn;0.11\u003csup\u003ebcde\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.14\u0026plusmn;0.03\u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e32.72 \u0026plusmn;0.01\u003csup\u003ef\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e68.45\u0026plusmn;0.15\u003csup\u003ed\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e332.43\u0026plusmn;0.58\u003csup\u003ef\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e96\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.65\u0026plusmn;0.04e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.85\u0026plusmn;0.01\u003csup\u003ed\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.66\u0026plusmn;0.01\u003csup\u003ee\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.24\u0026plusmn;0.07\u003csup\u003efg\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.10\u0026plusmn;0.14\u003csup\u003ef\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e32.95\u0026plusmn;0.00\u003csup\u003ee\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e69.51\u0026plusmn;0.03\u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e335.36\u0026plusmn;0.21\u003csup\u003ee\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"3\" rowspan=\"4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGlobal\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eC\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.64\u0026plusmn;0.00\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.35 \u0026plusmn;0.02\u003csup\u003ek\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.83 \u0026plusmn;0.05\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.67\u0026plusmn;0.02\u003csup\u003eabc\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.16 \u0026plusmn;0.00\u003csup\u003ef\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e18.11\u0026plusmn;0.02\u003csup\u003el\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e72.40\u0026plusmn;0.12\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e336.09\u0026plusmn; 0.72\u003csup\u003ede\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e48\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.49\u0026plusmn;0.08\u003csup\u003ed\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.10\u0026plusmn;0.14i\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.79\u0026plusmn;0.12\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.39\u0026plusmn;0.13\u003csup\u003edef\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.16\u0026plusmn;0.03\u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e22.84 \u0026plusmn;0.00\u003csup\u003ek\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e68.04\u0026plusmn;0.11\u003csup\u003ed\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e338.03\u0026plusmn;0.62\u003csup\u003ed\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e72\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.26 \u0026plusmn;0.00\u003csup\u003ef\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.61\u0026plusmn;0.00\u003csup\u003eh\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.69\u0026plusmn;0.02\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.33\u0026plusmn;0.07\u003csup\u003eefg\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.53 \u0026plusmn;0.02\u003csup\u003ed\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e22.92 \u0026plusmn; 0.01\u003csup\u003ej\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e69.59\u0026plusmn;0.07\u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e344.94\u0026plusmn; 0.50\u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e96\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.77 \u0026plusmn;0.00\u003csup\u003eg\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.92\u0026plusmn;0.02\u003csup\u003eg\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.48\u0026plusmn;0.00\u003csup\u003eabc\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.12\u0026plusmn;0.02\u003csup\u003eg\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.64\u0026plusmn;0.07\u003csup\u003egh\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e23.830 \u0026plusmn; 0.04\u003csup\u003ei\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e71.08\u0026plusmn;0.02\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e350.32\u0026plusmn;0.16\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"3\" rowspan=\"4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOat\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eC\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.75 \u0026plusmn; 0.21c\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.15\u0026plusmn;0.01\u003csup\u003ei\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.77 \u0026plusmn;0.14\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.87\u0026plusmn;0.26a\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.67\u0026plusmn; 0.00\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e36.06 \u0026plusmn; 0.01\u003csup\u003ed\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e66.80\u0026plusmn;0.33\u003csup\u003ee\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e332.68\u0026plusmn; 2.63\u003csup\u003ef\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e48\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.70 \u0026plusmn;0.14\u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e14.68\u0026plusmn;0.04\u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.55 \u0026plusmn;0.028\u003csup\u003eab\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.67\u0026plusmn;0.01\u003csup\u003eabc\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.34 \u0026plusmn; 0.02\u003csup\u003ee\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e44.85 \u0026plusmn;0.01\u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e65.45 \u0026plusmn;0.45\u003csup\u003ef\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e337.93\u0026plusmn; 0.56\u003csup\u003ede\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e72\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.61\u0026plusmn;0.01\u003csup\u003ee\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e16.52\u0026plusmn;0.00\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.25\u0026plusmn;0.36\u003csup\u003ebc\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.66 \u0026plusmn;0.02\u003csup\u003eabc\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.67\u0026plusmn;0.014\u003csup\u003eg\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e49.92\u0026plusmn;0.00\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e64.29\u0026plusmn;0.39\u003csup\u003eg\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e343.49\u0026plusmn;1.72\u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e96\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.32 \u0026plusmn;0.00\u003csup\u003eh\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e18.10\u0026plusmn;0.07\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.14\u0026plusmn;0.45\u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.46\u0026plusmn;0.07\u003csup\u003ecdef\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.53\u0026plusmn;0.0\u003csup\u003eh\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e54.42\u0026plusmn;0.01\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e64.06\u0026plusmn;0.02\u003csup\u003eg\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e353.48\u0026plusmn;1.95\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCV%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.76\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.41\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.95\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.32\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.96\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0 .0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.34\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.35\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLSD\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.17\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.11\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.40\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.24\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.12\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.0\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.51\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.66\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePro. Process, Ger., germination. hrs. Hours, CHO, carbohydrate, C, control, CV, coefficient of variances, LSD, least significant difference of mean separation tools, \u003cem\u003eData are expressed as mean standard error of replicate (n \u0026frac14; 3). Means that do not share the same letter down the column are significantly different.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec19\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.4. Contribution of germination durations on nutritional enhancements of bread\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe ANOVA results for the bread samples fermented for 4\u0026ndash;5 hours at room temperature, following primary fermentation, are presented in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e. The bread was prepared using Gebeto, a local starter culture developed over a 12-hour period by mixing 10 g of germinated flour with 10 g of refined wheat flour, 40 ml of water, and 1 g of salt. Additionally, the effects of 2\u0026ndash;4 days of germination on the composition of germinated seed flours and their incorporation levels on the properties of the bread samples were compared to control bread made using standard procedures.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe fat, protein, carbohydrate, and energy contents of the developed bread from Ashehan wheat, baked at 220\u0026deg;C for 24 hours after germination periods of 48, 72, and 96 hours, varied as follows: fat content ranged from 2.91\u0026ndash;3.08%, protein from 2.90\u0026ndash;5.95%, carbohydrate from 13.79\u0026ndash;14.38%, and energy content from 331.49\u0026ndash;328.03 kcal. For Global wheat, the corresponding values for the same germination periods were fat content between 3.85% and 4.25%, protein between 11.6% and 12.45%, carbohydrates from 62.08\u0026ndash;63.48%, and energy content from 332.77\u0026ndash;340.75 kcal. Similarly, oats demonstrated fat content was ranging from 4.36\u0026ndash;4.59%, protein levels between 16.18% and 19.26%, carbohydrate content from 55.85\u0026ndash;63.48%, and energy values ranging from 336.48 to 359.99 kcal.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe addition of germinated ingredients to bread production resulted in significant changes (P\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05) in the protein and energy content of breads made with germinated starters from Ashehan, Global, and oats. The protein percentage increases in bread made with these germinated starters, compared to the control samples made with regular procedure flours, were as follows: 209\u0026ndash;223% for Ashehan, 160\u0026ndash;179% for Global, and 263\u0026ndash;332% for oats. All germinated cereals exhibited notably higher protein content, with germinated oats showing the highest levels, while bread made with refined wheat flour had the lowest protein content.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe significant differences (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05) among and between the bread samples can be attributed to the effects of germination. Descriptive analysis from interviews with local mothers revealed a strong preference for using local starter preparations, particularly with oats, for making traditional bread. The increase in crude protein content during germination can be explained by several factors with the activation of enzymes during seed development, compositional changes due to the breakdown of anti-nutritional factors, and the synthesis of new proteins. For example, α-amylase enzymes hydrolyze starch granules, liberating proteins previously embedded in the seed structure. Additionally, enhanced protease activity during germination promotes the breakdown of peptide chains into amino acids, further boosting the protein content of germinated grains such valued reports were conducted by Kayisoglu et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR53\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e54\u003c/span\u003e]. These findings emphasize the nutritional advantages of incorporating germinated ingredients in bread-making, aligning with recent research that supports the use of fermentation and germination to improve the protein quality of cereal-based products.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe fat content of refined bread wheat flour used as a control sample in this study was 2.07%. However, the addition of germinated ingredients significantly increased the fat content in the developed breads made from Ashehan, Global, and oats. Despite this increase, longer germination durations resulted in a notable decline in fat content, with differences among treatments being statistically significant (P\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05). This reduction in fat content during germination is attributed to biochemical and physiological changes that occur as energy is allocated for the development of new plant tissues. Specifically, increased lipolytic enzyme activity during germination converts fats into fatty acids and glycerol, which serve as energy sources for emerging seedlings [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR54\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e55\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe inclusion of germinated ingredients also resulted in a slight decrease in total carbohydrate content while increasing the caloric value compared to the refined bread control samples. The carbohydrates, crucial for the digestibility of Ashehan, Global, and oats, decreased during germination. This reduction can be explained by the enhanced activity of amylase and pullulanase enzymes, which break down starch molecules into maltose, maltotriose, and other oligosaccharides. Key enzymes such as α-amylase, glucosidase, dextranase (produced in the aleurone), and β-amylase (produced in the endosperm) are activated during germination, facilitating carbohydrate hydrolysis [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR51\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e52\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e40\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOur findings align closely with previous studies by Kaur et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR51\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e52\u003c/span\u003e] ,Xu et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e40\u003c/span\u003e], and 53 Oskaybaş-Emlek et al.[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR52\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e53\u003c/span\u003e], demonstrating that the slight increase in energy value in the samples resulted from a modest elevation in protein content during germination at 48, 72, and 96 hours. These results highlight the significant biochemical transformations that occur during the germination process, enhancing both the nutritional quality and energy value of the bread produced.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eProximate contents of bread fermented from germinated cereal starters\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"6\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFermenters\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePro.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eGer.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFat\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eProtein\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCHO\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEnergy\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eAshehan\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e48\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.09\u0026plusmn;0.11\u003csup\u003ee\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.79\u0026plusmn;0.02\u003csup\u003ee\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e62.13\u0026plusmn;1.15ab\u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e331.49\u0026plusmn;4.37\u003csup\u003ed\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e72\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.07\u0026plusmn;0.16\u003csup\u003ee\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e14.18\u0026plusmn;0.05\u003csup\u003ed\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e62.23\u0026plusmn;0.67ab\u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e333.27\u0026plusmn;4.07\u003csup\u003ed\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e96\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.91\u0026plusmn;0.14\u003csup\u003ee\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e14.38\u0026plusmn;0.05\u003csup\u003ed\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e61.08\u0026plusmn;0.68\u003csup\u003ebcd\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e328.03\u0026plusmn;4.02\u003csup\u003ee\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eGlobal\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e48\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.25\u0026plusmn;0.04\u003csup\u003ebc\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.60\u0026plusmn;0.10\u003csup\u003eg\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e63.48\u0026plusmn;2.12\u003csup\u003eab\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e338.57\u0026plusmn;8.42\u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e72\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.15 \u0026plusmn;0.02\u003csup\u003ecd\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.12 \u0026plusmn;0.01\u003csup\u003ef\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e63.73\u0026plusmn; 1.75\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e340.75\u0026plusmn;6.86\u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e96\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.85 \u0026plusmn;0.07\u003csup\u003ed\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.45 \u0026plusmn;0.05\u003csup\u003ef\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e62.08 \u0026plusmn;1.17\u003csup\u003eabc\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e332.77\u0026plusmn;5.17\u003csup\u003ed\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eOat\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e48\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.59 \u0026plusmn;0.08\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e16.19 \u0026plusmn;0.04\u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e63.48\u0026plusmn;2.83\u003csup\u003eab\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e359.99\u0026plusmn;9.2\u003csup\u003e3a\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e72\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.40 \u0026plusmn;0.28\u003csup\u003eab\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e17.81\u0026plusmn;0.36\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e58.74\u0026plusmn;1.42\u003csup\u003ed\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e345.80\u0026plusmn;7.76\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e96\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.36 \u0026plusmn;0.37\u003csup\u003eab\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e19.26\u0026plusmn;0.59\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e55.05\u0026plusmn;0.82\u003csup\u003ee\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e336.46\u0026plusmn;4.10\u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eControl\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRefined\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.07\u0026plusmn; 0.01\u003csup\u003ef\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.45\u0026plusmn;0.08\u003csup\u003eh\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e60.25 \u0026plusmn;0.10\u003csup\u003ecd\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e277.47\u0026plusmn;0.35\u003csup\u003ef\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eCV%\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.89\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.66\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.44\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.45\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eLSD\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.25\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.38\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.56\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.56\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePro. Process, Ger., germination. hrs. Hours, CHO, carbohydrate, CV, coefficient of variances, LSD, least significant difference of mean separation tools, \u003cem\u003eData are expressed as mean standard error of replicate (n \u0026frac14; 3). Means that do not share the same letter down the column are significantly different.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cb\u003e3.5. Effect of germination time on mineral-elements of produced bread with added ingredients of Ashehan wheat, Global wheat and oats\u003c/b\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe mineral contents of germinated seed flours are presented in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e. ANOVA results indicated that the variation in mineral content due to the addition of ingredients at different germination periods was significant (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05). The highest levels of calcium (24.51 mg/100 g), zinc (1.85 mg/100 g), and iron (2.44 mg/100 g) were found in the germinated oats seed flour at 96 hours. Among the added ingredients, germinated oats provided the highest calcium content, followed by iron and zinc.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eNotably, the concentrations of calcium, zinc, and iron increased with longer germination times, reflecting the positive effects of germination on mineral bioavailability. These findings are coherent with recent research, which demonstrates that germination can enhance mineral content and absorption in cereals and legumes [56, 57]. Moreover, the process of germination has been shown to break down anti-nutritional factors, facilitating greater mineral availability [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR57\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e58\u003c/span\u003e]. Overall, this study highlights the benefits of germinating oats for improving the mineral profile of seed flours, contributing to enhanced nutritional quality.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe results of this study revealed significantly higher mineral content than those reported by Assenova et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR58\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e59\u003c/span\u003e], who found calcium, iron, and zinc levels in soft wheat flour to be 52 mg/100 g, 5.2 mg/100 g, and 2.75 mg/100 g, respectively. The higher mineral levels observed in our study can be attributed to the enhanced bioavailability resulting from the germination process. Elliott et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR56\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e56\u003c/span\u003e] and Kumari and Roy [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR59\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e60\u003c/span\u003e] noted that the increase in inorganic elements after sprouting is primarily due to phytase activity, which degrades phytic acid a known chelator of divalent and trivalent cations such as iron, zinc, calcium, magnesium, copper, and manganese. This enzymatic breakdown facilitates the release of these minerals, making them more bioavailable.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFurthermore, Bewley et al. [61] emphasized that phytase activity begins during the early stages of germination and intensifies as the germination process continues, thereby increasing mineral bioavailability. Variations in the bioavailability of inorganic minerals in cereals and legumes post-germination may result from differences in phytate content, phytase activity and the degree to which minerals are bound in complexes. In contrast to our findings, Luo et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR61\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e62\u003c/span\u003e] reported lower mineral content in hard wheat after germination, with zinc, iron, copper, and calcium levels of 3.31 mg/g, 2.21 mg/g, 0.82 mg/g, and 39.64 mg/g, respectively. These discrepancies underscore the complex interactions between germination conditions and the mineral profiles of different grain types, suggesting that specific germination practices can significantly enhance mineral content and bioavailability in certain cereal varieties. This highlights the importance of optimizing germination conditions to maximize the nutritional benefits of grains.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe trace minerals specifically iron (Fe) and zinc (Zn), are detailed in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e. Iron content significantly differed among the treatments (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05), with the added oat flour varying with germination periods ranging from 2.24 to 2.44 mg/100 g, which were higher than the control sample, showing a significant difference (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026gt;\u0026thinsp;0.05). Ozcan et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR62\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e63\u003c/span\u003e] reported iron content in various oat varieties ranging from 3.0 to 8.1 mg/100 g; however, the results from this study were slightly lower than those figures but comparable to maize, which contained 2.4 mg/100 g [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR63\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e64\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMcKevith [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR64\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e65\u003c/span\u003e], reported that lower iron contents for wheat (2 mg/100 g), rice (1.4 mg/100 g), and corn (1.1 mg/100 g), further highlighting the superior iron levels in oats from this study.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe zinc content in the breads made with germinated flours from Ashehan wheat, Global wheat, and oats (after 48, 72, and 96 hours of germination) ranged from 1.72 to 1.82 mg/100 g for Ashehan, 1.62 to 1.72 mg/100 g for Global, and 1.77 to 1.85 mg/100 g for oats. Similar to other trace minerals, germination enhanced the mineral content of the bread, resulting in significant differences (p\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05) in zinc levels compared to the control sample. Oat bread made with ingredients germinated for 96 hours exhibited the highest zinc content, while the global wheat at the same germination duration recorded the lowest. Ozcan et al [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR62\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e63\u003c/span\u003e] found zinc contents in oats to range between 1.5 mg/100 g and 3.8 mg/100 g, aligning closely with our results. However, our findings are slightly lower than those reported by Sangwan et al [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR65\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e66\u003c/span\u003e], which ranged from 3.3 to 4.5 mg/100 g. This variation may be attributed to amount added, genetic differences and agronomic practices during production. McKevith [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR64\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e65\u003c/span\u003e], reported zinc contents for rice (1.8 mg/100 g), corn (1.7 mg/100 g), and barley (2.1 mg/100 g), which are comparable to the zinc contents observed in Ashehan, Global, and oats in this study.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eZinc is essential for the proper growth and maintenance of the human body, functioning as a vital component of over 300 enzymes involved in the synthesis and degradation of carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR66\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e67\u003c/span\u003e]. It plays a crucial role in various biological processes, including immune function, wound healing, blood clotting, and thyroid regulation. Therefore, the application of germination significantly improved the zinc content across all samples, enhancing their nutritional value.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTable\u0026nbsp;(4) presents the calcium (Ca) content measured across different germination periods. Calcium is essential for building bones and teeth and plays a crucial role in muscle function, with over 99% of the body\u0026rsquo;s calcium found in bones and teeth [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR67\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e68\u003c/span\u003e]. The calcium content in Ashehan, Global, and oats ranged from 22.07 to 23.05 mg/100 g, 20.51 to 23.04 mg/100 g, and 22.01 to 24.51 mg/100 g, respectively. Oats germinated for 96 hours and used in bread showed the highest calcium content at 24.51 mg/100 g.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThese findings contrast with those of Youssef et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR68\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e69\u003c/span\u003e], who reported calcium levels of 54\u0026ndash;71 mg/100 g, and are lower than the values reported by Sangwan et al.[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR65\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e66\u003c/span\u003e], (53.9 mg/100 g) and. Tok and Ertaş, [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR69\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e70\u003c/span\u003e], (54.9 mg/100 g). Higher calcium contents, ranging from 56.9 to 127 mg/100 g, were reported by Ozcan et al.[\u003cspan citationid=\"CR65\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e66\u003c/span\u003e], likely due to variations in growth conditions, genetics, geographical factors, analytical methods and used refine wheat flour as main ingredients. According to the Ethiopian food composition table, calcium contents in barley, corn, wheat, rice, sorghum, and teff are 28, 16, 12, 12, 9, and 1.2 mg/100 g, respectively reported by Sheehy et al [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR70\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e71\u003c/span\u003e], which are significantly lower than the calcium levels found in the germinated samples of this study.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab4\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 4\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAssessment of Mineral Content in Bread Developed with Three Developed Fermentation Starters\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"5\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFermenters\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePro. Ger. hrs.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCa,, mg/100gm\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eZn, mg/100gm\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFe, mg/100gm\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eAshehan\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e48\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e22.07\u0026plusmn;0.37c\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.72 \u0026plusmn;0.04bc\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.04\u0026plusmn;0.06de\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e72\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e22.77\u0026plusmn;0.46bc\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.71 \u0026plusmn;0.05bc\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.20\u0026plusmn;0.06c\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e96\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e23.05 \u0026plusmn;0.33bc\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.82\u0026plusmn; 0.13ab\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.29\u0026plusmn;0.08bc\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eGlobal\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e48\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e20.51\u0026plusmn;0.44d\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.62\u0026plusmn;0.11c\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.77\u0026plusmn;0.03\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e72\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e22.01\u0026plusmn;0.00d\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.61\u0026plusmn;1.0.06c\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.93\u0026plusmn;0.16e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e96\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e23.04 \u0026plusmn;0.50bc\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.72\u0026plusmn;0.05bc\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.17\u0026plusmn;0.00cd\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eOat\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e48\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e22.01\u0026plusmn;1.69\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.77\u0026plusmn;0.00ab\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.24\u0026plusmn;0.11bc\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e72\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e23.54 \u0026plusmn;0.03ab\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.77\u0026plusmn;0.02ab\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.36\u0026plusmn;0.07ab\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e96\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e24.51\u0026plusmn;0.00a\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.85\u0026plusmn;0.00a\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.44 \u0026plusmn;0.11a\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eControl\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRefined\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.67 \u0026plusmn;0.60e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.71\u0026plusmn; 0.06\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.85\u0026plusmn;0.05g\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eCV,%\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.13\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.36\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.18\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLSD\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.16\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.12\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.14\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePro. Process, Ger., germination. hrs. Hours, Ca, calcium, Zn, zinc, Fe, iron, CV, coefficient of variances, LSD, least significant difference of mean separation tools, \u003cem\u003eData are expressed as mean standard error of replicate (n \u0026frac14; 3). Means that do not share the same letter down the column are significantly different.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec20\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e3.6. Assessment of Sensory Qualities in Bread Samples used three Germinated Cereal Starters\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eSensory acceptability testing is crucial in the assessment of food products, as it provides insight into the sensory characteristics that significantly influence overall quality. Key attributes such as appearance, taste, odor, flavor, and texture directly affect consumer acceptability. In the case of bread, aspects such as aroma, color, texture, and taste play a vital role in both consumption and production. This study specifically evaluates the impact of incorporating germinated starter ingredients on the sensory quality attributes of bread. The results of this evaluation are summarized in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe color scores of bread samples made with the addition of germinated ingredients Ashehan, Global, and oats were measured at 48, 72, and 96 hours. The scores recorded were as follows: Ashehan (3.85, 3.89, 3.35), Global (4.07, 3.98, 3.77), and oats (3.36, 3.81, 3.83), respectively. Statistical analysis revealed no significant differences in color among the samples.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eNotably, the bread fermented with germinated Global ingredients at 48 hours achieved the highest color score of 4.07, followed by Ashehan and oats, which scored 3.89 and 3.83 at 72 and 96 hours, respectively. This variation in color can be attributed to the Maillard reaction, a complex interaction between proteins and carbohydrates that occurs during germination, resulting in browning or darkening of the food products reported by Schefer et al. [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR71\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e72\u003c/span\u003e] and Stern et al. [73]. The effects of this reaction became more pronounced with the extension of the germination period, supporting findings that longer germination times enhance the development of desirable color attributes in baked goods [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR73\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e74\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe mean scores for crust texture of the bread samples varied significantly, ranging from 3.53 to 4.35, indicating a notable difference in sensory quality influenced by the germination duration of the starters used. The bread sample fermented with the Global starter, which underwent 72 hours of germination, received the highest preference score from the panelists, reflecting its superior textural attributes. In contrast, the control sample, which contained no germinated ingredients, scored only 3.38, marking it as the least preferred option among the evaluated samples (see Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis preference for the Global starter could be attributed to the enhanced development of gluten structure and overall bread aeration, which are critical for achieving desirable crust texture and the result is similar to findings reported by Acharya [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR75\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e75\u003c/span\u003e]. Germination not only increases the enzyme activity in the flour but also modifies the protein composition, resulting in improved dough handling properties and final product texture [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR76\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e76\u003c/span\u003e]. The findings align with previous studies that highlight the benefits of utilizing germinated ingredients in bread production to enhance sensory qualities [77].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab5\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 5\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSensory Qualities panel test of sample bread developed by three Germinated Cereal Starters\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"9\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c9\" colnum=\"9\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBread\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSample\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c3\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePro. Ger. hrs\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSmell\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eColor\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCrust Texture\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTaste(Flavor/aroma)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eChew\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGeneral Acceptance\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAshehan\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e48\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.57\u0026plusmn;0.62ab\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.85\u0026plusmn;0.66ab\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.58\u0026plusmn;0.96a\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.70\u0026plusmn;0.45bcd\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.20\u0026plusmn;0.94ab\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.52\u0026plusmn; 0.58ab\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e72\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.73\u0026plusmn;0.99ab\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.89\u0026plusmn;0.76ab\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.68\u0026plusmn;0.66a\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.06\u0026plusmn;0.56ab\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.52\u0026plusmn;0.94ab\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.76 \u0026plusmn;0.73ab\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e96\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.39\u0026plusmn;0.72b\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.35\u0026plusmn;0.84b\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.55\u0026plusmn;0.86a\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.53\u0026plusmn;0.55d\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.19\u0026plusmn;0.91ab\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.47 \u0026plusmn;0.66ab\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGlobal\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e48\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.79\u0026plusmn;0.88ab\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.07\u0026plusmn; 0.71a\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.91\u0026plusmn;0.76a\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.66\u0026plusmn;0.48cd\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.64\u0026plusmn;1.04ab\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.84 \u0026plusmn;0.72ab\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e72\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.01\u0026plusmn;0.72a\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.98 \u0026plusmn;0.80a\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.0 \u0026plusmn;0.93a\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.97\u0026plusmn;0.49bc\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.83\u0026plusmn;1.02a\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.94 \u0026plusmn; 0.81a\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e96\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.66\u0026plusmn;0.78ab\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.77\u0026plusmn;0.62ab\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.47\u0026plusmn;0.69a\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.73\u0026plusmn;0.52bcd\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.64\u0026plusmn;1.0ab\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.81\u0026plusmn;0.69ab\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOats\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e48\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.68\u0026plusmn;1.07ab\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.36\u0026plusmn; 1.11b\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.57\u0026plusmn;0.97a\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.00\u0026plusmn;0.54bc\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.57\u0026plusmn;1.07ab\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.77\u0026plusmn;0.70ab\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e72\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.64\u0026plusmn;0.71ab\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.81\u0026plusmn;0.81ab\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.48\u0026plusmn;1.13a\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.35\u0026plusmn;0.47a\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.33\u0026plusmn;0.85ab\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.88\u003cem\u003e\u0026plusmn;\u003c/em\u003e0\u003cem\u003e.83\u003c/em\u003eab\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e96\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.92\u0026plusmn;0.93ab\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.83\u0026plusmn;0.74ab\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.89\u0026plusmn;0.72a\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.89\u0026plusmn; 0.51bcd\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.53\u0026plusmn;0.96ab\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.84\u0026plusmn;0.81ab\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eControl\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.59\u0026plusmn;0.55ab\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.58\u0026plusmn;0.70ab\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.38\u0026plusmn;0.69a\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.97\u0026plusmn;0.53e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.03\u0026plusmn;0.73b\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.37\u0026plusmn;0.44b\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCV%\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e21.60\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e21.46\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e23.77\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.28\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e27.39\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e18.89\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLSD\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c4\" namest=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.57\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.58\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.62\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.36\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.68\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.50\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePro. Process, Ger., germination. hrs. Hours, CV, coefficient of variances, LSD, least significant difference of mean separation tools, \u003cem\u003eData are expressed as mean standard error of replicate (n \u0026frac14; 3). Means that do not share the same letter down the column are significantly different.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe taste (flavor and aroma) of bread samples varied significantly based on the germination period. Samples made with 72 hours of germinated cereal flour received the highest ratings, with mean scores of 4.06 for Ashehan, 3.97 for Global, and 4.35 for oats. The oat sample at 72 hours achieved the highest flavor score of 4.35. All treatments with germinated cereals were statistically significant (P\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05). In contrast, the control sample scored only 2.97, making it the least preferred option among panelists.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe flavor and aroma of bread samples were significantly influenced by the germination period. Samples made with 72 hours of germinated cereal flour scored the highest, with mean ratings of 4.06 for Ashehan, 3.97 for Global, and 4.35 for oats. The oat sample stood out with a score of 4.35, indicating a strong preference from panelists. All germinated cereal treatments were statistically significant (P\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05), whereas the control sample, which received a score of only 2.97, was the least favored.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"4. CONCLUSION","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis investigation focused on the development of bread using traditional starters from germinated cereal grains while evaluating their functional, chemical, nutritional, and sensory characteristics. The study found that germination of cereal grains significantly enhanced the protein, gluten, and energy content across all samples, with longer germination periods leading to these improvements. In contrast, moisture, crude lipids, fiber, total carbohydrates, and ash content decreased. The incorporation of germinated ingredients into bread formulation resulted in notable increases in protein and caloric value, with a slight reduction in total carbohydrate content. Additionally, extending the germination period resulted in increased levels of essential minerals such as calcium, zinc, and iron. Notably, bread fermented with germinated flour showed superior zinc and iron content compared to bread produced with conventional yeast fermentation, highlighting the potential health benefits of using germinated starters. Sensory evaluation indicated that the bread samples were generally acceptable, with those made from 72 hours of germinated cereal flour receiving the highest taste scores, while the control bread scored the lowest. Overall, this study demonstrates that utilizing germination combined with careful grain selection for starter development can enhance the nutritional quality of bread without compromising sensory acceptability, making it a valuable approach in bread production.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003eAcknowledgements\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors acknowledge Mekelle University for funding this research project through Grant Number: CRPO/CDANR/ Large/Recu/001/2021.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAuthor contributions\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWe state and affirm that this Research Article is our own work. When gathering, analyzing, and compiling the data for this study, we adhered to all ethical and technical academic standards. Every source of information utilized to write this article has been duly acknowledged. HK developed the concept, undertook the raw material collection and most of the analysis, and wrote the paper. DT provides data collection and laboratory analysis. BM provided advisory services and commented on previous versions of the manuscript. Finally, all authors read and approved the final manuscript.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eData availability Data is available upon request.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn this experiment there was no involvement of human participants. The research and examiner committee of Mekelle University evaluated and approved the study\u0026rsquo;s methodology and laboratory methods. The study protocols were in accordance with the ethical guidelines of Mekelle University.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eInformed consent\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors confirm that all the sensory panels participated in this research in the age range between 20-45 years old and provided informed consent to participate in this sensory evaluation test.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eCompeting interests\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors declare no competing interests.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eP\u0026eacute;tel C, Onno B, and Prost C. Sourdough volatile compounds and their contribution to bread: A review. Trends in Food Science Technology. 2017; 59: 105-123.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eJayaram VB, Cuyvers S, Lagrain, B., Verstrepen K J, Delcour JA, Courtin CM. Mapping of Saccharomyces cerevisiae metabolites in fermenting wheat straight-dough reveals succinic acid as pH-determining factor. 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Food Science \u0026amp; Nutrition. 2024; 12(2):707-21.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Oat, Germination, Bread, Protein, Density, Crust-texture","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-5659961/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-5659961/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eThis study evaluated the impact of germination time and cereal type on nutrient content and sensory attributes of bread using germinated flours as a natural starter culture. Wheat varieties (Ashehan and Global) and oats were soaked for 12 hours, and then germinated for 48, 72, and 96 hours. After drying (27\u0026ndash;30\u0026deg;C) for 48 hours, grains were milled into whole flour. Breads made from these germinated flours were analyzed for proximate composition, minerals, and sensory qualities. Bread made with Ashehan germinated flour (48\u0026ndash;96 hours) showed fat (2.91\u0026ndash;3.08%), protein (13.79\u0026ndash;14.38%), carbohydrate (61.08\u0026ndash;62.13%), and energy (328.03\u0026ndash;331.49 kcal/100g) content. Global wheat showed similar trends, while oats had higher values, with fat (4.36\u0026ndash;4.59%), protein (16.18\u0026ndash;19.26%), and energy (336.48\u0026ndash;359.99 kcal/100g). Germination significantly increased protein, energy, and mineral contents, especially in oats germinated for 96 hours (calcium 24.51 mg/100g, zinc 1.85 mg/100g, iron 2.44 mg/100g). Sensory tests indicated that germination at 72 hours improved bread acceptability, particularly in taste, with Ashehan, Global, and oats achieving the highest scores. Non-germinated (yeast-fermented) samples were least preferred. This study suggests that germination, especially at 72 hours, enhances bread quality and could be effective in traditional starter development.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Understanding of Germination Duration and Cereal Type on the Quality and Sensory Attributes of Bread during Primary Fermentation","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-01-08 14:04:04","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-5659961/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"5bb0d4e3-71b4-43ca-98de-0209eebb1809","owner":[],"postedDate":"January 8th, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-02-25T09:41:00+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2025-01-08 14:04:04","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-5659961","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-5659961","identity":"rs-5659961","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}