An Ethnography-Led Psychometric Framework of Agricultural Sustainability in Ethnic Ecologies: A Study of Livelihood Adaptations among Garo and Bengali Communities in Bangladesh

An Ethnography-Led Psychometric Framework of Agricultural Sustainability in Ethnic Ecologies: A Study of Livelihood Adaptations among Garo and Bengali Communities in Bangladesh | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article An Ethnography-Led Psychometric Framework of Agricultural Sustainability in Ethnic Ecologies: A Study of Livelihood Adaptations among Garo and Bengali Communities in Bangladesh Asif Arif, Dr. Md. Shajahan Kabir Kabir, Mehedi Hasan Khan Mehedi, and 1 more This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-9203730/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Under Review Version 1 posted 9 You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Agricultural sustainability is often measured through productivity-based indicators. This trend of production-oriented indices overlooks the socio-cultural and ethno-political dynamics shaping farming systems in the Global South. Aiming to address this gap, this study develops an ethnography-led psychometric framework to examine agricultural sustainability among the Garo indigenous and Bengali communities in Bangladesh. Applying a sequential exploratory mixed-methods research design, eight months of focused ethnography informed the development of a psychometric scale, which was administered in 395 households in Modhupur and Durgapur, Bangladesh. Based on the ethnographic insights, Exploratory Factor Analysis has identified a statistically robust five-factor model that captures key dimensions of sustainability, including ethno-political ecologies and agricultural sustainability, livelihood diversification and climate adaptive capacity, emotional attachment to land, household food provisioning and sustainable agriculture, and agrarian transformations and adaptive repertoires. The findings of this research show that agricultural sustainability functions as a socially embedded practice shaped by identity, governance, and everyday negotiation among Garo and Bengali farming communities. Finally, this study contributes a validated psychometric framework for assessing agricultural sustainability that combines a holistic understanding of cultural, ecological, and livelihood dimensions. Agricultural Sustainability Ethnic Ecologies Livelihood Adaptation Psychometric Framework Mixed-Methods Research Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 1. Introduction This study broadly aims to introduce how the Garo indigenous and Bengali ( Bangal ) communities steer and adapt their agrarian livelihoods through diversified ecological practices and local understandings of sustainability in the contexts of Modhupur ( sal forest ecology) and Durgapur (hill ecology) in Bangladesh. This research situates three ambitious and pragmatic contributions. These are: (i) it innovates theory by conceptualizing agricultural sustainability as plural ecologies (an integration of identity, governance, affect, and adaptation), (ii) it enhances methodological grounds in agrarian epistemologies (assemblages of participatory ethnographic tools to psychometric validation), and (iii) it provides empirical evidence for a five-factor agricultural sustainability (derived from a balanced sample of Garo and Bengali farming households). Sustainability has become a central yet contested concept in environmental governance, rural development initiatives, and research and academia. For instance, in many policy settings, crop yield stability, input efficiency, water use, and chemical residue levels are the standardized indicators of agricultural sustainability. In contrast, they overlook farmers’ perceptions of sustainability through their lived experiences of land, labor, risk, and social obligations, in politically and ecologically unequal contexts such as Modhupur and Durgapur in Bangladesh. An integrated approach to environmental, economic, and social goals is the defining criterion of the classical sustainability framework. For instance, Pretty (1995) conceptualizes sustainable agriculture as the regeneration of ecological processes alongside the maintenance of livelihoods and social well- being. Kates et al. (2005) also define sustainable development as a dynamic process linking human well-being with environmental limits and social equality. Climate vulnerability, agricultural land scarcity, agrarian transformations, and contested forest governance are the key pillars of sustainability debates in Bangladesh's agricultural sector in recent time. Bongaarts (2019) calls for intergovernmental panel on climate change. Ahmed and Low (2016) demands environmental justice dialogues and struggle of human dignity in Bangladesh. For example, forest and hill ecology in the studied regions are characterized by diverse ethnic communities with distinct histories of land tenure, land use, and livelihood options. In Modhupur , the Garo community has long-standing ethno-ecological and ethno-political relationships with forest ecology. The Garo have historically practiced shifting cultivation and agroforestry, which are directly linked to biodiversity and cultural identity (Kubi, 2012; Gain, 1998). Garo share a distinctive livelihood mechanisms through participatory forestry (Islam & Sato, 2012). In other way, Bengali communities, on the other hand, are more integrated into market-oriented paddy cultivation and state-led modernization, adopting modern tools and equipment in farming. Nevertheless, both groups exhibit a shared reliance on moral economies that prioritize subsistence security, reciprocity, and risk minimization over profit maximization (Scott, 1977). Political economy scholarship emphasizes the structural forces shaping agricultural sustainability. Akram-Lodhi and Kay (2010) state that principles of capitalist restructuring have reshaped agrarian questions through class dynamics, commodification, and uneven development. This is linked to Bangladesh, where environmental and agricultural policies have failed to address socio-economic disparities among the farmers. Such unilateral policies limit the adoption of recommended practices and inequality (Rahman, 2003). Climate change poses an extreme level of complexity for the agricultural sectors in Bangladesh. Rahman and Alam (2016) state that forest-dependent indigenous communities’ perception and adaptation to climate change through local knowledge are effective. Studied households in both Modhupur and Durgapur report shifting rainfall patterns, seasonal uncertainties, and more frequent weather events. The justification of this study is situated at the intersection of sustainability science, agroecology, agrarian political economy, climate adaptation research, and psychometric measurement theory. As farmers encounter both simultaneously in their everyday decision-making about land, labor, and risk, there is an urgent need to integrate a middle level that merges technical and normative approaches to agricultural sustainability. Agricultural sustainability indicators have proliferated in recent decades, but many indicator sets consider social dimensions as add-ons. The generic measures of education or income do not capture land politics and moral relations to lands. Tenure insecurity, for example, can discourage investment in improving soil quality. In the same direction, exclusion from forest decision-making can force households into unsuitable coping strategies (land conversion, overharvesting, and reliance on precarious labor). Agroecology scholarship focuses on biodiversity, ecological processes, and locally adapted knowledge as fundamentals of sustainable farming systems. The traditional ecological approach is relevant in forest and hill ecology. Ecosphere components, including biodiversity, soil micro-ecologies, and seasonal patterns, differ from lowland and midland monocultures. Although indigenous knowledge and sustainable agriculture are interlinked (Nahar et al., 2010), this layer of cultural knowledge in agriculture is overlooked and marginalized in development policies. While modern/scientific knowledge claims a value-free, neutral status, indigenous agrarian knowledge is context-specific (it emerges and is practiced within a bounded cultural territory). Yanou et al. (2023) argue that integrating local and scientific knowledge is not a positivist technical exercise, but decolonizing practices that address power asymmetries and epistemic injustice. Swiderska et al. (2022) popularize indigenous food systems as biocultural heritage systems. The fundamental goal of the biocultural heritage system is to sustain biodiversity through culturally embedded practices. Therefore, the epistemological aim of the indigenous food system is to set research approaches that foreground indigenous priorities in agricultural production. In measuring and expanding sustainability outcomes, governance and inequality play a key role. Mandal (2010) links agricultural sustainability in Bangladesh to ecological imbalances, environmental degradation, and policy gaps. However, the participatory processes are ‘tokenism’ (a mixture of political goal attainment and control). Begume and de Bruyn (2023) show that multi-stakeholder co-management reflects the limited influence of local stakeholders' voices. They also highlight persistent power asymmetries in forest governance processes. Modhupur and its surroundings have a long history of forest governance. Forest conservation and indigenous people in Modhupur affect conservation regimes and traditional livelihoods. Gain (1998) describes the socio-environmental significance of Bangladesh's remaining forests. He highlights the role of forest departments in indigenous existence and livelihood. Forest governance transition in Bangladesh is shaped by the territorialization and political-economic dynamisms (Chowdhury et al., 2024). Such dynamism has altered land access and livelihood options for forest-dependent communities, like the Garo indigenous communities. Research on climate adaptation in Bangladesh focuses on the interdependence of climate risk, livelihood strategy, and household economic well-being. The trends in household agronomic changes with livelihood diversification are a direct outgrowth of climate risk adaptation shaped by ecological and environmental constraints (Aryal et al., 2020). Existing research highlights the close interconnections among climate risk, livelihood strategies, and well-being (Ahsan et al., 2024). Morshed et al. (2025) propose stronger integration across social and ecological systems, with attention to effectiveness and equity. Therefore, the fundamental proposition of their study implies that sustainability measurement should capture climate cognition, adaptive capacity, diversification, and preparedness. Sustainability research increasingly employs composite indicators. However, the psychometric properties of sustainability constructs remain under-examined. Stefana et al. (2025) provide a set of practical guidelines for scale development and validation. Measurement invariance testing is vital to ensure constructs have equivalent meaning across groups in comparative work (Leitgob et al., 2023). Psychometrics aims to set a model. Sustainability is a latent construct that reflects in patterned responses to well-designed items. Psychometric reasoning is here employed beyond the psychological perspective. In other words, it has been applied in a broad social-scientific lens. However, the key limitation of the psychometric construct in sustainability research is its narrow measurement focus. Local contexts are overlooked in such construction. In this study, the blending of ethnographic description with psychometric measurement covers the limitation. Psychometric measurement raises two major problems: i) interventions can be evaluated as successful based on technical output (even though they can worsen inequality or erode indigenous land relations), and ii) interventions can be evaluated as unsuccessful (even when households sustain biodiversity, food security, and cultural continuity through practices that are not captured by the common indicators). Such risks are especially salient in the forest and hill ecologies of Modhupur and Durgapur . These two sites represent similar land governance tensions, market integrations, climate stress, and ethnic diversity. In such contexts, sustainability goes beyond the development and expansion of agronomic practices or the substitution of inputs. It is a matter of rights, recognition, and capability that are entangled between state agencies, markets, and community institutions. How does this study bridge ethnography and EFA output? For bridging these, this study employs a sequential exploratory mixed-methods design. EFA construct development requires meaning-making before quantitative measurement. An ethnographic approach discovers local narratives and practices. EFA then tests whether those constructs have a coherent latent structure. Instead of importing external scales that may not fit the context, this mixed-methods logic allows measurement to honor local epistemologies by mitigating the need for standards of reliability, transparency, and replicability. 2. Research Methodology This study has been conducted using a mixed-methods research design. Before quantitative data collection and analysis, ethnographic engagement generated constructs and theoretical propositions that commanded survey item development. Here, the quantitative analysis aimed to assess the scale's latent structure. This is a multi-sited ethnography of the sal forest ecology of Modhupur , Tangail , and the hill ecology of Durgapur, Netrokona , in Bangladesh. Ethnic diversity, contested land relations, and exposure to climate stress in agriculture are the key drivers of the selection of these study sites. The farmers of these regions have clustered mixed livelihood systems that combine farming, forest-related activities, and non-farm income-generating activities. The following Figure 1 represents the methodological framework of this study.­­­­ An eight-month ethnographic fieldwork was conducted from July 2025 to February 2026. Fieldwork involved engaging with farmers' everyday agrarian practices. A quasi-participant observation (participating in many activities while remaining known as an outsider), informal interviews, participatory rural appraisal (PRA), and focused group discussions (FGDs) were employed to collect primary data using conventional ethnographic techniques and tools. Participation in farming activities, including planting, harvesting, and market interactions, entails close observation of relational dimensions, embodied logics, and the effective care of agrarian life. 53 informal interviews with farmers provided an opportunity to capture individual perceptions, struggles, gains, and experiences related to agricultural practices. Therefore, 3 focus group discussions among the 18 farmers helped to gather collective perceptions across age, gender, and ethnic identity. The respondents for this research were selected using purposive sampling, in which the researchers balanced the sample by gender and ethnic identity. As this research covered aspects of agrarian life, land, resources, and human interaction, it was imperative to use a participatory rural appraisal approach to map resources, seasons, and crop production. However, these conventional techniques were insufficient to explore agricultural sustainability within the diverse ecologies of Modhupur and Durgapur . However, gathering insights into the embodied and affective dimensions of sustainability seemed challenging using conventional methods. To cover these limitations, we attempted to recruit five innovative participatory tools: (a) sustainability dream-making, (b) soil memory excavation, (c) agro-spiritual lineage tracing, (d) affective harvesting diaries, and (e) agro-metrological storybook excavation. The key intention of these tools was to capture sustainability in everyday farming practices. A structured survey comprising 395 households has been conducted in the six villages of Naluapara , Gopalpur , and Chondraghona in Durgapur Upazila, Netrokona District, and Kakraguni , Beduria , and Joynagacha in Modhupur Upazila, Tangail District, Bangladesh. A four-point Likert scale was developed (1=strongly disagree, 2=disagree, 3=agree, and 4=strongly agree). The neutral option from the respondents' perspective was intentionally omitted, as the key goal of this study was to capture their views. Before the survey, the study aims, declaration of voluntary participation, and the flexibility of the right to withdraw were informed to the respondents. Moreover, identifying details were removed from the analytical files to ensure data anonymity during the survey administration. For exploratory factor analysis, the ratio of respondents per item was 10:1, which is suitable for EFA given the priority placed on the high Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) value (see Table 1 in the results section). The EFA analysis employed Principal Axis Factoring (PAF), which aimed to model shared variance instead of total variance. This process was considered appropriate for latent construct extraction in socio-cultural measurement contexts. Factor dropping and retention decisions were taken based on multiple criteria: (i) eigenvalue greater than one, (ii) variance explained, (iii) interpretability, and (iv) internal consistency reliability was assessed by using Cronbach's alpha. To make the survey questionnaire as friendly as possible for respondents, the items were translated into Bengali. Both the Garo and Bengali communities share Bengali as their dominant language. Here, the Garos were bilingual in Mandi (the aboriginal language of the Garo ) and Bengali (the dominant state language). Finally, the triangulation of ethnography and measurement in this study focused on interlinking measurement with interpretation. In this study, focused ethnography does not aim to provide background context; rather, it guides the formation of constructs. Psychometrics, in this regard, examines whether these ethnographically derived propositions from coherent and pattern dimensions hold across agrarian households in Modhupur and Durgapur . 3. Theoretical and Conceptual Framework Taking ethnicity as an ecological and political category rather than a demographic variable, this study is guided by a plural ecological framework for agricultural sustainability. This theoretical lens is derived from an eight-month ethnographic engagement in Modhupur and Durgapur in Bangladesh. The theoretical optics of plural ecologies conceptualize sustainability as a lived process shaped by identity, knowledge, power, and socio-economic contexts. The plural ecological framework is a composition of four propositions, including (a) ethnic-hybrid agrarian rationalities, (b) vernacular sustainability and decolonial knowledge, (c) plural agroecological resistance, and (d) stewardship futurity. Ethnic-hybrid agrarian rationalities are defined as blended decision-making patterns that combine generational/ancestral knowledge with modern agro-economic market logic. For example, farmers in Modhupur and Durgapur negotiate between (i) subsistence needs and market pressure, (ii) spiritual obligation and economic survival, and (iii) collective norms and individual household strategies. This hybridity encounters binary categories (traditional/modern). However, farmers are neither traditional nor modern. Through this lens, this study has found that perceptions of sustainability are not isolated from political access, climate risk, and livelihood constraints. Is sustainability a laboratory construction that exists beyond historical and local embeddedness? Vernacular sustainability and decolonial knowledge attempt to search the local and historical grounds of sustainable agrarian practices within the framework of plural ecologies. For instance, farmers in Durgapur and Modhupur perceived sustainable agricultural practices as the direct outgrowth of inheritance. The inheritance channels function as ways of managing land, seeds, and community relationships. Therefore, the proposition of vernacular sustainability and decolonial knowledge aligns with the valuation of traditional ecological knowledge in agroecology literature (Berkes et al., 2000; Altieri, 1995). In the same way, this proposition emphasizes decolonial scholarship that focuses on the power asymmetries (Yanou et al., 2023) within the integration of knowledge systems. This theoretical lens also identifies indigenous food systems as biocultural heritage central to biodiversity and identity (Swiderska et al., 2022). Plural agroecological resistance operationalizes agrarian contestation and transition as covert and overt forms embedded in everyday farming practices. For example, seed saving, intercropping, risk-averse diversification, and community norms are the covert forms of resistance in Modhupur and Durgapur . Both field sites bear the legacy of overt forms of resistance, such as land rights claims. This proposition is sensible within the environmental justice literature, which frames sustainability in terms of rights and dignity in the contested forest and hill ecologies of Bangladesh. Sustainable agriculture goes beyond present resource extraction, land governance, soil exploitation, and the mitigation of present needs. Instead of focusing on the present agricultural situation, stewardship futurity frames sustainability as an intergenerational responsibility. For instance, many farmers in Modhupur and Durgapur maintain practices to protect land for future generations, honor their ancestors, and reduce future risk and vulnerability in their agrarian livelihoods. This theoretical postulation holds that sustainability includes emotional attachment to the land and a future-oriented concern for resource availability. Figure 2 illustrates how an ethnography-led psychometric framework measures agricultural sustainability across two distinct ethnic ecologies. Figure 2 shows that the four theoretical formulations within the plural ecological framework resonate with the view that sustainability is multidimensional: ethno-political ecologies; livelihood diversification; emotional attachment to land; household food provisioning and sustainable agriculture; and agrarian transformations and adaptive repertoires. As the ideal construction is multi-layered, measurement should capture political ecology, adaptation, affect, provisioning, and transformation. If sustainability is plural, the measurement should capture beyond a single index. Here, the methodological integration of ethnography and exploratory factor analysis (EFA) links interpretive and correlational dimensions of agricultural sustainability, such as how political access affects adaptive capacity and how emotional attachment affects provisioning and transformation decisions. Finally, the use of oblimin rotation in EFA is grounded directly in the theoretical framing of plural ecologies. 4. Results Quantitative data are subjected to EFA using SPSS 25.0 after data cleaning and descriptive analysis. To run EFA, principal axis factoring with direct oblimin rotation and Kaiser Normalization was used to investigate 40 elements in the scale. Table 1 presents the results of the data suitability test for the EFA analysis. Table 1 Data Suitability Test for Exploratory Factor Analysis KMO and Bartlett's Test Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin Measure of Sampling Adequacy. 0.933 Bartlett's Test of Sphericity Approx. Chi-Square 8866.236 Df 703 Sig. 0.000 Table 1 shows that the KMO (Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin) measure of sampling adequacy is 0.933, indicating excellent adequacy and Bartlett’s test of Sphericity is significant where chi-square = 8866.236, df = 703, and P < 0.001. The data were suitable for factor analysis. Together, those are identified as patterned correlations among the items under the five factors. Based on eigenvalues greater than 1, a five-factor solution is extracted. All five factors together explain 61.577% of the total variance that is expressed significantly in social science practices. Factor 1 explains 29.47%, factor 2 13.151%, factor 3 explains 8.424%, factor 4 explains 6.683%, and factor 5 explains 3.849% of variance, respectively. The five-factor solution in this study is interpretable and consistent with the ethnographic propositions of ethnic-hybrid agrarian rationalities, vernacular sustainability and decolonial knowledge, plural agroecological resistance, and stewardship futurity. The following Table 2 represents the key features of EFA; Table 2 Exploratory Factor Analysis Summary Factor Factor Name Eigenvalue α Item Loading Communality 1 EEAS (Ethno-political Ecologies and Agricultural Sustainability) 11.198 .909 EEAS1 0.690 0.509 EEAS2 0.639 0.485 EEAS3 0.706 0.614 EEAS4 0.510 0.483 EEAS5 0.648 0.800 EEAS6 0.615 0.504 EEAS7 0.636 0.499 EEAS8 0.619 0.516 EEAS9 0.594 0.510 EEAS10 0.725 0.414 EEAS11 0.528 0.459 2 LD-CAC (Livelihood Diversification and Climate Adaptive Capacity) 4.997 .933 LD-CAC1 0.671 0.487 LD-CAC2 0.760 0.653 LD-CAC3 0.740 0.581 LD-CAC4 0.769 0.553 LD-CAC5 0.686 0.450 LD-CAC6 0.719 0.523 LD-CAC7 0.747 0.538 LD-CAC8 0.765 0.589 LD-CAC9 0.757 0.580 LD-CAC10 0.722 0.503 LD-CAC11 0.717 0.537 LD-CAC12 0.723 0.565 3 EAL (Emotional Attachment to Land) 3.201 .883 EAL1 0.814 0.662 EAL2 0.846 0.730 EAL3 0.811 0.716 EAL4 0.799 0.645 4 HFP-SA (Household Food Provisioning and Sustainable Agriculture) 2.539 .745 HFP-SA1 0.723 0.526 HFP-SA2 0.913 0.851 HFP-SA3 0.724 0.528 5 AT-AR (Agrarian Transformations and Adaptive Repertoires) 1.463 .889 AT-AR1 0.700 0.435 AT-AR2 0.723 0.603 AT-AR3 0.604 0.448 AT-AR4 0.871 0.706 AT-AR5 0.595 0.452 AT-AR6 0.551 0.511 AT-AR7 0.637 0.502 AT-AR8 0.546 0.681 Note. Extraction method: Principal Axis Factoring. Rotation method: Oblimin with Kaiser Normalization. Factor 1 (EEAS) is labeled ‘ethno-political ecologies and agricultural sustainability’ and has an eigenvalue of 11.198 and a Cronbach’s alpha of 0.909. This factor has extracted 11 items, with the highest loading value of 0.725 and the lowest of 0.510. The extracted items are named as; (1) EEAS1 (influence of ethnic identity in farming), (2) EEAS2 (community-based farming techniques), (3) EEAS3 (inter-ethnic farming differences), (4) EEAS4 (community welfare-oriented farming decisions), (5) EEAS5 (food intake reduction), (6) EEAS6 (policy influence on farming decisions), (7) EEAS7 (land tenure security and investment decisions in farming), (8) EEAS8 (macro political influence of agricultural resources), (9) EEAS9 (local power influence on resource access), (10) EEAS10 (climate change influence on food and farming), and (11) EEAS11 (precarity of future agricultural resource). In relation to all items under factor 1, integrate political ecology with lived sustainability concerns in Modhupur and Durgapur . Factor 2 LD-CAC – ‘livelihood diversification and climate adaptive capacity’ having eigenvalue of 4.997 and Cronbach’s alpha of 0.933 includes 12 items as; (1) LD-CAC1 (non-farm livelihood engagement, (2) LD-CAC2 (alternative income source and preventive risk management, (3) LD-CAC3 (non-farm activities and income generation, (4) LD-CAC4 (agrarian household income vulnerability), (5) LD-CAC5 (adaptive livelihood strategy), (6) LD-CAC6 (experiencing climate stress in farming), (7) LD-CAC7 (climate vulnerability in agriculture), (8) LD-CAC8 (seasonal unpredictability and agrarian risk), (9) LD-CAC9 (experiencing extreme weather events), (10) LD-CAC10 (perceived climate change in crop production), (11) LD-CAC11 (climate resilience inadequacy), and (12) LD-CAC12 (effectiveness of traditional agrarian knowledge in climate resiliency). Factor 3 EAL – ‘emotional attachment to land’, having an eigenvalue of 3.201 and a Cronbach’s alpha of 0.883. This factor has four items: (1) EAL1 (ancestral land belonging), (2) EAL2 (soil degradation and moral affective distress), (3) EAL3 (embodied cultivation affect), and (4) EAL4 (land relational crop choice). Factor 4 is labeled as ‘household food provisioning and sustainable agriculture’. This factor produced an eigenvalue of 2.539 and had a Cronbach’s alpha of 0.745. This factor bears the following three items: (1) HFP-SA1 (household food provisioning despite high market prices), (2) HFP-SA2 (staple-based household food strategy), and (3) HFP-SA3 (homestead gardening for food and nutritional security). Factor 5 is named as ‘agrarian transformation and adaptive agrarian repertoires’ (AT-AR). This factor has an eigenvalue of 1.463 and Cronbach’s alpha of 0.889. This factor captured the following eight items: (1) AT-AR1 (risk-embedded innovation), (2) AT-AR2 (technological conservatism), (3) AT-AR3 (logical investment practice), (4) AT-AR4 (relational assessment during agrarian crisis), (5) AT-AR5 (hybrid technological incorporation), (6) AT-AR6 (historical transformations of farming practices), (7) AT-AR7 (market reconfiguration of traditional farming), and (8) AT-AR8 (community rules and the protection of farming practices). All the items of factor 5 signal that agrarian households in Modhupur and Durgapur are either adopting or rejecting modernization, rather than both the Garo and Bengali communities are negotiating. The factor correlation matrix (see Appendix I.a) postulates meaningful relationships among the latent dimensions. These results support the use of oblimin rotation. Factor 1 (EEAS) correlates strongly with factor 5 (AT-AR). This suggests that perceived ethno-political ecology is linked to how farmers negotiate transformation and adaptation. Factor 2 (LD-CAC) is also correlated with factor 5 (AT-AR), indicating that livelihood diversification and climate adaptive capacity are associated with negotiated modernization. Overall, the five factors are interrelated in some respects, while others remain relatively independent. Such notifications indicate that the constructs are conceptually distinct yet partially overlapping. Such a correlation pattern supports the theoretical legacy, as sustainability dimensions are distinct yet interconnected. The five-factor model in EFA derives from ethnographic insights from Modhupur and Durgapur . Table 3 presents a key summary of the ethnographic narratives. Table 3 A Thematic Analysis of Collected Ethnographic Insights in Modhupur and Durgapur Theme Sub-Theme Farmers’ Quotations (Translate from the Bengali language) Ethno-Political Ecologies and Agricultural Sustainability (EEAS) Influence of ethnic identity in farming “In the past, we did shifting cultivation (jhum). It was not just agriculture; it was our ancestors’ identity. The Bengali people came and applied plain land farming practices that destroyed the forest.” - A Garo woman in Joynagacha , Modhupur . “The Mandi (Garo) people did not know about cultivation. We took their land on lease and began to cultivate.” - A Bengali man in Beduria , Modhupur . Community-based farming techniques “In our traditions, we shared collective labor for jhum. Modern farming teaches us to work individually.” – A Garo man in Kakraguni , Modhupur . “We cannot cultivate the land nearest the hill in the dry season. Without shared labor, it is not possible to carry water for the crops.” – A Garo woman in Gopalpur, Durgapur . Inter-ethnic farming differences “The Bengali settlers came and started to exploit the land with chemical and synthetic fertilizers.” - A Garo man in Kakraguni , Modhupur . “Before our settlement in this region, the Garo people did not get enough food to eat. Now we are taking their lands at a high price in the form of a mortgage or a lease.” – A Bengali man in Beduria , Modhupur . Community welfare-oriented farming decisions. “When famine comes, we share the jhum. It was the customary practice to live near the forest. Now we are like the Bengali farmers. No one shares food, which was a tradition in the past.” – A Garo woman in Beduria , Modhupur . “We do not have any common value, but we are in the same competitive agrarian market for our survival.” – A Bengali man in Kakraguni , Modhupur . Food intake reduction “When we predict low yields, we usually take two meals instead of taking three in a day.” – A Bengali man in Naluapara , Durgapur . “To feed our children, we usually take a low food intake. However, when we get better yields, our body adjusts the intake later.” – A Garo woman in Kakraguni, Modhupur . Policy influence on farming decisions “The forest department forbids jhum now. However, the Bengali people cultivate tobacco. Can an imposed farming system really sustain life?” – A Garo woman in Gopalpur , Durgapur . “We cannot get chemicals and fertilizers when we need them. Even, we do not get a fair price in the market when we sell.” – A Bengali man in Chondraghona , Durgapur. Land tenure security and investment in farming “These are our ancestral lands. The forest department very often imposes a handover to them.” – A Garo woman in Gopalpur , Durgapur . “They (the forest departments) tell us that we are outsiders. How long can we live as outsiders in our ancestors’ land?” – A Garo woman in Kakraguni , Modhupur . Macro-political influence of resource access "If we want to get firewood from the forest, it is not possible without political backup. Politics control everything in the forest." - A Garo woman in Joynagacha, Modhupur . "Getting the government land, party politics play a vital role." - A Garo man in Gopalpur , Durgapur . Local power influence on resource access "For the settlement of land disputes, we depend on our member (council leader) and chairman." - A Bengali Man in Beduria , Modhupur . "We cannot move beyond our headman's order. What land we get and cultivate is totally dependent on our community customs, norms, and rules." - A Garo woman in Gopalpur , Durgapur . Climate change's influence on ethnic-based food and farming "We cannot predict rainfall and heat now. We feel that the cool forest air is gone. Crops are drying up. We put a high cost for irrigation in our crop fields." - A Bengali man in Kakraguni, Modhupur . "Intense heat causes hill vegetables and fruits not to grow well. We get small and shriveled fruits, vegetables, and leaves." - A Garo Man in Gopalpur , Durgapur . Precarity of future agricultural resource The forests are being cut down. Where our future generation will go and what they will grow and gather." A Garo woman in Kakraguni, Modhupur . "Water crisis is a major threat. We do not get groundwater as we did in the past." - A Bengali man, Chondraghona , Durgapur . Livelihood Diversification and Climate Adaptation Capacity (LD-CAC) Non-farm livelihood engagement "Farming alone is very hard to survive. My son and son-in-law work in the city for a better life and better earnings." - A Garo woman in Beduria , Modhupur . "To mitigate the needs of my household, I have opened a small shop around my homestead. Farming in present days is not enough." - A Bengali man in Kakraguni , Modhupur . Preventive risk management through alternative income sources "I do not prefer to cultivate only pineapple in my plot. I also grow turmeric and bananas. If one of them loses, another saves my household." - A Garo woman in Beduria , Modhupur . "Besides farming, I also keep my homestead garden alive. If disaster destroys field crops, the homestead garden will help to survive." - A Bengali woman in Naluapara, Durgapur . Household income generation through non-farm activities "Sometimes women in my household work as wage laborers for extra income to support." - A Bengali man in Naluapara , Durgapur . "During the off-season, I work as a day laborer." - A Garo man in Joynagacha , Modhupur . Agrarian household income vulnerability “After harvesting, nothing remains in my hands because the fertilizers and pest control costs are high.” – A Bengali man, Beduria , Modhupur . “When a virus attacks our banana and pineapple plot, we face losses. We are barely managing to survive.” – A Garo man in Joynagacha , Modhupur . Adaptive livelihood strategy “Many of us are planting dragon fruit and guava gardens around the forest. For best profit and economic gains, we are trying for new crops.” – A Bengali man, Kakraguni , Modhupur . “For a smallholding farmer like me, it is not possible to survive only by cultivating crops.” – A Garo woman, Modhupur . Experiencing climate stress in farming “In summer, the sun burns the skin and the crops too. It is not what it was in the past.” A Bengali man, Beduria , Modhupur . “Sometimes we feel that there is no rain in the monsoon. However, floods wash away our crops in the late autumn. Nature’s rules have changed.” A Garo man, Gopalpur , Durgapur . Climate vulnerability in overall agriculture “Sudden flash floods wash away our paddy fields. No one compensates for this loss.” A man in Chondraghona, Durgapur . “Excessive rain rotted the pineapple, turmeric, and papaya roots. Climate suffering is destroying our crops.” – A Bengali man in Joynagacha, Modhupur . Seasonal unpredictability and agrarian risk “Farming today is a matter of luck. We cannot predict the seasonal mobility.” – A Bengali man in Kakraguni, Modhupur . “There is no rain at sowing time during ‘amon’, but excessive rainfall sometimes occurs. I do not know what to do.” – A Bengali man, Naluapara, Durgapur . Experiencing extreme weather events. “In the last storm, many of the forest trees were uprooted. I have never experienced such a terrible storm in my life.” – A Garo woman in Beduria, Modhupur . “During the long drought, we do not get water for irrigation. Even we have to suffer for drinking water.” – A Bengali man in Kakraguni, Modhupur. Perceived climate change in crop production “Because of the extreme heat waves in the summer, paddy, banana, pineapple, and other crops dry up before maturing. It is all about the cause of changing weather events.” – A Bengali man in Beduria, Modhupur. “We get a very short period of winter. Vegetable yields are affected negatively.” – A Garo man, Gopalpur, Durgapur . Climate resilience inadequacy “They (modern seed market systems) have destroyed our own rice varieties. We cannot cope with crop failure due to pest attacks in the new varieties.” – A Garo woman in Joynagacha , Modhupur . “We do not have enough tools to mitigate adverse climate impacts in cultivation. As we intervene with nature to fulfill our needs, we are helpless.” – A Bengali man in Kakraguni, Modhupur . Effectiveness of traditional agrarian knowledge in climate resiliency “Our ancestors could predict which wind direction could hamper crops. We always keep our banana tree leaning a little toward the south for better yields and to protect it from storms during early summer (kalboishakhi). – A Bengali man in Beduria, Modhupur . “Many of the farmers in our community know about which side of the hill water will flow from, causing less damage to crops.” – A Garo man in Gopalpur, Durgapur. Emotional Attachment to Land (EAL) Ancestral land belonging “The forest is not just a landscape for us; it is our ancestors’ blessing. Protecting the forest is our moral and communal duty.” – A Garo man in Kakraguni, Modhupur . “Leaving this soil of the hill is beyond imagination because seven generations of ours sleep here.” – A Garo man in Gopalpur, Durgapur. Soil degradation and moral affective distress “Excessive use of chemical fertilizers drains all its vitality because the soil seems lifeless.” – A Bengali man in Kakraguni, Modhupur . “When I realize land fertility declines in my plot, I feel like pouring poison on one’s own mother’s face.” – A Garo man in Joynagacha, Modhupur . Embodied cultivation of affection for land “We are farmers, and we are the people close to the soil. If we do not touch the mud, we get less affection with the crops.” – A Bengali man in Naluapara , Durgapur . “Cultivating crops is as much as rearing children. Without the connection of land and one’s heart, it is not possible to get good yields.” – A Garo woman in Beduria , Modhupur . Land relational crop choice “Land has life. If we cultivate bad crops like tobacco instead of rice, the land becomes unhappy.” – A Bengali man in Kakraguni , Modhupur . “We should not grow what the soil fails to tolerate. We do not have the right to destroy soil just for profit.” – A Garo woman in Kakraguni , Modhupur . Household Food Provisioning and Sustainable Agriculture (HFP-SA) Household provisioning despite high market prices “It is not a matter of how high rice prices are in the market. Getting vegetables, grains, and leaves from a homestead garden brings peace of mind.” – A Garo woman in Joynagacha , Modhupur . “Mitigating household needs from one's own produce is not comparable with market goods or the items that can be bought with money.” – A Bengali man in Kakraguni, Modhupur . Staple-based household food strategy “I think that for running a household, it is urgent to ensure rice. Without the adequacy of rice, household members remain hungry.” – A Bengali man in Beduria, Modhupur . “Jhum rice was our foundation. If we had that, we never would have to depend solely on the market.” – A Garo man in Gopalpur . Homestead gardening for food and nutritional security “We plant gourds, pumpkins, and other vegetables around the house. At least we want to keep ourselves safe from eating poison.” – A Garo woman in Joynagacha, Modhupur . “Vegetables from our homestead garden sustain us year-round.” – A Bengali woman in Kakraguni, Modhupur . Agrarian Transformations and Adaptive Repertoires (AT-AR) Risk-embedded innovation “ New technologies carry high risks. One crop failing in a season can cause significant losses. Everyone talks about profit. However, when bad moments come, no one helps. In reverse, they push us toward loans (microcredit/datan – an informal credit system with high interest rates). – A Bengali man in Kakraguni, Modhupur. Technological conservatism “Tractors and power tillers have loosened the soil too much. The old plough was better for land cultivation.” – A Bengali man in Beduria, Modhupur. “The noise of machines has driven away the insects in the land. Even this noise is harmful to the inhabited animals and birds in the forest. Technology has taken away their peace.” _ A Garo woman in Kakraguni , Modhupur . Logical investment practice “Cultivation is very calculative right now. I aim to invest one taka that will bring two taka back.” – A Bengali man in Kakraguni, Modhupur. “Without the hope of profit, farming is pointless.” – A Bengali man in Chondraghona, Durgapur. Rational assessment during agrarian crisis “When we face a crisis in our crop fields, we sit together and decide how to survive.” – A Bengali man in Beduria, Modhupur. “Just because of high input cost, like an irrigation tool, does not mean stopping cultivation. We share tools among us.” – A Garo woman, Joynagacha, Modhupur. Hybrid technological incorporation “Without hybrid seed, we cannot compete in the market. For survival, we have to accept new seed technology.” – A Bengali man in Chondraghona, Durgapur. “Traditional seeds do not endure in many of our cultivation processes. So we have to adapt with new seeds from the companies.” – A Bengali man in Naluapara, Durgapur. Historical transformation of farming practices “In the past, jhum was for rice and vegetables. Now we are cultivating dragon, guava, and orange fruits.” – A Garo woman in Gopalpur, Durgapur. “Farming is no longer a peaceful livelihood. It is only rush and pressure.” – A Garo man in Joynagacha, Modhupur. Market reconfiguration of traditional farming “We can no longer cultivate by our own will. We plant what sells at a high price in the market.” – A Bengali man in Beduria, Modhupur. “The market is our powerful god. We cultivate according to the will of the market.” – A Garo woman in Joynagacha, Modhupur. Community rules and the protection of agrarian resources “If we all unite to save the rainwater through the natural channels like canals and ponds, we can cultivate naturally.” – A Bengali man, Modhupur . “To protect the hill and forest, we must follow our community rules after all. We stay together beyond the individual gains.” – A Garo woman, Durgapur. Data Source Fieldwork in Modhupur and Durgapur, 2025–2026 5. Discussion This study integrates exploratory factor analysis (Table 2 ) with ethnographic narratives (Table 3 ) to bridge quantitative structures with everyday farming experiences and expectations of Garo and Bengali people in Modhupur and Durgapur in Bangladesh. The findings demonstrate that sustainability operates as a multidimensional socio-ecological phenomenon shaped by cultural identity, ecological trajectories, and livelihood adaptation strategies. The EFA results reveal five interrelated dimensions that structure farmers’ perceptions of sustainability: political ecology, livelihood adaptation, land attachment, food security, and agrarian transformation. While the statistical model identifies these dimensions analytically, qualitative narratives provide deeper insight into how farmers interpret and negotiate them in everyday farming practices in Modhupur and Durgapur . Among these factors, the first factor (EEAS) dimension explains the largest portion of variance in the EFA model. This indicates that perceptions of sustainability are strongly embedded in ethnic and political-ecological contexts. Land maintenance, access to forest, and ethnic identity play critical roles in shaping farming decisions across both communities. Field experiences indicate that farmers frequently emphasize the historical importance of shifting cultivation practices in shaping their relationship with the land and environment, especially among the Garo . As one Garo farmer explained: “ In the past, we did shifting cultivation (jhum). It was not only agriculture, but our ancestors’ identity.” For many farmers, sustainability is closely connected to historical land relations and collective identity in both Modhupur (forest ecology) and Durgapur (the hill ecology). The strong statistical weight of the EEAS factor, therefore, reflects the enduring influence of political ecological structures within these transformed agrarian landscapes. The LD-CAC construct represents livelihood diversification and farmers’ adaptive capacity in response to climate change. It reflects the increasing complexity of rural livelihood systems. Farmers are progressively combining agriculture with other non-farm income-generating activities such as wage labor, small businesses, and seasonal migration to nearby cities. Climate uncertainties play a vital role in designing these livelihood strategies. Farmers consistently reported unpredictable rainfall patterns, drought conditions, and extreme temperature fluctuations in agrarian ecology. One farmer states this uncertainty as: “ Farming today is a matter of luck. We cannot predict the seasonal mobility. ” Such narratives illustrate how climate instability directly influences livelihood decision-making. Diversification serves as a practical coping strategy in the increasingly fragile agrarian systems of Modhupur and Durgapur . By distributing risks across multiple crops, income sources, and labor opportunities, households attempt to maintain economic stability. The EAL factor captures farmers’ emotional and cultural attachment to land. Qualitative narratives strongly reinforce the significance of these affective land relationships, in which farmers frequently describe land not merely as an economic asset but as a form of inherited heritage tied to ancestral belonging and moral responsibility. One farmer expressed this emotional connection while discussing declining soil fertility: " When I realize land fertility declines in my plot, I feel like pouring poison on my mother. ” This metaphor reveals the depth of emotional bonds between farmers and their agricultural landscapes. Ecological degradation is therefore often interpreted not simply as a technical problem but as a moral concern. These affective relationships significantly shape farmers’ attitudes toward land stewardship and sustainable agricultural practices. The HFP-SA factor reflects household food provisioning through small-scale agriculture. Although this factor accounts for a smaller proportion of variance in the statistical model, it remains highly significant in rural household economies. Farmers consistently prioritize staple rice production to ensure household food security. In addition, homestead gardens play an important role in supplementing food supply through the cultivation of vegetables, gourds, and fruits. These agroecological practices reduce dependence on volatile market systems and enhance household resilience. Many farmers also emphasized that producing food locally provides a sense of psychological security and independence. As a result, household food production remains a central component of how rural families conceptualize sustainability. Finally, the AT-AR factor reflects broader processes of agrarian transformation and farmers’ adaptive farming strategies. Increasingly, farmers are adopting hybrid seeds, mechanized tools, and commercially oriented crop varieties in response to market pressures and changing economic conditions. However, farmers often express caution toward these modern agricultural technologies. Concerns about soil degradation, ecological imbalance, and rising production costs remain common. Consequently, many farmers combine traditional ecological knowledge with modern agricultural practices. This hybrid approach allows them to pursue productivity while maintaining ecological balance. Overall, the findings suggest that farmers' perceptions of sustainability are deeply embedded in the socio-ecological landscapes in which they live and work. Political ecological relations, climate vulnerability, cultural land attachments, and livelihood strategies all shape how sustainability is understood and practiced. While the EFA framework captures these dimensions quantitatively, ethnographic narratives provide crucial insight into how farmers interpret and navigate these dynamics in everyday life. The integration of quantitative and qualitative methods, therefore, strengthens the study's analytical robustness. Within this context, sustainability emerges not only as a measurable analytical construct but also as a lived rural experience shaped by culture, ecology, and livelihood realities. The results addressed in Table 2 and Table 3 represent EEAS as the practical implication for forest governance, LD-CAC as adaptation programs focus beyond agricultural technologies, EAL as the recognition of land relations and affection, HFP-SA as the indication of nutritional security and household strategies, and AT-AR as agricultural modernization is negotiated through risk governance. To further demonstrate the integration of ethnographic insights with the psychometric structure, the following Table 4 summarizes key qualitative themes alongside quantitative factor properties. Table 4 An integrated summary of ethnography and psychometrics of agricultural sustainability Factor Ethnographic Description Psychometric Measurement Integrated measurement EEAS Land rights, forest governance, power, tenure, policy, and ethnic identity. Eigenvalue 11.198, 29.47% variance, α = .909, 11 items. Political ecology, governance, and embedded sustainability LD-CAC Climate stress, diversification, migration, risk coping, and traditional knowledge. Eigenvalue 4.997, 13.15%, α = .933, 12 items. Adaptation, resilience, and livelihood diversification EAL Ancestry, moral attachment, soil emotion, belonging, and spirituality. Eigenvalue 3.201, 8.42%, α = .883, high loadings. Affect, moral ecology, and land attachment HFP-SA Subsistence, rice security, homestead gardening, and food autonomy. Eigenvalue 2.539, 6.68%, α = .745, 3 items. Food security, provisioning, and household sustainability AT-AR Hybrid farming, market pressure, technology, risk, negotiation, and tradition-modern mutation. Eigenvalue 1.463, 3.85%, α = .889, 8 items. Transformation, adaptation, and negotiated modernization Cross-Factors Interdependence, governance-adaptation link, and emotion-decision link. Factor correlation and oblimin rotation. Multidimensionality, and interconnection Integration Logic Lived experience, narratives, and participatory tools. KMO=.933, Bartlett sig., EFA 5-factor. Meaning + structure, ethnography + validation This integration confirms that sustainability operates as both a lived socio-cultural experience and a statistically coherent multidimensional construct. Table 5 presents the roadmap linking the theoretical propositions to the five factors explored. Table 5 Mapping Ethnic Ecologies propositions to psychometric factors (EFA) Ethnic Ecologies Core Aspect Mapping Factor (s) Interpretive Linkage Ethnic-hybrid agrarian rationalities Households blended a mixture of subsistence, market, and cultural logics under risk and constraint. F5. AT-AR Capturing selective innovation, cost-risk evaluation, market pressure, and negotiating engagement with modernization. Vernacular Sustainability and Decolonial Knowledge Sustainability is defined contextually through embodied knowledge and moral reasoning. F3. EAL+ F4. HFP-SA EAL captures belonging and affective land relations; HFP-SA captures subsistence provisioning ethics and nutrition-linked practices. Plural agroecological resistance Agrarian households resist dispossession and ecological decline through diverse livelihood and farming strategies. F2. LD-CAC Operationalizing resistance through diversification, climate risk perception, preparedness, and reliance on traditional coping knowledge. Stewardship Futurity Sustainability is future-oriented and intergenerational, shaped by governance and moral obligations. F1. EEAS + F3. EAL F1. Captures tenure security, political access, and concern for future resources. F3. Captures intergenerational belonging and moral responsibility. Although the EFA structure and the depth of ethnographic narratives provide a strong pathway for framing agricultural sustainability from multiple dimensions, they are considered a foundation pillar only in measurement terms. However, the EFA construction requires confirmatory testing, including tests of model fit and validity. The future study should evaluate whether five factors remain distinct when estimated simultaneously through confirmatory factor analysis (CFA). 6. Conclusion This study has developed and validated a multidimensional sustainability scale grounded in a focused ethnographic engagement among the Garo and Bengali farming communities in Bangladesh. The psychometric measurement through EFA supports a five-factor model that retains ethno-political ecologies; agricultural sustainability, livelihood diversification, and climate adaptive capacity; emotional attachment to land; household food provisioning and sustainable agriculture; and agrarian transformations and adaptive repertoires in the forest and hill agrarian ecologies in Bangladesh. The rethinking model, together with five factors, extends universal sustainability frameworks by operationalizing sustainability as lived practice triggered by identity, governance, affection, and adaptation. The key contribution of this study can be further adopted to evaluate program outcomes beyond yields, identify constrained domains, and design interventions that address governance and capability beyond existing technocratic solutions for sustaining agriculture in ethnic ecologies. This study also guides a pathway for integrating participatory ethnography with psychometric validation in the contexts where sustainability is culturally embedded and politically contested. Declarations Funding: Not Applicable Acknowledgement for Funding for Conducting PhD This paper is a part of the PhD dissertation titled ‘ Rethinking Agricultural Sustainability: Ethnic Ecologies and Agrarian Livelihood Adaptation Strategies among the Garo and Bengali Communities in Bangladesh’ . The Prime Minister’s Education Assistance Trust (PMEAT) – Government of the People’s Republic of Bangladesh - has provided a stipend (monthly for three years) to conduct this study. But there is no funding provided by this grants for publication. Ethical Statement: This study followed the ethical principles of research including, informed consent from all of the Garo and Bengali respondents. The privacy and anonymity of the informants were strictly followed. The respondents were selected as voluntary basis where they could withdraw their data when any contradiction appears in future. Hence, an ethical approval was permitted by the ethical approval committee (see memo: 6/7/RS/30/11/25). The proof document of informed consent also be shown if needed for the further processing. Clinical Trial Number : Not Applicable References Ahsan, M. N., Khatun, F., Abedin, N., Oni, F. A., Alam, M. I., & Khatun, A. (2024). Adapting to adversity: Unraveling the nexus between vulnerability and well-being in coastal Bangladesh. International Journal of Disaster Risk Reduction, 112 , 104798. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijdrr.2024.104798 Ahmed, F., & Low, N. P. (2020). Environmental justice dialogues and the struggle for human dignity in Bangladesh's deciduous forest. Journal of Political Ecology, 27 (1), 300–316. https://journals.librarypublishing.arizona.edu/jpe/article/id/2092/ Akram-Lodhi, A. H., & Kay, C. (2010). 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-9203730","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":626701991,"identity":"fd37c4ff-0129-43a1-9edf-77b32c5434e5","order_by":0,"name":"Asif Arif","email":"data:image/png;base64,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","orcid":"","institution":"Jatiya Kabi Kazi Nazrul Islam University","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Asif","middleName":"","lastName":"Arif","suffix":""},{"id":626701999,"identity":"ef19d33a-9557-4423-9ddc-fedc1c872da1","order_by":1,"name":"Dr. Md. Shajahan Kabir Kabir","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Bangladesh Agricultural University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"Dr.","firstName":"Md.","middleName":"Shajahan Kabir","lastName":"Kabir","suffix":""},{"id":626702000,"identity":"c422e2a1-2b11-4747-8801-20254fa009fd","order_by":2,"name":"Mehedi Hasan Khan Mehedi","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"University of Dhaka","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Mehedi","middleName":"Hasan Khan","lastName":"Mehedi","suffix":""},{"id":626702003,"identity":"5329a2a1-74aa-4061-9c5b-08b9de878c5b","order_by":3,"name":"Md. Salauddin Palash Palash","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Bangladesh Agricultural University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Md.","middleName":"Salauddin Palash","lastName":"Palash","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2026-03-23 18:25:18","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-9203730/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-9203730/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":107741558,"identity":"514310d4-9dad-4333-9442-e15e87c23c07","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-04-24 15:06:19","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":113361,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eMulti-sited ethnography-led psychometric measurement\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-9203730/v1/6012921f7fd3e67bda3a0556.png"},{"id":107869097,"identity":"22a3c7e5-3a54-488a-b1a5-d04dc23c9716","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-04-27 07:36:03","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":732312,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEthnography-led psychometric framework of agricultural sustainability in ethnic ecologies\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-9203730/v1/38a601eba695fb003a706173.png"},{"id":108977271,"identity":"c6553897-19f9-4fae-ba67-af9930914a43","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-05-11 11:31:09","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":1262531,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-9203730/v1/572dacfa-b574-4281-8fab-b0daa5afafbe.pdf"},{"id":107868933,"identity":"c4d37849-4303-426a-aba0-86c7e76ea01d","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-04-27 07:35:05","extension":"xlsx","order_by":1,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":87822,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"1stPhaseEFADataFile.xlsx","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-9203730/v1/429d3c1510a638c7009789a8.xlsx"},{"id":107870275,"identity":"a9bf305a-a182-4413-94f0-8fa097bf9d43","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-04-27 07:39:13","extension":"docx","order_by":2,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":25199,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"FinalQuestionnareEFAPeakSeasonSurvey.docx","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-9203730/v1/62f19aa78a350297686cff4c.docx"},{"id":107869111,"identity":"14b3224a-11dd-46c2-b525-48134f60ae76","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2026-04-27 07:36:07","extension":"docx","order_by":3,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"supplement","size":57798,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"Appendix.docx","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-9203730/v1/38804bbc46a4c78d937a498c.docx"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"An Ethnography-Led Psychometric Framework of Agricultural Sustainability in Ethnic Ecologies: A Study of Livelihood Adaptations among Garo and Bengali Communities in Bangladesh","fulltext":[{"header":"1. Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis study broadly aims to introduce how the \u003cem\u003eGaro\u003c/em\u003e indigenous and Bengali (\u003cem\u003eBangal\u003c/em\u003e) communities steer and adapt their agrarian livelihoods through diversified ecological practices and local understandings of sustainability in the contexts of \u003cem\u003eModhupur\u003c/em\u003e (\u003cem\u003esal\u003c/em\u003e forest ecology) and \u003cem\u003eDurgapur\u003c/em\u003e (hill ecology) in Bangladesh. This research situates three ambitious and pragmatic contributions. These are: (i) it innovates theory by conceptualizing agricultural sustainability as plural ecologies (an integration of identity, governance, affect, and adaptation), (ii) it enhances methodological grounds in agrarian epistemologies (assemblages of participatory ethnographic tools to psychometric validation), and (iii) it provides empirical evidence for a five-factor agricultural sustainability (derived from a balanced sample of \u003cem\u003eGaro\u003c/em\u003e and Bengali farming households).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSustainability has become a central yet contested concept in environmental governance, rural development initiatives, and research and academia. For instance, in many policy settings, crop yield stability, input efficiency, water use, and chemical residue levels are the standardized indicators of agricultural sustainability. In contrast, they overlook farmers\u0026rsquo; perceptions of sustainability through their lived experiences of land, labor, risk, and social obligations, in politically and ecologically unequal contexts such as \u003cem\u003eModhupur\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eDurgapur\u003c/em\u003e in Bangladesh.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAn integrated approach to environmental, economic, and social goals is the defining criterion of the classical sustainability framework. For instance, Pretty (1995) conceptualizes sustainable agriculture as the regeneration of ecological processes alongside the maintenance of livelihoods and social well- being. Kates et al. (2005) also define sustainable development as a dynamic process linking human well-being with environmental limits and social equality.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eClimate vulnerability, agricultural land scarcity, agrarian transformations, and contested forest governance are the key pillars of sustainability debates in Bangladesh's agricultural sector in recent time. Bongaarts (2019) calls for intergovernmental panel on climate change. Ahmed and Low (2016) demands environmental justice dialogues and struggle of human dignity in Bangladesh. For example, forest and hill ecology in the studied regions are characterized by diverse ethnic communities with distinct histories of land tenure, land use, and livelihood options. In \u003cem\u003eModhupur\u003c/em\u003e, the \u003cem\u003eGaro\u003c/em\u003e community has long-standing ethno-ecological and ethno-political relationships with forest ecology. The \u003cem\u003eGaro\u003c/em\u003e have historically practiced shifting cultivation and agroforestry, which are directly linked to biodiversity and cultural identity (Kubi, 2012; Gain, 1998). \u003cem\u003eGaro\u003c/em\u003e share a distinctive livelihood mechanisms through participatory forestry (Islam \u0026amp; Sato, 2012). In other way, Bengali communities, on the other hand, are more integrated into market-oriented paddy cultivation and state-led modernization, adopting modern tools and equipment in farming. Nevertheless, both groups exhibit a shared reliance on moral economies that prioritize subsistence security, reciprocity, and risk minimization over profit maximization (Scott, 1977).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePolitical economy scholarship emphasizes the structural forces shaping agricultural sustainability. Akram-Lodhi and Kay (2010) state that principles of capitalist restructuring have reshaped agrarian questions through class dynamics, commodification, and uneven development. This is linked to Bangladesh, where environmental and agricultural policies have failed to address socio-economic disparities among the farmers. Such unilateral policies limit the adoption of recommended practices and inequality (Rahman, 2003).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eClimate change poses an extreme level of complexity for the agricultural sectors in Bangladesh. Rahman and Alam (2016) state that forest-dependent indigenous communities\u0026rsquo; perception and adaptation to climate change through local knowledge are effective. Studied households in both \u003cem\u003eModhupur\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eDurgapur\u003c/em\u003e report shifting rainfall patterns, seasonal uncertainties, and more frequent weather events.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe justification of this study is situated at the intersection of sustainability science, agroecology, agrarian political economy, climate adaptation research, and psychometric measurement theory. As farmers encounter both simultaneously in their everyday decision-making about land, labor, and risk, there is an urgent need to integrate a middle level that merges technical and normative approaches to agricultural sustainability.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAgricultural sustainability indicators have proliferated in recent decades, but many indicator sets consider social dimensions as add-ons. The generic measures of education or income do not capture land politics and moral relations to lands. Tenure insecurity, for example, can discourage investment in improving soil quality. In the same direction, exclusion from forest decision-making can force households into unsuitable coping strategies (land conversion, overharvesting, and reliance on precarious labor).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAgroecology scholarship focuses on biodiversity, ecological processes, and locally adapted knowledge as fundamentals of sustainable farming systems. The traditional ecological approach is relevant in forest and hill ecology. Ecosphere components, including biodiversity, soil micro-ecologies, and seasonal patterns, differ from lowland and midland monocultures.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAlthough indigenous knowledge and sustainable agriculture are interlinked (Nahar et al., 2010), this layer of cultural knowledge in agriculture is overlooked and marginalized in development policies. While modern/scientific knowledge claims a value-free, neutral status, indigenous agrarian knowledge is context-specific (it emerges and is practiced within a bounded cultural territory). Yanou et al. (2023) argue that integrating local and scientific knowledge is not a positivist technical exercise, but decolonizing practices that address power asymmetries and epistemic injustice. Swiderska et al. (2022) popularize indigenous food systems as biocultural heritage systems. The fundamental goal of the biocultural heritage system is to sustain biodiversity through culturally embedded practices. Therefore, the epistemological aim of the indigenous food system is to set research approaches that foreground indigenous priorities in agricultural production.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn measuring and expanding sustainability outcomes, governance and inequality play a key role. Mandal (2010) links agricultural sustainability in Bangladesh to ecological imbalances, environmental degradation, and policy gaps. However, the participatory processes are \u0026lsquo;tokenism\u0026rsquo; (a mixture of political goal attainment and control). Begume and de Bruyn (2023) show that multi-stakeholder co-management reflects the limited influence of local stakeholders' voices. They also highlight persistent power asymmetries in forest governance processes.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cem\u003eModhupur\u003c/em\u003e and its surroundings have a long history of forest governance. Forest conservation and indigenous people in \u003cem\u003eModhupur\u003c/em\u003e affect conservation regimes and traditional livelihoods. Gain (1998) describes the socio-environmental significance of Bangladesh's remaining forests. He highlights the role of forest departments in indigenous existence and livelihood. Forest governance transition in Bangladesh is shaped by the territorialization and political-economic dynamisms (Chowdhury et al., 2024). Such dynamism has altered land access and livelihood options for forest-dependent communities, like the \u003cem\u003eGaro\u003c/em\u003e indigenous communities.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eResearch on climate adaptation in Bangladesh focuses on the interdependence of climate risk, livelihood strategy, and household economic well-being. The trends in household agronomic changes with livelihood diversification are a direct outgrowth of climate risk adaptation shaped by ecological and environmental constraints (Aryal et al., 2020). Existing research highlights the close interconnections among climate risk, livelihood strategies, and well-being (Ahsan et al., 2024). Morshed et al. (2025) propose stronger integration across social and ecological systems, with attention to effectiveness and equity. Therefore, the fundamental proposition of their study implies that sustainability measurement should capture climate cognition, adaptive capacity, diversification, and preparedness.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSustainability research increasingly employs composite indicators. However, the psychometric properties of sustainability constructs remain under-examined. Stefana et al. (2025) provide a set of practical guidelines for scale development and validation. Measurement invariance testing is vital to ensure constructs have equivalent meaning across groups in comparative work (Leitgob et al., 2023).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePsychometrics aims to set a model. Sustainability is a latent construct that reflects in patterned responses to well-designed items. Psychometric reasoning is here employed beyond the psychological perspective. In other words, it has been applied in a broad social-scientific lens. However, the key limitation of the psychometric construct in sustainability research is its narrow measurement focus. Local contexts are overlooked in such construction. In this study, the blending of ethnographic description with psychometric measurement covers the limitation.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePsychometric measurement raises two major problems: i) interventions can be evaluated as successful based on technical output (even though they can worsen inequality or erode indigenous land relations), and ii) interventions can be evaluated as unsuccessful (even when households sustain biodiversity, food security, and cultural continuity through practices that are not captured by the common indicators). Such risks are especially salient in the forest and hill ecologies of \u003cem\u003eModhupur\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eDurgapur\u003c/em\u003e. These two sites represent similar land governance tensions, market integrations, climate stress, and ethnic diversity. In such contexts, sustainability goes beyond the development and expansion of agronomic practices or the substitution of inputs. It is a matter of rights, recognition, and capability that are entangled between state agencies, markets, and community institutions.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eHow does this study bridge ethnography and EFA output? For bridging these, this study employs a sequential exploratory mixed-methods design. EFA construct development requires meaning-making before quantitative measurement. An ethnographic approach discovers local narratives and practices. EFA then tests whether those constructs have a coherent latent structure. Instead of importing external scales that may not fit the context, this mixed-methods logic allows measurement to honor local epistemologies by mitigating the need for standards of reliability, transparency, and replicability.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"2. Research Methodology","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis study has been conducted using a mixed-methods research design. Before quantitative data collection and analysis, ethnographic engagement generated constructs and theoretical propositions that commanded survey item development. Here, the quantitative analysis aimed to assess the scale\u0026apos;s latent structure. This is a multi-sited ethnography of the \u003cem\u003esal\u003c/em\u003e forest ecology of \u003cem\u003eModhupur\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eTangail\u003c/em\u003e, and the hill ecology of Durgapur, \u003cem\u003eNetrokona\u003c/em\u003e, in Bangladesh. Ethnic diversity, contested land relations, and exposure to climate stress in agriculture are the key drivers of the selection of these study sites. The farmers of these regions have clustered mixed livelihood systems that combine farming, forest-related activities, and non-farm income-generating activities. The following Figure 1 represents the methodological framework of this study.\u0026shy;\u0026shy;\u0026shy;\u0026shy;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAn eight-month ethnographic fieldwork was conducted from July 2025 to February 2026. Fieldwork involved engaging with farmers\u0026apos; everyday agrarian practices. A quasi-participant observation (participating in many activities while remaining known as an outsider), informal interviews, participatory rural appraisal (PRA), and focused group discussions (FGDs) were employed to collect primary data using conventional ethnographic techniques and tools. Participation in farming activities, including planting, harvesting, and market interactions, entails close observation of relational dimensions, embodied logics, and the effective care of agrarian life. 53 informal interviews with farmers provided an opportunity to capture individual perceptions, struggles, gains, and experiences related to agricultural practices. Therefore, 3 focus group discussions among the 18 farmers helped to gather collective perceptions across age, gender, and ethnic identity. The respondents for this research were selected using purposive sampling, in which the researchers balanced the sample by gender and ethnic identity. As this research covered aspects of agrarian life, land, resources, and human interaction, it was imperative to use a participatory rural appraisal approach to map resources, seasons, and crop production. However, these conventional techniques were insufficient to explore agricultural sustainability within the diverse ecologies of \u003cem\u003eModhupur\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eDurgapur\u003c/em\u003e.\u0026nbsp; However, gathering insights into the embodied and affective dimensions of sustainability seemed challenging using conventional methods. To cover these limitations, we attempted to recruit five innovative participatory tools: (a) sustainability dream-making, (b) soil memory excavation, (c) agro-spiritual lineage tracing, (d) affective harvesting diaries, and (e) agro-metrological storybook excavation. The key intention of these tools was to capture sustainability in everyday farming practices.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eA structured survey comprising 395 households has been conducted in the six villages of \u003cem\u003eNaluapara\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eGopalpur\u003c/em\u003e, and \u003cem\u003eChondraghona\u003c/em\u003e in \u003cem\u003eDurgapur\u003c/em\u003e Upazila, \u003cem\u003eNetrokona\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003eDistrict, and \u003cem\u003eKakraguni\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eBeduria\u003c/em\u003e, and \u003cem\u003eJoynagacha\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003ein \u003cem\u003eModhupur\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003eUpazila, \u003cem\u003eTangail\u003c/em\u003e District, Bangladesh. A four-point Likert scale was developed (1=strongly disagree, 2=disagree, 3=agree, and 4=strongly agree). The neutral option from the respondents\u0026apos; perspective was intentionally omitted, as the key goal of this study was to capture their views. Before the survey, the study aims, declaration of voluntary participation, and the flexibility of the right to withdraw were informed to the respondents. Moreover, identifying details were removed from the analytical files to ensure data anonymity during the survey administration.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFor exploratory factor analysis, the ratio of respondents per item was 10:1, which is suitable for EFA given the priority placed on the high Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) value (see Table 1 in the results section). The EFA analysis employed Principal Axis Factoring (PAF), which aimed to model shared variance instead of total variance. This process was considered appropriate for latent construct extraction in socio-cultural measurement contexts. Factor dropping and retention decisions were taken based on multiple criteria: (i) eigenvalue greater than one, (ii) variance explained, (iii) interpretability, and (iv) internal consistency reliability was assessed by using Cronbach\u0026apos;s alpha.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTo make the survey questionnaire as friendly as possible for respondents, the items were translated into Bengali. Both the \u003cem\u003eGaro\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003eand Bengali communities share Bengali as their dominant language. Here, the \u003cem\u003eGaros\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003ewere bilingual in \u003cem\u003eMandi\u003c/em\u003e (the aboriginal language of the \u003cem\u003eGaro\u003c/em\u003e) and Bengali (the dominant state language).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFinally, the triangulation of ethnography and measurement in this study focused on interlinking measurement with interpretation. In this study, focused ethnography does not aim to provide background context; rather, it guides the formation of constructs. Psychometrics, in this regard, examines whether these ethnographically derived propositions from coherent and pattern dimensions hold across agrarian households in \u003cem\u003eModhupur\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003eand \u003cem\u003eDurgapur\u003c/em\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"3. Theoretical and Conceptual Framework","content":"\u003cp\u003eTaking ethnicity as an ecological and political category rather than a demographic variable, this study is guided by a plural ecological framework for agricultural sustainability. This theoretical lens is derived from an eight-month ethnographic engagement in \u003cem\u003eModhupur\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eDurgapur\u003c/em\u003e in Bangladesh. The theoretical optics of plural ecologies conceptualize sustainability as a lived process shaped by identity, knowledge, power, and socio-economic contexts. The plural ecological framework is a composition of four propositions, including (a) ethnic-hybrid agrarian rationalities, (b) vernacular sustainability and decolonial knowledge, (c) plural agroecological resistance, and (d) stewardship futurity.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eEthnic-hybrid agrarian rationalities are defined as blended decision-making patterns that combine generational/ancestral knowledge with modern agro-economic market logic. For example, farmers in \u003cem\u003eModhupur\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eDurgapur\u003c/em\u003e negotiate between (i) subsistence needs and market pressure, (ii) spiritual obligation and economic survival, and (iii) collective norms and individual household strategies. This hybridity encounters binary categories (traditional/modern). However, farmers are neither traditional nor modern. Through this lens, this study has found that perceptions of sustainability are not isolated from political access, climate risk, and livelihood constraints.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIs sustainability a laboratory construction that exists beyond historical and local embeddedness? Vernacular sustainability and decolonial knowledge attempt to search the local and historical grounds of sustainable agrarian practices within the framework of plural ecologies. For instance, farmers in \u003cem\u003eDurgapur\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eModhupur\u003c/em\u003e perceived sustainable agricultural practices as the direct outgrowth of inheritance. The inheritance channels function as ways of managing land, seeds, and community relationships. Therefore, the proposition of vernacular sustainability and decolonial knowledge aligns with the valuation of traditional ecological knowledge in agroecology literature (Berkes et al., 2000; Altieri, 1995). In the same way, this proposition emphasizes decolonial scholarship that focuses on the power asymmetries (Yanou et al., 2023) within the integration of knowledge systems. This theoretical lens also identifies indigenous food systems as biocultural heritage central to biodiversity and identity (Swiderska et al., 2022).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003ePlural agroecological resistance operationalizes agrarian contestation and transition as covert and overt forms embedded in everyday farming practices. For example, seed saving, intercropping, risk-averse diversification, and community norms are the covert forms of resistance in \u003cem\u003eModhupur\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eDurgapur\u003c/em\u003e. Both field sites bear the legacy of overt forms of resistance, such as land rights claims. This proposition is sensible within the environmental justice literature, which frames sustainability in terms of rights and dignity in the contested forest and hill ecologies of Bangladesh.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSustainable agriculture goes beyond present resource extraction, land governance, soil exploitation, and the mitigation of present needs. Instead of focusing on the present agricultural situation, stewardship futurity frames sustainability as an intergenerational responsibility. For instance, many farmers in \u003cem\u003eModhupur\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eDurgapur\u003c/em\u003e maintain practices to protect land for future generations, honor their ancestors, and reduce future risk and vulnerability in their agrarian livelihoods. This theoretical postulation holds that sustainability includes emotional attachment to the land and a future-oriented concern for resource availability. Figure\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e illustrates how an ethnography-led psychometric framework measures agricultural sustainability across two distinct ethnic ecologies.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFigure \u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e shows that the four theoretical formulations within the plural ecological framework resonate with the view that sustainability is multidimensional: ethno-political ecologies; livelihood diversification; emotional attachment to land; household food provisioning and sustainable agriculture; and agrarian transformations and adaptive repertoires. As the ideal construction is multi-layered, measurement should capture political ecology, adaptation, affect, provisioning, and transformation. If sustainability is plural, the measurement should capture beyond a single index. Here, the methodological integration of ethnography and exploratory factor analysis (EFA) links interpretive and correlational dimensions of agricultural sustainability, such as how political access affects adaptive capacity and how emotional attachment affects provisioning and transformation decisions. Finally, the use of oblimin rotation in EFA is grounded directly in the theoretical framing of plural ecologies.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"4. Results","content":"\u003cp\u003eQuantitative data are subjected to EFA using SPSS 25.0 after data cleaning and descriptive analysis. To run EFA, principal axis factoring with direct oblimin rotation and Kaiser Normalization was used to investigate 40 elements in the scale. Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e presents the results of the data suitability test for the EFA analysis.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eData Suitability Test for Exploratory Factor Analysis\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"3\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c3\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eKMO and Bartlett's Test\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eKaiser-Meyer-Olkin Measure of Sampling Adequacy.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.933\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBartlett's Test of Sphericity\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eApprox. Chi-Square\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8866.236\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDf\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e703\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSig.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.000\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTable\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e shows that the KMO (Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin) measure of sampling adequacy is 0.933, indicating excellent adequacy and Bartlett\u0026rsquo;s test of Sphericity is significant where chi-square\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;8866.236, df\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;703, and P\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.001. The data were suitable for factor analysis. Together, those are identified as patterned correlations among the items under the five factors. Based on eigenvalues greater than 1, a five-factor solution is extracted. All five factors together explain 61.577% of the total variance that is expressed significantly in social science practices.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFactor 1 explains 29.47%, factor 2 13.151%, factor 3 explains 8.424%, factor 4 explains 6.683%, and factor 5 explains 3.849% of variance, respectively. The five-factor solution in this study is interpretable and consistent with the ethnographic propositions of ethnic-hybrid agrarian rationalities, vernacular sustainability and decolonial knowledge, plural agroecological resistance, and stewardship futurity. The following Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e represents the key features of EFA;\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eExploratory Factor Analysis Summary\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"7\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFactor\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFactor Name\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEigenvalue\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eα\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eItem\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLoading\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCommunality\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"10\" rowspan=\"11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\" morerows=\"10\" rowspan=\"11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEEAS (Ethno-political Ecologies and Agricultural Sustainability)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\" morerows=\"10\" rowspan=\"11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.198\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\" morerows=\"10\" rowspan=\"11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.909\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEEAS1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.690\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.509\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEEAS2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.639\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.485\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEEAS3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.706\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.614\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEEAS4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.510\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.483\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEEAS5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.648\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.800\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEEAS6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.615\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.504\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEEAS7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.636\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.499\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEEAS8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.619\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.516\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEEAS9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.594\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.510\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEEAS10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.725\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.414\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEEAS11\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.528\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.459\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"11\" rowspan=\"12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\" morerows=\"11\" rowspan=\"12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLD-CAC (Livelihood Diversification and Climate Adaptive Capacity)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\" morerows=\"11\" rowspan=\"12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.997\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\" morerows=\"11\" rowspan=\"12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.933\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLD-CAC1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.671\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.487\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLD-CAC2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.760\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.653\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLD-CAC3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.740\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.581\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLD-CAC4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.769\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.553\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLD-CAC5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.686\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.450\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLD-CAC6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.719\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.523\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLD-CAC7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.747\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.538\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLD-CAC8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.765\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.589\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLD-CAC9\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.757\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.580\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLD-CAC10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.722\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.503\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLD-CAC11\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.717\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.537\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLD-CAC12\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.723\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.565\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"3\" rowspan=\"4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\" morerows=\"3\" rowspan=\"4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEAL (Emotional Attachment to Land)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\" morerows=\"3\" rowspan=\"4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.201\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\" morerows=\"3\" rowspan=\"4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.883\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEAL1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.814\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.662\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEAL2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.846\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.730\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEAL3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.811\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.716\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEAL4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.799\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.645\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHFP-SA (Household Food Provisioning and Sustainable Agriculture)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.539\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.745\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHFP-SA1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.723\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.526\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHFP-SA2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.913\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.851\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHFP-SA3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.724\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.528\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"7\" rowspan=\"8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\" morerows=\"7\" rowspan=\"8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAT-AR (Agrarian Transformations and Adaptive Repertoires)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\" morerows=\"7\" rowspan=\"8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.463\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\" morerows=\"7\" rowspan=\"8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e.889\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAT-AR1\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.700\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.435\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAT-AR2\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.723\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.603\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAT-AR3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.604\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.448\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAT-AR4\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.871\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.706\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAT-AR5\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.595\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.452\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAT-AR6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.551\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.511\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAT-AR7\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.637\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.502\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAT-AR8\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.546\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.681\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cem\u003eNote.\u003c/em\u003e Extraction method: Principal Axis Factoring. Rotation method: Oblimin with Kaiser Normalization.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFactor 1 (EEAS) is labeled \u0026lsquo;ethno-political ecologies and agricultural sustainability\u0026rsquo; and has an eigenvalue of 11.198 and a Cronbach\u0026rsquo;s alpha of 0.909. This factor has extracted 11 items, with the highest loading value of 0.725 and the lowest of 0.510. The extracted items are named as; (1) EEAS1 (influence of ethnic identity in farming), (2) EEAS2 (community-based farming techniques), (3) EEAS3 (inter-ethnic farming differences), (4) EEAS4 (community welfare-oriented farming decisions), (5) EEAS5 (food intake reduction), (6) EEAS6 (policy influence on farming decisions), (7) EEAS7 (land tenure security and investment decisions in farming), (8) EEAS8 (macro political influence of agricultural resources), (9) EEAS9 (local power influence on resource access), (10) EEAS10 (climate change influence on food and farming), and (11) EEAS11 (precarity of future agricultural resource). In relation to all items under factor 1, integrate political ecology with lived sustainability concerns in \u003cem\u003eModhupur\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eDurgapur\u003c/em\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFactor 2 LD-CAC \u0026ndash; \u0026lsquo;livelihood diversification and climate adaptive capacity\u0026rsquo; having eigenvalue of 4.997 and Cronbach\u0026rsquo;s alpha of 0.933 includes 12 items as; (1) LD-CAC1 (non-farm livelihood engagement, (2) LD-CAC2 (alternative income source and preventive risk management, (3) LD-CAC3 (non-farm activities and income generation, (4) LD-CAC4 (agrarian household income vulnerability), (5) LD-CAC5 (adaptive livelihood strategy), (6) LD-CAC6 (experiencing climate stress in farming), (7) LD-CAC7 (climate vulnerability in agriculture), (8) LD-CAC8 (seasonal unpredictability and agrarian risk), (9) LD-CAC9 (experiencing extreme weather events), (10) LD-CAC10 (perceived climate change in crop production), (11) LD-CAC11 (climate resilience inadequacy), and (12) LD-CAC12 (effectiveness of traditional agrarian knowledge in climate resiliency).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFactor 3 EAL \u0026ndash; \u0026lsquo;emotional attachment to land\u0026rsquo;, having an eigenvalue of 3.201 and a Cronbach\u0026rsquo;s alpha of 0.883. This factor has four items: (1) EAL1 (ancestral land belonging), (2) EAL2 (soil degradation and moral affective distress), (3) EAL3 (embodied cultivation affect), and (4) EAL4 (land relational crop choice).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFactor 4 is labeled as \u0026lsquo;household food provisioning and sustainable agriculture\u0026rsquo;. This factor produced an eigenvalue of 2.539 and had a Cronbach\u0026rsquo;s alpha of 0.745. This factor bears the following three items: (1) HFP-SA1 (household food provisioning despite high market prices), (2) HFP-SA2 (staple-based household food strategy), and (3) HFP-SA3 (homestead gardening for food and nutritional security).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFactor 5 is named as \u0026lsquo;agrarian transformation and adaptive agrarian repertoires\u0026rsquo; (AT-AR). This factor has an eigenvalue of 1.463 and Cronbach\u0026rsquo;s alpha of 0.889. This factor captured the following eight items: (1) AT-AR1 (risk-embedded innovation), (2) AT-AR2 (technological conservatism), (3) AT-AR3 (logical investment practice), (4) AT-AR4 (relational assessment during agrarian crisis), (5) AT-AR5 (hybrid technological incorporation), (6) AT-AR6 (historical transformations of farming practices), (7) AT-AR7 (market reconfiguration of traditional farming), and (8) AT-AR8 (community rules and the protection of farming practices). All the items of factor 5 signal that agrarian households in \u003cem\u003eModhupur\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eDurgapur\u003c/em\u003e are either adopting or rejecting modernization, rather than both the \u003cem\u003eGaro\u003c/em\u003e and Bengali communities are negotiating.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe factor correlation matrix (see Appendix I.a) postulates meaningful relationships among the latent dimensions. These results support the use of oblimin rotation. Factor 1 (EEAS) correlates strongly with factor 5 (AT-AR). This suggests that perceived ethno-political ecology is linked to how farmers negotiate transformation and adaptation. Factor 2 (LD-CAC) is also correlated with factor 5 (AT-AR), indicating that livelihood diversification and climate adaptive capacity are associated with negotiated modernization. Overall, the five factors are interrelated in some respects, while others remain relatively independent. Such notifications indicate that the constructs are conceptually distinct yet partially overlapping. Such a correlation pattern supports the theoretical legacy, as sustainability dimensions are distinct yet interconnected. The five-factor model in EFA derives from ethnographic insights from \u003cem\u003eModhupur\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eDurgapur\u003c/em\u003e. Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e presents a key summary of the ethnographic narratives.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eA Thematic Analysis of Collected Ethnographic Insights in Modhupur and Durgapur\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"3\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTheme\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSub-Theme\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFarmers\u0026rsquo; Quotations (Translate from the Bengali language)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"10\" rowspan=\"11\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEthno-Political Ecologies and Agricultural Sustainability (EEAS)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eInfluence of ethnic identity in farming\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026ldquo;In the past, we did shifting cultivation (jhum). It was not just agriculture; it was our ancestors\u0026rsquo; identity. The Bengali people came and applied plain land farming practices that destroyed the forest.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/em\u003e - A \u003cem\u003eGaro\u003c/em\u003e woman in \u003cem\u003eJoynagacha\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eModhupur\u003c/em\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026ldquo;The Mandi (Garo) people did not know about cultivation. We took their land on lease and began to cultivate.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/em\u003e - A Bengali man in \u003cem\u003eBeduria\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eModhupur\u003c/em\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCommunity-based farming techniques\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026ldquo;In our traditions, we shared collective labor for jhum. Modern farming teaches us to work individually.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/em\u003e \u0026ndash; A \u003cem\u003eGaro\u003c/em\u003e man in \u003cem\u003eKakraguni\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eModhupur\u003c/em\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026ldquo;We cannot cultivate the land nearest the hill in the dry season. Without shared labor, it is not possible to carry water for the crops.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/em\u003e \u0026ndash; A \u003cem\u003eGaro\u003c/em\u003e woman in \u003cem\u003eGopalpur, Durgapur\u003c/em\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eInter-ethnic farming differences\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026ldquo;The Bengali settlers came and started to exploit the land with chemical and synthetic fertilizers.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/em\u003e - A \u003cem\u003eGaro\u003c/em\u003e man in \u003cem\u003eKakraguni\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eModhupur\u003c/em\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026ldquo;Before our settlement in this region, the Garo people did not get enough food to eat. Now we are taking their lands at a high price in the form of a mortgage or a lease.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/em\u003e \u0026ndash; A Bengali man in \u003cem\u003eBeduria\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eModhupur\u003c/em\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCommunity welfare-oriented farming decisions.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026ldquo;When famine comes, we share the jhum. It was the customary practice to live near the forest. Now we are like the Bengali farmers. No one shares food, which was a tradition in the past.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/em\u003e \u0026ndash; A \u003cem\u003eGaro\u003c/em\u003e woman in \u003cem\u003eBeduria\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eModhupur\u003c/em\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026ldquo;We do not have any common value, but we are in the same competitive agrarian market for our survival.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/em\u003e \u0026ndash; A Bengali man in \u003cem\u003eKakraguni\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eModhupur\u003c/em\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFood intake reduction\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026ldquo;When we predict low yields, we usually take two meals instead of taking three in a day.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/em\u003e \u0026ndash; A Bengali man in \u003cem\u003eNaluapara\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eDurgapur\u003c/em\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026ldquo;To feed our children, we usually take a low food intake. However, when we get better yields, our body adjusts the intake later.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/em\u003e \u0026ndash; A \u003cem\u003eGaro\u003c/em\u003e woman in \u003cem\u003eKakraguni, Modhupur\u003c/em\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePolicy influence on farming decisions\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026ldquo;The forest department forbids jhum now. However, the Bengali people cultivate tobacco. Can an imposed farming system really sustain life?\u0026rdquo;\u003c/em\u003e \u0026ndash; A \u003cem\u003eGaro\u003c/em\u003e woman in \u003cem\u003eGopalpur\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eDurgapur\u003c/em\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026ldquo;We cannot get chemicals and fertilizers when we need them. Even, we do not get a fair price in the market when we sell.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/em\u003e \u0026ndash; A Bengali man in \u003cem\u003eChondraghona\u003c/em\u003e, Durgapur.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLand tenure security and investment in farming\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026ldquo;These are our ancestral lands. The forest department very often imposes a handover to them.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/em\u003e \u0026ndash; A \u003cem\u003eGaro\u003c/em\u003e woman in \u003cem\u003eGopalpur\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eDurgapur\u003c/em\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026ldquo;They (the forest departments) tell us that we are outsiders. How long can we live as outsiders in our ancestors\u0026rsquo; land?\u0026rdquo;\u003c/em\u003e \u0026ndash; A \u003cem\u003eGaro\u003c/em\u003e woman in \u003cem\u003eKakraguni\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eModhupur\u003c/em\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMacro-political influence of resource access\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\"If we want to get firewood from the forest, it is not possible without political backup. Politics control everything in the forest.\" -\u003c/em\u003e A \u003cem\u003eGaro\u003c/em\u003e woman in \u003cem\u003eJoynagacha, Modhupur\u003c/em\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\"Getting the government land, party politics play a vital role.\" -\u003c/em\u003e A \u003cem\u003eGaro\u003c/em\u003e man in \u003cem\u003eGopalpur\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eDurgapur\u003c/em\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLocal power influence on resource access\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\"For the settlement of land disputes, we depend on our member (council leader) and chairman.\"\u003c/em\u003e - A Bengali Man in \u003cem\u003eBeduria\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eModhupur\u003c/em\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\"We cannot move beyond our headman's order. What land we get and cultivate is totally dependent on our community customs, norms, and rules.\"\u003c/em\u003e - A \u003cem\u003eGaro\u003c/em\u003e woman in \u003cem\u003eGopalpur\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eDurgapur\u003c/em\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eClimate change's influence on ethnic-based food and farming\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\"We cannot predict rainfall and heat now. We feel that the cool forest air is gone. Crops are drying up. We put a high cost for irrigation in our crop fields.\"\u003c/em\u003e - A Bengali man in \u003cem\u003eKakraguni, Modhupur\u003c/em\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\"Intense heat causes hill vegetables and fruits not to grow well. We get small and shriveled fruits, vegetables, and leaves.\"\u003c/em\u003e - A \u003cem\u003eGaro\u003c/em\u003e Man in \u003cem\u003eGopalpur\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eDurgapur\u003c/em\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePrecarity of future agricultural resource\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eThe forests are being cut down. Where our future generation will go and what they will grow and gather.\"\u003c/em\u003e A \u003cem\u003eGaro\u003c/em\u003e woman in \u003cem\u003eKakraguni, Modhupur\u003c/em\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\"Water crisis is a major threat. We do not get groundwater as we did in the past.\" - A Bengali man, Chondraghona\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eDurgapur\u003c/em\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"11\" rowspan=\"12\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLivelihood Diversification and Climate Adaptation Capacity (LD-CAC)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNon-farm livelihood engagement\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\"Farming alone is very hard to survive. My son and son-in-law work in the city for a better life and better earnings.\"\u003c/em\u003e - A \u003cem\u003eGaro\u003c/em\u003e woman in \u003cem\u003eBeduria\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eModhupur\u003c/em\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\"To mitigate the needs of my household, I have opened a small shop around my homestead. Farming in present days is not enough.\"\u003c/em\u003e - A Bengali man in \u003cem\u003eKakraguni\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eModhupur\u003c/em\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePreventive risk management through alternative income sources\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\"I do not prefer to cultivate only pineapple in my plot. I also grow turmeric and bananas. If one of them loses, another saves my household.\"\u003c/em\u003e - A \u003cem\u003eGaro\u003c/em\u003e woman in \u003cem\u003eBeduria\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eModhupur\u003c/em\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\"Besides farming, I also keep my homestead garden alive. If disaster destroys field crops, the homestead garden will help to survive.\"\u003c/em\u003e - A Bengali woman in \u003cem\u003eNaluapara, Durgapur\u003c/em\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHousehold income generation through non-farm activities\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\"Sometimes women in my household work as wage laborers for extra income to support.\"\u003c/em\u003e - A Bengali man in \u003cem\u003eNaluapara\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eDurgapur\u003c/em\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\"During the off-season, I work as a day laborer.\"\u003c/em\u003e - A \u003cem\u003eGaro\u003c/em\u003e man in \u003cem\u003eJoynagacha\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eModhupur\u003c/em\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAgrarian household income vulnerability\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026ldquo;After harvesting, nothing remains in my hands because the fertilizers and pest control costs are high.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/em\u003e \u0026ndash; A Bengali man, \u003cem\u003eBeduria\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eModhupur\u003c/em\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026ldquo;When a virus attacks our banana and pineapple plot, we face losses. We are barely managing to survive.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/em\u003e \u0026ndash; A \u003cem\u003eGaro\u003c/em\u003e man in \u003cem\u003eJoynagacha\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eModhupur\u003c/em\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAdaptive livelihood strategy\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026ldquo;Many of us are planting dragon fruit and guava gardens around the forest. For best profit and economic gains, we are trying for new crops.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/em\u003e \u0026ndash; A Bengali man, \u003cem\u003eKakraguni\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eModhupur\u003c/em\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026ldquo;For a smallholding farmer like me, it is not possible to survive only by cultivating crops.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/em\u003e \u0026ndash; A Garo woman, \u003cem\u003eModhupur\u003c/em\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eExperiencing climate stress in farming\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026ldquo;In summer, the sun burns the skin and the crops too. It is not what it was in the past.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/em\u003e A Bengali man, \u003cem\u003eBeduria\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eModhupur\u003c/em\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026ldquo;Sometimes we feel that there is no rain in the monsoon. However, floods wash away our crops in the late autumn. Nature\u0026rsquo;s rules have changed.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/em\u003e A \u003cem\u003eGaro\u003c/em\u003e man, \u003cem\u003eGopalpur\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eDurgapur\u003c/em\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eClimate vulnerability in overall agriculture\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026ldquo;Sudden flash floods wash away our paddy fields. No one compensates for this loss.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/em\u003e A man in \u003cem\u003eChondraghona, Durgapur\u003c/em\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026ldquo;Excessive rain rotted the pineapple, turmeric, and papaya roots. Climate suffering is destroying our crops.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/em\u003e \u0026ndash; A Bengali man in \u003cem\u003eJoynagacha, Modhupur\u003c/em\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSeasonal unpredictability and agrarian risk\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026ldquo;Farming today is a matter of luck. We cannot predict the seasonal mobility.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/em\u003e \u0026ndash; A Bengali man in \u003cem\u003eKakraguni, Modhupur\u003c/em\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026ldquo;There is no rain at sowing time during \u0026lsquo;amon\u0026rsquo;, but excessive rainfall sometimes occurs. I do not know what to do.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/em\u003e \u0026ndash; A Bengali man, \u003cem\u003eNaluapara, Durgapur\u003c/em\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eExperiencing extreme weather events.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026ldquo;In the last storm, many of the forest trees were uprooted. I have never experienced such a terrible storm in my life.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/em\u003e \u0026ndash; A Garo woman in \u003cem\u003eBeduria, Modhupur\u003c/em\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026ldquo;During the long drought, we do not get water for irrigation. Even we have to suffer for drinking water.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/em\u003e \u0026ndash; A Bengali man in \u003cem\u003eKakraguni, Modhupur.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePerceived climate change in crop production\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026ldquo;Because of the extreme heat waves in the summer, paddy, banana, pineapple, and other crops dry up before maturing. It is all about the cause of changing weather events.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/em\u003e \u0026ndash; A Bengali man in \u003cem\u003eBeduria, Modhupur.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026ldquo;We get a very short period of winter. Vegetable yields are affected negatively.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/em\u003e \u0026ndash; A Garo man, \u003cem\u003eGopalpur, Durgapur\u003c/em\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eClimate resilience inadequacy\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026ldquo;They (modern seed market systems) have destroyed our own rice varieties. We cannot cope with crop failure due to pest attacks in the new varieties.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/em\u003e \u0026ndash; A \u003cem\u003eGaro\u003c/em\u003e woman in \u003cem\u003eJoynagacha\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eModhupur\u003c/em\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026ldquo;We do not have enough tools to mitigate adverse climate impacts in cultivation. As we intervene with nature to fulfill our needs, we are helpless.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/em\u003e \u0026ndash; A Bengali man in \u003cem\u003eKakraguni, Modhupur\u003c/em\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEffectiveness of traditional agrarian knowledge in climate resiliency\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026ldquo;Our ancestors could predict which wind direction could hamper crops. We always keep our banana tree leaning a little toward the south for better yields and to protect it from storms during early summer (kalboishakhi).\u003c/em\u003e \u0026ndash; A Bengali man in \u003cem\u003eBeduria, Modhupur\u003c/em\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026ldquo;Many of the farmers in our community know about which side of the hill water will flow from, causing less damage to crops.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/em\u003e \u0026ndash; A \u003cem\u003eGaro\u003c/em\u003e man in \u003cem\u003eGopalpur, Durgapur.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"3\" rowspan=\"4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEmotional Attachment to Land (EAL)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAncestral land belonging\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026ldquo;The forest is not just a landscape for us; it is our ancestors\u0026rsquo; blessing. Protecting the forest is our moral and communal duty.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/em\u003e \u0026ndash; A \u003cem\u003eGaro\u003c/em\u003e man in \u003cem\u003eKakraguni, Modhupur\u003c/em\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026ldquo;Leaving this soil of the hill is beyond imagination because seven generations of ours sleep here.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/em\u003e \u0026ndash; A \u003cem\u003eGaro\u003c/em\u003e man in \u003cem\u003eGopalpur, Durgapur.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSoil degradation and moral affective distress\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026ldquo;Excessive use of chemical fertilizers drains all its vitality because the soil seems lifeless.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/em\u003e \u0026ndash; A Bengali man in \u003cem\u003eKakraguni, Modhupur\u003c/em\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026ldquo;When I realize land fertility declines in my plot, I feel like pouring poison on one\u0026rsquo;s own mother\u0026rsquo;s face.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/em\u003e \u0026ndash; A \u003cem\u003eGaro\u003c/em\u003e man in \u003cem\u003eJoynagacha, Modhupur\u003c/em\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEmbodied cultivation of affection for land\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026ldquo;We are farmers, and we are the people close to the soil. If we do not touch the mud, we get less affection with the crops.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/em\u003e \u0026ndash; A Bengali man in \u003cem\u003eNaluapara\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eDurgapur\u003c/em\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026ldquo;Cultivating crops is as much as rearing children. Without the connection of land and one\u0026rsquo;s heart, it is not possible to get good yields.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/em\u003e \u0026ndash; A \u003cem\u003eGaro\u003c/em\u003e woman in \u003cem\u003eBeduria\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eModhupur\u003c/em\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLand relational crop choice\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026ldquo;Land has life. If we cultivate bad crops like tobacco instead of rice, the land becomes unhappy.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/em\u003e \u0026ndash; A Bengali man in \u003cem\u003eKakraguni\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eModhupur\u003c/em\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026ldquo;We should not grow what the soil fails to tolerate. We do not have the right to destroy soil just for profit.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/em\u003e \u0026ndash; A \u003cem\u003eGaro\u003c/em\u003e woman in \u003cem\u003eKakraguni\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eModhupur\u003c/em\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"2\" rowspan=\"3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHousehold Food Provisioning and Sustainable Agriculture (HFP-SA)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHousehold provisioning despite high market prices\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026ldquo;It is not a matter of how high rice prices are in the market. Getting vegetables, grains, and leaves from a homestead garden brings peace of mind.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/em\u003e \u0026ndash; A \u003cem\u003eGaro\u003c/em\u003e woman in \u003cem\u003eJoynagacha\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eModhupur\u003c/em\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026ldquo;Mitigating household needs from one's own produce is not comparable with market goods or the items that can be bought with money.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/em\u003e \u0026ndash; A Bengali man in \u003cem\u003eKakraguni, Modhupur\u003c/em\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eStaple-based household food strategy\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026ldquo;I think that for running a household, it is urgent to ensure rice. Without the adequacy of rice, household members remain hungry.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/em\u003e \u0026ndash; A Bengali man in \u003cem\u003eBeduria, Modhupur\u003c/em\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026ldquo;Jhum rice was our foundation. If we had that, we never would have to depend solely on the market.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/em\u003e \u0026ndash; A \u003cem\u003eGaro\u003c/em\u003e man in \u003cem\u003eGopalpur\u003c/em\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHomestead gardening for food and nutritional security\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026ldquo;We plant gourds, pumpkins, and other vegetables around the house. At least we want to keep ourselves safe from eating poison.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/em\u003e \u0026ndash; A \u003cem\u003eGaro\u003c/em\u003e woman in \u003cem\u003eJoynagacha, Modhupur\u003c/em\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026ldquo;Vegetables from our homestead garden sustain us year-round.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/em\u003e \u0026ndash; A Bengali woman in \u003cem\u003eKakraguni, Modhupur\u003c/em\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"7\" rowspan=\"8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAgrarian Transformations and Adaptive Repertoires (AT-AR)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRisk-embedded innovation\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u0026ldquo;\u003cem\u003eNew technologies carry high risks. One crop failing in a season can cause significant losses. Everyone talks about profit. However, when bad moments come, no one helps. In reverse, they push us toward loans (microcredit/datan \u0026ndash; an informal credit system with high interest rates). \u0026ndash;\u003c/em\u003e A Bengali man in \u003cem\u003eKakraguni, Modhupur.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTechnological conservatism\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026ldquo;Tractors and power tillers have loosened the soil too much. The old plough was better for land cultivation.\u0026rdquo; \u0026ndash;\u003c/em\u003e A Bengali man in \u003cem\u003eBeduria, Modhupur.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026ldquo;The noise of machines has driven away the insects in the land. Even this noise is harmful to the inhabited animals and birds in the forest. Technology has taken away their peace.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/em\u003e _ A \u003cem\u003eGaro\u003c/em\u003e woman in \u003cem\u003eKakraguni\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eModhupur\u003c/em\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLogical investment practice\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026ldquo;Cultivation is very calculative right now. I aim to invest one taka that will bring two taka back.\u0026rdquo; \u0026ndash;\u003c/em\u003e A Bengali man in \u003cem\u003eKakraguni, Modhupur.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026ldquo;Without the hope of profit, farming is pointless.\u0026rdquo; \u0026ndash;\u003c/em\u003e A Bengali man in \u003cem\u003eChondraghona, Durgapur.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRational assessment during agrarian crisis\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026ldquo;When we face a crisis in our crop fields, we sit together and decide how to survive.\u0026rdquo; \u0026ndash;\u003c/em\u003e A Bengali man in \u003cem\u003eBeduria, Modhupur.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026ldquo;Just because of high input cost, like an irrigation tool, does not mean stopping cultivation. We share tools among us.\u0026rdquo; \u0026ndash;\u003c/em\u003e A \u003cem\u003eGaro\u003c/em\u003e woman, \u003cem\u003eJoynagacha, Modhupur.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHybrid technological incorporation\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026ldquo;Without hybrid seed, we cannot compete in the market. For survival, we have to accept new seed technology.\u0026rdquo; \u0026ndash; A Bengali man in Chondraghona, Durgapur.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026ldquo;Traditional seeds do not endure in many of our cultivation processes. So we have to adapt with new seeds from the companies.\u0026rdquo; \u0026ndash; A Bengali man in Naluapara, Durgapur.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHistorical transformation of farming practices\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026ldquo;In the past, jhum was for rice and vegetables. Now we are cultivating dragon, guava, and orange fruits.\u0026rdquo; \u0026ndash;\u003c/em\u003e A \u003cem\u003eGaro\u003c/em\u003e woman in \u003cem\u003eGopalpur, Durgapur.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026ldquo;Farming is no longer a peaceful livelihood. It is only rush and pressure.\u0026rdquo; \u0026ndash;\u003c/em\u003e A \u003cem\u003eGaro\u003c/em\u003e man in \u003cem\u003eJoynagacha, Modhupur.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMarket reconfiguration of traditional farming\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026ldquo;We can no longer cultivate by our own will. We plant what sells at a high price in the market.\u0026rdquo; \u0026ndash;\u003c/em\u003e A Bengali man in \u003cem\u003eBeduria, Modhupur.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026ldquo;The market is our powerful god. We cultivate according to the will of the market.\u0026rdquo; \u0026ndash;\u003c/em\u003e A \u003cem\u003eGaro\u003c/em\u003e woman in \u003cem\u003eJoynagacha, Modhupur.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCommunity rules and the protection of agrarian resources\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026ldquo;If we all unite to save the rainwater through the natural channels like canals and ponds, we can cultivate naturally.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/em\u003e \u0026ndash; A Bengali man, \u003cem\u003eModhupur\u003c/em\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026ldquo;To protect the hill and forest, we must follow our community rules after all. We stay together beyond the individual gains.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/em\u003e \u0026ndash; A \u003cem\u003eGaro\u003c/em\u003e woman, Durgapur.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eData Source\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c3\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eFieldwork in Modhupur and Durgapur, 2025\u0026ndash;2026\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"5. Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis study integrates exploratory factor analysis (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e) with ethnographic narratives (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e) to bridge quantitative structures with everyday farming experiences and expectations of \u003cem\u003eGaro\u003c/em\u003e and Bengali people in \u003cem\u003eModhupur\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eDurgapur\u003c/em\u003e in Bangladesh. The findings demonstrate that sustainability operates as a multidimensional socio-ecological phenomenon shaped by cultural identity, ecological trajectories, and livelihood adaptation strategies.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe EFA results reveal five interrelated dimensions that structure farmers\u0026rsquo; perceptions of sustainability: political ecology, livelihood adaptation, land attachment, food security, and agrarian transformation. While the statistical model identifies these dimensions analytically, qualitative narratives provide deeper insight into how farmers interpret and negotiate them in everyday farming practices in \u003cem\u003eModhupur\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eDurgapur\u003c/em\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAmong these factors, the first factor (EEAS) dimension explains the largest portion of variance in the EFA model. This indicates that perceptions of sustainability are strongly embedded in ethnic and political-ecological contexts. Land maintenance, access to forest, and ethnic identity play critical roles in shaping farming decisions across both communities. Field experiences indicate that farmers frequently emphasize the historical importance of shifting cultivation practices in shaping their relationship with the land and environment, especially among the \u003cem\u003eGaro\u003c/em\u003e. As one \u003cem\u003eGaro\u003c/em\u003e farmer explained: \u0026ldquo;\u003cem\u003eIn the past, we did shifting cultivation (jhum). It was not only agriculture, but our ancestors\u0026rsquo; identity.\u0026rdquo;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFor many farmers, sustainability is closely connected to historical land relations and collective identity in both \u003cem\u003eModhupur\u003c/em\u003e (forest ecology) and \u003cem\u003eDurgapur\u003c/em\u003e (the hill ecology). The strong statistical weight of the EEAS factor, therefore, reflects the enduring influence of political ecological structures within these transformed agrarian landscapes.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe LD-CAC construct represents livelihood diversification and farmers\u0026rsquo; adaptive capacity in response to climate change. It reflects the increasing complexity of rural livelihood systems. Farmers are progressively combining agriculture with other non-farm income-generating activities such as wage labor, small businesses, and seasonal migration to nearby cities.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eClimate uncertainties play a vital role in designing these livelihood strategies. Farmers consistently reported unpredictable rainfall patterns, drought conditions, and extreme temperature fluctuations in agrarian ecology. One farmer states this uncertainty as: \u0026ldquo;\u003cem\u003eFarming today is a matter of luck. We cannot predict the seasonal mobility.\u003c/em\u003e\u0026rdquo; Such narratives illustrate how climate instability directly influences livelihood decision-making. Diversification serves as a practical coping strategy in the increasingly fragile agrarian systems of \u003cem\u003eModhupur\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eDurgapur\u003c/em\u003e. By distributing risks across multiple crops, income sources, and labor opportunities, households attempt to maintain economic stability.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe EAL factor captures farmers\u0026rsquo; emotional and cultural attachment to land. Qualitative narratives strongly reinforce the significance of these affective land relationships, in which farmers frequently describe land not merely as an economic asset but as a form of inherited heritage tied to ancestral belonging and moral responsibility. One farmer expressed this emotional connection while discussing declining soil fertility: \"\u003cem\u003eWhen I realize land fertility declines in my plot, I feel like pouring poison on my mother.\u003c/em\u003e\u0026rdquo; This metaphor reveals the depth of emotional bonds between farmers and their agricultural landscapes. Ecological degradation is therefore often interpreted not simply as a technical problem but as a moral concern. These affective relationships significantly shape farmers\u0026rsquo; attitudes toward land stewardship and sustainable agricultural practices.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe HFP-SA factor reflects household food provisioning through small-scale agriculture. Although this factor accounts for a smaller proportion of variance in the statistical model, it remains highly significant in rural household economies. Farmers consistently prioritize staple rice production to ensure household food security. In addition, homestead gardens play an important role in supplementing food supply through the cultivation of vegetables, gourds, and fruits.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThese agroecological practices reduce dependence on volatile market systems and enhance household resilience. Many farmers also emphasized that producing food locally provides a sense of psychological security and independence. As a result, household food production remains a central component of how rural families conceptualize sustainability.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFinally, the AT-AR factor reflects broader processes of agrarian transformation and farmers\u0026rsquo; adaptive farming strategies. Increasingly, farmers are adopting hybrid seeds, mechanized tools, and commercially oriented crop varieties in response to market pressures and changing economic conditions.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eHowever, farmers often express caution toward these modern agricultural technologies. Concerns about soil degradation, ecological imbalance, and rising production costs remain common. Consequently, many farmers combine traditional ecological knowledge with modern agricultural practices. This hybrid approach allows them to pursue productivity while maintaining ecological balance.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOverall, the findings suggest that farmers' perceptions of sustainability are deeply embedded in the socio-ecological landscapes in which they live and work. Political ecological relations, climate vulnerability, cultural land attachments, and livelihood strategies all shape how sustainability is understood and practiced.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWhile the EFA framework captures these dimensions quantitatively, ethnographic narratives provide crucial insight into how farmers interpret and navigate these dynamics in everyday life. The integration of quantitative and qualitative methods, therefore, strengthens the study's analytical robustness. Within this context, sustainability emerges not only as a measurable analytical construct but also as a lived rural experience shaped by culture, ecology, and livelihood realities.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe results addressed in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e and Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e represent EEAS as the practical implication for forest governance, LD-CAC as adaptation programs focus beyond agricultural technologies, EAL as the recognition of land relations and affection, HFP-SA as the indication of nutritional security and household strategies, and AT-AR as agricultural modernization is negotiated through risk governance. To further demonstrate the integration of ethnographic insights with the psychometric structure, the following Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e summarizes key qualitative themes alongside quantitative factor properties.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab4\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 4\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAn integrated summary of ethnography and psychometrics of agricultural sustainability\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"4\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFactor\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEthnographic Description\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePsychometric Measurement\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIntegrated measurement\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eEEAS\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLand rights, forest governance, power, tenure, policy, and ethnic identity.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEigenvalue 11.198, 29.47% variance, α\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.909, 11 items.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePolitical ecology, governance, and embedded sustainability\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eLD-CAC\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eClimate stress, diversification, migration, risk coping, and traditional knowledge.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEigenvalue 4.997, 13.15%, α\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.933, 12 items.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAdaptation, resilience, and livelihood diversification\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eEAL\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAncestry, moral attachment, soil emotion, belonging, and spirituality.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEigenvalue 3.201, 8.42%, α\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.883, high loadings.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAffect, moral ecology, and land attachment\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eHFP-SA\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSubsistence, rice security, homestead gardening, and food autonomy.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEigenvalue 2.539, 6.68%, α\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.745, 3 items.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFood security, provisioning, and household sustainability\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eAT-AR\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHybrid farming, market pressure, technology, risk, negotiation, and tradition-modern mutation.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEigenvalue 1.463, 3.85%, α\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;.889, 8 items.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTransformation, adaptation, and negotiated modernization\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eCross-Factors\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eInterdependence, governance-adaptation link, and emotion-decision link.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFactor correlation and oblimin rotation.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMultidimensionality, and interconnection\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eIntegration Logic\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLived experience, narratives, and participatory tools.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eKMO=.933, Bartlett sig., EFA 5-factor.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMeaning\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;structure, ethnography\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;validation\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis integration confirms that sustainability operates as both a lived socio-cultural experience and a statistically coherent multidimensional construct. Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e presents the roadmap linking the theoretical propositions to the five factors explored.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab5\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 5\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMapping Ethnic Ecologies propositions to psychometric factors (EFA)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"4\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEthnic Ecologies\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCore Aspect\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMapping Factor (s)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eInterpretive Linkage\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eEthnic-hybrid agrarian rationalities\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHouseholds blended a mixture of subsistence, market, and cultural logics under risk and constraint.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eF5. AT-AR\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCapturing selective innovation, cost-risk evaluation, market pressure, and negotiating engagement with modernization.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eVernacular Sustainability and Decolonial Knowledge\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSustainability is defined contextually through embodied knowledge and moral reasoning.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eF3. EAL+ F4. HFP-SA\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEAL captures belonging and affective land relations; HFP-SA captures subsistence provisioning ethics and nutrition-linked practices.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003ePlural agroecological resistance\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAgrarian households resist dispossession and ecological decline through diverse livelihood and farming strategies.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eF2. LD-CAC\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eOperationalizing resistance through diversification, climate risk perception, preparedness, and reliance on traditional coping knowledge.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eStewardship Futurity\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSustainability is future-oriented and intergenerational, shaped by governance and moral obligations.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eF1. EEAS\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;F3. EAL\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eF1. Captures tenure security, political access, and concern for future resources.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eF3. Captures intergenerational belonging and moral responsibility.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAlthough the EFA structure and the depth of ethnographic narratives provide a strong pathway for framing agricultural sustainability from multiple dimensions, they are considered a foundation pillar only in measurement terms. However, the EFA construction requires confirmatory testing, including tests of model fit and validity. The future study should evaluate whether five factors remain distinct when estimated simultaneously through confirmatory factor analysis (CFA).\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"6. Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis study has developed and validated a multidimensional sustainability scale grounded in a focused ethnographic engagement among the \u003cem\u003eGaro\u003c/em\u003e and Bengali farming communities in Bangladesh. The psychometric measurement through EFA supports a five-factor model that retains ethno-political ecologies; agricultural sustainability, livelihood diversification, and climate adaptive capacity; emotional attachment to land; household food provisioning and sustainable agriculture; and agrarian transformations and adaptive repertoires in the forest and hill agrarian ecologies in Bangladesh. The rethinking model, together with five factors, extends universal sustainability frameworks by operationalizing sustainability as lived practice triggered by identity, governance, affection, and adaptation. The key contribution of this study can be further adopted to evaluate program outcomes beyond yields, identify constrained domains, and design interventions that address governance and capability beyond existing technocratic solutions for sustaining agriculture in ethnic ecologies. This study also guides a pathway for integrating participatory ethnography with psychometric validation in the contexts where sustainability is culturally embedded and politically contested.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFunding:\u003c/strong\u003e Not Applicable\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cu\u003eAcknowledgement for Funding for Conducting PhD\u003c/u\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis paper is a part of the PhD dissertation titled \u0026lsquo;\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eRethinking Agricultural Sustainability: Ethnic Ecologies and Agrarian Livelihood Adaptation Strategies among the Garo and Bengali Communities in Bangladesh\u0026rsquo;\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e. The Prime Minister\u0026rsquo;s Education Assistance Trust (PMEAT) \u0026ndash; Government of the People\u0026rsquo;s Republic of Bangladesh - has provided a stipend (monthly for three years) to conduct this study. But there is no funding provided by this grants for publication.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEthical Statement:\u003c/strong\u003e This study followed the ethical principles of research including, informed consent from all of the\u003cem\u003eGaro\u003c/em\u003e and Bengali respondents. The privacy and anonymity of the informants were strictly followed. The respondents were selected as voluntary basis where they could withdraw their data when any contradiction appears in future. Hence, an ethical approval was permitted by the ethical approval committee (see memo: 6/7/RS/30/11/25). The proof document of informed consent also be shown if needed for the further processing.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eClinical Trial Number\u003c/strong\u003e: Not Applicable\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAhsan, M. N., Khatun, F., Abedin, N., Oni, F. A., Alam, M. I., \u0026amp; Khatun, A. (2024). 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Forest-dependent indigenous communities\u0026rsquo; perception and adaptation to climate change through local knowledge in the protected area\u0026mdash;A Bangladesh case study. \u003cem\u003eClimate, 4\u003c/em\u003e(1), 12. https://doi.org/10.3390/cli4010012\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eRahman, S. (2003). Environmental impacts of modern agricultural technology diffusion in Bangladesh: An analysis of farmers\u0026apos; perceptions and their determinants. \u003cem\u003eJournal of Environmental Management, 68\u003c/em\u003e(2), 183\u0026ndash;191. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0301-4797(03)00075-5\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eScott, J. C. (1977). \u003cem\u003eThe moral economy of the peasant: Rebellion and subsistence in Southeast Asia\u003c/em\u003e. Yale University Press.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eStefana, A., Damiani, S., Granziol, U., Provenzani, U., Solmi, M., Youngstrom, E. A., \u0026amp; Fusar-Poli, P. (2025). Psychological, psychiatric, and behavioral sciences measurement scales: Best practice guidelines for their development and validation. \u003cem\u003eFrontiers in Psychology, 15\u003c/em\u003e, 1494261. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2024.494261\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eSwiderska, K., Argumedo, A., Wekesa, C., Ndalilo, L., Song, Y., Rastogi, A., \u0026amp; Ryan, P. (2022). Indigenous peoples\u0026rsquo; food systems and biocultural heritage: Addressing indigenous priorities using decolonial and interdisciplinary research approaches. \u003cem\u003eSustainability, 14\u003c/em\u003e(18), 11311. https://doi.org/10.3390/su141811311\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eYanou, M. P., Ros-Tonen, M., Reed, J., \u0026amp; Sunderland, T. (2023). Local knowledge and practices among Tonga people in Zambia and Zimbabwe: A review. \u003cem\u003eEnvironmental Science \u0026amp; Policy, 142\u003c/em\u003e, 68\u0026ndash;78. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envsci.2023.01.006\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"human-ecology","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"huec","sideBox":"Learn more about [Human Ecology](http://link.springer.com/journal/10745)","snPcode":"10745","submissionUrl":"https://submission.nature.com/new-submission/10745/3","title":"Human Ecology","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"Springer Hybrid","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":false},"keywords":"Agricultural Sustainability, Ethnic Ecologies, Livelihood Adaptation, Psychometric Framework, Mixed-Methods Research","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-9203730/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-9203730/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eAgricultural sustainability is often measured through productivity-based indicators. This trend of production-oriented indices overlooks the socio-cultural and ethno-political dynamics shaping farming systems in the Global South. Aiming to address this gap, this study develops an ethnography-led psychometric framework to examine agricultural sustainability among the Garo indigenous and Bengali communities in Bangladesh. Applying a sequential exploratory mixed-methods research design, eight months of focused ethnography informed the development of a psychometric scale, which was administered in 395 households in Modhupur and Durgapur, Bangladesh. Based on the ethnographic insights, Exploratory Factor Analysis has identified a statistically robust five-factor model that captures key dimensions of sustainability, including ethno-political ecologies and agricultural sustainability, livelihood diversification and climate adaptive capacity, emotional attachment to land, household food provisioning and sustainable agriculture, and agrarian transformations and adaptive repertoires. The findings of this research show that agricultural sustainability functions as a socially embedded practice shaped by identity, governance, and everyday negotiation among Garo and Bengali farming communities. Finally, this study contributes a validated psychometric framework for assessing agricultural sustainability that combines a holistic understanding of cultural, ecological, and livelihood dimensions.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"An Ethnography-Led Psychometric Framework of Agricultural Sustainability in Ethnic Ecologies: A Study of Livelihood Adaptations among Garo and Bengali Communities in Bangladesh","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2026-04-24 15:06:14","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-9203730/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"243350028797902059601295771797573804253","date":"2026-05-17T14:26:05+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2026-05-16T08:02:28+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"195064704652112427306805181216159464725","date":"2026-05-16T07:30:13+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"22880402297821114277650657158577368340","date":"2026-04-29T15:54:49+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"148388663820892573973302900216686340984","date":"2026-04-16T14:33:55+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2026-04-16T13:44:58+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2026-04-13T00:05:38+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"checksComplete","content":"","date":"2026-04-13T00:04:51+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"Human Ecology","date":"2026-03-23T18:11:49+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"human-ecology","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"huec","sideBox":"Learn more about [Human Ecology](http://link.springer.com/journal/10745)","snPcode":"10745","submissionUrl":"https://submission.nature.com/new-submission/10745/3","title":"Human Ecology","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"Springer Hybrid","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":false}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"aed9a2a1-1779-4298-8687-e71079f7251d","owner":[],"postedDate":"April 24th, 2026","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"243350028797902059601295771797573804253","date":"2026-05-17T14:26:05+00:00","index":43,"fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2026-05-16T08:02:28+00:00","index":42,"fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"195064704652112427306805181216159464725","date":"2026-05-16T07:30:13+00:00","index":41,"fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"22880402297821114277650657158577368340","date":"2026-04-29T15:54:49+00:00","index":30,"fulltext":""}],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"under-review","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-04-24T15:06:15+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2026-04-24 15:06:14","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-9203730","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-9203730","identity":"rs-9203730","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"XKTyCvWXoU3ODBz1xrDgd","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}