Optimizing Energy Efficiency and Reducing Carbon Footprint through Integrated Nutrient Management for Sustainable Maize Production

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Arif, R Pourouchottamane, Ravindra Kumar, Arvind Kumar, and 1 more This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-5087244/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Under Review Version 1 posted 4 You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract In India, the energy consumption and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from food grain production have increased significantly since the Green Revolution, largely driven by higher use of machinery, fossil fuels, chemical fertilizers, and pesticides. This study explores the energy and carbon footprints of maize ( Zea mays L.) cultivation under various integrated nutrient management (INM) practices. It evaluates the effects of three organic manures- goat manure, poultry manure, and vermicompost applied at 5 t ha⁻¹ and five fertilizer levels (0, 25, 50, 75, and 100% of the recommended dose). The research was conducted in a split-plot design with three replications during the kharif seasons of 2021 and 2022 at ICAR-Central Institute for Research on Goats, Mathura, Uttar Pradesh, India. The results showed that combining organic manures with different fertilizer doses significantly influenced crop yield, energy consumption, and carbon emissions. The highest total energy output (137149 MJ ha⁻¹) was achieved with 100% RDF combined with vermicompost, while the highest net energy (118496 MJ ha⁻¹) was recorded with 75% RDF combined with vermicompost. The 75% RDF with vermicompost treatment yielded the highest net carbon gain (2455 kg CE ha⁻¹), however, treatments involving 25%, 50%, and 100% RDF with vermicompost, as well as 50%, 75%, and 100% RDF with poultry and goat manure, showed comparable net carbon gain values to the 75% RDF with vermicompost treatment. Overall, combining organic manures with reduced fertilizer levels enhanced sustainability by optimizing energy and reducing carbon footprints. Carbon footprint. Energy use efficiency. Fertilizer doses. GHG emissions. Organic manure. Sustainability Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 Figure 6 Figure 7 Figure 8 Introduction Agriculture is one of the most energy-intensive sectors, contributing significantly to global greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions (Rosa et al., 2021 ). Worldwide, food production consumes approximately 15–30% of the total available primary energy while accounting for about 25–34% of GHG emissions (Crippa et al., 2021 ; Rosa et al., 2021 ). In India, the energy consumption and GHG emissions from food grain production have surged since the Green Revolution, primarily due to the increased use of farm machinery, fossil fuels, chemical fertilizers, and pesticides (Parihar et al., 2019). Indian agriculture contributes 18% of the total GHG emissions, largely driven by higher rates of fertilization and pesticide use (INCCA, 2010 ). This figure is expected to rise further as the demand for food production intensifies to support the growing population projected for 2100 (Oglesby et al., 2023 ). GHGs, including carbon dioxide (CO 2 ), methane (CH 4 ), and nitrous oxide (N 2 O), are responsible for driving global warming, posing a serious threat to agriculture (Sharma et al., 2022 ). Elevated temperatures linked to climate change induce various biotic and abiotic stresses, affecting plant microclimates, photosynthesis, and critical factors such as water and nutrient use efficiency (Raza et al., 2019 ; Sharma et al., 2023 ). Enhancing energy and carbon use efficiency in agriculture is crucial to reducing CO 2 and other GHG emissions (Yadav et al., 2023 ). The adoption of more efficient technologies in crop production, which promote higher carbon sequestration while requiring less energy input, is essential for lowering agricultural carbon emissions and supporting environmental sustainability (Meena et al., 2022 ). In crop production, energy inputs come from direct, indirect, renewable, and non-renewable sources, with the largest contributions stemming from fuel, machinery, nutrient, and irrigation management (Manoj et al., 2022 ; Yadav et al., 2023 ). Therefore, assessing energy and carbon budgets is necessary to determine the efficiency and productivity of different treatments and inputs. Maize ( Zea mays L. ) is one of the most important cereal crops globally, not only as a staple food source but also as a vital ingredient in livestock feed and industrial products. The global demand for maize continues to rise due to its diverse applications, making it a central component of agricultural systems worldwide (Grote et al., 2021 ; Poole et al., 2021 ). However, the traditional dependence on chemical fertilizers for maize production has raised concerns about its environmental impact, particularly in terms of carbon footprint and energy consumption (Singh et al., 2021 ). Increasing attention is being given to integrating organic manure with chemical fertilizers to improve soil health, reduce reliance on chemical inputs, and lower GHG emissions (Meena et al., 2023 ). Integrated nutrient management (INM) strategies, which combine organic and inorganic inputs, have shown potential in boosting energy use efficiency and reducing the carbon footprint of maize cultivation. Recent research indicates that using organic amendments alongside reduced fertilizer applications can significantly lower energy inputs while maintaining high crop yields (Kumar et al., 2023 ). Moreover, INM practices have been found to enhance soil carbon sequestration, thus contributing to climate change mitigation (Singh et al., 2021 ; Meena et al., 2023 ). This study aims to assess the energy and carbon footprints of maize cultivation under various sources of organic manure, such as goat manure, poultry manure, and vermicompost, in combination with different doses of recommended chemical fertilizers. By comparing these nutrient management strategies, the study seeks to identify practices that optimize energy use efficiency and minimize carbon emissions, thereby supporting sustainable agriculture. Materials and Methods Experimental Site and Soil Characteristics The experiments were carried out at the agriculture farm (Lat 27.100 N, Lon 78.020 E, 169.2 m above mean sea level) of ICAR-Central Institute for Research on Goats, Makhdoom, Mathura (Uttar Pradesh), India, during the kharif season of 2021 and 2022. The mean weekly maximum and minimum temperature during the crop growing period ranged between 30.5°C to 39.9°C and 11.7°C to 27.6°C, respectively during kharif 2021. The corresponding fluctuations during second year (kharif 2022) of experimentation were 28.9°C to 39.6°C and 16.8°C to 27.8°C. The total rainfall received during the crop season kharif 2021 was 85.1 mm and 314.0 mm in kharif 2022. The mean relative humidity ranged between 60.4 to 85.7 and 60.1 to 84.2 per cent in the kharif 2021 and 2022, respectively. The sunshine hours during the corresponding crop seasons ranged between 2.3 to 9.7 and 2.9 to 9.3 hours, respectively (Fig. 1 ). The soil of the experimental field was nearly neutral in reaction (pH 7.51) with EC of 0.267 dSm − 1 . The soil was low in organic carbon (0.34%) and available nitrogen (226.7 kg ha − 1 ); and medium in available phosphorus (32.2 kg ha − 1 ) and potassium (155.0 kg ha − 1 ). Experimental Design and Treatments The treatments consist of three sources of organic manures viz. goat manure, poultry manure and vermicompost at the rate of 5 t ha − 1 and five levels of recommended dose of fertilizers (RDF) viz. 0, 25, 50, 75 and 100% RDF. The recommended dose of fertilizers for maize in Yamuna ravines (experimental area) is 150 kg N ha − 1 , 60 kg P 2 O 5 ha − 1 and 40 kg K 2 O ha − 1 . The experiment was laid out in split plot design with three replications. The field was allocated into 45 plots and each plot was 6 m x 6 m in size. All treatments were allocated in these small plots without any biasness. Cultural Operations Maize variety Bio 9544 was sown on 13th August and 16th July during 2021 and 2022, respectively with row to row and plant to plant spacing of 60 cm × 20 cm by using the seed rate of 20 kg ha − 1 . All the organic manures (Goat manure, poultry manure and vermicompost) and recommended dose of fertilizers (150 kg N ha − 1 , 60 kg P 2 O 5 ha − 1 and 40 kg K 2 O ha − 1 ) were applied as per the treatments. Nitrogen was applied in two split doses; half was applied as basal dose and remaining half was applied at 30 DAS. The entire amount of phosphorus and potassium were applied as basal dose. Weed management was done by using the atrazine 50% WP @ 0.75 kg ha − 1 as pre-emergence. The crop was harvested on 11th November and 4th November during 2021 and 2022, respectively. Energy Budgeting The energy budget was calculated by estimating the energy associated with all inputs and outputs involved in the cultivation of hybrid maize. This included recording all the inputs used during cultivation as well as the outputs, such as grain yield and total dry biomass. These inputs and outputs were then multiplied by their respective energy equivalents to obtain the energy estimates. The energy equivalents utilized in this study were sourced from various references, as shown in Table 1 . Energy sources were categorized based on their renewability and exhaustibility, with further classification into direct and indirect energy sources. Direct energy sources like animate power, solar, wind, and water are deemed renewable (direct renewable) since they can be replenished. In contrast, diesel and electricity, though directly supplying energy, are considered direct non-renewable as they are exhausted upon use. Similarly, indirect energy sources like seeds and manure, which can be replenished over time, are classified as indirect renewable. Conversely, fertilizers, chemicals, and machinery, which are not naturally replenished, fall under indirect non-renewable energy sources (Devasenapathy et al., 2009 ). Energy indices such as net energy, energy use efficiency, energy productivity, energy profitability, and energy intensity were computed according to standard procedures (Mittal and Dhawan, 1998). $$\:\text{N}\text{e}\text{t}\:\text{e}\text{n}\text{e}\text{r}\text{g}\text{y}\:\text{r}\text{e}\text{t}\text{u}\text{r}\text{n}\:\left(\text{M}\text{J}{\:\text{h}\text{a}}^{-1}\right)=\text{G}\text{r}\text{o}\text{s}\text{s}\:\text{e}\text{n}\text{e}\text{r}\text{g}\text{y}\:\text{o}\text{u}\text{t}\text{p}\text{u}\text{t}-\text{I}\text{n}\text{p}\text{u}\text{t}\:\text{e}\text{n}\text{e}\text{r}\text{g}\text{y}$$ $$\:\text{E}\text{n}\text{e}\text{r}\text{g}\text{y}\:\text{u}\text{s}\text{e}\:\text{e}\text{f}\text{f}\text{i}\text{c}\text{i}\text{e}\text{n}\text{c}\text{y}=\frac{\text{E}\text{n}\text{e}\text{r}\text{g}\text{y}\:\text{o}\text{u}\text{t}\text{p}\text{u}\text{t}\:\left(\text{M}\text{J}{\:\text{h}\text{a}}^{-1}\right)}{\text{E}\text{n}\text{e}\text{r}\text{g}\text{y}\:\text{i}\text{n}\text{p}\text{u}\text{t}\:\left(\text{M}\text{J}{\:\text{h}\text{a}}^{-1}\right)}$$ $$\:\text{E}\text{n}\text{e}\text{r}\text{g}\text{y}\:\text{p}\text{r}\text{o}\text{d}\text{u}\text{c}\text{t}\text{i}\text{v}\text{i}\text{t}\text{y}\:\left(\text{k}\text{g}\:{\:\text{M}\text{J}}^{-1}\right)=\frac{\text{C}\text{r}\text{o}\text{p}\:\text{y}\text{i}\text{e}\text{l}\text{d}\:\left(\text{k}\text{g}{\:\text{h}\text{a}}^{-1}\right)}{\text{E}\text{n}\text{e}\text{r}\text{g}\text{y}\:\text{i}\text{n}\text{p}\text{u}\text{t}\:\left(\text{M}\text{J}{\:\text{h}\text{a}}^{-1}\right)}$$ $$\:\text{E}\text{n}\text{e}\text{r}\text{g}\text{y}\:\text{p}\text{r}\text{o}\text{f}\text{i}\text{t}\text{a}\text{b}\text{i}\text{l}\text{i}\text{t}\text{y}=\frac{\text{N}\text{e}\text{t}\:\text{e}\text{n}\text{e}\text{r}\text{g}\text{y}\:\left(\text{M}\text{J}{\:\text{h}\text{a}}^{-1}\right)}{\text{E}\text{n}\text{e}\text{r}\text{g}\text{y}\:\text{i}\text{n}\text{p}\text{u}\text{t}\:\left(\text{M}\text{J}{\:\text{h}\text{a}}^{-1}\right)}$$ $$\:\text{E}\text{n}\text{e}\text{r}\text{g}\text{y}\:\text{i}\text{n}\text{t}\text{e}\text{n}\text{s}\text{i}\text{t}\text{y}\:\text{i}\text{n}\:\text{p}\text{h}\text{y}\text{s}\text{i}\text{c}\text{a}\text{l}\:\text{t}\text{e}\text{r}\text{m}\:\left(\text{M}\text{J}{\:\text{k}\text{g}}^{-1}\right)=\frac{\text{T}\text{o}\text{t}\text{a}\text{l}\:\text{i}\text{n}\text{p}\text{u}\text{t}\:\text{e}\text{n}\text{e}\text{r}\text{g}\text{y}\:\left(\text{M}\text{J}{\:\text{h}\text{a}}^{-1}\right)}{\text{T}\text{o}\text{t}\text{a}\text{l}\:\text{c}\text{r}\text{o}\text{p}\:\text{y}\text{i}\text{e}\text{l}\text{d}\:\left(\text{k}\text{g}{\:\text{h}\text{a}}^{-1}\right)}$$ Table 1 Energy equivalents of inputs and outputs used for maize cultivation Sr. No. Particulars Equivalent Energy (MJ) References 1. Tractor 64.8 kg − 1 Choudhary et al. ( 2017 ) 2. Ploughing 62.7 kg − 1 Singh and Nahar (2002) 3. Harrowing 62.7 kg − 1 Singh and Nahar (2002) 4. Planking 2.5 ha − 1 Choudhary et al. ( 2017 ) 5. Bunding 62.7 kg − 1 Singh and Nahar (2002) 6. Diesel 56.31 L − 1 Mohammadi et al. ( 2008 ) 7. Driver 1.96 man-hr − 1 Shrestha ( 2002 ) 8. Man power 1.96 man-hr − 1 Shrestha ( 2002 ) 9. Seeds (Cereal) 14.7 kg − 1 Mittal et al. ( 1985 ) 10. Nitrogen 60.60 kg − 1 Singh et al. ( 2018 ) 11. P 2 O 5 11.10 kg − 1 Singh et al. ( 2018 ) 12. Water applied 1.02 m − 3 Taki et al. ( 2012 ) 13. Electric motor 64.8 kg − 1 Devasenapathy et al. ( 2009 ) 14. Electricity 11.93 unit − 1 Taki et al. ( 2012 ) 15. Sickle 0.836 hr − 1 Nassiri and Singh ( 2009 ) 16. Vermicompost 0.5 kg − 1 Ram and Verma ( 2015 ) 17 Manure* 0.3 kg − 1 Taki et al. ( 2012 ) 18. Maize grain 14.7 kg − 1 Mittal et al. ( 1985 ) 19. Dry biomass (output) 18 kg − 1 Mittal et al. ( 1985 ) *Equivalent energy for poultry manure and goat manure were not found so used the equivalent energy of manure. Carbon Budgeting and Footprints The carbon footprints associated with different organic manures and fertilizer applications were analysed to evaluate the environmental impact of hybrid maize cultivation on both spatial and yield bases. Carbon emissions, expressed as carbon emission equivalents (CO 2 -e), were estimated for each source (including machinery, diesel, labour, seeds, manures, fertilizers, N 2 O, irrigation and herbicides) as well as for various operations (such as field preparation, sowing, nutrient management, water management, weed management and harvesting). The equivalent carbon emissions (kg CO 2 -e unit − 1 ) for the inputs and outputs used in this study were sourced from multiple references, as shown in Table 2 . The N 2 O emissions resulting from nitrogen applied through fertilizers and manures were calculated using a specific formula (Tubiello et al., 2015 ). To convert the N 2 O emissions from kg year − 1 to kg CO 2 -e ha − 1 , a conversion factor of 265 was applied (Yadav et al., 2018 ). $$\:{\text{N}}_{2}\text{O}\left(\text{k}\text{g}\:\text{y}{\text{e}\text{a}\text{r}}^{-1}\right)=\frac{\text{N}\:\text{a}\text{p}\text{p}\text{l}\text{i}\text{e}\text{d}\:\left(\text{k}\text{g}\:{\text{h}\text{a}}^{-1}\right)\:{\:\times\:\text{E}\text{F}}_{1}\times\:44}{28}\:$$ Where N applied is the total N supplied through chemical fertilizer, vermicompost, poultry manure and goat manure; EF 1 is the emission factor 0.01 for N 2 O emissions from N inputs (Tubiello et al., 2015 ). Table 2 Equivalent carbon emission of inputs and outputs used for hybrid maize cultivation Sr. No. Particulars Equivalent CO 2 (kg unit − 1 ) References 1. Ploughing (Mouldboard plow) 15.2 ha − 1 Lal ( 2004 ) 2. Harrowing (Disk harrow) 31.97 ha − 1 West and Marland, 2002 3. Bunding (Bund former) 24.90 ha − 1 West and Marland, 2002 4. Diesel 3.32 L − 1 Deng ( 1982 ) 5. Man power 0.86 hr − 1 Deng ( 1982 ) 6. Seeds 1.22 kg − 1 Wang et al. ( 2015 ) 7. Nitrogen 4.96 kg − 1 Lal ( 2004 ) 8. P 2 O 5 1.35 kg − 1 Lal ( 2004 ) 9. Irrigation 2192.41 ha-m − 1 Singh and Ahlawat ( 2015 ) 10. Vermicompost 0.008 kg − 1 Yasmin et al. (2015) 11. Poultry manure 0.0054 kg − 1 Rahman ( 2013 ) 12. FYM* 0.007 kg − 1 Basavalingaiah et al. ( 2020 ) 13. Dry biomass 0.44 kg Lal ( 2004 ) *Equivalent CO 2 emission for goat manure was not found so used the equivalent CO 2 emission of FYM The spatial carbon footprints (CFs) represent the carbon consumption based on carbon emissions per unit area (kg CO 2 -e ha − 1 ). To convert this value from carbon dioxide equivalent (kg CO 2 -e ha − 1 ) to carbon equivalent (kg CE ha − 1 ), it is divided by 3.66. The carbon footprint per unit yield (CFy) was determined following the methodology outlined by Lal et al. (2019). Various carbon indices, including net carbon gain, carbon efficiency, and the carbon sustainability index, were calculated using established procedures (Lal, 2004 ; Chaudhary et al., 2017). $$\:\text{C}\text{F}\text{y}\:\left(\text{k}\text{g}\:{{\text{C}\text{O}}_{2}-\text{e}\:\text{M}\text{g}}^{-1}\right)=\frac{\text{C}\text{F}\text{s}\left(\text{k}\text{g}\:{{\text{C}\text{O}}_{2}-\text{e}\:\text{M}\text{g}}^{-1}\right)}{\text{D}\text{r}\text{y}\:\text{F}\text{o}\text{d}\text{d}\text{e}\text{r}\:\text{y}\text{i}\text{e}\text{l}\text{d}\:\left(\text{M}\text{g}\:{\text{h}\text{a}}^{-1}\right)\:}$$ $$\:\text{N}\text{e}\text{t}\:\text{C}\text{a}\text{r}\text{b}\text{o}\text{n}\:\text{g}\text{a}\text{i}\text{n}\:\left(\text{k}\text{g}\:\text{C}\text{E}{\:\text{h}\text{a}}^{-1}\right)=\text{C}\text{a}\text{r}\text{b}\text{o}\text{n}\:\text{o}\text{u}\text{t}\text{p}\text{u}\text{t}\:\left(\text{k}\text{g}\:\text{C}\text{E}{\:\text{h}\text{a}}^{-1}\right)-\text{C}\text{a}\text{r}\text{b}\text{o}\text{n}\:\text{i}\text{n}\text{p}\text{u}\text{t}\:\left(\text{k}\text{g}\:\text{C}\text{E}{\:\text{h}\text{a}}^{-1}\right)$$ $$\:\text{C}\text{a}\text{r}\text{b}\text{o}\text{n}\:\text{e}\text{f}\text{f}\text{i}\text{c}\text{i}\text{e}\text{n}\text{c}\text{y}\:=\frac{\text{C}\text{a}\text{r}\text{b}\text{o}\text{n}\:\text{o}\text{u}\text{t}\text{p}\text{u}\text{t}\:\left(\text{k}\text{g}\:\text{C}\text{E}{\:\text{h}\text{a}}^{-1}\right)}{\text{C}\text{a}\text{r}\text{b}\text{o}\text{n}\:\text{i}\text{n}\text{p}\text{u}\text{t}\:\left(\text{k}\text{g}\:\text{C}\text{E}{\:\text{h}\text{a}}^{-1}\right)\:}$$ $$\:\text{C}\text{a}\text{r}\text{b}\text{o}\text{n}\:\text{s}\text{u}\text{s}\text{t}\text{a}\text{i}\text{n}\text{a}\text{b}\text{i}\text{l}\text{i}\text{t}\text{y}\:\text{i}\text{n}\text{d}\text{e}\text{x}\:=\frac{\text{N}\text{e}\text{t}\:\text{c}\text{a}\text{r}\text{b}\text{o}\text{n}\:\text{g}\text{a}\text{i}\text{n}\:\left(\text{k}\text{g}\:\text{C}\text{E}{\:\text{h}\text{a}}^{-1}\right)}{\text{C}\text{a}\text{r}\text{b}\text{o}\text{n}\:\text{i}\text{n}\text{p}\text{u}\text{t}\:\left(\text{k}\text{g}\:\text{C}\text{E}{\:\text{h}\text{a}}^{-1}\right)\:}$$ Statistical analysis All the data were subjected to statistical analysis by adopting appropriate method of analysis of variance as described by Gomez and Gomez ( 1984 ). The replicated means were subjected to ANOVA using MS excel (2021). The critical difference (CD) was found by using p = 0.05 that shows the results those were significantly different. Results and Discussion Crop Yield The analysis of interaction effect of different organic manures with different doses of fertilizers found significant ( p < 0.05 ) for cob, grain and stover yield of maize (Table 3 ). The combination of poultry manure with 100% recommended dose of fertilizers (RDF) recorded the maximum and significantly higher cob yield (7.09 t ha − 1 ) of maize on pooled mean basis. However, the maximum and significantly higher grain yield (5.31 t ha − 1 ) and stover yield (8.77 t ha − 1 ) were recorded with the combination of vermicompost with 100% RDF. Although, the combination of poultry manure with 75 and 100% RDF; vermicompost with 75 and 100% RDF; and goat manure with 100% RDF recorded statistically at par value ( p = 0.05 ) of cob and grain yield under both sets of dispositions (organic manures within fertilizer doses and fertilizer doses within organic manures). Further, combination of vermicompost with 50% RDF also recorded at par value of cob, grain and stover yield with poultry manure or vermicompost with 100% RDF under the deposition of same fertilizer doses for different organic manures. The increased maize yield resulting from the combination of organic manure and chemical fertilizers can be attributed to their complementary effects. Chemical fertilizers act swiftly to boost crop growth by rapidly delivering essential nutrients, yet they often fall short in sustaining balanced growth over extended periods. Conversely, organic fertilizers offer a sustained nutrient supply to both plants and soil, particularly during crucial yield-forming stages, owing to their gradual nutrient release and reduced nutrient loss from organic materials (Chew et al. 2019 ; Li et al. 2017 ; Agegnehu et al. 2014 ). When used together, they synergize to optimize plant development and ultimately enhance crop yields. Numerous studies have consistently demonstrated that combining chemical and organic fertilizers leads to a notable boost in crop yield, often surpassing or at least matching the productivity achieved by solely applying the full recommended dose of chemical fertilizers (Li et al. 2017 ; Chemura 2014 ; Agegnehu et al. 2014 ). Table 3 Interaction effect of different organic manures and fertilizers doses on yield (t ha − 1 ) of maize (Pooled of two years) Treatments Cob Yield (t ha − 1 ) Grain Yield (t ha − 1 ) Stover Yield (t ha − 1 ) Goat manure 0% RDF 3.60 2.33 5.06 25% RDF 5.02 3.46 6.46 50% RDF 6.36 4.58 7.58 75% RDF 6.74 4.96 8.31 100% RDF 6.89 5.18 8.69 Poultry manure 0% RDF 4.28 2.91 5.68 25% RDF 5.61 3.97 6.96 50% RDF 6.48 4.77 8.03 75% RDF 7.01 5.22 8.44 100% RDF 7.09 5.29 8.64 Vermicompost 0% RDF 4.97 3.55 6.51 25% RDF 5.97 4.37 7.53 50% RDF 6.49 4.82 8.24 75% RDF 7.01 5.25 8.72 100% RDF 7.07 5.31 8.77 At same organic manures SEm± 0.13 0.12 0.17 CD ( p = 0.05) 0.36 0.35 0.47 At same fertilizer doses SEm± 0.20 0.20 0.27 CD ( p = 0.05) 0.60 0.60 0.78 *RDF (Recommended dose of fertilizers) Energy Use Pattern The energy consumption patterns for maize cultivation were assessed based on sources, operations, and treatments, considering various organic manure sources and fertilizer doses ( Fig. 2 – 4 ). Among the sources, manures and fertilizers had the highest energy usage, consuming 5978 MJ ha⁻¹, while herbicides accounted for the least, at 288 MJ ha⁻¹. This indicates that manures and fertilizers made up 41% of the total input energy, followed by irrigation (27%), diesel (15%), and labour (8%). Herbicides, seeds and machinery contributed 5% or less to the total energy input ( Fig. 2 ). Operation-wise, nutrient management consumed the most energy, averaging 5994 MJ ha⁻¹, and representing 41% of total input energy. This was followed by water management (28%), field preparation (18%) and harvesting (6%), with sowing and weed management operations consuming 4% or less ( Fig. 3 ). The higher energy usage in nutrient management is likely due to the greater energy equivalence of chemical fertilizers, as also reported by Mishra et al. ( 2019 ) and Patel et al. ( 2014 ), who identified fertilizers as a major energy source in fodder crop production. The baseline energy consumption for maize cultivation without organic manure or fertilizer treatments was 8687 MJ ha⁻¹. Among the treatment-wise, the highest energy consumption (11256 MJ ha⁻¹) was observed with 100% RDF combined with vermicompost, while the lowest (900 MJ ha⁻¹) occurred with 0% RDF combined with poultry or goat manure. This difference may be due to the higher energy input required for vermicompost compared to other manures. Figure 4 shows that energy consumption by goat and poultry manure remained consistent across varying fertilizer doses. As fertilizer doses increased from 0–100% RDF, there was a decrease in direct renewable, indirect renewable and direct non-renewable energy sources, and an increase in indirect non-renewable sources across all organic manure types ( Fig. 5 ). Organic manures like vermicompost, poultry manure, and goat manure are renewable, whereas chemical fertilizers are non-renewable, leading to a reduction in renewable energy sources with increased chemical fertilizer use. Similar findings were reported by Li et al. ( 2021 ) and Manoj et al. ( 2022 ), who noted a higher reliance on non-renewable energy in crop production. Energy Input, Output and Indices The total energy input for maize cultivation varied significantly depending on source of organic manure and fertilizer doses. When combining goat and poultry manure with 0–100% recommended dose of fertilizers (RDF), the energy input ranged from 9587 MJ ha⁻¹ to 19343 MJ ha⁻¹. In contrast, the energy input ranged from 10187 MJ ha⁻¹ to 19943 MJ ha⁻¹ when vermicompost was used. Vermicompost required approximately 4% more energy on average compared to goat or poultry manure. This increased energy consumption can be attributed to the higher energy equivalent of vermicompost (0.5 MJ kg⁻¹) compared to other organic manures like goat and poultry manure (0.3 MJ kg⁻¹). When different fertilizer doses were considered, applying 100% RDF with either goat or poultry manure resulted in a substantial increase in energy input—102%, 61%, 34%, and 14% higher compared to 0%, 25%, 50%, and 75% RDF, respectively. A similar trend was observed with vermicompost, where 100% RDF consumed 96%, 58%, 32%, and 14% more energy than the lower RDF doses ( Table 4 ). The elevated energy use with 100% RDF is likely due to the greater quantity of fertilizer required, coupled with the energy-intensive process of chemical fertilizer production (Nemecek and Erzinger, 2005 ). The combination of different organic manures and fertilizer doses also significantly impacted total output energy and net energy. The highest total energy output (137149 MJ ha⁻¹) was achieved with 100% RDF combined with vermicompost, while the highest net energy (118496 MJ ha⁻¹) was recorded with 75% RDF combined with vermicompost. Other combinations, including 100% RDF with either poultry or goat manure and 75% RDF with various organic manures, produced statistically similar total energy output and net energy. These results suggest that higher yields, reflected in higher biomass conversion to energy, are the primary contributors to the increased energy output observed with these treatments. Energy indices, such as energy use efficiency, energy productivity, energy profitability, and energy intensity, were also significantly influenced by the type of organic manure and fertilizer dose used ( Table 4 ). The application of only vermicompost without any chemical fertilizers (0% RDF) resulted in the highest energy use efficiency (9.41), energy productivity (0.59 kg MJ⁻¹), and energy profitability (8.41), along with the lowest energy intensity in physical terms (1.71 MJ kg⁻¹). However, the addition of 25% RDF with vermicompost or poultry manure and 50% RDF with poultry manure produced comparable results, likely due to the reduced energy input in these treatments. These findings align with previous research by Singh et al. ( 2021 ), who reported higher energy profitability in wheat with lower energy inputs. Other studies, such as those by Mandal et al. ( 2002 ), Singh and Ahlawat ( 2015 ), Prajapat et al. ( 2018 ), and Billore et al. (2020), also support the result that integrating organic nutrient sources with reduced chemical fertilizer doses enhances energy output, use efficiency, productivity, and profitability while reducing specific energy consumption. Table 4 Interaction effect of different organic manures and fertilizers doses on energy input, output and indices of maize (Pooled of two years) Treatments Total energy input (MJ ha − 1 ) Total energy output (MJ ha − 1 ) Net energy (MJ ha − 1 ) Energy use efficiency Energy productivity (kg MJ − 1 ) Energy profitability Energy intensity in physical term (MJ kg − 1 ) Energy intensity in economic term (MJ USD − 1 ) Goat manure 0% RDF 9587 66161 56574 6.90 0.43 5.90 2.36 104 25% RDF 12026 92695 80669 7.71 0.48 6.71 2.09 142 50% RDF 14465 117455 102990 8.12 0.51 7.12 1.97 175 75% RDF 16904 128673 111769 7.61 0.48 6.61 2.10 187 100% RDF 19343 134733 115390 6.97 0.44 5.97 2.30 191 Poultry manure 0% RDF 9587 79719 70131 8.31 0.52 7.31 1.94 113 25% RDF 12026 104471 92445 8.69 0.54 7.69 1.85 145 50% RDF 14465 124153 109687 8.58 0.54 7.58 1.86 168 75% RDF 16904 133627 116722 7.90 0.50 6.90 2.02 177 100% RDF 19343 136278 116935 7.05 0.44 6.05 2.27 176 Vermicompost 0% RDF 10187 95830 85643 9.41 0.59 8.41 1.71 103 25% RDF 12626 114856 102229 9.10 0.57 8.10 1.76 121 50% RDF 15065 126206 111140 8.38 0.52 7.38 1.92 130 75% RDF 17504 136001 118496 7.77 0.49 6.77 2.06 138 100% RDF 19943 137149 117206 6.88 0.43 5.88 2.34 137 At same organic manures SEm± - 3038 3038 0.20 0.01 0.20 0.06 3 CD ( p = 0.05) - 8638 8638 0.58 0.04 0.58 0.16 10 At same fertilizer doses SEm± - 4944 4944 0.34 0.02 0.34 0.09 6 CD ( p = 0.05) - 14564 14564 1.02 0.06 1.02 0.28 18 *RDF (Recommended dose of fertilizers) Carbon Emission Pattern The carbon emission patterns for maize cultivation, analysed by sources, operations, and treatments, provide insight into the carbon footprint associated with various organic manure sources and fertilizer doses ( Fig. 6 – 8 ). Among the sources, labour accounted for the highest share of carbon emissions, contributing 28% of the total equivalent carbon dioxide emissions (kg CO 2 -e ha⁻¹). This was followed by irrigation (23%), nitrous oxide (N 2 O) emissions (19%), and the use of manures and fertilizers (16%), with diesel contributing 8%. In contrast, herbicides, seeds and machinery contributed 4% or less to the total carbon emissions ( Fig. 6 ). When evaluating emissions by operation, nutrient management was the largest contributor, responsible for 35% of the total carbon emissions, followed by water management (23%), harvesting (16%), field preparation (14%), weed management (7%), and sowing (5%) ( Fig. 7 ). This indicates that nutrient management, particularly through the use of fertilizers and organic manures, is a significant source of carbon emissions. Previous studies by Manoj et al. ( 2022 ) have similarly highlighted the substantial role of fertilizers and organic manures in the carbon inputs of various cropping systems. Gong et al. ( 2020 ) and Jiang et al. ( 2019 ) also identified fertilizers as major contributors to carbon emissions in agricultural production in China. The baseline carbon emissions during maize cultivation without any treatment were 1107 kg CO 2 -e ha⁻¹, a value consistent across all treatments. Among different treatments, the highest carbon emissions (1873 kg CO 2 -e ha⁻¹) were recorded with the application of 100% RDF combined with vermicompost, while the lowest emissions (296 kg CO 2 -e ha⁻¹) were observed with 0% RDF combined with goat manure ( Fig. 8 ). The significant difference in emissions between these treatments can be attributed to the high usage of chemical fertilizers in the 100% RDF treatment and the absence of fertilizers in the 0% RDF treatment. Additionally, vermicompost contain higher value of N and P as compared to goat manure which led to higher global warming potential. Carbon Budgeting The spatial carbon footprints (CFs) were calculated by summing the equivalent carbon emissions (kg CO 2 -e ha⁻¹) from all sources used in this study. To express carbon input in carbon equivalent (kg CE ha − 1 ), the CFs (kg CO 2 -e ha⁻¹) were divided by 3.66 ( Table 5 ). The CFs ranged from 1402 kg CO 2 -e ha⁻¹ for the 0% RDF treatment with goat manure to 2980 kg CO 2 -e ha⁻¹ for the 100% RDF treatment with vermicompost. Carbon output was determined based on the grain and total dry biomass yield of maize, with the highest carbon output (3197 kg CE ha⁻¹) recorded in the 100% RDF with vermicompost treatment. Notably, the carbon output in treatments such as 75% RDF with vermicompost, 50% RDF with vermicompost, 100% RDF with poultry manure, 75% RDF with poultry manure, 50% RDF with poultry manure, 100% RDF with goat manure, and 75% RDF with goat manure was statistically similar to the 100% RDF with vermicompost. This higher carbon output is likely due to the greater grain and biomass yield associated with the 100% RDF with vermicompost treatment. To assess the carbon efficiency of various integrated nutrient management practices, several carbon indices were calculated, including net carbon gain, carbon efficiency, carbon sustainability index, and carbon footprint per unit yield (CFy) ( Table 5 ). The 75% RDF with vermicompost treatment yielded the highest net carbon gain (2455 kg CE ha⁻¹), however, treatments involving 25%, 50%, and 100% RDF with vermicompost, as well as 50%, 75%, and 100% RDF with poultry and goat manure, showed comparable net carbon gain values to the 75% RDF with vermicompost treatment. In terms of carbon efficiency and sustainability, the 0% RDF with vermicompost treatment recorded the highest values, with a carbon efficiency of 5.35 and a carbon sustainability index of 4.35. Similar carbon efficiency and sustainability index values were observed for the 25% and 50% RDF with vermicompost treatments, as well as for the 25% RDF with poultry manure treatment. These higher values can be attributed to lower carbon input and higher carbon output in these treatments, which positively influenced the net carbon gain, carbon efficiency, and sustainability index. Regarding the carbon footprint per unit yield (CFy), the lowest value was found in the 0% RDF with vermicompost treatment. Statistically similar CFy values were recorded in treatments including 0%, 25%, 50%, and 75% RDF with vermicompost; 25%, 50%, and 75% RDF with poultry manure; and 50% and 75% RDF with goat manure. These findings align with previous studies by Van Groenigen et al. ( 2010 ) and Singh and Ahlawat ( 2015 ), which also reported lower CFy due to the combined use of organic nutrient sources and reduced mineral fertilizer doses. Table 5 Interaction effect of different organic manures and fertilizers doses on carbon input, output and indices of maize (Pooled of two years) Treatments Spatial carbon footprint (CFs) (kg CO 2 -e ha − 1 ) Carbon input (kg CE ha − 1 ) Carbon output (kg CE ha − 1 ) Net carbon gain (kg CE ha − 1 ) Carbon efficiency Carbon sustainability index Carbon footprint in term of yield (CFy) (kg CO 2 -e Mg − 1 ) Goat manure 0% RDF 1402 383 1549 1166 4.04 3.04 613 25% RDF 1765 482 2164 1682 4.49 3.49 516 50% RDF 2127 581 2737 2155 4.71 3.71 469 75% RDF 2490 680 3000 2319 4.41 3.41 506 100% RDF 2852 779 3142 2362 4.03 3.03 556 Poultry manure 0% RDF 1506 411 1863 1452 4.53 3.53 521 25% RDF 1868 510 2437 1927 4.77 3.77 473 50% RDF 2231 610 2895 2285 4.75 3.75 472 75% RDF 2593 709 3113 2405 4.39 3.39 501 100% RDF 2956 808 3176 2369 3.93 2.93 564 Vermicompost 0% RDF 1530 418 2238 1820 5.35 4.35 436 25% RDF 1893 517 2679 2162 5.18 4.18 437 50% RDF 2255 616 2944 2327 4.78 3.78 473 75% RDF 2618 715 3171 2455 4.43 3.43 503 100% RDF 2980 814 3197 2382 3.93 2.93 570 At same organic manures SEm± - - 71 71 0.12 0.12 15 CD ( p = 0.05) - - 201 201 0.33 0.33 43 At same fertilizer doses SEm± - - 115 115 0.20 0.20 26 CD ( p = 0.05) - - 339 339 0.58 0.58 76 *RDF (Recommended dose of fertilizers) Conclusion This study found that integrating organic manure with chemical fertilizers, particularly using 50%, 75%, and 100% RDF with vermicompost or poultry manure, and 75% and 100% RDF with goat manure, significantly improved maize yield, energy and carbon output, net energy, and net carbon gain while reducing the carbon footprint per unit yield (CFy). While 100% chemical fertilizers combined with organic manures relied more on non-renewable energy, using 50% and 75% RDF with organic manure increased renewable energy use by 31.2% and 12.5%, respectively, and reduced non-renewable energy consumption. This suggests that to maximize energy and carbon efficiency, maize should be grown with minimal chemical fertilizers, though this may affect productivity. Therefore, the study concluded that farmers should cultivate hybrid maize using either 50% RDF with vermicompost or poultry manure, or 75% RDF with goat manure, to enhance productivity, net energy and net carbon gain while reducing the carbon footprint per unit yield and increasing the share of renewable energy sources. Declarations Acknowledgments We acknowledge the support of Director, ICAR-CIRG, Makhdoom for providing necessary facilities for conducting these experiments. Conflict of interest The authors declare that there is not conflict of interest. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-5087244","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":374379129,"identity":"ee965155-f7d4-4c40-acd3-0c7824c78702","order_by":0,"name":"Mohd. 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Institute","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"R","middleName":"","lastName":"Pourouchottamane","suffix":""},{"id":374379131,"identity":"9292c1ed-78a5-413b-a19e-8f6298525e80","order_by":2,"name":"Ravindra Kumar","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"ICAR CIRG: ICAR Central Institute for Research on Goats","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Ravindra","middleName":"","lastName":"Kumar","suffix":""},{"id":374379132,"identity":"5470b02d-8f55-429d-b077-97f4261de6ca","order_by":3,"name":"Arvind Kumar","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"ICAR CIRG: ICAR Central Institute for Research on Goats","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Arvind","middleName":"","lastName":"Kumar","suffix":""},{"id":374379133,"identity":"aa509a82-45a4-4f03-b9ff-4ea9df7fb1f5","order_by":4,"name":"Rakesh Kumar","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Indian Council of Agricultural Research Krishi Anusandhan Bhawan I and II","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Rakesh","middleName":"","lastName":"Kumar","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2024-09-14 06:04:26","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-5087244/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-5087244/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":69313132,"identity":"6deec286-7b99-41db-8b77-eaf58c406a27","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-11-19 05:25:35","extension":"png","order_by":1,"title":"Figure 1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":56729,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eMean weekly meteorological parameters during the experimental period (Kharif 2021 and 2022)\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5087244/v1/3932dc984c8168ce9a41a41d.png"},{"id":69313131,"identity":"fe88d85b-4893-4de2-8016-c4424cc67e18","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-11-19 05:25:35","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":35657,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eSource wise mean share of input energy used for maize cultivation (mean of two years)\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5087244/v1/ff21480a96617b84de0c31ad.png"},{"id":69313133,"identity":"d8f33125-685d-43cb-ba38-d57dc16b42f5","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-11-19 05:25:35","extension":"png","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":36154,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eOperation wise mean share of input energy used for maize cultivation (mean of two years)\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"3.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5087244/v1/0f35d4329afcceed0761f8de.png"},{"id":69313135,"identity":"6d37155f-5e9b-4ea3-8994-968e5bd776c0","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-11-19 05:25:35","extension":"png","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":23510,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eTreatment wise mean share of input energy used for maize cultivation (mean of two years)\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"4.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5087244/v1/770d0126c98d807aebf48301.png"},{"id":69313534,"identity":"706b6c90-8611-4e6b-bfc6-e535bc0eb445","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-11-19 05:33:35","extension":"png","order_by":5,"title":"Figure 5","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":27000,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003ePercentage share of direct, indirect, renewable and non-renewable energy sources to different organic manures and fertilizer doses (mean of two years)\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"5.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5087244/v1/217f710e5cb01ef7c8a2e6e8.png"},{"id":69313138,"identity":"e1b5facb-3ad8-46d3-9257-f7e1d79481dd","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-11-19 05:25:36","extension":"png","order_by":6,"title":"Figure 6","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":38130,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eSource wise mean share of equivalent carbon emission (kg CO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e-e ha\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e) from maize cultivation (mean of two years)\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"6.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5087244/v1/a68775f766e597fb6d896ded.png"},{"id":69313535,"identity":"32a0925d-dbf7-46fe-8f50-de76909c1f04","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-11-19 05:33:36","extension":"png","order_by":7,"title":"Figure 7","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":38961,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eOperation wise mean share of equivalent carbon emission (kg CO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e-e ha\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e) from maize cultivation (mean of two years)\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"7.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5087244/v1/cc320fee4ed6f6a0bc6e6701.png"},{"id":69313136,"identity":"2ce3a109-ade3-44b0-8ed4-880f8dd14616","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-11-19 05:25:36","extension":"png","order_by":8,"title":"Figure 8","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":22515,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eTreatment wise mean share of equivalent carbon emission (kg CO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e-e ha\u003csup\u003e-1\u003c/sup\u003e) from maize cultivation (mean of two years)\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"8.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5087244/v1/9b51976e998f6a2467f094f9.png"},{"id":69314962,"identity":"2b6169e8-4898-4814-b81f-dd1d1cbf3a9b","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2024-11-19 05:41:37","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":1236926,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5087244/v1/232b5ab2-7002-4c03-b0eb-40c669fff9ca.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"","formattedTitle":"Optimizing Energy Efficiency and Reducing Carbon Footprint through Integrated Nutrient Management for Sustainable Maize Production","fulltext":[{"header":"Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eAgriculture is one of the most energy-intensive sectors, contributing significantly to global greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions (Rosa et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). Worldwide, food production consumes approximately 15\u0026ndash;30% of the total available primary energy while accounting for about 25\u0026ndash;34% of GHG emissions (Crippa et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Rosa et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). In India, the energy consumption and GHG emissions from food grain production have surged since the Green Revolution, primarily due to the increased use of farm machinery, fossil fuels, chemical fertilizers, and pesticides (Parihar et al., 2019). Indian agriculture contributes 18% of the total GHG emissions, largely driven by higher rates of fertilization and pesticide use (INCCA, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e). This figure is expected to rise further as the demand for food production intensifies to support the growing population projected for 2100 (Oglesby et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). GHGs, including carbon dioxide (CO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e), methane (CH\u003csub\u003e4\u003c/sub\u003e), and nitrous oxide (N\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eO), are responsible for driving global warming, posing a serious threat to agriculture (Sharma et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Elevated temperatures linked to climate change induce various biotic and abiotic stresses, affecting plant microclimates, photosynthesis, and critical factors such as water and nutrient use efficiency (Raza et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; Sharma et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). Enhancing energy and carbon use efficiency in agriculture is crucial to reducing CO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e and other GHG emissions (Yadav et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR51\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). The adoption of more efficient technologies in crop production, which promote higher carbon sequestration while requiring less energy input, is essential for lowering agricultural carbon emissions and supporting environmental sustainability (Meena et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). In crop production, energy inputs come from direct, indirect, renewable, and non-renewable sources, with the largest contributions stemming from fuel, machinery, nutrient, and irrigation management (Manoj et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e; Yadav et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR51\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). Therefore, assessing energy and carbon budgets is necessary to determine the efficiency and productivity of different treatments and inputs.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eMaize (\u003cem\u003eZea mays L.\u003c/em\u003e) is one of the most important cereal crops globally, not only as a staple food source but also as a vital ingredient in livestock feed and industrial products. The global demand for maize continues to rise due to its diverse applications, making it a central component of agricultural systems worldwide (Grote et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Poole et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). However, the traditional dependence on chemical fertilizers for maize production has raised concerns about its environmental impact, particularly in terms of carbon footprint and energy consumption (Singh et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). Increasing attention is being given to integrating organic manure with chemical fertilizers to improve soil health, reduce reliance on chemical inputs, and lower GHG emissions (Meena et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). Integrated nutrient management (INM) strategies, which combine organic and inorganic inputs, have shown potential in boosting energy use efficiency and reducing the carbon footprint of maize cultivation. Recent research indicates that using organic amendments alongside reduced fertilizer applications can significantly lower energy inputs while maintaining high crop yields (Kumar et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). Moreover, INM practices have been found to enhance soil carbon sequestration, thus contributing to climate change mitigation (Singh et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Meena et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e). This study aims to assess the energy and carbon footprints of maize cultivation under various sources of organic manure, such as goat manure, poultry manure, and vermicompost, in combination with different doses of recommended chemical fertilizers. By comparing these nutrient management strategies, the study seeks to identify practices that optimize energy use efficiency and minimize carbon emissions, thereby supporting sustainable agriculture.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Materials and Methods","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eExperimental Site and Soil Characteristics\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe experiments were carried out at the agriculture farm (Lat 27.100 N, Lon 78.020 E, 169.2 m above mean sea level) of ICAR-Central Institute for Research on Goats, Makhdoom, Mathura (Uttar Pradesh), India, during the kharif season of 2021 and 2022. The mean weekly maximum and minimum temperature during the crop growing period ranged between 30.5\u0026deg;C to 39.9\u0026deg;C and 11.7\u0026deg;C to 27.6\u0026deg;C, respectively during kharif 2021. The corresponding fluctuations during second year (kharif 2022) of experimentation were 28.9\u0026deg;C to 39.6\u0026deg;C and 16.8\u0026deg;C to 27.8\u0026deg;C. The total rainfall received during the crop season kharif 2021 was 85.1 mm and 314.0 mm in kharif 2022. The mean relative humidity ranged between 60.4 to 85.7 and 60.1 to 84.2 per cent in the kharif 2021 and 2022, respectively. The sunshine hours during the corresponding crop seasons ranged between 2.3 to 9.7 and 2.9 to 9.3 hours, respectively (Fig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e). The soil of the experimental field was nearly neutral in reaction (pH 7.51) with EC of 0.267 dSm\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e. The soil was low in organic carbon (0.34%) and available nitrogen (226.7 kg ha\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e); and medium in available phosphorus (32.2 kg ha\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e) and potassium (155.0 kg ha\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec4\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eExperimental Design and Treatments\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe treatments consist of three sources of organic manures \u003cem\u003eviz.\u003c/em\u003e goat manure, poultry manure and vermicompost at the rate of 5 t ha\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e and five levels of recommended dose of fertilizers (RDF) \u003cem\u003eviz.\u003c/em\u003e 0, 25, 50, 75 and 100% RDF. The recommended dose of fertilizers for maize in Yamuna ravines (experimental area) is 150 kg N ha\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e, 60 kg P\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eO\u003csub\u003e5\u003c/sub\u003e ha\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e and 40 kg K\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eO ha\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e. The experiment was laid out in split plot design with three replications. The field was allocated into 45 plots and each plot was 6 m x 6 m in size. All treatments were allocated in these small plots without any biasness.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec5\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eCultural Operations\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eMaize variety Bio 9544 was sown on 13th August and 16th July during 2021 and 2022, respectively with row to row and plant to plant spacing of 60 cm \u0026times; 20 cm by using the seed rate of 20 kg ha\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e. All the organic manures (Goat manure, poultry manure and vermicompost) and recommended dose of fertilizers (150 kg N ha\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e, 60 kg P\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eO\u003csub\u003e5\u003c/sub\u003e ha\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e and 40 kg K\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eO ha\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e) were applied as per the treatments. Nitrogen was applied in two split doses; half was applied as basal dose and remaining half was applied at 30 DAS. The entire amount of phosphorus and potassium were applied as basal dose. Weed management was done by using the atrazine 50% WP @ 0.75 kg ha\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e as pre-emergence. The crop was harvested on 11th November and 4th November during 2021 and 2022, respectively.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec6\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eEnergy Budgeting\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe energy budget was calculated by estimating the energy associated with all inputs and outputs involved in the cultivation of hybrid maize. This included recording all the inputs used during cultivation as well as the outputs, such as grain yield and total dry biomass. These inputs and outputs were then multiplied by their respective energy equivalents to obtain the energy estimates. The energy equivalents utilized in this study were sourced from various references, as shown in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e. Energy sources were categorized based on their renewability and exhaustibility, with further classification into direct and indirect energy sources. Direct energy sources like animate power, solar, wind, and water are deemed renewable (direct renewable) since they can be replenished. In contrast, diesel and electricity, though directly supplying energy, are considered direct non-renewable as they are exhausted upon use. Similarly, indirect energy sources like seeds and manure, which can be replenished over time, are classified as indirect renewable. Conversely, fertilizers, chemicals, and machinery, which are not naturally replenished, fall under indirect non-renewable energy sources (Devasenapathy et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e). Energy indices such as net energy, energy use efficiency, energy productivity, energy profitability, and energy intensity were computed according to standard procedures (Mittal and Dhawan, 1998).\u003cdiv id=\"Equa\" class=\"Equation\"\u003e\u003cdiv format=\"TEX\" class=\"mathdisplay\" id=\"FileID_Equa\" name=\"EquationSource\"\u003e\n$$\\:\\text{N}\\text{e}\\text{t}\\:\\text{e}\\text{n}\\text{e}\\text{r}\\text{g}\\text{y}\\:\\text{r}\\text{e}\\text{t}\\text{u}\\text{r}\\text{n}\\:\\left(\\text{M}\\text{J}{\\:\\text{h}\\text{a}}^{-1}\\right)=\\text{G}\\text{r}\\text{o}\\text{s}\\text{s}\\:\\text{e}\\text{n}\\text{e}\\text{r}\\text{g}\\text{y}\\:\\text{o}\\text{u}\\text{t}\\text{p}\\text{u}\\text{t}-\\text{I}\\text{n}\\text{p}\\text{u}\\text{t}\\:\\text{e}\\text{n}\\text{e}\\text{r}\\text{g}\\text{y}$$\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Equb\" class=\"Equation\"\u003e\u003cdiv format=\"TEX\" class=\"mathdisplay\" id=\"FileID_Equb\" name=\"EquationSource\"\u003e\n$$\\:\\text{E}\\text{n}\\text{e}\\text{r}\\text{g}\\text{y}\\:\\text{u}\\text{s}\\text{e}\\:\\text{e}\\text{f}\\text{f}\\text{i}\\text{c}\\text{i}\\text{e}\\text{n}\\text{c}\\text{y}=\\frac{\\text{E}\\text{n}\\text{e}\\text{r}\\text{g}\\text{y}\\:\\text{o}\\text{u}\\text{t}\\text{p}\\text{u}\\text{t}\\:\\left(\\text{M}\\text{J}{\\:\\text{h}\\text{a}}^{-1}\\right)}{\\text{E}\\text{n}\\text{e}\\text{r}\\text{g}\\text{y}\\:\\text{i}\\text{n}\\text{p}\\text{u}\\text{t}\\:\\left(\\text{M}\\text{J}{\\:\\text{h}\\text{a}}^{-1}\\right)}$$\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Equc\" class=\"Equation\"\u003e\u003cdiv format=\"TEX\" class=\"mathdisplay\" id=\"FileID_Equc\" name=\"EquationSource\"\u003e\n$$\\:\\text{E}\\text{n}\\text{e}\\text{r}\\text{g}\\text{y}\\:\\text{p}\\text{r}\\text{o}\\text{d}\\text{u}\\text{c}\\text{t}\\text{i}\\text{v}\\text{i}\\text{t}\\text{y}\\:\\left(\\text{k}\\text{g}\\:{\\:\\text{M}\\text{J}}^{-1}\\right)=\\frac{\\text{C}\\text{r}\\text{o}\\text{p}\\:\\text{y}\\text{i}\\text{e}\\text{l}\\text{d}\\:\\left(\\text{k}\\text{g}{\\:\\text{h}\\text{a}}^{-1}\\right)}{\\text{E}\\text{n}\\text{e}\\text{r}\\text{g}\\text{y}\\:\\text{i}\\text{n}\\text{p}\\text{u}\\text{t}\\:\\left(\\text{M}\\text{J}{\\:\\text{h}\\text{a}}^{-1}\\right)}$$\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Equd\" class=\"Equation\"\u003e\u003cdiv format=\"TEX\" class=\"mathdisplay\" id=\"FileID_Equd\" name=\"EquationSource\"\u003e\n$$\\:\\text{E}\\text{n}\\text{e}\\text{r}\\text{g}\\text{y}\\:\\text{p}\\text{r}\\text{o}\\text{f}\\text{i}\\text{t}\\text{a}\\text{b}\\text{i}\\text{l}\\text{i}\\text{t}\\text{y}=\\frac{\\text{N}\\text{e}\\text{t}\\:\\text{e}\\text{n}\\text{e}\\text{r}\\text{g}\\text{y}\\:\\left(\\text{M}\\text{J}{\\:\\text{h}\\text{a}}^{-1}\\right)}{\\text{E}\\text{n}\\text{e}\\text{r}\\text{g}\\text{y}\\:\\text{i}\\text{n}\\text{p}\\text{u}\\text{t}\\:\\left(\\text{M}\\text{J}{\\:\\text{h}\\text{a}}^{-1}\\right)}$$\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Eque\" class=\"Equation\"\u003e\u003cdiv format=\"TEX\" class=\"mathdisplay\" id=\"FileID_Eque\" name=\"EquationSource\"\u003e\n$$\\:\\text{E}\\text{n}\\text{e}\\text{r}\\text{g}\\text{y}\\:\\text{i}\\text{n}\\text{t}\\text{e}\\text{n}\\text{s}\\text{i}\\text{t}\\text{y}\\:\\text{i}\\text{n}\\:\\text{p}\\text{h}\\text{y}\\text{s}\\text{i}\\text{c}\\text{a}\\text{l}\\:\\text{t}\\text{e}\\text{r}\\text{m}\\:\\left(\\text{M}\\text{J}{\\:\\text{k}\\text{g}}^{-1}\\right)=\\frac{\\text{T}\\text{o}\\text{t}\\text{a}\\text{l}\\:\\text{i}\\text{n}\\text{p}\\text{u}\\text{t}\\:\\text{e}\\text{n}\\text{e}\\text{r}\\text{g}\\text{y}\\:\\left(\\text{M}\\text{J}{\\:\\text{h}\\text{a}}^{-1}\\right)}{\\text{T}\\text{o}\\text{t}\\text{a}\\text{l}\\:\\text{c}\\text{r}\\text{o}\\text{p}\\:\\text{y}\\text{i}\\text{e}\\text{l}\\text{d}\\:\\left(\\text{k}\\text{g}{\\:\\text{h}\\text{a}}^{-1}\\right)}$$\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEnergy equivalents of inputs and outputs used for maize cultivation\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"4\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSr. No.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eParticulars\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEquivalent Energy (MJ)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eReferences\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTractor\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e64.8 kg\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eChoudhary et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePloughing\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e62.7 kg\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSingh and Nahar (2002)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHarrowing\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e62.7 kg\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSingh and Nahar (2002)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePlanking\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.5 ha\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eChoudhary et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBunding\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e62.7 kg\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSingh and Nahar (2002)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDiesel\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e56.31 L\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMohammadi et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDriver\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.96 man-hr\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eShrestha (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2002\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMan power\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.96 man-hr\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eShrestha (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2002\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSeeds (Cereal)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e14.7 kg\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMittal et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1985\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNitrogen\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e60.60 kg\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSingh et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eP\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eO\u003csub\u003e5\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.10 kg\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSingh et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWater applied\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.02 m\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;3\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTaki et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eElectric motor\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e64.8 kg\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDevasenapathy et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e14.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eElectricity\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.93 unit\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTaki et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSickle\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.836 hr\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNassiri and Singh (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e16.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVermicompost\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.5 kg\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRam and Verma (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e17\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eManure*\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.3 kg\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTaki et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e18.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMaize grain\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e14.7 kg\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMittal et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1985\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e19.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDry biomass (output)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e18 kg\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMittal et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1985\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e*Equivalent energy for poultry manure and goat manure were not found so used the equivalent energy of manure.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec7\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003e\u003cb\u003eCarbon Budgeting and Footprints\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe carbon footprints associated with different organic manures and fertilizer applications were analysed to evaluate the environmental impact of hybrid maize cultivation on both spatial and yield bases. Carbon emissions, expressed as carbon emission equivalents (CO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e-e), were estimated for each source (including machinery, diesel, labour, seeds, manures, fertilizers, N\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eO, irrigation and herbicides) as well as for various operations (such as field preparation, sowing, nutrient management, water management, weed management and harvesting). The equivalent carbon emissions (kg CO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e-e unit\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e) for the inputs and outputs used in this study were sourced from multiple references, as shown in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e. The N\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eO emissions resulting from nitrogen applied through fertilizers and manures were calculated using a specific formula (Tubiello et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e). To convert the N\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eO emissions from kg year\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e to kg CO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e-e ha\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e, a conversion factor of 265 was applied (Yadav et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR50\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e).\u003cdiv id=\"Equf\" class=\"Equation\"\u003e\u003cdiv format=\"TEX\" class=\"mathdisplay\" id=\"FileID_Equf\" name=\"EquationSource\"\u003e\n$$\\:{\\text{N}}_{2}\\text{O}\\left(\\text{k}\\text{g}\\:\\text{y}{\\text{e}\\text{a}\\text{r}}^{-1}\\right)=\\frac{\\text{N}\\:\\text{a}\\text{p}\\text{p}\\text{l}\\text{i}\\text{e}\\text{d}\\:\\left(\\text{k}\\text{g}\\:{\\text{h}\\text{a}}^{-1}\\right)\\:{\\:\\times\\:\\text{E}\\text{F}}_{1}\\times\\:44}{28}\\:$$\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWhere N applied is the total N supplied through chemical fertilizer, vermicompost, poultry manure and goat manure; EF\u003csub\u003e1\u003c/sub\u003e is the emission factor 0.01 for N\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eO emissions from N inputs (Tubiello et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEquivalent carbon emission of inputs and outputs used for hybrid maize cultivation\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"4\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSr. No.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eParticulars\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEquivalent CO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(kg unit\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eReferences\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePloughing (Mouldboard plow)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15.2 ha\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLal (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2004\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eHarrowing (Disk harrow)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e31.97 ha\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWest and Marland, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR49\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2002\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBunding (Bund former)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e24.90 ha\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWest and Marland, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR49\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2002\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDiesel\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.32 L\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDeng (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1982\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMan power\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.86 hr\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDeng (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1982\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSeeds\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.22 kg\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWang et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR48\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNitrogen\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.96 kg\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLal (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2004\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eP\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eO\u003csub\u003e5\u003c/sub\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.35 kg\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLal (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2004\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eIrrigation\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2192.41 ha-m\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSingh and Ahlawat (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVermicompost\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.008 kg\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eYasmin et al. (2015)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e11.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePoultry manure\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.0054 kg\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eRahman (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eFYM*\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.007 kg\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eBasavalingaiah et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eDry biomass\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.44 kg\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eLal (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2004\u003c/span\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003ctfoot\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"4\"\u003e*Equivalent CO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e emission for goat manure was not found so used the equivalent CO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e emission of FYM\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tfoot\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe spatial carbon footprints (CFs) represent the carbon consumption based on carbon emissions per unit area (kg CO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e-e ha\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e). To convert this value from carbon dioxide equivalent (kg CO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e-e ha\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e) to carbon equivalent (kg CE ha\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e), it is divided by 3.66. The carbon footprint per unit yield (CFy) was determined following the methodology outlined by Lal et al. (2019). Various carbon indices, including net carbon gain, carbon efficiency, and the carbon sustainability index, were calculated using established procedures (Lal, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2004\u003c/span\u003e; Chaudhary et al., 2017).\u003cdiv id=\"Equg\" class=\"Equation\"\u003e\u003cdiv format=\"TEX\" class=\"mathdisplay\" id=\"FileID_Equg\" name=\"EquationSource\"\u003e\n$$\\:\\text{C}\\text{F}\\text{y}\\:\\left(\\text{k}\\text{g}\\:{{\\text{C}\\text{O}}_{2}-\\text{e}\\:\\text{M}\\text{g}}^{-1}\\right)=\\frac{\\text{C}\\text{F}\\text{s}\\left(\\text{k}\\text{g}\\:{{\\text{C}\\text{O}}_{2}-\\text{e}\\:\\text{M}\\text{g}}^{-1}\\right)}{\\text{D}\\text{r}\\text{y}\\:\\text{F}\\text{o}\\text{d}\\text{d}\\text{e}\\text{r}\\:\\text{y}\\text{i}\\text{e}\\text{l}\\text{d}\\:\\left(\\text{M}\\text{g}\\:{\\text{h}\\text{a}}^{-1}\\right)\\:}$$\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Equh\" class=\"Equation\"\u003e\u003cdiv format=\"TEX\" class=\"mathdisplay\" id=\"FileID_Equh\" name=\"EquationSource\"\u003e\n$$\\:\\text{N}\\text{e}\\text{t}\\:\\text{C}\\text{a}\\text{r}\\text{b}\\text{o}\\text{n}\\:\\text{g}\\text{a}\\text{i}\\text{n}\\:\\left(\\text{k}\\text{g}\\:\\text{C}\\text{E}{\\:\\text{h}\\text{a}}^{-1}\\right)=\\text{C}\\text{a}\\text{r}\\text{b}\\text{o}\\text{n}\\:\\text{o}\\text{u}\\text{t}\\text{p}\\text{u}\\text{t}\\:\\left(\\text{k}\\text{g}\\:\\text{C}\\text{E}{\\:\\text{h}\\text{a}}^{-1}\\right)-\\text{C}\\text{a}\\text{r}\\text{b}\\text{o}\\text{n}\\:\\text{i}\\text{n}\\text{p}\\text{u}\\text{t}\\:\\left(\\text{k}\\text{g}\\:\\text{C}\\text{E}{\\:\\text{h}\\text{a}}^{-1}\\right)$$\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Equi\" class=\"Equation\"\u003e\u003cdiv format=\"TEX\" class=\"mathdisplay\" id=\"FileID_Equi\" name=\"EquationSource\"\u003e\n$$\\:\\text{C}\\text{a}\\text{r}\\text{b}\\text{o}\\text{n}\\:\\text{e}\\text{f}\\text{f}\\text{i}\\text{c}\\text{i}\\text{e}\\text{n}\\text{c}\\text{y}\\:=\\frac{\\text{C}\\text{a}\\text{r}\\text{b}\\text{o}\\text{n}\\:\\text{o}\\text{u}\\text{t}\\text{p}\\text{u}\\text{t}\\:\\left(\\text{k}\\text{g}\\:\\text{C}\\text{E}{\\:\\text{h}\\text{a}}^{-1}\\right)}{\\text{C}\\text{a}\\text{r}\\text{b}\\text{o}\\text{n}\\:\\text{i}\\text{n}\\text{p}\\text{u}\\text{t}\\:\\left(\\text{k}\\text{g}\\:\\text{C}\\text{E}{\\:\\text{h}\\text{a}}^{-1}\\right)\\:}$$\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Equj\" class=\"Equation\"\u003e\u003cdiv format=\"TEX\" class=\"mathdisplay\" id=\"FileID_Equj\" name=\"EquationSource\"\u003e\n$$\\:\\text{C}\\text{a}\\text{r}\\text{b}\\text{o}\\text{n}\\:\\text{s}\\text{u}\\text{s}\\text{t}\\text{a}\\text{i}\\text{n}\\text{a}\\text{b}\\text{i}\\text{l}\\text{i}\\text{t}\\text{y}\\:\\text{i}\\text{n}\\text{d}\\text{e}\\text{x}\\:=\\frac{\\text{N}\\text{e}\\text{t}\\:\\text{c}\\text{a}\\text{r}\\text{b}\\text{o}\\text{n}\\:\\text{g}\\text{a}\\text{i}\\text{n}\\:\\left(\\text{k}\\text{g}\\:\\text{C}\\text{E}{\\:\\text{h}\\text{a}}^{-1}\\right)}{\\text{C}\\text{a}\\text{r}\\text{b}\\text{o}\\text{n}\\:\\text{i}\\text{n}\\text{p}\\text{u}\\text{t}\\:\\left(\\text{k}\\text{g}\\:\\text{C}\\text{E}{\\:\\text{h}\\text{a}}^{-1}\\right)\\:}$$\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eStatistical analysis\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eAll the data were subjected to statistical analysis by adopting appropriate method of analysis of variance as described by Gomez and Gomez (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1984\u003c/span\u003e). The replicated means were subjected to ANOVA using MS excel (2021). The critical difference (CD) was found by using \u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.05 that shows the results those were significantly different.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Results and Discussion","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec10\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eCrop Yield\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe analysis of interaction effect of different organic manures with different doses of fertilizers found significant (\u003cem\u003ep\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05\u003c/em\u003e) for cob, grain and stover yield of maize (Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e). The combination of poultry manure with 100% recommended dose of fertilizers (RDF) recorded the maximum and significantly higher cob yield (7.09 t ha\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e) of maize on pooled mean basis. However, the maximum and significantly higher grain yield (5.31 t ha\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e) and stover yield (8.77 t ha\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e) were recorded with the combination of vermicompost with 100% RDF. Although, the combination of poultry manure with 75 and 100% RDF; vermicompost with 75 and 100% RDF; and goat manure with 100% RDF recorded statistically at par value (\u003cem\u003ep\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.05\u003c/em\u003e) of cob and grain yield under both sets of dispositions (organic manures within fertilizer doses and fertilizer doses within organic manures). Further, combination of vermicompost with 50% RDF also recorded at par value of cob, grain and stover yield with poultry manure or vermicompost with 100% RDF under the deposition of same fertilizer doses for different organic manures. The increased maize yield resulting from the combination of organic manure and chemical fertilizers can be attributed to their complementary effects. Chemical fertilizers act swiftly to boost crop growth by rapidly delivering essential nutrients, yet they often fall short in sustaining balanced growth over extended periods. Conversely, organic fertilizers offer a sustained nutrient supply to both plants and soil, particularly during crucial yield-forming stages, owing to their gradual nutrient release and reduced nutrient loss from organic materials (Chew et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; Li et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e; Agegnehu et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e). When used together, they synergize to optimize plant development and ultimately enhance crop yields. Numerous studies have consistently demonstrated that combining chemical and organic fertilizers leads to a notable boost in crop yield, often surpassing or at least matching the productivity achieved by solely applying the full recommended dose of chemical fertilizers (Li et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e; Chemura \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e; Agegnehu et al. \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eInteraction effect of different organic manures and fertilizers doses on yield (t ha\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e) of maize (Pooled of two years)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"5\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTreatments\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCob Yield\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(t ha\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGrain Yield\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(t ha\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eStover Yield\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(t ha\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"4\" rowspan=\"5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGoat manure\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0% RDF\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.60\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.33\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.06\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e25% RDF\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.02\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.46\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.46\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e50% RDF\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.36\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.58\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.58\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e75% RDF\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.74\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.96\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.31\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e100% RDF\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.89\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.18\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.69\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"4\" rowspan=\"5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePoultry manure\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0% RDF\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.28\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.91\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.68\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e25% RDF\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.61\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.97\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.96\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e50% RDF\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.48\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.77\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.03\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e75% RDF\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.01\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.22\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.44\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e100% RDF\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.09\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.29\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.64\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"4\" rowspan=\"5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVermicompost\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0% RDF\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.97\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.55\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.51\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e25% RDF\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.97\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.37\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.53\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e50% RDF\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.49\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.82\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.24\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e75% RDF\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.01\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.25\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.72\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e100% RDF\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.07\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.31\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.77\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAt same organic manures\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSEm\u0026plusmn;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.13\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.12\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.17\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCD (\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.05)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.36\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.35\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.47\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAt same fertilizer doses\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSEm\u0026plusmn;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.27\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCD (\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.05)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.60\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.60\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.78\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003ctfoot\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"5\"\u003e*RDF (Recommended dose of fertilizers)\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tfoot\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eEnergy Use Pattern\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe energy consumption patterns for maize cultivation were assessed based on sources, operations, and treatments, considering various organic manure sources and fertilizer doses \u003cb\u003e(\u003c/b\u003eFig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e\u003cb\u003e).\u003c/b\u003e Among the sources, manures and fertilizers had the highest energy usage, consuming 5978 MJ ha⁻\u0026sup1;, while herbicides accounted for the least, at 288 MJ ha⁻\u0026sup1;. This indicates that manures and fertilizers made up 41% of the total input energy, followed by irrigation (27%), diesel (15%), and labour (8%). Herbicides, seeds and machinery contributed 5% or less to the total energy input \u003cb\u003e(\u003c/b\u003eFig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e\u003cb\u003e).\u003c/b\u003e Operation-wise, nutrient management consumed the most energy, averaging 5994 MJ ha⁻\u0026sup1;, and representing 41% of total input energy. This was followed by water management (28%), field preparation (18%) and harvesting (6%), with sowing and weed management operations consuming 4% or less \u003cb\u003e(\u003c/b\u003eFig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e\u003cb\u003e).\u003c/b\u003e The higher energy usage in nutrient management is likely due to the greater energy equivalence of chemical fertilizers, as also reported by Mishra et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e) and Patel et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e), who identified fertilizers as a major energy source in fodder crop production. The baseline energy consumption for maize cultivation without organic manure or fertilizer treatments was 8687 MJ ha⁻\u0026sup1;. Among the treatment-wise, the highest energy consumption (11256 MJ ha⁻\u0026sup1;) was observed with 100% RDF combined with vermicompost, while the lowest (900 MJ ha⁻\u0026sup1;) occurred with 0% RDF combined with poultry or goat manure. This difference may be due to the higher energy input required for vermicompost compared to other manures. Figure\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e shows that energy consumption by goat and poultry manure remained consistent across varying fertilizer doses. As fertilizer doses increased from 0\u0026ndash;100% RDF, there was a decrease in direct renewable, indirect renewable and direct non-renewable energy sources, and an increase in indirect non-renewable sources across all organic manure types \u003cb\u003e(\u003c/b\u003eFig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e\u003cb\u003e).\u003c/b\u003e Organic manures like vermicompost, poultry manure, and goat manure are renewable, whereas chemical fertilizers are non-renewable, leading to a reduction in renewable energy sources with increased chemical fertilizer use. Similar findings were reported by Li et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e) and Manoj et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e), who noted a higher reliance on non-renewable energy in crop production.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eEnergy Input, Output and Indices\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe total energy input for maize cultivation varied significantly depending on source of organic manure and fertilizer doses. When combining goat and poultry manure with 0\u0026ndash;100% recommended dose of fertilizers (RDF), the energy input ranged from 9587 MJ ha⁻\u0026sup1; to 19343 MJ ha⁻\u0026sup1;. In contrast, the energy input ranged from 10187 MJ ha⁻\u0026sup1; to 19943 MJ ha⁻\u0026sup1; when vermicompost was used. Vermicompost required approximately 4% more energy on average compared to goat or poultry manure. This increased energy consumption can be attributed to the higher energy equivalent of vermicompost (0.5 MJ kg⁻\u0026sup1;) compared to other organic manures like goat and poultry manure (0.3 MJ kg⁻\u0026sup1;). When different fertilizer doses were considered, applying 100% RDF with either goat or poultry manure resulted in a substantial increase in energy input\u0026mdash;102%, 61%, 34%, and 14% higher compared to 0%, 25%, 50%, and 75% RDF, respectively. A similar trend was observed with vermicompost, where 100% RDF consumed 96%, 58%, 32%, and 14% more energy than the lower RDF doses \u003cb\u003e(\u003c/b\u003eTable\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e\u003cb\u003e).\u003c/b\u003e The elevated energy use with 100% RDF is likely due to the greater quantity of fertilizer required, coupled with the energy-intensive process of chemical fertilizer production (Nemecek and Erzinger, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe combination of different organic manures and fertilizer doses also significantly impacted total output energy and net energy. The highest total energy output (137149 MJ ha⁻\u0026sup1;) was achieved with 100% RDF combined with vermicompost, while the highest net energy (118496 MJ ha⁻\u0026sup1;) was recorded with 75% RDF combined with vermicompost. Other combinations, including 100% RDF with either poultry or goat manure and 75% RDF with various organic manures, produced statistically similar total energy output and net energy. These results suggest that higher yields, reflected in higher biomass conversion to energy, are the primary contributors to the increased energy output observed with these treatments. Energy indices, such as energy use efficiency, energy productivity, energy profitability, and energy intensity, were also significantly influenced by the type of organic manure and fertilizer dose used \u003cb\u003e(\u003c/b\u003eTable\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e\u003cb\u003e).\u003c/b\u003e The application of only vermicompost without any chemical fertilizers (0% RDF) resulted in the highest energy use efficiency (9.41), energy productivity (0.59 kg MJ⁻\u0026sup1;), and energy profitability (8.41), along with the lowest energy intensity in physical terms (1.71 MJ kg⁻\u0026sup1;). However, the addition of 25% RDF with vermicompost or poultry manure and 50% RDF with poultry manure produced comparable results, likely due to the reduced energy input in these treatments. These findings align with previous research by Singh et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e), who reported higher energy profitability in wheat with lower energy inputs. Other studies, such as those by Mandal et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2002\u003c/span\u003e), Singh and Ahlawat (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e), Prajapat et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR33\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e), and Billore et al. (2020), also support the result that integrating organic nutrient sources with reduced chemical fertilizer doses enhances energy output, use efficiency, productivity, and profitability while reducing specific energy consumption.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab4\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 4\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eInteraction effect of different organic manures and fertilizers doses on energy input, output and indices of maize (Pooled of two years)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"10\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c9\" colnum=\"9\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c10\" colnum=\"10\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTreatments\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTotal energy input\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(MJ ha\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTotal energy output\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(MJ ha\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNet energy (MJ ha\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEnergy use efficiency\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEnergy productivity (kg MJ\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEnergy profitability\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEnergy intensity in physical term (MJ kg\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eEnergy intensity in economic term (MJ USD\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"4\" rowspan=\"5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGoat manure\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0% RDF\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9587\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e66161\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e56574\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.90\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.43\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.90\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.36\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e104\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e25% RDF\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12026\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e92695\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e80669\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.71\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.48\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.71\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.09\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e142\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e50% RDF\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e14465\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e117455\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e102990\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.12\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.51\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.12\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.97\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e175\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e75% RDF\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e16904\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e128673\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e111769\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.61\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.48\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.61\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e187\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e100% RDF\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e19343\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e134733\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e115390\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.97\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.44\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.97\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.30\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e191\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"4\" rowspan=\"5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePoultry manure\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0% RDF\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9587\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e79719\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e70131\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.31\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.52\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.31\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.94\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e113\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e25% RDF\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12026\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e104471\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e92445\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.69\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.54\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.69\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.85\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e145\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e50% RDF\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e14465\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e124153\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e109687\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.58\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.54\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.58\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.86\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e168\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e75% RDF\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e16904\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e133627\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e116722\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.90\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.50\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.90\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.02\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e177\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e100% RDF\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e19343\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e136278\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e116935\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.05\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.44\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.05\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.27\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e176\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"4\" rowspan=\"5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVermicompost\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0% RDF\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10187\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e95830\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e85643\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.41\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.59\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.41\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.71\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e103\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e25% RDF\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e12626\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e114856\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e102229\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e9.10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.57\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.76\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e121\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e50% RDF\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15065\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e126206\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e111140\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8.38\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.52\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.38\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.92\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e130\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e75% RDF\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e17504\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e136001\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e118496\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e7.77\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.49\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.77\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.06\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e138\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e100% RDF\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e19943\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e137149\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e117206\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6.88\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.43\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.88\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.34\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e137\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAt same organic manures\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSEm\u0026plusmn;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3038\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3038\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.01\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.06\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCD (\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.05)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8638\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e8638\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.58\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.04\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.58\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.16\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e10\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAt same fertilizer doses\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSEm\u0026plusmn;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4944\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4944\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.34\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.02\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.34\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.09\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCD (\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.05)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e14564\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e14564\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.02\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.06\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1.02\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.28\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e18\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003ctfoot\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"10\"\u003e*RDF (Recommended dose of fertilizers)\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tfoot\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec13\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eCarbon Emission Pattern\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe carbon emission patterns for maize cultivation, analysed by sources, operations, and treatments, provide insight into the carbon footprint associated with various organic manure sources and fertilizer doses \u003cb\u003e(\u003c/b\u003eFig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig8\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e\u003cb\u003e).\u003c/b\u003e Among the sources, labour accounted for the highest share of carbon emissions, contributing 28% of the total equivalent carbon dioxide emissions (kg CO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e-e ha⁻\u0026sup1;). This was followed by irrigation (23%), nitrous oxide (N\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003eO) emissions (19%), and the use of manures and fertilizers (16%), with diesel contributing 8%. In contrast, herbicides, seeds and machinery contributed 4% or less to the total carbon emissions \u003cb\u003e(\u003c/b\u003eFig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig6\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e\u003cb\u003e).\u003c/b\u003e When evaluating emissions by operation, nutrient management was the largest contributor, responsible for 35% of the total carbon emissions, followed by water management (23%), harvesting (16%), field preparation (14%), weed management (7%), and sowing (5%) \u003cb\u003e(\u003c/b\u003eFig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig7\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e\u003cb\u003e).\u003c/b\u003e This indicates that nutrient management, particularly through the use of fertilizers and organic manures, is a significant source of carbon emissions. Previous studies by Manoj et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e) have similarly highlighted the substantial role of fertilizers and organic manures in the carbon inputs of various cropping systems. Gong et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e) and Jiang et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e) also identified fertilizers as major contributors to carbon emissions in agricultural production in China. The baseline carbon emissions during maize cultivation without any treatment were 1107 kg CO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e-e ha⁻\u0026sup1;, a value consistent across all treatments. Among different treatments, the highest carbon emissions (1873 kg CO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e-e ha⁻\u0026sup1;) were recorded with the application of 100% RDF combined with vermicompost, while the lowest emissions (296 kg CO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e-e ha⁻\u0026sup1;) were observed with 0% RDF combined with goat manure \u003cb\u003e(\u003c/b\u003eFig.\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Fig8\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e\u003cb\u003e).\u003c/b\u003e The significant difference in emissions between these treatments can be attributed to the high usage of chemical fertilizers in the 100% RDF treatment and the absence of fertilizers in the 0% RDF treatment. Additionally, vermicompost contain higher value of N and P as compared to goat manure which led to higher global warming potential.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec14\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eCarbon Budgeting\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe spatial carbon footprints (CFs) were calculated by summing the equivalent carbon emissions (kg CO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e-e ha⁻\u0026sup1;) from all sources used in this study. To express carbon input in carbon equivalent (kg CE ha\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e), the CFs (kg CO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e-e ha⁻\u0026sup1;) were divided by 3.66 \u003cb\u003e(\u003c/b\u003eTable\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e\u003cb\u003e).\u003c/b\u003e The CFs ranged from 1402 kg CO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e-e ha⁻\u0026sup1; for the 0% RDF treatment with goat manure to 2980 kg CO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e-e ha⁻\u0026sup1; for the 100% RDF treatment with vermicompost. Carbon output was determined based on the grain and total dry biomass yield of maize, with the highest carbon output (3197 kg CE ha⁻\u0026sup1;) recorded in the 100% RDF with vermicompost treatment. Notably, the carbon output in treatments such as 75% RDF with vermicompost, 50% RDF with vermicompost, 100% RDF with poultry manure, 75% RDF with poultry manure, 50% RDF with poultry manure, 100% RDF with goat manure, and 75% RDF with goat manure was statistically similar to the 100% RDF with vermicompost. This higher carbon output is likely due to the greater grain and biomass yield associated with the 100% RDF with vermicompost treatment.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTo assess the carbon efficiency of various integrated nutrient management practices, several carbon indices were calculated, including net carbon gain, carbon efficiency, carbon sustainability index, and carbon footprint per unit yield (CFy) \u003cb\u003e(\u003c/b\u003eTable\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e\u003cb\u003e).\u003c/b\u003e The 75% RDF with vermicompost treatment yielded the highest net carbon gain (2455 kg CE ha⁻\u0026sup1;), however, treatments involving 25%, 50%, and 100% RDF with vermicompost, as well as 50%, 75%, and 100% RDF with poultry and goat manure, showed comparable net carbon gain values to the 75% RDF with vermicompost treatment. In terms of carbon efficiency and sustainability, the 0% RDF with vermicompost treatment recorded the highest values, with a carbon efficiency of 5.35 and a carbon sustainability index of 4.35. Similar carbon efficiency and sustainability index values were observed for the 25% and 50% RDF with vermicompost treatments, as well as for the 25% RDF with poultry manure treatment. These higher values can be attributed to lower carbon input and higher carbon output in these treatments, which positively influenced the net carbon gain, carbon efficiency, and sustainability index. Regarding the carbon footprint per unit yield (CFy), the lowest value was found in the 0% RDF with vermicompost treatment. Statistically similar CFy values were recorded in treatments including 0%, 25%, 50%, and 75% RDF with vermicompost; 25%, 50%, and 75% RDF with poultry manure; and 50% and 75% RDF with goat manure. These findings align with previous studies by Van Groenigen et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR47\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e) and Singh and Ahlawat (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e), which also reported lower CFy due to the combined use of organic nutrient sources and reduced mineral fertilizer doses.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab5\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 5\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eInteraction effect of different organic manures and fertilizers doses on carbon input, output and indices of maize (Pooled of two years)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"9\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c9\" colnum=\"9\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c2\" namest=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTreatments\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSpatial carbon footprint (CFs)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(kg CO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e-e ha\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCarbon input\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(kg CE ha\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCarbon output\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(kg CE ha\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNet carbon gain\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(kg CE ha\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCarbon efficiency\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCarbon sustainability index\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCarbon footprint in term of yield (CFy)\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e(kg CO\u003csub\u003e2\u003c/sub\u003e-e Mg\u003csup\u003e\u0026minus;\u0026thinsp;1\u003c/sup\u003e)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"4\" rowspan=\"5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eGoat manure\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0% RDF\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1402\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e383\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1549\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1166\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.04\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.04\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e613\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e25% RDF\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1765\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e482\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2164\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1682\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.49\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.49\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e516\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e50% RDF\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2127\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e581\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2737\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2155\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.71\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.71\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e469\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e75% RDF\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2490\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e680\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3000\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2319\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.41\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.41\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e506\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e100% RDF\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2852\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e779\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3142\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2362\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.03\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.03\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e556\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"4\" rowspan=\"5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePoultry manure\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0% RDF\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1506\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e411\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1863\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1452\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.53\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.53\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e521\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e25% RDF\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1868\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e510\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2437\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1927\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.77\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.77\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e473\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e50% RDF\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2231\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e610\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2895\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2285\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.75\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.75\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e472\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e75% RDF\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2593\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e709\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3113\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2405\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.39\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.39\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e501\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e100% RDF\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2956\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e808\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3176\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2369\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.93\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.93\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e564\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"4\" rowspan=\"5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eVermicompost\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0% RDF\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1530\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e418\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2238\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1820\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.35\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.35\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e436\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e25% RDF\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e1893\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e517\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2679\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2162\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e5.18\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.18\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e437\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e50% RDF\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2255\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e616\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2944\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2327\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.78\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.78\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e473\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e75% RDF\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2618\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e715\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3171\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2455\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e4.43\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.43\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e503\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e100% RDF\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2980\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e814\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3197\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2382\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e3.93\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e2.93\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e570\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAt same organic manures\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSEm\u0026plusmn;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e71\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e71\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.12\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.12\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e15\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCD (\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.05)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e201\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e201\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.33\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.33\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e43\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\" morerows=\"1\" rowspan=\"2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAt same fertilizer doses\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eSEm\u0026plusmn;\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e115\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e115\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.20\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e26\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCD (\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;0.05)\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e-\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e339\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e339\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.58\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e0.58\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e76\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003ctfoot\u003e \u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"9\"\u003e*RDF (Recommended dose of fertilizers)\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tfoot\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis study found that integrating organic manure with chemical fertilizers, particularly using 50%, 75%, and 100% RDF with vermicompost or poultry manure, and 75% and 100% RDF with goat manure, significantly improved maize yield, energy and carbon output, net energy, and net carbon gain while reducing the carbon footprint per unit yield (CFy). While 100% chemical fertilizers combined with organic manures relied more on non-renewable energy, using 50% and 75% RDF with organic manure increased renewable energy use by 31.2% and 12.5%, respectively, and reduced non-renewable energy consumption. This suggests that to maximize energy and carbon efficiency, maize should be grown with minimal chemical fertilizers, though this may affect productivity. Therefore, the study concluded that farmers should cultivate hybrid maize using either 50% RDF with vermicompost or poultry manure, or 75% RDF with goat manure, to enhance productivity, net energy and net carbon gain while reducing the carbon footprint per unit yield and increasing the share of renewable energy sources.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003ch2\u003eAcknowledgments\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eWe acknowledge the support of Director, ICAR-CIRG, Makhdoom for providing necessary facilities for conducting these experiments.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cstrong\u003eConflict of interest\u003c/strong\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe authors declare that there is not conflict of interest.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAgegnehu, G., VanBeek, C., \u0026amp; Bird, M. I. (2014). 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Emission of greenhouse gases (GHGs) during composting and vermicomposting: Measurement, mitigation, and perspectives. \u003cem\u003eEnergy Nexus\u003c/em\u003e, 7, 100092. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nexus.2022.100092.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"international-journal-of-plant-production","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"ijpo","sideBox":"Learn more about [International Journal of Plant Production](https://link.springer.com/journal/42106)","snPcode":"42106","submissionUrl":"https://www.editorialmanager.com/ijpo/default2.aspx","title":"International Journal of Plant Production","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"Springer Hybrid","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":false},"keywords":"Carbon footprint. Energy use efficiency. Fertilizer doses. GHG emissions. Organic manure. Sustainability","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-5087244/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-5087244/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eIn India, the energy consumption and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from food grain production have increased significantly since the Green Revolution, largely driven by higher use of machinery, fossil fuels, chemical fertilizers, and pesticides. This study explores the energy and carbon footprints of maize (\u003cem\u003eZea mays\u003c/em\u003e L.) cultivation under various integrated nutrient management (INM) practices. It evaluates the effects of three organic manures- goat manure, poultry manure, and vermicompost applied at 5 t ha⁻\u0026sup1; and five fertilizer levels (0, 25, 50, 75, and 100% of the recommended dose). The research was conducted in a split-plot design with three replications during the kharif seasons of 2021 and 2022 at ICAR-Central Institute for Research on Goats, Mathura, Uttar Pradesh, India. The results showed that combining organic manures with different fertilizer doses significantly influenced crop yield, energy consumption, and carbon emissions. The highest total energy output (137149 MJ ha⁻\u0026sup1;) was achieved with 100% RDF combined with vermicompost, while the highest net energy (118496 MJ ha⁻\u0026sup1;) was recorded with 75% RDF combined with vermicompost. The 75% RDF with vermicompost treatment yielded the highest net carbon gain (2455 kg CE ha⁻\u0026sup1;), however, treatments involving 25%, 50%, and 100% RDF with vermicompost, as well as 50%, 75%, and 100% RDF with poultry and goat manure, showed comparable net carbon gain values to the 75% RDF with vermicompost treatment. Overall, combining organic manures with reduced fertilizer levels enhanced sustainability by optimizing energy and reducing carbon footprints.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Optimizing Energy Efficiency and Reducing Carbon Footprint through Integrated Nutrient Management for Sustainable Maize Production","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2024-11-19 05:17:31","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-5087244/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"","date":"2025-01-13T07:08:07+00:00","index":0,"fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2024-11-05T12:26:22+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2024-09-18T12:19:36+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"International Journal of Plant Production","date":"2024-09-16T09:37:41+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"international-journal-of-plant-production","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"ijpo","sideBox":"Learn more about [International Journal of Plant Production](https://link.springer.com/journal/42106)","snPcode":"42106","submissionUrl":"https://www.editorialmanager.com/ijpo/default2.aspx","title":"International Journal of Plant Production","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"Springer Hybrid","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":false}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"3be9afc5-f48b-492b-a5e2-09c3139ccb47","owner":[],"postedDate":"November 19th, 2024","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"under-review","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2024-11-19T05:17:31+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2024-11-19 05:17:31","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-5087244","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-5087244","identity":"rs-5087244","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"qtupq5eGEP_6zYnWcrvyt","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}