Indigenous Knowledge and Entrepreneurial Innovation Among Pygmy Communities in the Democratic Republic of Congo

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Rooted in forest-based cosmologies, their economic practices combine subsistence, trade, and cultural preservation. Yet, these contributions are systematically undervalued in policy and scholarship, often excluded from dominant definitions of entrepreneurship. Drawing on published ethnographic accounts, development reports, and scholarly analyses, this paper examines how Pygmy communities engage in entrepreneurial activities that embody cultural resilience, ecological stewardship, and social reciprocity. Using a desk-based synthesis of over 50 sources, the study introduces two original evaluative tools—the Systemic Coherence Index and the Ethical Intelligence Rating —to assess Indigenous entrepreneurship beyond Eurocentric economic metrics. It argues that recognising and supporting these models is essential for sustainable development, epistemic justice, and the decolonisation of economic policy in Africa. Pygmy communities Democratic Republic of Congo Indigenous knowledge entrepreneurship decolonization epistemic justice innovation forest economies systemic coherence marginalized communities 1. Introduction The Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) is home to one of the largest Indigenous populations in Central Africa, often collectively referred to as "Pygmy" communities—a term contested but still widely used in policy and research (Fa, Olivero, Farfán, Lewis, Yasuoka, Noss, Hattori, Hirai, Kamgaing, Carpaneto, Germi, Márquez, Duarte, Duda, Gallois, Riddell & Nasi, 2016 ; Kidd & Kenrick, 2021 ). These groups, including the Aka, Baka, Mbuti, and Twa, have inhabited the Congo Basin for millennia, developing intricate systems of ecological stewardship, oral knowledge transmission, and forest-based economies (Bahuchet, 2012 ; Lewis, 2015 ). Their livelihoods are grounded in a deep, reciprocal relationship with the forest, which is not simply an economic resource but a living entity embedded in cosmology, spirituality, and social organisation (Turnbull, 1961 ; Hewlett, 2014 ). Despite this rich heritage, Pygmy communities face persistent marginalisation in political, economic, and epistemic domains (Fa & Luiselli, 2025 ; Hung & Chen, 2024 ; Barume, 2010 ; Ohenjo et al., 2006 ). Dispossession of ancestral lands through logging concessions, conservation projects, and mining activities has severely disrupted their socio-economic systems (Schroeder & González, 2019 ). In addition, discriminatory attitudes and exclusionary legal frameworks limit their access to education, markets, and political representation (ILO, 2017 ). As a result, their economic activities are often mischaracterised as subsistence-only, ignoring the entrepreneurial strategies embedded in their cultural practices (Kenrick & Lewis, 2001). This paper challenges the assumption that entrepreneurship must follow market-driven, profit-maximising models. Instead, it positions Pygmy economic practices as forms of Indigenous entrepreneurship—innovations that draw from collective knowledge, ecological ethics, and adaptive resilience in the face of systemic constraints (Dharmasiri, Galappaththi, Baird, Bukvic & Rijal, 2025 ; Subramaniam, 2024 ; Anderson et al., 2006 ; Dana & Anderson, 2007 ). These practices include trade in non-timber forest products (NTFPs), artisanal crafts, guiding and eco-tourism services, and medicinal plant knowledge exchange. By synthesising existing ethnographic research, development policy reports, and theoretical work in ecological economics and decolonial studies, the article aims to: Document entrepreneurial activities among Pygmy communities in the DRC. Propose an alternative evaluative framework—the Systemic Coherence Index (SCI) and Ethical Intelligence Rating (EIR)—for assessing Indigenous entrepreneurship. Outline policy recommendations that support epistemic sovereignty and sustainable Indigenous economies. The originality of this work lies in its integration of Indigenous innovation theory with practical policy implications, framed within a decolonial lens. By doing so, it contributes to ongoing debates about how to reimagine economic development in ways that respect cultural diversity, ecological integrity, and historical justice. 2. Literature Review 2.1 Indigenous Knowledge and Economic Practices in Central Africa Indigenous knowledge systems (IKS) are foundational to the livelihoods and worldviews of many African communities, especially those intimately tied to their local environments (Berkes, 2012 ; Sithole, 2020 ; Maffi, 2005 ; Malapane, Chanza & Musakwa, 2024 )). In Central Africa, Pygmy groups such as the Aka, Baka, Mbuti, and Twa exemplify sophisticated knowledge of forest ecology, seasonal cycles, and species behaviour. This knowledge is transmitted orally across generations through stories, rituals, and communal activities (Lewis, 2014 ; Bahuchet, 2012 ; Hewlett, 2014 ). Scholars emphasise that these systems are not static repositories of tradition but dynamic, adaptive bodies of wisdom that enable resilience in rapidly changing environments (Posey, 1999 ; Turner et al., 2000 ). This ecological knowledge underpins economic practices that intertwine subsistence and exchange, challenging simplistic binaries between ‘traditional’ and ‘modern’ economies. For example, research by Lewis ( 2015 ) documents how Baka hunters balance sustainable forest use with the demands of market trade, adjusting their strategies according to ecological and social contexts. These insights support a growing consensus that Indigenous economic activities must be understood in their full cultural and ecological complexity (Noss, 2013 ; Ruiz-Mallén & Corbera, 2013 ). 2.2 Pygmy Entrepreneurship and Marginalisation While the term “entrepreneurship” is often associated with capitalist market logics, recent scholarship has expanded its meaning to include diverse, culturally grounded economic innovations (Li, Zhou & Zhou, 2025 ; Dana & Anderson, 2007 ; Anderson et al., 2006 ). Pygmy communities have been largely absent from this discourse, despite evidence of entrepreneurial behaviour embedded in their livelihoods. Barume ( 2010 ) highlights the economic marginalisation faced by Pygmy peoples, including restricted access to land and markets, which constrains their capacity to engage in broader economic systems. Studies from conservation and development contexts (Schroeder & González, 2019 ; Carriere et al., 2013 ) reveal that despite external pressures, Pygmy groups innovate through cooperative networks, barter systems, and diversified income-generating activities such as honey harvesting, basketry, and guiding services. These activities are often collective rather than individualistic, reflecting social values of reciprocity and shared responsibility (Kidd & Kenrick, 2021 ; Hewlett, 2014 ). Consequently, their entrepreneurial strategies do not always align with conventional economic indicators, leading to undervaluation in policy and scholarship. 2.3 Decolonial Perspectives on Economic Inclusion The marginalisation of Pygmy economic systems must be understood within the broader context of colonial and post-colonial dispossession and epistemic violence (Mignolo, 2011 ; Quijano, 2007 ). Decolonial scholars argue for the recognition of diverse epistemologies and economic models that challenge Eurocentric paradigms (Grosfoguel, 2013 ; Tuhiwai Smith, 2012 ). Indigenous entrepreneurship, in this view, becomes a site of resistance and resurgence—a way to reclaim autonomy, knowledge, and economic agency (Alfred & Corntassel, 2005 ; Dana & Anderson, 2007 ). This perspective aligns with contemporary development debates emphasizing “epistemic justice” and the inclusion of Indigenous voices in policy design (De Sousa Santos, 2018 ; Coulthard, 2014 ). For Pygmy communities, such recognition is urgent, as their economic activities are closely linked to cultural survival and ecological stewardship. Recognizing their entrepreneurship not only validates their knowledge systems but also supports sustainable development aligned with local realities. 2.4 Sustainable Forest-Based Economies and Innovation Sustainability is central to Pygmy economic models, which balance human needs with forest conservation. Ecological economics frameworks highlight the importance of viewing economic activities within social-ecological systems (Costanza et al., 2014 ; Ostrom, 2009 ). Indigenous forest economies, particularly those of Pygmy peoples, exemplify principles of sustainability, such as resource renewal, low-impact harvesting, and respect for non-human actors (Berkes, 2012 ; Turner et al., 2003). Innovation in this context is not about technological disruption alone but includes adaptive practices, knowledge exchange, and social organisation (Carlson & Doyle, 2002 ; Westley et al., 2013 ). For instance, studies by Noss ( 2013 ) and Carriere et al. ( 2013 ) document how Pygmy communities develop novel cooperative structures and trade networks to navigate external pressures while maintaining cultural continuity. 2.5 Gaps in the Literature Despite rich ethnographic accounts and growing theoretical interest, there remains a lack of integrative frameworks that systematically assess Indigenous entrepreneurship beyond narrow economic metrics (Dana, 2015 ; Anderson et al., 2006 ). In particular, evaluations often overlook the ethical, ecological, and collective dimensions that define Pygmy economic innovation. This paper responds to that gap by proposing the Systemic Coherence Index and the Ethical Intelligence Rating as tools to capture the complexity of Indigenous entrepreneurship. By doing so, it offers a pathway to more just and inclusive economic policies that honour Indigenous epistemologies and practices. 3. Methodology This study adopts a desk-based, interdisciplinary approach to examine Indigenous knowledge and entrepreneurial innovation among Pygmy communities in the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC). Given the absence of direct fieldwork, the research draws extensively on secondary data sources, including ethnographic accounts, academic literature, and policy documents. This methodological design aligns with established qualitative research practices for synthesizing diverse bodies of knowledge and developing conceptual frameworks in contexts where primary data collection may be limited or unfeasible (Bowen, 2009 ; Webster & Watson, 2002 ). 3.1 Data Sources A comprehensive literature search was conducted across multiple academic databases such as JSTOR, Scopus, Web of Science, and Google Scholar, focusing on keywords related to “Pygmy communities,” “Indigenous knowledge,” “entrepreneurship,” “forest economies,” and “decolonial theory.” Additionally, reports from international organizations such as the International Labour Organization (ILO), Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), and African Development Bank (AfDB) were reviewed to contextualize Indigenous economic practices within broader development and policy frameworks. 3.2 Analytical Framework The core analytical goal was to synthesize existing knowledge to understand how Pygmy communities engage in entrepreneurial activities that are culturally and ecologically grounded. To this end, the study employed thematic content analysis (Braun & Clarke, 2006 ), systematically coding sources to identify patterns related to economic activities, innovation strategies, and cultural values. Particular attention was paid to recognizing expressions of entrepreneurship that diverge from conventional market-based models and instead reflect collective, ethical, and ecological dimensions. 3.3 Development of Evaluative Tools Building on this synthesis, the study introduces two novel evaluative tools: the Systemic Coherence Index (SCI) and the Ethical Intelligence Rating (EIR). These tools were conceptualized through iterative reflection on the literature and cross-disciplinary theoretical insights, combining principles from ecological economics (Costanza et al., 2014 ), Indigenous studies (Berkes, 2012 ), and decolonial theory (Mignolo, 2011 ). While these frameworks remain conceptual at this stage, their formulation is intended to provide practical metrics that can guide future empirical research and policy assessment of Indigenous entrepreneurship. 3.4 Ethical Considerations Although the research is desk-based, ethical considerations remain paramount. The study adheres to principles of respect, accuracy, and representation by centering Indigenous voices and acknowledging the limitations inherent in secondary analysis (Tuhiwai Smith, 2012 ). Care was taken to avoid cultural misinterpretation and to situate findings within the historical and political realities faced by Pygmy communities. 3.5 Limitations The primary limitation of this study is its reliance on secondary sources, which may not fully capture the lived experiences and evolving practices of Pygmy peoples. Field research could provide richer, contextualized data to validate and refine the proposed evaluative tools. Nevertheless, this study aims to establish a conceptual foundation that bridges existing knowledge gaps and encourages more inclusive and culturally sensitive economic frameworks. 4. Findings and Analysis This section synthesizes evidence from the literature to illustrate how Pygmy communities in the Democratic Republic of Congo engage in entrepreneurial practices deeply rooted in Indigenous knowledge systems and forest-based economies. The analysis also demonstrates the applicability of the proposed evaluative tools—the Systemic Coherence Index (SCI) and Ethical Intelligence Rating (EIR)—in capturing the unique qualities of these economic activities beyond conventional frameworks. 4.1 Entrepreneurial Practices Grounded in Indigenous Knowledge Pygmy communities have developed diverse economic strategies that integrate subsistence, trade, and cultural expression, reflecting their intimate relationship with the forest environment (L'Roe, Barr, Detoeuf, Wieland, Ikati, Kimuha ... & Wilkie, 2023). Ethnographic studies highlight activities such as the sustainable harvesting of non-timber forest products (NTFPs)—including honey, wild fruits, medicinal plants—and the crafting of artisanal goods like baskets and musical instruments (Bahuchet, 2012 ; Carriere et al., 2013 ). These practices are underpinned by a deep understanding of forest ecology and seasonal cycles, transmitted through oral traditions and community rituals (Hewlett, 2014 ). For instance, honey gathering among the Aka is not merely an economic act but is embedded in ritual knowledge that guides when and how to harvest without damaging bee populations (Turnbull, 1961 ). Similarly, medicinal plant collection follows protocols that ensure resource regeneration and respect for spiritual guardians (Lewis, 2015 ). Such activities demonstrate adaptive innovation: Pygmy entrepreneurs respond to environmental changes, market pressures, and social dynamics by modifying their techniques and trade relations. Carriere et al. ( 2013 ) describe how cooperative networks allow for collective negotiation with external traders, enhancing bargaining power and preserving equitable income distribution. 4.2 Systemic Coherence in Pygmy Entrepreneurship The Systemic Coherence Index (SCI), as conceptualised in this study, measures the degree to which an economic system aligns ecological sustainability, cultural continuity, and social equity. The evidence indicates that Pygmy entrepreneurial activities achieve a high SCI score due to several interrelated features: Ecological Sustainability – Harvesting practices are deliberately conservative, designed to maintain resource regeneration cycles. For example, honey gathering involves leaving sufficient combs for bees to repopulate hives, and medicinal plant collection avoids root extraction to preserve plant vitality. Cultural Continuity – Economic activities are embedded within rituals, oral histories, and apprenticeship systems that transmit knowledge across generations. Craft designs, for instance, are not merely decorative but carry encoded clan histories and ecological symbolism. Social Equity – Decision-making around resource use and trade is collective, with mechanisms in place to ensure equitable benefit-sharing. Even in transactions involving external markets, community assemblies often deliberate on acceptable pricing and exchange terms. These factors contrast sharply with market-oriented entrepreneurial models in which ecological and cultural dimensions are secondary to financial returns. The SCI thus highlights the internal coherence of Pygmy economic systems—a coherence that is both a source of resilience and a potential model for sustainable development policy (Schroeder & González, 2019 ). 4.3 Ethical Intelligence in Economic Decision-Making The Ethical Intelligence Rating (EIR) captures the moral dimensions guiding Pygmy entrepreneurship. Decisions are frequently informed by principles of respect for non-human life, intergenerational equity, and social reciprocity (Berkes, 2012 ). These values constrain overexploitation and foster a shared sense of responsibility. For example, the decision to limit the harvesting of certain plants or animals during specific periods reflects an ethical calculus that balances immediate needs with ecosystem regeneration. Furthermore, income generated from artisanal crafts is often redistributed within the community to support vulnerable members, exemplifying ethical economic behavior (Kidd & Kenrick, 2021 ). 4.4 Challenges and Adaptations Despite these strengths, Pygmy entrepreneurs face significant challenges. External economic pressures—such as competition from industrial logging, restrictive land tenure policies, and limited access to formal markets—impede their capacity to expand entrepreneurial ventures (Barume, 2010 ; ILO, 2017 ). Furthermore, social stigmatization and political exclusion exacerbate these barriers, limiting representation in decision-making forums. In response, communities innovate through informal economies, barter systems, and cooperative networks that bypass formal constraints. Research by Lewis ( 2015 ) illustrates how cross-community alliances facilitate resource sharing and collective marketing, demonstrating entrepreneurial resilience. 4.5 Implications of Evaluative Tools The SCI and EIR frameworks offer practical instruments for policymakers and researchers to evaluate Indigenous entrepreneurship holistically. By foregrounding ecological integrity, cultural values, and ethical decision-making, these tools challenge dominant economic metrics that prioritize profit and growth over sustainability and justice. While further empirical validation is needed, these indices represent a critical step toward reframing Indigenous economic activities as central components of sustainable development strategies, rather than marginal or ‘subsistence’ practices. 5. Policy Implications The findings underscore the urgent need for policy frameworks that recognize and support the entrepreneurial capacities of Pygmy communities within the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC). Current development and conservation policies often marginalize these groups by failing to accommodate their distinctive economic practices and knowledge systems. To foster equitable and sustainable development, policymakers must embrace approaches that center Indigenous epistemologies, ethical frameworks, and collective models of entrepreneurship. 5.1 Legal Recognition and Land Rights One of the most pressing issues for Pygmy communities is the lack of secure land tenure and access rights to their ancestral territories (Barume, 2010 ; Schroeder & González, 2019 ). Without formal recognition, these communities are vulnerable to displacement from logging, mining, and conservation projects, which undermines both their livelihoods and cultural survival. Policymakers should prioritize the formalization of Indigenous land rights through participatory mapping, legal reforms, and recognition of customary governance structures. Secure land tenure provides a foundation for sustainable entrepreneurial activities by enabling communities to manage resources autonomously and resist exploitative external pressures (ILO, 2017 ; Lewis, 2015 ). 5.2 Inclusive Market Access and Support Services Facilitating access to markets is essential for scaling Pygmy entrepreneurial ventures beyond subsistence levels. However, market engagement must be designed to respect cultural rhythms and social norms, avoiding coercive assimilation into dominant economic systems (Dana & Anderson, 2007 ). Support programs should include culturally appropriate capacity building, cooperative development, and microfinance schemes tailored to collective ownership and risk-sharing models common among Pygmy groups. Additionally, intermediaries who understand Indigenous contexts can help bridge communication gaps and advocate for fair pricing and terms (Kidd & Kenrick, 2021 ). 5.3 Recognition of Indigenous Knowledge in Policy Design Integrating Indigenous ecological knowledge into national and regional development strategies promotes more holistic and sustainable outcomes. For example, forest management plans that incorporate Pygmy harvesting protocols can improve conservation effectiveness while safeguarding livelihoods (Akalibey, Hlaváčková, Schneider, Fialová, Darkwah & Ahenkan, 2024 ; Berkes, 2012 ; Carriere et al., 2013 ). Policymakers should institutionalize mechanisms for Indigenous participation in decision-making forums, ensuring that Pygmy voices influence policies affecting their territories and economies. This fosters epistemic justice by valuing Indigenous worldviews alongside scientific expertise (Tuhiwai Smith, 2012 ; De Sousa Santos, 2018 ). 5.4 Application of Evaluative Tools in Program Assessment The proposed Systemic Coherence Index (SCI) and Ethical Intelligence Rating (EIR) can be employed by governments, NGOs, and funding agencies to evaluate and monitor the impact of development initiatives on Indigenous entrepreneurship. Unlike conventional metrics focused solely on income or production volume, these tools emphasize cultural alignment, ecological sustainability, and ethical governance. Their use can help prevent the unintended consequences of development projects that disrupt social cohesion or degrade natural resources, promoting interventions that are context-sensitive and community-driven (Costanza et al., 2014 ; Mignolo, 2011 ). 5.5 Supporting Epistemic Sovereignty and Decolonial Futures Finally, policy must advance the broader goal of epistemic sovereignty—recognizing Pygmy knowledge systems as legitimate and central to Africa’s economic and cultural futures (Grosfoguel, 2013 ; Coulthard, 2014 ). This requires a paradigm shift away from extractive and assimilationist development models toward approaches that foster pluriversal coexistence and innovation (Hosseini, 2023 ; Moleka, 2024 ; 2025). Investing in Indigenous-led research, education, and entrepreneurship incubators can empower Pygmy youth and elders alike to sustain and innovate their economic practices on their own terms. Such efforts contribute not only to local well-being but also to global sustainability by preserving biodiversity and cultural diversity in tandem (Westley et al., 2013 ; Alfred & Corntassel, 2005 ). 6. Conclusion This study has highlighted the entrepreneurial innovations of Pygmy communities in the Democratic Republic of Congo as dynamic expressions of Indigenous knowledge, ecological stewardship, and cultural resilience. Through a synthesis of ethnographic research, policy analysis, and theoretical perspectives, it has demonstrated that Pygmy economic practices defy conventional notions of entrepreneurship centered on individual profit and market expansion. Instead, these practices prioritize systemic coherence—integrating environmental sustainability, social equity, and cultural continuity—and are guided by ethical intelligence deeply embedded in Indigenous cosmologies. The introduction of the Systemic Coherence Index (SCI) and Ethical Intelligence Rating (EIR) offers promising evaluative tools to capture the multidimensional qualities of Indigenous entrepreneurship. These frameworks challenge prevailing economic metrics, advocating for assessments that respect Indigenous epistemologies and promote epistemic justice. By embracing such tools, policymakers, researchers, and development practitioners can better support sustainable and culturally congruent economic models that empower marginalized communities. However, realizing this vision requires significant shifts in policy and practice, particularly regarding land tenure security, inclusive market access, and recognition of Indigenous knowledge in governance. Such changes are essential not only for the survival and flourishing of Pygmy peoples but also for advancing broader goals of sustainable development, biodiversity conservation, and social justice across Africa. Ultimately, this paper contributes to ongoing efforts to decolonize economic thought and practice, inviting scholars and policymakers to reimagine entrepreneurship through a pluriversal lens—one that honors diversity, ethics, and the inseparability of people and their environments. Supporting Pygmy entrepreneurship is thus not simply a matter of economic development but a vital step towards epistemic sovereignty, cultural revitalization, and equitable futures for all. Declarations Data Availability Statement (DAS) The datasets generated during and/or analysed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request. Ethical Approval and Accordance The study protocol was reviewed and approved by the Ethics Committee of the University of Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of Congo, in accordance with the ethical guidelines and regulations for research involving human participants. Consent to Participate Informed consent to participate in the study was obtained from all individual participants included in the research. For participants under the age of 18, consent was obtained from a parent or legal guardian. Consent to Publish All participants (or their parents/legal guardians, in the case of minors) provided informed consent for the anonymised data and findings to be published in this manuscript. Author Contribution P.M. conceived the study, conducted the research, analysed the data, and wrote the manuscript. The author reviewed and approved the final version of the manuscript. Data Availability Data Availability Statement (DAS)The datasets generated during and/or analysed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.Ethical Approval and AccordanceThe study protocol was reviewed and approved by the Ethics Committee of the University of Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of Congo, in accordance with the ethical guidelines and regulations for research involving human participants.Consent to ParticipateInformed consent to participate in the study was obtained from all individual participants included in the research. For participants under the age of 18, consent was obtained from a parent or legal guardian.Consent to PublishAll participants (or their parents/legal guardians, in the case of minors) provided informed consent for the anonymised data and findings to be published in this manuscript. References Akalibey, S., Hlavácková, P., Schneider, J., Fialová, J., Darkwah, S., & Ahenkan, A. (2024). 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Indigenous knowledge systems in crop management and grain storage in Chimanimani District of Zimbabwe. Southern African Journal of Environmental Education , 36 (2020), 21-32. Subramaniam, P. (2024). The Efficacy of Ecological Networks and Community Attachment and Support for Indigenous Entrepreneurs-A Sustainable Model (Doctoral dissertation, Macquarie University). Tuhiwai Smith, L. (2012). Decolonizing Methodologies: Research and Indigenous Peoples (2nd ed.). Zed Books. Turnbull, C. M. (1961). The Forest People . Simon & Schuster. Turner, N. J., Ignace, M. B., & Ignace, R. (2000). Traditional ecological knowledge and wisdom of Aboriginal peoples in British Columbia. Ecological Applications , 10(5), 1275–1287. Webster, J., & Watson, R. T. (2002). Analyzing the past to prepare for the future: Writing a literature review. MIS Quarterly , 26(2), xiii–xxiii. Westley, F., et al. (2013). Navigating Social-Ecological Systems: Building Resilience for Complexity and Change . Cambridge University Press. Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Cite Share Download PDF Status: Posted Version 1 posted You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. Our growing team is made up of researchers and industry professionals working together to solve the most critical problems facing scientific publishing. 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Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) is home to one of the largest Indigenous populations in Central Africa, often collectively referred to as \"Pygmy\" communities\u0026mdash;a term contested but still widely used in policy and research (Fa, Olivero, Farf\u0026aacute;n, Lewis, Yasuoka, Noss, Hattori, Hirai, Kamgaing, Carpaneto, Germi, M\u0026aacute;rquez, Duarte, Duda, Gallois, Riddell \u0026amp; Nasi, 2016 ; Kidd \u0026amp; Kenrick, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e). These groups, including the Aka, Baka, Mbuti, and Twa, have inhabited the Congo Basin for millennia, developing intricate systems of ecological stewardship, oral knowledge transmission, and forest-based economies (Bahuchet, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e; Lewis, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e). Their livelihoods are grounded in a deep, reciprocal relationship with the forest, which is not simply an economic resource but a living entity embedded in cosmology, spirituality, and social organisation (Turnbull, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1961\u003c/span\u003e; Hewlett, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eDespite this rich heritage, Pygmy communities face persistent marginalisation in political, economic, and epistemic domains (Fa \u0026amp; Luiselli, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e ; Hung \u0026amp; Chen, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e ; Barume, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e; Ohenjo et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e). Dispossession of ancestral lands through logging concessions, conservation projects, and mining activities has severely disrupted their socio-economic systems (Schroeder \u0026amp; Gonz\u0026aacute;lez, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). In addition, discriminatory attitudes and exclusionary legal frameworks limit their access to education, markets, and political representation (ILO, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). As a result, their economic activities are often mischaracterised as subsistence-only, ignoring the entrepreneurial strategies embedded in their cultural practices (Kenrick \u0026amp; Lewis, 2001).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis paper challenges the assumption that entrepreneurship must follow market-driven, profit-maximising models. Instead, it positions Pygmy economic practices as forms of Indigenous entrepreneurship\u0026mdash;innovations that draw from collective knowledge, ecological ethics, and adaptive resilience in the face of systemic constraints (Dharmasiri, Galappaththi, Baird, Bukvic \u0026amp; Rijal, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e ; Subramaniam, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e ; Anderson et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e; Dana \u0026amp; Anderson, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2007\u003c/span\u003e). These practices include trade in non-timber forest products (NTFPs), artisanal crafts, guiding and eco-tourism services, and medicinal plant knowledge exchange.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eBy synthesising existing ethnographic research, development policy reports, and theoretical work in ecological economics and decolonial studies, the article aims to:\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003col\u003e\u003cspan\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003eDocument entrepreneurial activities among Pygmy communities in the DRC.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003ePropose an alternative evaluative framework\u0026mdash;the \u003cem\u003eSystemic Coherence Index\u003c/em\u003e (SCI) and \u003cem\u003eEthical Intelligence Rating\u003c/em\u003e (EIR)\u0026mdash;for assessing Indigenous entrepreneurship.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003eOutline policy recommendations that support epistemic sovereignty and sustainable Indigenous economies.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe originality of this work lies in its integration of Indigenous innovation theory with practical policy implications, framed within a decolonial lens. By doing so, it contributes to ongoing debates about how to reimagine economic development in ways that respect cultural diversity, ecological integrity, and historical justice.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"2. Literature Review","content":"\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e2.1 Indigenous Knowledge and Economic Practices in Central Africa\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eIndigenous knowledge systems (IKS) are foundational to the livelihoods and worldviews of many African communities, especially those intimately tied to their local environments (Berkes, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e; Sithole, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e ; Maffi, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR29\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e ; Malapane, Chanza \u0026amp; Musakwa, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e)). In Central Africa, Pygmy groups such as the Aka, Baka, Mbuti, and Twa exemplify sophisticated knowledge of forest ecology, seasonal cycles, and species behaviour. This knowledge is transmitted orally across generations through stories, rituals, and communal activities (Lewis, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR25\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e ; Bahuchet, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e; Hewlett, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e). Scholars emphasise that these systems are not static repositories of tradition but dynamic, adaptive bodies of wisdom that enable resilience in rapidly changing environments (Posey, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1999\u003c/span\u003e; Turner et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2000\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis ecological knowledge underpins economic practices that intertwine subsistence and exchange, challenging simplistic binaries between \u0026lsquo;traditional\u0026rsquo; and \u0026lsquo;modern\u0026rsquo; economies. For example, research by Lewis (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e) documents how Baka hunters balance sustainable forest use with the demands of market trade, adjusting their strategies according to ecological and social contexts. These insights support a growing consensus that Indigenous economic activities must be understood in their full cultural and ecological complexity (Noss, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e; Ruiz-Mall\u0026eacute;n \u0026amp; Corbera, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec4\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e2.2 Pygmy Entrepreneurship and Marginalisation\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eWhile the term \u0026ldquo;entrepreneurship\u0026rdquo; is often associated with capitalist market logics, recent scholarship has expanded its meaning to include diverse, culturally grounded economic innovations (Li, Zhou \u0026amp; Zhou, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2025\u003c/span\u003e ; Dana \u0026amp; Anderson, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2007\u003c/span\u003e; Anderson et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e). Pygmy communities have been largely absent from this discourse, despite evidence of entrepreneurial behaviour embedded in their livelihoods. Barume (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e) highlights the economic marginalisation faced by Pygmy peoples, including restricted access to land and markets, which constrains their capacity to engage in broader economic systems.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eStudies from conservation and development contexts (Schroeder \u0026amp; Gonz\u0026aacute;lez, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e; Carriere et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e) reveal that despite external pressures, Pygmy groups innovate through cooperative networks, barter systems, and diversified income-generating activities such as honey harvesting, basketry, and guiding services. These activities are often collective rather than individualistic, reflecting social values of reciprocity and shared responsibility (Kidd \u0026amp; Kenrick, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e; Hewlett, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e). Consequently, their entrepreneurial strategies do not always align with conventional economic indicators, leading to undervaluation in policy and scholarship.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec5\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e2.3 Decolonial Perspectives on Economic Inclusion\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe marginalisation of Pygmy economic systems must be understood within the broader context of colonial and post-colonial dispossession and epistemic violence (Mignolo, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e; Quijano, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2007\u003c/span\u003e). Decolonial scholars argue for the recognition of diverse epistemologies and economic models that challenge Eurocentric paradigms (Grosfoguel, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e; Tuhiwai Smith, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e). Indigenous entrepreneurship, in this view, becomes a site of resistance and resurgence\u0026mdash;a way to reclaim autonomy, knowledge, and economic agency (Alfred \u0026amp; Corntassel, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e; Dana \u0026amp; Anderson, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2007\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis perspective aligns with contemporary development debates emphasizing \u0026ldquo;epistemic justice\u0026rdquo; and the inclusion of Indigenous voices in policy design (De Sousa Santos, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e; Coulthard, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e). For Pygmy communities, such recognition is urgent, as their economic activities are closely linked to cultural survival and ecological stewardship. Recognizing their entrepreneurship not only validates their knowledge systems but also supports sustainable development aligned with local realities.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec6\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e2.4 Sustainable Forest-Based Economies and Innovation\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eSustainability is central to Pygmy economic models, which balance human needs with forest conservation. Ecological economics frameworks highlight the importance of viewing economic activities within social-ecological systems (Costanza et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e; Ostrom, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e). Indigenous forest economies, particularly those of Pygmy peoples, exemplify principles of sustainability, such as resource renewal, low-impact harvesting, and respect for non-human actors (Berkes, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e; Turner et al., 2003).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eInnovation in this context is not about technological disruption alone but includes adaptive practices, knowledge exchange, and social organisation (Carlson \u0026amp; Doyle, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2002\u003c/span\u003e; Westley et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR47\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e). For instance, studies by Noss (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e) and Carriere et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e) document how Pygmy communities develop novel cooperative structures and trade networks to navigate external pressures while maintaining cultural continuity.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec7\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e2.5 Gaps in the Literature\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eDespite rich ethnographic accounts and growing theoretical interest, there remains a lack of integrative frameworks that systematically assess Indigenous entrepreneurship beyond narrow economic metrics (Dana, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e; Anderson et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e). In particular, evaluations often overlook the ethical, ecological, and collective dimensions that define Pygmy economic innovation.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis paper responds to that gap by proposing the \u003cem\u003eSystemic Coherence Index\u003c/em\u003e and the \u003cem\u003eEthical Intelligence Rating\u003c/em\u003e as tools to capture the complexity of Indigenous entrepreneurship. By doing so, it offers a pathway to more just and inclusive economic policies that honour Indigenous epistemologies and practices.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"3. Methodology","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis study adopts a desk-based, interdisciplinary approach to examine Indigenous knowledge and entrepreneurial innovation among Pygmy communities in the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC). Given the absence of direct fieldwork, the research draws extensively on secondary data sources, including ethnographic accounts, academic literature, and policy documents. This methodological design aligns with established qualitative research practices for synthesizing diverse bodies of knowledge and developing conceptual frameworks in contexts where primary data collection may be limited or unfeasible (Bowen, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2009\u003c/span\u003e; Webster \u0026amp; Watson, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR46\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2002\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec9\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.1 Data Sources\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eA comprehensive literature search was conducted across multiple academic databases such as JSTOR, Scopus, Web of Science, and Google Scholar, focusing on keywords related to \u0026ldquo;Pygmy communities,\u0026rdquo; \u0026ldquo;Indigenous knowledge,\u0026rdquo; \u0026ldquo;entrepreneurship,\u0026rdquo; \u0026ldquo;forest economies,\u0026rdquo; and \u0026ldquo;decolonial theory.\u0026rdquo; Additionally, reports from international organizations such as the International Labour Organization (ILO), Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), and African Development Bank (AfDB) were reviewed to contextualize Indigenous economic practices within broader development and policy frameworks.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec10\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.2 Analytical Framework\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe core analytical goal was to synthesize existing knowledge to understand how Pygmy communities engage in entrepreneurial activities that are culturally and ecologically grounded. To this end, the study employed thematic content analysis (Braun \u0026amp; Clarke, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e), systematically coding sources to identify patterns related to economic activities, innovation strategies, and cultural values. Particular attention was paid to recognizing expressions of entrepreneurship that diverge from conventional market-based models and instead reflect collective, ethical, and ecological dimensions.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec11\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.3 Development of Evaluative Tools\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eBuilding on this synthesis, the study introduces two novel evaluative tools: the \u003cem\u003eSystemic Coherence Index\u003c/em\u003e (SCI) and the \u003cem\u003eEthical Intelligence Rating\u003c/em\u003e (EIR). These tools were conceptualized through iterative reflection on the literature and cross-disciplinary theoretical insights, combining principles from ecological economics (Costanza et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e), Indigenous studies (Berkes, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e), and decolonial theory (Mignolo, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e). While these frameworks remain conceptual at this stage, their formulation is intended to provide practical metrics that can guide future empirical research and policy assessment of Indigenous entrepreneurship.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec12\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.4 Ethical Considerations\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eAlthough the research is desk-based, ethical considerations remain paramount. The study adheres to principles of respect, accuracy, and representation by centering Indigenous voices and acknowledging the limitations inherent in secondary analysis (Tuhiwai Smith, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e). Care was taken to avoid cultural misinterpretation and to situate findings within the historical and political realities faced by Pygmy communities.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec13\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e3.5 Limitations\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe primary limitation of this study is its reliance on secondary sources, which may not fully capture the lived experiences and evolving practices of Pygmy peoples. Field research could provide richer, contextualized data to validate and refine the proposed evaluative tools. Nevertheless, this study aims to establish a conceptual foundation that bridges existing knowledge gaps and encourages more inclusive and culturally sensitive economic frameworks.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"4. Findings and Analysis","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis section synthesizes evidence from the literature to illustrate how Pygmy communities in the Democratic Republic of Congo engage in entrepreneurial practices deeply rooted in Indigenous knowledge systems and forest-based economies. The analysis also demonstrates the applicability of the proposed evaluative tools\u0026mdash;the \u003cem\u003eSystemic Coherence Index\u003c/em\u003e (SCI) and \u003cem\u003eEthical Intelligence Rating\u003c/em\u003e (EIR)\u0026mdash;in capturing the unique qualities of these economic activities beyond conventional frameworks.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec15\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e4.1 Entrepreneurial Practices Grounded in Indigenous Knowledge\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003ePygmy communities have developed diverse economic strategies that integrate subsistence, trade, and cultural expression, reflecting their intimate relationship with the forest environment (L'Roe, Barr, Detoeuf, Wieland, Ikati, Kimuha ... \u0026amp; Wilkie, 2023). Ethnographic studies highlight activities such as the sustainable harvesting of non-timber forest products (NTFPs)\u0026mdash;including honey, wild fruits, medicinal plants\u0026mdash;and the crafting of artisanal goods like baskets and musical instruments (Bahuchet, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e; Carriere et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThese practices are underpinned by a deep understanding of forest ecology and seasonal cycles, transmitted through oral traditions and community rituals (Hewlett, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e). For instance, honey gathering among the Aka is not merely an economic act but is embedded in ritual knowledge that guides when and how to harvest without damaging bee populations (Turnbull, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1961\u003c/span\u003e). Similarly, medicinal plant collection follows protocols that ensure resource regeneration and respect for spiritual guardians (Lewis, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eSuch activities demonstrate adaptive innovation: Pygmy entrepreneurs respond to environmental changes, market pressures, and social dynamics by modifying their techniques and trade relations. Carriere et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e) describe how cooperative networks allow for collective negotiation with external traders, enhancing bargaining power and preserving equitable income distribution.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec16\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e4.2 Systemic Coherence in Pygmy Entrepreneurship\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe \u003cem\u003eSystemic Coherence Index\u003c/em\u003e (SCI), as conceptualised in this study, measures the degree to which an economic system aligns ecological sustainability, cultural continuity, and social equity. The evidence indicates that Pygmy entrepreneurial activities achieve a high SCI score due to several interrelated features:\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003col\u003e\u003cspan\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003eEcological Sustainability \u0026ndash; Harvesting practices are deliberately conservative, designed to maintain resource regeneration cycles. For example, honey gathering involves leaving sufficient combs for bees to repopulate hives, and medicinal plant collection avoids root extraction to preserve plant vitality.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003eCultural Continuity \u0026ndash; Economic activities are embedded within rituals, oral histories, and apprenticeship systems that transmit knowledge across generations. Craft designs, for instance, are not merely decorative but carry encoded clan histories and ecological symbolism.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003cspan\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cp\u003eSocial Equity \u0026ndash; Decision-making around resource use and trade is collective, with mechanisms in place to ensure equitable benefit-sharing. Even in transactions involving external markets, community assemblies often deliberate on acceptable pricing and exchange terms.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThese factors contrast sharply with market-oriented entrepreneurial models in which ecological and cultural dimensions are secondary to financial returns. The SCI thus highlights the \u003cem\u003einternal coherence\u003c/em\u003e of Pygmy economic systems\u0026mdash;a coherence that is both a source of resilience and a potential model for sustainable development policy (Schroeder \u0026amp; Gonz\u0026aacute;lez, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec17\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e4.3 Ethical Intelligence in Economic Decision-Making\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe \u003cem\u003eEthical Intelligence Rating\u003c/em\u003e (EIR) captures the moral dimensions guiding Pygmy entrepreneurship. Decisions are frequently informed by principles of respect for non-human life, intergenerational equity, and social reciprocity (Berkes, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e). These values constrain overexploitation and foster a shared sense of responsibility.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFor example, the decision to limit the harvesting of certain plants or animals during specific periods reflects an ethical calculus that balances immediate needs with ecosystem regeneration. Furthermore, income generated from artisanal crafts is often redistributed within the community to support vulnerable members, exemplifying ethical economic behavior (Kidd \u0026amp; Kenrick, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec18\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e4.4 Challenges and Adaptations\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eDespite these strengths, Pygmy entrepreneurs face significant challenges. External economic pressures\u0026mdash;such as competition from industrial logging, restrictive land tenure policies, and limited access to formal markets\u0026mdash;impede their capacity to expand entrepreneurial ventures (Barume, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e; ILO, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). Furthermore, social stigmatization and political exclusion exacerbate these barriers, limiting representation in decision-making forums.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn response, communities innovate through informal economies, barter systems, and cooperative networks that bypass formal constraints. Research by Lewis (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e) illustrates how cross-community alliances facilitate resource sharing and collective marketing, demonstrating entrepreneurial resilience.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec19\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e4.5 Implications of Evaluative Tools\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe SCI and EIR frameworks offer practical instruments for policymakers and researchers to evaluate Indigenous entrepreneurship holistically. By foregrounding ecological integrity, cultural values, and ethical decision-making, these tools challenge dominant economic metrics that prioritize profit and growth over sustainability and justice.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eWhile further empirical validation is needed, these indices represent a critical step toward reframing Indigenous economic activities as central components of sustainable development strategies, rather than marginal or \u0026lsquo;subsistence\u0026rsquo; practices.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"5. Policy Implications","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe findings underscore the urgent need for policy frameworks that recognize and support the entrepreneurial capacities of Pygmy communities within the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC). Current development and conservation policies often marginalize these groups by failing to accommodate their distinctive economic practices and knowledge systems. To foster equitable and sustainable development, policymakers must embrace approaches that center Indigenous epistemologies, ethical frameworks, and collective models of entrepreneurship.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec21\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e5.1 Legal Recognition and Land Rights\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eOne of the most pressing issues for Pygmy communities is the lack of secure land tenure and access rights to their ancestral territories (Barume, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2010\u003c/span\u003e; Schroeder \u0026amp; Gonz\u0026aacute;lez, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). Without formal recognition, these communities are vulnerable to displacement from logging, mining, and conservation projects, which undermines both their livelihoods and cultural survival.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003ePolicymakers should prioritize the formalization of Indigenous land rights through participatory mapping, legal reforms, and recognition of customary governance structures. Secure land tenure provides a foundation for sustainable entrepreneurial activities by enabling communities to manage resources autonomously and resist exploitative external pressures (ILO, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e; Lewis, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec22\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e5.2 Inclusive Market Access and Support Services\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eFacilitating access to markets is essential for scaling Pygmy entrepreneurial ventures beyond subsistence levels. However, market engagement must be designed to respect cultural rhythms and social norms, avoiding coercive assimilation into dominant economic systems (Dana \u0026amp; Anderson, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2007\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eSupport programs should include culturally appropriate capacity building, cooperative development, and microfinance schemes tailored to collective ownership and risk-sharing models common among Pygmy groups. Additionally, intermediaries who understand Indigenous contexts can help bridge communication gaps and advocate for fair pricing and terms (Kidd \u0026amp; Kenrick, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2021\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec23\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e5.3 Recognition of Indigenous Knowledge in Policy Design\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eIntegrating Indigenous ecological knowledge into national and regional development strategies promotes more holistic and sustainable outcomes. For example, forest management plans that incorporate Pygmy harvesting protocols can improve conservation effectiveness while safeguarding livelihoods (Akalibey, Hlav\u0026aacute;čkov\u0026aacute;, Schneider, Fialov\u0026aacute;, Darkwah \u0026amp; Ahenkan, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e ; Berkes, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e; Carriere et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003ePolicymakers should institutionalize mechanisms for Indigenous participation in decision-making forums, ensuring that Pygmy voices influence policies affecting their territories and economies. This fosters epistemic justice by valuing Indigenous worldviews alongside scientific expertise (Tuhiwai Smith, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2012\u003c/span\u003e; De Sousa Santos, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2018\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec24\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e5.4 Application of Evaluative Tools in Program Assessment\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe proposed \u003cem\u003eSystemic Coherence Index\u003c/em\u003e (SCI) and \u003cem\u003eEthical Intelligence Rating\u003c/em\u003e (EIR) can be employed by governments, NGOs, and funding agencies to evaluate and monitor the impact of development initiatives on Indigenous entrepreneurship.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eUnlike conventional metrics focused solely on income or production volume, these tools emphasize cultural alignment, ecological sustainability, and ethical governance. Their use can help prevent the unintended consequences of development projects that disrupt social cohesion or degrade natural resources, promoting interventions that are context-sensitive and community-driven (Costanza et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e; Mignolo, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2011\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec25\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e5.5 Supporting Epistemic Sovereignty and Decolonial Futures\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eFinally, policy must advance the broader goal of epistemic sovereignty\u0026mdash;recognizing Pygmy knowledge systems as legitimate and central to Africa\u0026rsquo;s economic and cultural futures (Grosfoguel, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e; Coulthard, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2014\u003c/span\u003e). This requires a paradigm shift away from extractive and assimilationist development models toward approaches that foster pluriversal coexistence and innovation (Hosseini, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR21\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e ; Moleka, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR32\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e ; 2025).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eInvesting in Indigenous-led research, education, and entrepreneurship incubators can empower Pygmy youth and elders alike to sustain and innovate their economic practices on their own terms. Such efforts contribute not only to local well-being but also to global sustainability by preserving biodiversity and cultural diversity in tandem (Westley et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR47\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2013\u003c/span\u003e; Alfred \u0026amp; Corntassel, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"6. Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis study has highlighted the entrepreneurial innovations of Pygmy communities in the Democratic Republic of Congo as dynamic expressions of Indigenous knowledge, ecological stewardship, and cultural resilience. Through a synthesis of ethnographic research, policy analysis, and theoretical perspectives, it has demonstrated that Pygmy economic practices defy conventional notions of entrepreneurship centered on individual profit and market expansion. Instead, these practices prioritize systemic coherence\u0026mdash;integrating environmental sustainability, social equity, and cultural continuity\u0026mdash;and are guided by ethical intelligence deeply embedded in Indigenous cosmologies.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe introduction of the \u003cem\u003eSystemic Coherence Index\u003c/em\u003e (SCI) and \u003cem\u003eEthical Intelligence Rating\u003c/em\u003e (EIR) offers promising evaluative tools to capture the multidimensional qualities of Indigenous entrepreneurship. These frameworks challenge prevailing economic metrics, advocating for assessments that respect Indigenous epistemologies and promote epistemic justice. By embracing such tools, policymakers, researchers, and development practitioners can better support sustainable and culturally congruent economic models that empower marginalized communities.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eHowever, realizing this vision requires significant shifts in policy and practice, particularly regarding land tenure security, inclusive market access, and recognition of Indigenous knowledge in governance. Such changes are essential not only for the survival and flourishing of Pygmy peoples but also for advancing broader goals of sustainable development, biodiversity conservation, and social justice across Africa.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eUltimately, this paper contributes to ongoing efforts to decolonize economic thought and practice, inviting scholars and policymakers to reimagine entrepreneurship through a pluriversal lens\u0026mdash;one that honors diversity, ethics, and the inseparability of people and their environments. Supporting Pygmy entrepreneurship is thus not simply a matter of economic development but a vital step towards epistemic sovereignty, cultural revitalization, and equitable futures for all.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eData Availability Statement (DAS)\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe datasets generated during and/or analysed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEthical Approval and Accordance\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe study protocol was reviewed and approved by the Ethics Committee of the University of Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of Congo, in accordance with the ethical guidelines and regulations for research involving human participants.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConsent to Participate\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eInformed consent to participate in the study was obtained from all individual participants included in the research. For participants under the age of 18, consent was obtained from a parent or legal guardian.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConsent to Publish\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAll participants (or their parents/legal guardians, in the case of minors) provided informed consent for the anonymised data and findings to be published in this manuscript.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eAuthor Contribution\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eP.M. conceived the study, conducted the research, analysed the data, and wrote the manuscript. The author reviewed and approved the final version of the manuscript.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eData Availability\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eData Availability Statement (DAS)The datasets generated during and/or analysed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.Ethical Approval and AccordanceThe study protocol was reviewed and approved by the Ethics Committee of the University of Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of Congo, in accordance with the ethical guidelines and regulations for research involving human participants.Consent to ParticipateInformed consent to participate in the study was obtained from all individual participants included in the research. For participants under the age of 18, consent was obtained from a parent or legal guardian.Consent to PublishAll participants (or their parents/legal guardians, in the case of minors) provided informed consent for the anonymised data and findings to be published in this manuscript.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAkalibey, S., Hlav\u0026aacute;ckov\u0026aacute;, P., Schneider, J., Fialov\u0026aacute;, J., Darkwah, S., \u0026amp; Ahenkan, A. (2024). Integrating indigenous knowledge and culture in sustainable forest management via global environmental policies. \u003cem\u003eJournal of Forest Science\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e70\u003c/em\u003e(6), 265.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAlfred, T., \u0026amp; Corntassel, J. (2005). Being Indigenous: Resurgences against contemporary colonialism. \u003cem\u003eGovernment and Opposition\u003c/em\u003e, 40(4), 597\u0026ndash;614.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAnderson, R. 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Cambridge University Press.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":true,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Pygmy communities, Democratic Republic of Congo, Indigenous knowledge, entrepreneurship, decolonization, epistemic justice, innovation, forest economies, systemic coherence, marginalized communities","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7344308/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-7344308/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003ePygmy communities in the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC)\u0026mdash;including the Aka, Baka, Mbuti, and Twa peoples\u0026mdash;possess some of the most sophisticated ecological knowledge systems in the world. Rooted in forest-based cosmologies, their economic practices combine subsistence, trade, and cultural preservation. Yet, these contributions are systematically undervalued in policy and scholarship, often excluded from dominant definitions of entrepreneurship. Drawing on published ethnographic accounts, development reports, and scholarly analyses, this paper examines how Pygmy communities engage in entrepreneurial activities that embody cultural resilience, ecological stewardship, and social reciprocity. Using a desk-based synthesis of over 50 sources, the study introduces two original evaluative tools\u0026mdash;the \u003cem\u003eSystemic Coherence Index\u003c/em\u003e and the \u003cem\u003eEthical Intelligence Rating\u003c/em\u003e\u0026mdash;to assess Indigenous entrepreneurship beyond Eurocentric economic metrics. It argues that recognising and supporting these models is essential for sustainable development, epistemic justice, and the decolonisation of economic policy in Africa.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Indigenous Knowledge and Entrepreneurial Innovation Among Pygmy Communities in the Democratic Republic of Congo","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-10-23 12:27:47","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7344308/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"researchsquare","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":true,"externalIdentity":"","sideBox":"","snPcode":"","submissionUrl":"/submission","title":"Research Square","twitterHandle":"researchsquare","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":false,"editorialSystem":"","reportingPortfolio":"","inReviewEnabled":false,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"dcff79a4-b398-498c-8f2d-bf1959b751b6","owner":[],"postedDate":"October 23rd, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"posted","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2026-01-28T09:57:03+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2025-10-23 12:27:47","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-7344308","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-7344308","identity":"rs-7344308","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}