Nutrient utilisation and blood metabolites of scavenging chickens across rainy and dry seasons in semi-arid and sub-humid environments

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This study aimed to determine the nutritional status and blood biochemical parameters of scavenging chickens during the rainy and dry seasons in sub-humid and semi-arid areas of KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. A total of 80 scavenging chickens were used. Chickens were slaughtered in the afternoon, and samples from different compartments of the gastrointestinal tract (GIT) were collected and analysed. Blood samples were also collected at slaughter. Results showed that environment and season significantly influenced the nutrient composition of GIT contents and blood metabolites. Chickens from semi-arid environments had higher dry matter, ash, and true metabolisable energy in their GIT contents compared to those from sub-humid areas (P < 0.05). Dry matter, crude fibre, and ether extract levels were higher during the dry season, whereas true metabolisable energy was greater in the rainy season (P < 0.05). Nutrient composition varied across GIT compartments, with dry matter, ash, fat, and crude fibre generally decreasing from the crop to the ileum (P < 0.05) but increasing in the cecum, reflecting microbial fermentation activity. Blood biochemical analysis indicated that chickens in the sub-humid environment had higher total protein, globulin, albumin, and triglycerides compared to those in the semi-arid environment (P < 0.05). Seasonal effects showed higher total protein, globulin, cholesterol, triglycerides, and uric acid during the rainy season (P < 0.05), while albumin was higher in the dry season (P < 0.05). These findings reveal important variations in the nutritional and physiological status of scavenging chickens across environments and seasons, which should be considered when designing feed supplementation strategies. Blood metabolites Dry season Gastrointestinal tract Rainy season Semi-arid environment Sub-humid environment Introduction The production of village chickens plays a significant role in the livelihoods of many rural households in South Africa, especially those headed by women (Mtileni et al., 2013). These chickens are a vital source of high-quality protein through meat and eggs (Tenza et al., 2023 ), helping to alleviate malnutrition and food insecurity. Beyond nutrition, they serve important socio-economic functions such as generating income during periods of hardship and fulfilling cultural and ceremonial roles (Tenza et al., 2024 ). However, the growing dominance of commercial broiler systems is gradually eroding traditional village chicken production, underlining the urgency to preserve and improve these resilient systems. A key challenge in scavenging chicken production is the lack of proper supplementary feeding, which is either neglected or poorly applied (Berukilukilu et al., 2024 ). Scavenging remains the primary feeding strategy, with birds consuming diverse materials such as insects, worms, grasses, kitchen waste, and crop residues (Mokonnen et al., 2010; Prakash et al., 2020 ). While this feeding approach is low-cost and practical, its nutrient supply is inconsistent and heavily influenced by season and vegetation type (Raphulu et al., 2015 ). Although it is commonly believed that village chickens have adapted genetically to these harsh conditions, this perception often leads to the neglect of their nutritional needs, limiting their production potential. Most previous studies have extensively focused on physically and nutritionally identifying scavenged feed ingredients through crop content analysis (Mwalusanya et al., 2002 ; Pousga et al., 2005 ; Mokonnen et al., 2010; Ncobela and Chimonyo, 2016 ; Prakash et al., 2020 ). While informative, this approach provides only a snapshot of recently ingested material and does not reflect the extent of nutrient digestion, absorption, or utilization along the digestive tract. To address this limitation, it is important to analyse GIT contents across different compartments, from the crop to the cecum, to gain a more complete understanding of how scavenged nutrients are processed and utilized by the bird. In addition, analysing blood biochemical parameters is essential for assessing the metabolic and nutritional status of scavenging chickens. Unlike crop content, blood metabolites reflect integrated, longer-term nutrient use, providing deeper insight into whether absorbed nutrients meet physiological requirements (Gudiso et al., 2019 ). Blood biochemistry, therefore, serves as a valuable tool in identifying nutritional imbalances or deficiencies that may not be apparent from feed analysis alone. This study aims to investigate the effect of season and ecological zones on the serum biochemistry and gastrointestinal nutrient changes of scavenging village chickens. Seasonal variations and differences in ecological zones are likely to influence feed availability, nutrient intake, and metabolic responses, which are critical for designing effective feeding strategies. However, it could be argued that reliance on scavenging might remain the most practical and sustainable approach for village chicken production, as supplementary feeding may introduce costs that are not economically feasible for rural farmers. In addition, the inherent adaptability of these chickens raises questions about whether interventions such as supplementary feeding are necessary or whether their natural scavenging behaviours should be optimized. Despite these considerations, understanding the nutritional dynamics across seasons and environments can inform targeted interventions that enhance productivity without undermining the cost-effectiveness of village chicken production. The findings of this study are expected to provide critical insights into the nutritional management of village chickens, ultimately contributing to improved production systems in rural settings. Materials and Methods Study site The study was conducted in two distinct vegetation types of KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa, classified based on rainfall patterns and vegetation types. These zones were the subhumid region of Empangeni and the semi-arid region of Nquthu. Nquthu is situated in the uMzinyathi District, KwaZulu-Natal Province, South Africa, with GPS coordinates of S 28.232° E 30.566°. This region receives an average annual rainfall of 603 mm, with the majority occurring during mid-summer. The average temperatures range from 19°C in June to 25.8°C in January. Empangeni, located in northeastern KwaZulu-Natal (GPS coordinates S 28.45° E 31.54°), experiences a subtropical climate with annual rainfall averaging 948 mm. The region's temperatures typically range from 29°C during the rainy season to 23°C in the cool, dry season. Ethical clearance Ethical approval for the study was obtained from the University of Zululand Ethics Committee (UZREC 171110-030 PGM 2021/52). Experimental design and sampling procedure Households owning scavenging chickens and willing to participate in the study were identified using a snowball sampling technique. A total of 80 scavenging hens weighing were selected for the study, with sampling conducted across two seasons (rainy and cool-dry). Two hens were slaughtered per day from each of 20 households per location during each season. The same households were revisited in different seasons to minimize variation in supplementary feeding and housing practices. All hens selected for the study had completed at least one laying cycle, as per the criteria outlined by Ncobela and Chimonyo ( 2016 ). Slaughtering procedure Hens were slaughtered by cervical dislocation using a sharp knife, followed by feather plucking after immersion in hot water. The digestive tract was collected immediately after evisceration. Sampling was conducted in July (dry season) and November (rainy season). The gastrointestinal tract of each bird was carefully double-tied at the beginning and end of each segment to prevent content mixing. The tract was divided into four segments: crop, proventriculus gizzard, duodenum, jejunum, ileum, and cecum. Contents from each segment were stored in polyethylene containers, kept in cooler boxes with ice, and later frozen at -18°C for chemical analysis. The crop content was analysed to determine the nutrient composition of scavenged feed. Blood collection Blood samples (± 5 mL) were collected during slaughter from all chickens, in the afternoon (after scavenging). Blood was drawn into coagulated red-lid tubes containing clot activators. Samples were stored in a cooler box with ice and transported to the laboratory for analysis. In the laboratory, samples were centrifuged at 3000 rpm for 15 minutes to separate serum. The serum was stored in yellow-lid tubes at -24°C for further analysis. The serum was analysed spectrophotometrically for total protein and albumin concentrations (Doumas & Biggs, 1972 ). Globulin levels were calculated by subtracting albumin from total protein concentrations. Cholesterol, uric acid, triglycerides, and calcium levels were determined following the protocols outlined by Sigma Chemical Co. Manual. Gastrointestinal tract analysis Gastrointestinal samples were analysed in the science laboratory at the University of Zululand. Prior to analysis, samples were dried in an oven at 80°C and ground using a 1 mm sieve. Analyses were conducted in triplicate. The contents of each gastrointestinal segment were examined for dry matter, ash content, crude protein, ether extract, fibre, and total metabolizable energy (TME). Dry matter and ash contents were determined following AOAC standards (2005). Crude protein was analysed using the combustion (DUMAS) method with a LECO Truspec Nitrogen Analyzer (2013). Ether extract was assessed using AOAC method 920.29 (1990), while crude fibre analysis followed the Van Soest method developed in 1991. TME was calculated using the method described by Wiseman (1987). Statistical analysis All data were analysed using the General Linear Model procedure in SAS ( 2008 ). Nutritional composition data from gastrointestinal tract contents and blood metabolites were subjected to analysis of variance. Least square means were generated, and pairwise comparisons were conducted using the PDIFF option in SAS. The statistical model used was: Y ijk = µ + S i +B j +(S×B) ij +ε ijk , where, Y ijk is an observation for a nutritional composition of the contents and blood metabolites, µ is the overall mean, Si is the effect of i th season, Bj is the effect environment, ( S × B × T )ijk the interaction of season and environment, e ijkl is the random error. Results Nutritional status of scavenging chickens Table 1 shows the effect of environment, season, and segment on nutrient composition of contents from different compartments of GIT of scavenging chickens. The environment had influence on dry matter, ash and true metabolisable energy ( P < 0.05) of contents from GIT of scavenging chickens. Dry matter was higher ( P < 0.05) from GIT content in semi-arid than sub-humid environments. Ash content was higher ( P < 0.05) from GIT content in semi-arid than sub-humid environments. Chickens raised in semi-arid environment had higher ( P < 0.05) true metabolisable energy from GIT content than those raised in sub-humid environments. Season caused changes ( P < 0.05) in dry matter, ether extract, crude fibre and true metabolisable energy of GIT content. Dry matter, crude fibre and ether extract levels were high during dry season than rainy season ( P < 0.05). True metabolisable energy was higher ( P < 0.05) in rainy season compared to dry season. Table 1 The effect of environment, season, and segment on nutrient composition of GIT contents of scavenging chickens Nutrient composition Environment Season Compartment p -value Sub-humid Semi-arid Rainy Dry Crop Proventriculus Gizzard Duodenum Jejunum Ileum Cecum Environment Season Segment DM (%) 28 ± 5 37 ± 6.9 29 ± 5.4 39 ± 10.0 41 ± 6.46 a 35 ± 7.5 b 23 ± 5.10 c 19 ± 5.5 d 15.8 ± 10 e 12.9 ± 6.9 f 19 ± 4.2 d < .0001 < .0001 < .0001 Ash (%) 39 ± 9.5 24 ± 11 31 ± 13.3 30 ± 12.3 44 ± 19.3 a 36 ± 16.4 b 19 ± 8.6 c 13 ± 11 d 11 ± 4.0 e 10 ± 4.0 e 11 ± 3.8 e < .0001 0.1896 < .0001 EE (%) 5.1 ± 4.6 4.9 ± 2.0 6.3 ± 4.3 3.8 ± 2.2 7.9 ± 3.5 a 7.6 ± 4.0 a 5.9 ± 4.2 b 3.4 ± 2.0 c 2.5 ± 1.6 d 1.9 ± 1.6 e 1.1 ± 0.9 f 0.1946 < .0001 < .0001 CF (%) 21 ± 0.3 21 ± 0.7 19 ± 3.6 22 ± 1.6 21 ± 2.9 a 17 ± 5.3 b 16 ± 3.4 b 14 ± 1.9 c 11 ± 2.4 d 11 ± 2.4 e 14 ± 3.1 c 0.2844 0.0401 0.0216 CP (%) 29 ± 14.8 31 ± 14.2 31 ± 11 33 ± 17.6 48 ± 3.2 a 39 ± 4.0 b 36 ± 4.2 c 29 ± 12 d 25 ± 4.0 e 20 ± 4.0 f 15 ± 2.5 g 0.2686 0.4638 < .0001 TME (MJ/kg) 13 ± 1.4 17 ± 1.4 16 ± 1.5 12 ± 0.6 17 ± 1.7 a 16 ± 1.8 ab 15 ± 0.7 b 12 ± 0.3 c 10 ± 0.4 d 8.2 ± 0.4 e 4.5 ± 05 f < .0001 < .0001 0.0008 Values in the same row with different superscript letters differ (P < 0.05); GIT = gastrointestinal tract; DM = dry matter; EE = ether extract; CF = crude fibre; CP = crude protein; TME = True metabolisable energy. Compartments of the GIT affected nutrient composition of contents ( P < 0.05). The compartment of the digestive tract had a significant effect ( P < 0.05) on dry matter, ash, ether extract, crude fibre, crude protein and true metabolisable energy. Dry matter decreased from the crop to the Ileum ( P < 0.05) with all compartments differing significantly. However, A slight increase in dry matter was observed in cecum ( P < 0.05). Ash content also showed a similar pattern ( P < 0.05), with the highest value in the crop and the lowest in the Ileum and cecum. Ether extracts also declined from crop to cecum ( P < 0.05) with crop and proventriculus not significantly different. Crude fibre content decreased from the crop to the ileum ( P < 0.05). However in the cecum, crude fibre increased. Crude protein dropped from the crop to the cecum ( P < 0.05). True metabolisable energy decreased from crop to cecum ( P < 0.05), with gizzard and duodenum showing limited differences. Table 2 shows interaction effect among environment, season, and digestive tract segment ( P < 0.05). Dry matter was affected three interactions of environment × season, environment × segment, and season × segment ( P < 0.05). For ash content, only the environment × segment interaction was significant ( P < 0.05), In contrast, ether extract and crude protein were highly responsive to all interaction effects ( P < 0.05). Crude fibre was affected ( P < 0.05) by environment × season and environment × segment. True metabolisable energy was influenced by environment × season and season × segment. Table 2 Probability values of the interactions among environment, season, and segment on nutrient composition of GIT contents of scavenging chickens Nutrient composition Environment× Season Environment× Segment Season× Segment Dry matter < .0001 0.0193 0.0015 Ash 0.1553 < .0001 0.7741 Crude fat < .0001 < .0001 < .0001 Crude fibre < .0001 < .0001 0.9712 Crude Protein < .0001 < .0001 < .0001 True metabolisable energy < .0001 0.1026 < .0001 GIT = gastrointestinal tract Nutrition related blood metabolites Table 3 display the effect of environment and season on nutrition-related blood metabolites of scavenging chickens. The environment had a notable influence on most blood metabolites. Chickens raised in the sub-humid environment had higher concentrations of total protein, globulin, and albumin than those in the semi-arid environment ( P < 0.05). Triglyceride levels were significantly higher in sub-humid chickens compared to semi-arid ones. Total protein was significantly higher during the rainy season compared to the dry season. Similarly, globulin concentration was elevated in the rainy season relative to the dry season ( P < 0.05). Conversely, albumin showed an opposite trend, with higher levels observed in the dry season than in the rainy season ( P < 0.05). Cholesterol levels were significantly higher during the rainy season than in the dry season, and triglycerides also followed this pattern ( P < 0.05). Uric acid was significantly higher in the rainy season compared to the dry season. Only albumin showed a significant interaction between environment and season. Table 3 The effect of environment and season on nutrition-related blood metabolites of scavenging chickens. Blood metabolites Environment Season p -value Sub-humid Semi-arid SEM Rainy Dry SEM Environment Season Environment × Season Total protein (g/L) 44.8 40.5 0.05 45.6 38.7 0.04 < .0001 < .0001 0.7403 Globulin (g/L) 25.3 22.2 0.03 31.1 15.5 0.02 < .0001 < .0001 0.1947 Albumin (g/L) 19.5 18.3 0.06 14.5 23.2 0.04 < .0001 < .0001 0.0225 Cholesterol (mmol/L) 2.96 2.98 0.03 3.35 2.29 0.03 0.6391 < .0001 0.5533 Triglycerides (mmol/L) 1.07 0.44 0.03 0.91 0.62 0.05 < .0001 0.0001 0.7192 Uric Acid (mmol/L) 0.25 0.26 0.04 0.35 0.17 0.04 0.8603 0.0024 0.7051 Calcium (mmol/L) 3.06 3.14 0.06 3.09 3.07 0.03 0.3497 0.6391 0.3066 SEM = Standard error mean Table 4 is reporting the effect of season on nutrient-related blood metabolites of scavenging chickens raised in the sub-humid environment. In the sub-humid environment, season had a significant effect on most nutrient-related blood metabolites of scavenging chickens. Total protein levels were significantly higher ( P < 0.05) in the rainy season compared to the dry season. Similarly, globulin concentrations were markedly higher ( P < 0.05) in the rainy season than in the dry season. In contrast, albumin was significantly higher in the dry season compared to the rainy season. Cholesterol levels were also elevated ( P < 0.05) during the rainy season relative to the dry season. A similar seasonal pattern was observed for triglycerides, with higher values in the rainy season than in the dry season ( P < 0.05). Uric acid was significantly higher in the rainy season compared to the dry season. Table 5 highlights the effect of season on nutrient-related blood metabolites of scavenging chickens raised in the semi-arid environment. Total protein was significantly higher during the rainy season than in the dry season ( P < 0.05). Globulin levels followed the same trend, increasing from 13 g/L in the dry season to 31 g/L in the rainy season ( P < 0.05). Conversely, albumin was significantly higher in the dry season than in the rainy season ( P < 0.05). Cholesterol concentrations were also significantly higher in the rainy season compared to the dry season ( P < 0.05). However, triglyceride levels showed a different pattern, being significantly higher in the dry season than in the rainy season ( P < 0.05). Uric acid levels were also significantly elevated during the rainy season versus the dry season. Table 4 The effect season on nutrient-related blood metabolites of scavenging chickens raised sub-humid environment. Season Blood metabolites Rainy Dry Mean Standard Error p -value Total protein (g/L) 46 42 0.02 0.0058 Globulin (g/L) 31 18 0.01 < .0001 Albumin (g/L) 15 24 0.02 < .0001 Cholesterol (mmol/L) 3.27 2.64 0.03 0.0442 Triglycerides (mmol/L) 1.6 0.5 0.02 0.0153 Uric Acid (mmol/L) 0.31 0.17 0.03 0.0174 Calcium (mmol/L) 3.08 2.95 0.01 0.0801 Table 5 The effect season on nutrient-related blood metabolites of scavenging chickens raised semi-arid environment. Season Blood metabolites Rainy Dry Mean Standard Error p -value Total protein 45 35 0.03 < .0001 Globulin 31 13 0.01 < .0001 Albumin (g/L) 14 22 0.03 < .0001 Cholesterol (mmol/L) 3.42 2.54 0.02 0.0242 Triglycerides (mmol/L) 0.15 0.73 0.01 0.0153 Uric Acid (mmol/L) 0.38 0.16 0.02 < .0001 Calcium 3.1 3.19 0.02 0.1001 Discussion To accurately supplement scavenging chickens, it is important to first understand their nutritional status. This understanding should not rely solely on the physical and chemical analysis of crop contents but should also include an examination of different segments of the digestive tract. In addition, assessing blood biochemical parameters provides valuable insights into the nutritional and physiological status of scavenging chickens. The high dry matter content observed in the gastrointestinal contents of scavenging chickens during the dry season supports the findings of Mekonnen et al. (2010), who associated this trend with the post-harvest period. In semi-arid regions, the elevated dry matter content is likely due to the greater availability of fibrous vegetation and crop residues, while green feed becomes limited due to reduced rainfall. This study reports, for the first time, changes in the nutrient profile of digesta across different gastrointestinal segments in scavenging chickens. A steady decline in dry matter content from the crop to the ileum suggests that these birds are efficient in utilizing diets with low nutrient density, a trait well-suited to scavenging conditions. This trend aligns with the known physiological functions of each digestive segment (Huang et al., 2022 ). Higher ash content observed in the digesta of chickens from sub-humid regions indicates the birds’ ability to scavenge mineral-rich feed resources. Similar findings were reported by Berukilukilu et al. ( 2024 ). The significant decline in ash content along the digestive tract suggests effective absorption and metabolism of minerals. Common scavenged mineral sources include green leaves, small stones, and grit, which have previously been observed in the crop (Mwalusanya et al., 2022; Minh et al., 2006 ). Fat content was higher during the rainy season, likely due to increased consumption of insects and worms, which are rich in fat (Ncobela & Chimonyo, 2016 ). The gradual decline in fat content along the digestive tract indicates efficient digestion and absorption by scavenging chickens. Since fat-rich feed resources are not always readily available, these birds appear to optimize fat utilization when such feedstuffs are encountered. Interestingly, high fibre content in the gastrointestinal tract segments during the dry season contradicts the findings of Ncobela & Chimonyo ( 2016 ) and Mwalusanya et al. ( 2002 ), who reported higher fibre levels during the rainy season. However, in many rural settings, the dry season coincides with the post-harvest period, allowing chickens to scavenge fibrous crop residues such as maize husks, sorghum stalks, and groundnut shells. The gradual decline in fibre concentration from the crop to the ileum may be attributed to mechanical breakdown and microbial activity in the upper digestive tract. Although the precise mechanism is not fully understood, scavenging chickens appear to utilize dietary fibre more efficiently than expected (Ginindza et al., 2022 ). Elevated fibre levels in the caecal contents reflect the role of the cecum as the primary site of microbial fermentation, where undigested fibre is further broken down and absorbed. Crude protein declines from the crop to the cecum is due to digestion and absorption along the GIT but mainly in the small intestine (Huang et al., 2022 ). Crude protein appears higher in the cecum because of microbial protein and endogenous nitrogen, not undigested feed (Qaisrani et al., 2015 ). The high TME during dry season is caused by the high consumption of grains which had just been harvested and were given to the birds in larger amounts than during the other seasons of the year (Dessie & Ogle, 2000 ). To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study that reports nutritional related blood metabolites of scavenging village chickens. Higher levels of total protein, albumin, and globulin in scavenging chickens from the sub-humid region may be due to better feed availability and quality compared to semi-arid areas. The sub-humid environment supports more lush vegetation such as sand bush veld and foothill wooded grasslands (Zindove & Chimonyo, 2015 ) and diverse scavenging material, including insects and plant-based proteins. This enhances overall protein intake and metabolic function, leading to increased synthesis of blood proteins (Gudiso et al., 2019 ). During the rainy season, the abundance of fresh forage, insects, and worms boosts dietary protein intake of scavenging chickens (Raphulu et al., 2015 ). This improves liver function and immune response, reflected in elevated albumin and globulin levels. The rainy season may also expose birds to more environmental stressors or pathogens, stimulating globulin production as part of the immune defence. The elevated cholesterol levels during the rainy season may be linked to increased intake of insects, worms, and other animal-based protein sources, which are more abundant during wet conditions. These natural protein sources contain higher fat and cholesterol, contributing to increased blood cholesterol in indigenous chickens. High triglyceride levels during the rainy season may result from increased intake of energy-rich scavenged feed, such as insects, seeds, and young plant shoots. The abundance of feed improves energy intake, leading to higher fat deposition and circulating triglyceride. High triglyceride levels in chickens from the semi-arid region may reflect a stress-induced metabolic response to limited and irregular feed availability. In such environments, birds often experience periods of feed scarcity, leading to mobilization of body fat reserves. This results in elevated blood triglycerides as the body compensates for energy shortages. In addition, scavenged diets in semi-arid areas contain dry, energy-dense materials such as grains and residues (Berukilukilu et al., 2024 ), which can also contribute to higher triglyceride levels. High uric acid levels during the rainy season may result from increased intake of protein-rich scavenged feed, such as insects, worms, and legumes, which are more abundant in rainy conditions (Ncobela & Chimonyo, 2016 ). Excess dietary protein leads to greater nitrogen metabolism, and in birds, nitrogen is excreted as uric acid (Fonseca & Rodrigues, 2017 ). Therefore, the rise in uric acid reflects enhanced protein intake and metabolism. In addition, mild immune challenges common in rainy conditions may also contribute to elevated uric acid as part of the bird's physiological response. Conclusion This study highlights the importance of using both gut content and blood biochemical analysis to understand the nutritional status of scavenging indigenous chickens. Such a combined approach provides deeper insight into how these birds adapt to varying feed quality across regions and seasons. Indigenous chickens show remarkable efficiency in utilizing low-input diets, but their nutritional status is strongly influenced by environmental conditions. Rather than applying blanket feeding strategies, targeted supplementation that considers seasonal feed availability and regional differences is essential. The inclusion of blood metabolites offers early indicators of nutrient adequacy or stress, which can guide timely nutritional interventions. Declarations Acknowledgements I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my supervisors, Prof. N.W. Kunene and Dr. C.N. Ncobela, for their continuous guidance, support, and mentorship throughout the course of this study. Special thanks go to the University of Zululand, Department of Agriculture, and the National Research Foundation [Grant number: MND190414430310] for their financial support, which made this research possible. Authors contributions Siwela N.S. collected the data and conducted the laboratory analyses. Ncobela C.N. and F. Thabethe assisted with statistical analysis and interpretation of the results. Kunene N.W. facilitated the ethical clearance process and provided financial support for the study. All authors reviewed and approved the final manuscript. Declaration of conflict of interest There is no conflict of interest. Data availability statement The data is available upon request Top of Form Use of Artificial Intelligence statement The artificial intelligent was NOT used to write this manuscript. References AOAC, 1990. Official Methods of Analysis, 15th edn (Washington, DC, Association of Official Analytical Chemists). Berukilukilu, L. T., Bakare, A. G., Iji, P. A., & Zindove, T. 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Methods of dietary fibre, neutral detergent fibre, and non-starch polysaccharides in relation to animal nutrition. Journal of Dairy Science, 74, 3583–3597. Zindove, T. J., & Chimonyo, M., 2015. Comparison of trait preferences of Nguni farmers located in semi-arid and sub-humid environments. Tropical animal health and production, 47, 607–611. Cite Share Download PDF Status: Published Journal Publication published 28 Nov, 2025 Read the published version in Tropical Animal Health and Production → Version 1 posted Reviewers agreed at journal 02 Aug, 2025 Reviewers invited by journal 31 Jul, 2025 Editor assigned by journal 12 Jul, 2025 First submitted to journal 11 Jul, 2025 You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-7095742","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":493940925,"identity":"ca758374-79ae-4fc5-bfcb-9193e7283e14","order_by":0,"name":"Nosipho Sithembele Siwela","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"University of Zululand","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Nosipho","middleName":"Sithembele","lastName":"Siwela","suffix":""},{"id":493940926,"identity":"46166893-1189-441f-9f93-236241499902","order_by":1,"name":"Cyprial Ndumiso Ncobela","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAA1ElEQVRIiWNgGAWjYFCCBDBisG9mPgCkJGSI12LA3gaiJHiI0wICBjxnDEA0YS3m7DmmGx78sckzl8j5/OpGjQUPA/vhoxvwabHseWN2I7EtrdhyRu4265xjQIfxpKXdwKfF4EYOUEvD4cSGG7nbjHPYgFokeMwIa0n4A9KS88w45x/RWtgOJ244c4b5cW4bMVrOPCsD+SVxZnubGXNunwQPG0G/HE/edvPHH5vEfmbmx59zvtXJ8bMfPoZXCzJgkwCTxCoHAeYPpKgeBaNgFIyCkQMAIHpOedRN++YAAAAASUVORK5CYII=","orcid":"https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6362-7458","institution":"Agricultural Research Council","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Cyprial","middleName":"Ndumiso","lastName":"Ncobela","suffix":""},{"id":493940927,"identity":"ed3c66fd-fb81-475e-8877-8163052e62cc","order_by":2,"name":"Nokuthula Winfred Kunene","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"University of Zululand","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Nokuthula","middleName":"Winfred","lastName":"Kunene","suffix":""},{"id":493940928,"identity":"08cd76d0-39df-4901-811b-6cf81bd48cef","order_by":3,"name":"Fortune Thabethe","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"University of Zululand","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Fortune","middleName":"","lastName":"Thabethe","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2025-07-10 19:16:45","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7095742/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-7095742/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[{"content":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s11250-025-04784-y","type":"published","date":"2025-11-28T15:57:27+00:00"}],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":97178349,"identity":"0ba201c3-4fb1-452f-b454-1f1f62409b5b","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-01 16:08:40","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":751927,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7095742/v1/33c3bd85-68cc-44cb-87eb-4b291eaad088.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"","formattedTitle":"Nutrient utilisation and blood metabolites of scavenging chickens across rainy and dry seasons in semi-arid and sub-humid environments","fulltext":[{"header":"Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe production of village chickens plays a significant role in the livelihoods of many rural households in South Africa, especially those headed by women (Mtileni et al., 2013). These chickens are a vital source of high-quality protein through meat and eggs (Tenza et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2023\u003c/span\u003e), helping to alleviate malnutrition and food insecurity. Beyond nutrition, they serve important socio-economic functions such as generating income during periods of hardship and fulfilling cultural and ceremonial roles (Tenza et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). However, the growing dominance of commercial broiler systems is gradually eroding traditional village chicken production, underlining the urgency to preserve and improve these resilient systems.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eA key challenge in scavenging chicken production is the lack of proper supplementary feeding, which is either neglected or poorly applied (Berukilukilu et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). Scavenging remains the primary feeding strategy, with birds consuming diverse materials such as insects, worms, grasses, kitchen waste, and crop residues (Mokonnen et al., 2010; Prakash et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). While this feeding approach is low-cost and practical, its nutrient supply is inconsistent and heavily influenced by season and vegetation type (Raphulu et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e). Although it is commonly believed that village chickens have adapted genetically to these harsh conditions, this perception often leads to the neglect of their nutritional needs, limiting their production potential.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eMost previous studies have extensively focused on physically and nutritionally identifying scavenged feed ingredients through crop content analysis (Mwalusanya et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2002\u003c/span\u003e; Pousga et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2005\u003c/span\u003e; Mokonnen et al., 2010; Ncobela and Chimonyo, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e; Prakash et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2020\u003c/span\u003e). While informative, this approach provides only a snapshot of recently ingested material and does not reflect the extent of nutrient digestion, absorption, or utilization along the digestive tract. To address this limitation, it is important to analyse GIT contents across different compartments, from the crop to the cecum, to gain a more complete understanding of how scavenged nutrients are processed and utilized by the bird. In addition, analysing blood biochemical parameters is essential for assessing the metabolic and nutritional status of scavenging chickens. Unlike crop content, blood metabolites reflect integrated, longer-term nutrient use, providing deeper insight into whether absorbed nutrients meet physiological requirements (Gudiso et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). Blood biochemistry, therefore, serves as a valuable tool in identifying nutritional imbalances or deficiencies that may not be apparent from feed analysis alone.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis study aims to investigate the effect of season and ecological zones on the serum biochemistry and gastrointestinal nutrient changes of scavenging village chickens. Seasonal variations and differences in ecological zones are likely to influence feed availability, nutrient intake, and metabolic responses, which are critical for designing effective feeding strategies. However, it could be argued that reliance on scavenging might remain the most practical and sustainable approach for village chicken production, as supplementary feeding may introduce costs that are not economically feasible for rural farmers. In addition, the inherent adaptability of these chickens raises questions about whether interventions such as supplementary feeding are necessary or whether their natural scavenging behaviours should be optimized. Despite these considerations, understanding the nutritional dynamics across seasons and environments can inform targeted interventions that enhance productivity without undermining the cost-effectiveness of village chicken production. The findings of this study are expected to provide critical insights into the nutritional management of village chickens, ultimately contributing to improved production systems in rural settings.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Materials and Methods","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eStudy site\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe study was conducted in two distinct vegetation types of KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa, classified based on rainfall patterns and vegetation types. These zones were the subhumid region of Empangeni and the semi-arid region of Nquthu. Nquthu is situated in the uMzinyathi District, KwaZulu-Natal Province, South Africa, with GPS coordinates of S 28.232\u0026deg; E 30.566\u0026deg;. This region receives an average annual rainfall of 603 mm, with the majority occurring during mid-summer. The average temperatures range from 19\u0026deg;C in June to 25.8\u0026deg;C in January. Empangeni, located in northeastern KwaZulu-Natal (GPS coordinates S 28.45\u0026deg; E 31.54\u0026deg;), experiences a subtropical climate with annual rainfall averaging 948 mm. The region's temperatures typically range from 29\u0026deg;C during the rainy season to 23\u0026deg;C in the cool, dry season.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eEthical clearance\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eEthical approval for the study was obtained from the University of Zululand Ethics Committee (UZREC 171110-030 PGM 2021/52).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eExperimental design and sampling procedure\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eHouseholds owning scavenging chickens and willing to participate in the study were identified using a snowball sampling technique. A total of 80 scavenging hens weighing were selected for the study, with sampling conducted across two seasons (rainy and cool-dry). Two hens were slaughtered per day from each of 20 households per location during each season. The same households were revisited in different seasons to minimize variation in supplementary feeding and housing practices. All hens selected for the study had completed at least one laying cycle, as per the criteria outlined by Ncobela and Chimonyo (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eSlaughtering procedure\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eHens were slaughtered by cervical dislocation using a sharp knife, followed by feather plucking after immersion in hot water. The digestive tract was collected immediately after evisceration. Sampling was conducted in July (dry season) and November (rainy season). The gastrointestinal tract of each bird was carefully double-tied at the beginning and end of each segment to prevent content mixing. The tract was divided into four segments: crop, proventriculus gizzard, duodenum, jejunum, ileum, and cecum. Contents from each segment were stored in polyethylene containers, kept in cooler boxes with ice, and later frozen at -18\u0026deg;C for chemical analysis. The crop content was analysed to determine the nutrient composition of scavenged feed.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eBlood collection\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eBlood samples (\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;5 mL) were collected during slaughter from all chickens, in the afternoon (after scavenging). Blood was drawn into coagulated red-lid tubes containing clot activators. Samples were stored in a cooler box with ice and transported to the laboratory for analysis. In the laboratory, samples were centrifuged at 3000 rpm for 15 minutes to separate serum. The serum was stored in yellow-lid tubes at -24\u0026deg;C for further analysis. The serum was analysed spectrophotometrically for total protein and albumin concentrations (Doumas \u0026amp; Biggs, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1972\u003c/span\u003e). Globulin levels were calculated by subtracting albumin from total protein concentrations. Cholesterol, uric acid, triglycerides, and calcium levels were determined following the protocols outlined by Sigma Chemical Co. Manual.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eGastrointestinal tract analysis\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eGastrointestinal samples were analysed in the science laboratory at the University of Zululand. Prior to analysis, samples were dried in an oven at 80\u0026deg;C and ground using a 1 mm sieve. Analyses were conducted in triplicate. The contents of each gastrointestinal segment were examined for dry matter, ash content, crude protein, ether extract, fibre, and total metabolizable energy (TME). Dry matter and ash contents were determined following AOAC standards (2005). Crude protein was analysed using the combustion (DUMAS) method with a LECO Truspec Nitrogen Analyzer (2013). Ether extract was assessed using AOAC method 920.29 (1990), while crude fibre analysis followed the Van Soest method developed in 1991. TME was calculated using the method described by Wiseman (1987).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eStatistical analysis\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eAll data were analysed using the General Linear Model procedure in SAS (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2008\u003c/span\u003e). Nutritional composition data from gastrointestinal tract contents and blood metabolites were subjected to analysis of variance. Least square means were generated, and pairwise comparisons were conducted using the PDIFF option in SAS. The statistical model used was:\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eY\u003csub\u003eijk\u003c/sub\u003e\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;\u0026micro;\u0026thinsp;+\u0026thinsp;S\u003csub\u003ei\u003c/sub\u003e+B\u003csub\u003ej\u003c/sub\u003e+(S\u0026times;B)\u003csub\u003eij\u003c/sub\u003e+ε\u003csub\u003eijk\u003c/sub\u003e,\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003ewhere,\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eY\u003csub\u003eijk\u003c/sub\u003e is an observation for a nutritional composition of the contents and blood metabolites,\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026micro;\u003c/em\u003e is the overall mean,\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eSi\u003c/em\u003e is the effect of i\u003csup\u003eth\u003c/sup\u003e season,\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eBj\u003c/em\u003e is the effect environment,\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e(\u003cem\u003eS\u003c/em\u003e \u0026times; \u003cem\u003eB \u0026times; T\u003c/em\u003e)ijk the interaction of season and environment,\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003ee\u003csub\u003eijkl\u003c/sub\u003e is the random error.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"Results","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eNutritional status of scavenging chickens\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eTable\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e shows the effect of environment, season, and segment on nutrient composition of contents from different compartments of GIT of scavenging chickens. The environment had influence on dry matter, ash and true metabolisable energy (\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05) of contents from GIT of scavenging chickens. Dry matter was higher (\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05) from GIT content in semi-arid than sub-humid environments. Ash content was higher (\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05) from GIT content in semi-arid than sub-humid environments. Chickens raised in semi-arid environment had higher (\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05) true metabolisable energy from GIT content than those raised in sub-humid environments. Season caused changes (\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05) in dry matter, ether extract, crude fibre and true metabolisable energy of GIT content. Dry matter, crude fibre and ether extract levels were high during dry season than rainy season (\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05). True metabolisable energy was higher (\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05) in rainy season compared to dry season.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe effect of environment, season, and segment on nutrient composition of GIT contents of scavenging chickens\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"15\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c9\" colnum=\"9\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c10\" colnum=\"10\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c11\" colnum=\"11\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c12\" colnum=\"12\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c13\" colnum=\"13\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c14\" colnum=\"14\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c15\" colnum=\"15\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNutrient composition\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c3\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEnvironment\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSeason\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"7\" nameend=\"c12\" namest=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCompartment\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c15\" namest=\"c13\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e-value\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan type=\"Underline\" class=\"Underline\" name=\"Emphasis\"\u003eSub-humid\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan type=\"Underline\" class=\"Underline\" name=\"Emphasis\"\u003eSemi-arid\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan type=\"Underline\" class=\"Underline\" name=\"Emphasis\"\u003eRainy\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan type=\"Underline\" class=\"Underline\" name=\"Emphasis\"\u003eDry\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan type=\"Underline\" class=\"Underline\" name=\"Emphasis\"\u003eCrop\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan type=\"Underline\" class=\"Underline\" name=\"Emphasis\"\u003eProventriculus\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan type=\"Underline\" class=\"Underline\" name=\"Emphasis\"\u003eGizzard\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan type=\"Underline\" class=\"Underline\" name=\"Emphasis\"\u003eDuodenum\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan type=\"Underline\" class=\"Underline\" name=\"Emphasis\"\u003eJejunum\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan type=\"Underline\" class=\"Underline\" name=\"Emphasis\"\u003eIleum\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan type=\"Underline\" class=\"Underline\" name=\"Emphasis\"\u003eCecum\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan type=\"Underline\" class=\"Underline\" name=\"Emphasis\"\u003eEnvironment\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan type=\"Underline\" class=\"Underline\" name=\"Emphasis\"\u003eSeason\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan type=\"Underline\" class=\"Underline\" name=\"Emphasis\"\u003eSegment\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDM (%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e28\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e37\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;6.9\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e29\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;5.4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e39\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;10.0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e41\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;6.46\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e35\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;7.5\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e23\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;5.10\u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e19\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;5.5\u003csup\u003ed\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e15.8\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;10\u003csup\u003ee\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e12.9\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;6.9\u003csup\u003ef\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e19\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;4.2\u003csup\u003ed\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.0001\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.0001\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.0001\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAsh (%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e39\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;9.5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e24\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;11\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e31\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;13.3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e30\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;12.3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e44\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;19.3\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e36\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;16.4\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e19\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;8.6\u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e13\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;11\u003csup\u003ed\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e11\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;4.0\u003csup\u003ee\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e10\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;4.0\u003csup\u003ee\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e11\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;3.8\u003csup\u003ee\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.0001\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.1896\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.0001\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEE (%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5.1\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;4.6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.9\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.0\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e6.3\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;4.3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.8\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7.9\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;3.5\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e7.6\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;4.0\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e5.9\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;4.2\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.4\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.0\u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.5\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.6\u003csup\u003ed\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.9\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.6\u003csup\u003ee\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.1\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.9\u003csup\u003ef\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.1946\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.0001\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.0001\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCF (%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e21\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e21\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e19\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;3.6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e22\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e21\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.9\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e17\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;5.3\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e16\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;3.4\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e14\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.9\u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e11\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.4\u003csup\u003ed\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e11\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.4\u003csup\u003ee\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e14\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;3.1\u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.2844\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.0401\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.0216\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCP (%)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e29\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;14.8\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e31\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;14.2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e31\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;11\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e33\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;17.6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e48\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;3.2\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e39\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;4.0\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e36\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;4.2\u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e29\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;12\u003csup\u003ed\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e25\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;4.0\u003csup\u003ee\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e20\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;4.0\u003csup\u003ef\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e15\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;2.5\u003csup\u003eg\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.2686\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.4638\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.0001\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTME (MJ/kg)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e13\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e17\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.4\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e16\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e12\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e17\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.7\u003csup\u003ea\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e16\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;1.8\u003csup\u003eab\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e15\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.7\u003csup\u003eb\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e12\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.3\u003csup\u003ec\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e10\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.4\u003csup\u003ed\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c11\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e8.2\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;0.4\u003csup\u003ee\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c12\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e4.5\u0026thinsp;\u0026plusmn;\u0026thinsp;05\u003csup\u003ef\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c13\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.0001\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c14\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.0001\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c15\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.0008\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003ctfoot\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"15\"\u003eValues in the same row with different superscript letters differ (P\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05); GIT\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;gastrointestinal tract; DM\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;dry matter; EE\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;ether extract; CF\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;crude fibre; CP\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;crude protein; TME\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;True metabolisable energy.\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tfoot\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eCompartments of the GIT affected nutrient composition of contents (\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05). The compartment of the digestive tract had a significant effect (\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05) on dry matter, ash, ether extract, crude fibre, crude protein and true metabolisable energy. Dry matter decreased from the crop to the Ileum (\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05) with all compartments differing significantly. However, A slight increase in dry matter was observed in cecum (\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05). Ash content also showed a similar pattern (\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05), with the highest value in the crop and the lowest in the Ileum and cecum. Ether extracts also declined from crop to cecum (\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05) with crop and proventriculus not significantly different. Crude fibre content decreased from the crop to the ileum (\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05). However in the cecum, crude fibre increased. Crude protein dropped from the crop to the cecum (\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05). True metabolisable energy decreased from crop to cecum (\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05), with gizzard and duodenum showing limited differences. Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab2\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e shows interaction effect among environment, season, and digestive tract segment (\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05). Dry matter was affected three interactions of environment \u0026times; season, environment \u0026times; segment, and season \u0026times; segment (\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05). For ash content, only the environment \u0026times; segment interaction was significant (\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05), In contrast, ether extract and crude protein were highly responsive to all interaction effects (\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05). Crude fibre was affected (\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05) by environment \u0026times; season and environment \u0026times; segment. True metabolisable energy was influenced by environment \u0026times; season and season \u0026times; segment.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab2\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 2\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eProbability values of the interactions among environment, season, and segment on nutrient composition of GIT contents of scavenging chickens\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"4\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eNutrient composition\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEnvironment\u0026times; Season\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEnvironment\u0026times; Segment\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSeason\u0026times; Segment\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDry matter\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.0001\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.0193\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.0015\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAsh\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.1553\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.0001\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.7741\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCrude fat\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.0001\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.0001\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.0001\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCrude fibre\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.0001\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.0001\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.9712\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCrude Protein\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.0001\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.0001\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.0001\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTrue metabolisable energy\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.0001\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.1026\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.0001\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003ctfoot\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"4\"\u003eGIT\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;gastrointestinal tract\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tfoot\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eNutrition related blood metabolites\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eTable\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab3\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e display the effect of environment and season on nutrition-related blood metabolites of scavenging chickens. The environment had a notable influence on most blood metabolites. Chickens raised in the sub-humid environment had higher concentrations of total protein, globulin, and albumin than those in the semi-arid environment (\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05). Triglyceride levels were significantly higher in sub-humid chickens compared to semi-arid ones. Total protein was significantly higher during the rainy season compared to the dry season. Similarly, globulin concentration was elevated in the rainy season relative to the dry season (\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05). Conversely, albumin showed an opposite trend, with higher levels observed in the dry season than in the rainy season (\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05). Cholesterol levels were significantly higher during the rainy season than in the dry season, and triglycerides also followed this pattern (\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05). Uric acid was significantly higher in the rainy season compared to the dry season. Only albumin showed a significant interaction between environment and season.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab3\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 3\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe effect of environment and season on nutrition-related blood metabolites of scavenging chickens.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"10\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c6\" colnum=\"6\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c7\" colnum=\"7\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c8\" colnum=\"8\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c9\" colnum=\"9\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c10\" colnum=\"10\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBlood metabolites\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c3\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eEnvironment\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c6\" namest=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSeason\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"3\" nameend=\"c10\" namest=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e-value\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan type=\"Underline\" class=\"Underline\" name=\"Emphasis\"\u003eSub-humid\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan type=\"Underline\" class=\"Underline\" name=\"Emphasis\"\u003eSemi-arid\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSEM\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan type=\"Underline\" class=\"Underline\" name=\"Emphasis\"\u003eRainy\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan type=\"Underline\" class=\"Underline\" name=\"Emphasis\"\u003eDry\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan type=\"Underline\" class=\"Underline\" name=\"Emphasis\"\u003eSEM\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan type=\"Underline\" class=\"Underline\" name=\"Emphasis\"\u003eEnvironment\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan type=\"Underline\" class=\"Underline\" name=\"Emphasis\"\u003eSeason\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan type=\"Underline\" class=\"Underline\" name=\"Emphasis\"\u003eEnvironment\u003c/span\u003e \u0026times;\u003cspan type=\"Underline\" class=\"Underline\" name=\"Emphasis\"\u003eSeason\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTotal protein (g/L)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e44.8\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e40.5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.05\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e45.6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e38.7\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.04\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.0001\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.0001\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.7403\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eGlobulin (g/L)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e25.3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e22.2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.03\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e31.1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e15.5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.02\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.0001\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.0001\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.1947\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAlbumin (g/L)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e19.5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e18.3\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.06\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e14.5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e23.2\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.04\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.0001\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.0001\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.0225\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCholesterol (mmol/L)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.96\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.98\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.03\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.35\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.29\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.03\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.6391\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.0001\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.5533\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTriglycerides (mmol/L)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.07\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.44\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.03\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.91\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.62\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.05\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.0001\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.0001\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.7192\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eUric Acid (mmol/L)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.25\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.26\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.04\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.35\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.17\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.04\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.8603\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.0024\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.7051\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCalcium (mmol/L)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.06\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.14\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.06\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.09\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c6\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.07\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c7\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.03\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c8\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.3497\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c9\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.6391\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c10\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.3066\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003ctfoot\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd colspan=\"10\"\u003eSEM\u0026thinsp;=\u0026thinsp;Standard error mean\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tfoot\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eTable\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab4\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e is reporting the effect of season on nutrient-related blood metabolites of scavenging chickens raised in the sub-humid environment. In the sub-humid environment, season had a significant effect on most nutrient-related blood metabolites of scavenging chickens. Total protein levels were significantly higher (\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05) in the rainy season compared to the dry season. Similarly, globulin concentrations were markedly higher (\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05) in the rainy season than in the dry season. In contrast, albumin was significantly higher in the dry season compared to the rainy season. Cholesterol levels were also elevated (\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05) during the rainy season relative to the dry season. A similar seasonal pattern was observed for triglycerides, with higher values in the rainy season than in the dry season (\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05). Uric acid was significantly higher in the rainy season compared to the dry season. Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab5\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e highlights the effect of season on nutrient-related blood metabolites of scavenging chickens raised in the semi-arid environment. Total protein was significantly higher during the rainy season than in the dry season (\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05). Globulin levels followed the same trend, increasing from 13 g/L in the dry season to 31 g/L in the rainy season (\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05). Conversely, albumin was significantly higher in the dry season than in the rainy season (\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05). Cholesterol concentrations were also significantly higher in the rainy season compared to the dry season (\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05). However, triglyceride levels showed a different pattern, being significantly higher in the dry season than in the rainy season (\u003cem\u003eP\u003c/em\u003e\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05). Uric acid levels were also significantly elevated during the rainy season versus the dry season.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab4\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 4\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe effect season on nutrient-related blood metabolites of scavenging chickens raised sub-humid environment.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"5\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c3\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSeason\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBlood metabolites\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eRainy\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDry\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMean Standard Error\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e-value\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTotal protein (g/L)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e46\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e42\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.02\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.0058\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eGlobulin (g/L)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e31\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e18\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.01\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.0001\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAlbumin (g/L)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e15\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e24\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.02\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.0001\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCholesterol (mmol/L)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.27\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.64\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.03\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.0442\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTriglycerides (mmol/L)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e1.6\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.5\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.02\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.0153\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eUric Acid (mmol/L)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.31\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.17\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.03\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.0174\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCalcium (mmol/L)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.08\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.95\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.01\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.0801\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab5\" border=\"1\"\u003e\u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 5\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe effect season on nutrient-related blood metabolites of scavenging chickens raised semi-arid environment.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/caption\u003e\u003ccolgroup cols=\"5\"\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c4\" colnum=\"4\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c5\" colnum=\"5\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cthead\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c3\" namest=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSeason\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/th\u003e\u003cth align=\"left\" colspan=\"2\" nameend=\"c5\" namest=\"c4\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/th\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/thead\u003e\u003ctbody\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eBlood metabolites\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eRainy\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eDry\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eMean Standard Error\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003ep\u003c/em\u003e-value\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTotal protein\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e45\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e35\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.03\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.0001\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eGlobulin\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e31\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e13\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.01\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.0001\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eAlbumin (g/L)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e14\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e22\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.03\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.0001\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCholesterol (mmol/L)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.42\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e2.54\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.02\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.0242\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eTriglycerides (mmol/L)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.15\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.73\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.01\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.0153\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eUric Acid (mmol/L)\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.38\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.16\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.02\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;.0001\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003ctr\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eCalcium\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.1\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e3.19\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c4\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.02\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c5\"\u003e\u003cp\u003e0.1001\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/td\u003e\u003c/tr\u003e\u003c/tbody\u003e\u003c/colgroup\u003e\u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eTo accurately supplement scavenging chickens, it is important to first understand their nutritional status. This understanding should not rely solely on the physical and chemical analysis of crop contents but should also include an examination of different segments of the digestive tract. In addition, assessing blood biochemical parameters provides valuable insights into the nutritional and physiological status of scavenging chickens. The high dry matter content observed in the gastrointestinal contents of scavenging chickens during the dry season supports the findings of Mekonnen et al. (2010), who associated this trend with the post-harvest period. In semi-arid regions, the elevated dry matter content is likely due to the greater availability of fibrous vegetation and crop residues, while green feed becomes limited due to reduced rainfall. This study reports, for the first time, changes in the nutrient profile of digesta across different gastrointestinal segments in scavenging chickens. A steady decline in dry matter content from the crop to the ileum suggests that these birds are efficient in utilizing diets with low nutrient density, a trait well-suited to scavenging conditions. This trend aligns with the known physiological functions of each digestive segment (Huang et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Higher ash content observed in the digesta of chickens from sub-humid regions indicates the birds\u0026rsquo; ability to scavenge mineral-rich feed resources. Similar findings were reported by Berukilukilu et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e). The significant decline in ash content along the digestive tract suggests effective absorption and metabolism of minerals. Common scavenged mineral sources include green leaves, small stones, and grit, which have previously been observed in the crop (Mwalusanya et al., 2022; Minh et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2006\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFat content was higher during the rainy season, likely due to increased consumption of insects and worms, which are rich in fat (Ncobela \u0026amp; Chimonyo, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). The gradual decline in fat content along the digestive tract indicates efficient digestion and absorption by scavenging chickens. Since fat-rich feed resources are not always readily available, these birds appear to optimize fat utilization when such feedstuffs are encountered. Interestingly, high fibre content in the gastrointestinal tract segments during the dry season contradicts the findings of Ncobela \u0026amp; Chimonyo (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e) and Mwalusanya et al. (\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2002\u003c/span\u003e), who reported higher fibre levels during the rainy season. However, in many rural settings, the dry season coincides with the post-harvest period, allowing chickens to scavenge fibrous crop residues such as maize husks, sorghum stalks, and groundnut shells. The gradual decline in fibre concentration from the crop to the ileum may be attributed to mechanical breakdown and microbial activity in the upper digestive tract. Although the precise mechanism is not fully understood, scavenging chickens appear to utilize dietary fibre more efficiently than expected (Ginindza et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Elevated fibre levels in the caecal contents reflect the role of the cecum as the primary site of microbial fermentation, where undigested fibre is further broken down and absorbed. Crude protein declines from the crop to the cecum is due to digestion and absorption along the GIT but mainly in the small intestine (Huang et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2022\u003c/span\u003e). Crude protein appears higher in the cecum because of microbial protein and endogenous nitrogen, not undigested feed (Qaisrani et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e). The high TME during dry season is caused by the high consumption of grains which had just been harvested and were given to the birds in larger amounts than during the other seasons of the year (Dessie \u0026amp; Ogle, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2000\u003c/span\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eTo the best of our knowledge, this is the first study that reports nutritional related blood metabolites of scavenging village chickens. Higher levels of total protein, albumin, and globulin in scavenging chickens from the sub-humid region may be due to better feed availability and quality compared to semi-arid areas. The sub-humid environment supports more lush vegetation such as sand bush veld and foothill wooded grasslands (Zindove \u0026amp; Chimonyo, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e) and diverse scavenging material, including insects and plant-based proteins. This enhances overall protein intake and metabolic function, leading to increased synthesis of blood proteins (Gudiso et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2019\u003c/span\u003e). During the rainy season, the abundance of fresh forage, insects, and worms boosts dietary protein intake of scavenging chickens (Raphulu et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2015\u003c/span\u003e). This improves liver function and immune response, reflected in elevated albumin and globulin levels. The rainy season may also expose birds to more environmental stressors or pathogens, stimulating globulin production as part of the immune defence. The elevated cholesterol levels during the rainy season may be linked to increased intake of insects, worms, and other animal-based protein sources, which are more abundant during wet conditions. These natural protein sources contain higher fat and cholesterol, contributing to increased blood cholesterol in indigenous chickens. High triglyceride levels during the rainy season may result from increased intake of energy-rich scavenged feed, such as insects, seeds, and young plant shoots. The abundance of feed improves energy intake, leading to higher fat deposition and circulating triglyceride. High triglyceride levels in chickens from the semi-arid region may reflect a stress-induced metabolic response to limited and irregular feed availability. In such environments, birds often experience periods of feed scarcity, leading to mobilization of body fat reserves. This results in elevated blood triglycerides as the body compensates for energy shortages. In addition, scavenged diets in semi-arid areas contain dry, energy-dense materials such as grains and residues (Berukilukilu et al., \u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2024\u003c/span\u003e), which can also contribute to higher triglyceride levels. High uric acid levels during the rainy season may result from increased intake of protein-rich scavenged feed, such as insects, worms, and legumes, which are more abundant in rainy conditions (Ncobela \u0026amp; Chimonyo, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2016\u003c/span\u003e). Excess dietary protein leads to greater nitrogen metabolism, and in birds, nitrogen is excreted as uric acid (Fonseca \u0026amp; Rodrigues, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2017\u003c/span\u003e). Therefore, the rise in uric acid reflects enhanced protein intake and metabolism. In addition, mild immune challenges common in rainy conditions may also contribute to elevated uric acid as part of the bird's physiological response.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis study highlights the importance of using both gut content and blood biochemical analysis to understand the nutritional status of scavenging indigenous chickens. Such a combined approach provides deeper insight into how these birds adapt to varying feed quality across regions and seasons. Indigenous chickens show remarkable efficiency in utilizing low-input diets, but their nutritional status is strongly influenced by environmental conditions. Rather than applying blanket feeding strategies, targeted supplementation that considers seasonal feed availability and regional differences is essential. The inclusion of blood metabolites offers early indicators of nutrient adequacy or stress, which can guide timely nutritional interventions.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAcknowledgements\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eI would like to express my sincere gratitude to my supervisors, Prof. N.W. Kunene and Dr. C.N. Ncobela, for their continuous guidance, support, and mentorship throughout the course of this study. Special thanks go to the University of Zululand, Department of Agriculture, and the National Research Foundation [Grant number: MND190414430310] for their financial support, which made this research possible.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAuthors contributions\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSiwela N.S. collected the data and conducted the laboratory analyses. Ncobela C.N. and F. Thabethe assisted with statistical analysis and interpretation of the results. Kunene N.W. facilitated the ethical clearance process and provided financial support for the study. All authors reviewed and approved the final manuscript.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eDeclaration of conflict of interest\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThere is no conflict of interest.\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eData availability statement\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe data is available upon request Top of Form\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eUse of Artificial Intelligence statement\u0026nbsp;\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe artificial intelligent was NOT used to write this manuscript.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eAOAC, 1990. 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Effect of season and location on the crop contents of local and improved scavenging hens in northern Vietnam. Tropical Animal Health and Production, 38, 121\u0026ndash;129.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eMtileni, B. J., Muchadeyi, F. C., Maiwashe, A., Chimonyo, M., Mapiye, C., \u0026amp; Dzama, K., 2012. Influence of socioeconomic factors on production constraints faced by indigenous chicken producers in South Africa. Tropical Animal Health and Production, 45, 67\u0026ndash;74.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eMwalusanya, N. A., Katule, A. M., Mutayoba, S. K., Minga, U. M., Mtambo, M. M. A., \u0026amp; Olsen, J. E., 2002. Nutrient status of crop contents of rural scavenging local chickens in Tanzania. British Poultry Science, 43, 64\u0026ndash;69.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eNcobela, C. N., \u0026amp; Chimonyo, M., 2016. Nutritional quality and amino acid composition of diets consumed by scavenging hens and cocks across seasons. Tropical animal health and production, 48, 769\u0026ndash;777.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003ePrakash, B., Verma, S. K., Rama Rao, S. V., Raju, M. V. L. N., Paul, S. S., Kannan, A., \u0026hellip; Sankhyan, V., 2020. Feeding status of free-range scavenging chickens in different agro-climatic regions of India. British Poultry Science, 61, 26\u0026ndash;32.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eQaisrani, S. N., Van Krimpen, M. M., Kwakkel, R. P., Verstegen, M. W. A., \u0026amp; Hendriks, W. H., 2015. Dietary factors affecting hindgut protein fermentation in broilers: a review. World's Poultry Science Journal, 71, 139\u0026ndash;160.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eDessie, T and Ogle, B., 2000. 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Assessing nutrient adequacy from the crop contents of free-ranging indigenous chickens in rural villages of the Venda region of South Africa. South African Journal of Animal Science, 45, 143\u0026ndash;152.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eSAS, 2008. SAS User's Guide: Statistics, Version 9.1. SAS Institute, Cary, NC, USA.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eTenza, T., Mhlongo, L. C., \u0026amp; Chimonyo, M., 2023. Village chicken production and egg quality in dry and wet, resource-limited environments in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. South African Journal of Animal Science, 53, 850\u0026ndash;858.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eTenza, T., Mhlongo, L. C., Ncobela, C. N., \u0026amp; Rani, Z., 2024. Village Chickens for Achieving Sustainable Development Goals 1 and 2 in Resource-Poor Communities: A Literature Review. Agriculture, 14, 1264.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eVan Soest, P.J., Robertson, J.B. and Lewis, B.A., 1991. Methods of dietary fibre, neutral detergent fibre, and non-starch polysaccharides in relation to animal nutrition. Journal of Dairy Science, 74, 3583\u0026ndash;3597.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eZindove, T. J., \u0026amp; Chimonyo, M., 2015. Comparison of trait preferences of Nguni farmers located in semi-arid and sub-humid environments. Tropical animal health and production, 47, 607\u0026ndash;611.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":true,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":true,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"tropical-animal-health-and-production","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"trop","sideBox":"Learn more about [Tropical Animal Health and Production](https://www.springer.com/journal/11250)","snPcode":"11250","submissionUrl":"https://submission.nature.com/new-submission/11250/3","title":"Tropical Animal Health and Production","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"Springer Hybrid","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":false},"keywords":"Blood metabolites, Dry season, Gastrointestinal tract, Rainy season, Semi-arid environment, Sub-humid environment","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7095742/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-7095742/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eBefore supplementing scavenging chickens with feed, it is crucial to investigate their nutritional status. This study aimed to determine the nutritional status and blood biochemical parameters of scavenging chickens during the rainy and dry seasons in sub-humid and semi-arid areas of KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. A total of 80 scavenging chickens were used. Chickens were slaughtered in the afternoon, and samples from different compartments of the gastrointestinal tract (GIT) were collected and analysed. Blood samples were also collected at slaughter. Results showed that environment and season significantly influenced the nutrient composition of GIT contents and blood metabolites. Chickens from semi-arid environments had higher dry matter, ash, and true metabolisable energy in their GIT contents compared to those from sub-humid areas (P\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05). Dry matter, crude fibre, and ether extract levels were higher during the dry season, whereas true metabolisable energy was greater in the rainy season (P\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05). Nutrient composition varied across GIT compartments, with dry matter, ash, fat, and crude fibre generally decreasing from the crop to the ileum (P\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05) but increasing in the cecum, reflecting microbial fermentation activity. Blood biochemical analysis indicated that chickens in the sub-humid environment had higher total protein, globulin, albumin, and triglycerides compared to those in the semi-arid environment (P\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05). Seasonal effects showed higher total protein, globulin, cholesterol, triglycerides, and uric acid during the rainy season (P\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05), while albumin was higher in the dry season (P\u0026thinsp;\u0026lt;\u0026thinsp;0.05). These findings reveal important variations in the nutritional and physiological status of scavenging chickens across environments and seasons, which should be considered when designing feed supplementation strategies.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Nutrient utilisation and blood metabolites of scavenging chickens across rainy and dry seasons in semi-arid and sub-humid environments","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-08-05 14:18:53","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7095742/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"","date":"2025-08-02T12:58:07+00:00","index":0,"fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2025-07-31T19:51:54+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2025-07-12T11:05:52+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"Tropical Animal Health and Production","date":"2025-07-11T09:37:31+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"tropical-animal-health-and-production","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"trop","sideBox":"Learn more about [Tropical Animal Health and Production](https://www.springer.com/journal/11250)","snPcode":"11250","submissionUrl":"https://submission.nature.com/new-submission/11250/3","title":"Tropical Animal Health and Production","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"Springer Hybrid","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":false}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"524d8111-1e89-42f1-ab61-113af01ef697","owner":[],"postedDate":"August 5th, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"published-in-journal","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2025-12-01T16:01:09+00:00","versionOfRecord":{"articleIdentity":"rs-7095742","link":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s11250-025-04784-y","journal":{"identity":"tropical-animal-health-and-production","isVorOnly":false,"title":"Tropical Animal Health and Production"},"publishedOn":"2025-11-28 15:57:27","publishedOnDateReadable":"November 28th, 2025"},"versionCreatedAt":"2025-08-05 14:18:53","video":"","vorDoi":"10.1007/s11250-025-04784-y","vorDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1007/s11250-025-04784-y","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-7095742","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-7095742","identity":"rs-7095742","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}