Unveiling the Gendered Dimensions of Conflict-Driven Displacement: Analyzing Perceptions and Attitudes Toward Gender-Based Violence among Internally Displaced Persons in Burkina Faso

Unveiling the Gendered Dimensions of Conflict-Driven Displacement: Analyzing Perceptions and Attitudes Toward Gender-Based Violence among Internally Displaced Persons in Burkina Faso | Research Square window.SnipcartSettings = { analytics: { enabled: false } }; (function() { var accessVector = localStorage.getItem('access_vector') || ''; window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; if (accessVector) { window.dataLayer.push({ user: { profile: { profileInfo: { snid: accessVector } } } }); } })(); (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start':new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0],j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src='https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f);})(window,document,'script','dataLayer','GTM-K279D39R'); Browse Preprints In Review Journals COVID-19 Preprints AJE Video Bytes Research Tools Research Promotion AJE Professional Editing AJE Rubriq About Preprint Platform In Review Editorial Policies Our Team Advisory Board Help Center Sign In Submit a Preprint Cite Share Download PDF Research Article Unveiling the Gendered Dimensions of Conflict-Driven Displacement: Analyzing Perceptions and Attitudes Toward Gender-Based Violence among Internally Displaced Persons in Burkina Faso Souleymane BAYOULOU, Patrice NGANGUE, Ibrahiman TOURE, Kora KOUBATOU, and 4 more This is a preprint; it has not been peer reviewed by a journal. https://doi.org/ 10.21203/rs.3.rs-5771239/v1 This work is licensed under a CC BY 4.0 License Status: Published Journal Publication published 22 Dec, 2025 Read the published version in International Journal for Equity in Health → Version 1 posted 9 You are reading this latest preprint version Abstract Background Burkina Faso has been dealing with a worsening security situation since 2015, resulting in more than two million people being forced to leave their homes. Gender-based violence (GBV) has escalated and is a major issue in situations involving conflict and forced displacement. This research examines the views and opinions of internally displaced individuals on VBG in Burkina Faso, specifically emphasizing how ingrained social structures contribute to this problem. Methods This study employed a qualitative, descriptive, and exploratory research design. The research was conducted in Kaya city, a region heavily impacted by displacement. Data were collected through 58 focus group discussions, which included 352 participants. The data were thematically analyzed using NVivo 12 and the approach developed by Braun and Clarke, enabling a thorough identification of key patterns and themes. Results Findings enabled the identification of several critical dimensions of GBV, its root causes, and risk factors. GBV was highlighted as deeply rooted in cultural and structural determinants, with gender inequality, power imbalances, and entrenched social constructs forming its primary foundations. Economic hardship, ignorance, behavioral issues like alcohol misuse, and institutional shortcomings were seen as contributors exacerbating GBV but not necessarily its root causes. Participants emphasized heightened GBV risks during humanitarian crises, manifesting in physical, sexual, and psychological violence linked to harmful traditional practices like female genital mutilation (FGM), forced marriages, and the sexual division of labor. Though harmful practices persist, divergent views on GBV trends emerged, with some reporting reductions due to shifting behaviors or constraints. Preventive efforts, such as awareness campaigns and local interventions, were noted but insufficient against sociocultural barriers to survivor support, including stigmatization and victim-blaming. Conclusions This research elucidates the deep-rooted sociocultural and structural determinants of GBV, reflecting persisting gender inequities and systemic oppression. The findings underscore the pressing requirement for thorough communication plans that increase understanding of accessible services and foster participation despite the widespread stigma, shame, and fear that prevent individuals from seeking help. Gender-based violence Survivors Internal displacement Perceptions Representational and Intersubjective dimensions Burkina Faso Background Burkina Faso has been beset by a severe security crisis since 2015, which originated from violent attacks by armed factions. The escalating conflict has triggered a dire humanitarian crisis in the country, with severe consequences affecting its civilian population on a large scale [ 1 ]. A significant increase in insecurity has caused a record number of people to be forcibly displaced, resulting in over two million individuals seeking refuge within their local areas or in safer sections of the country. On 31 March 2023, there were 2,062,534 internally displaced persons (IDPs) in Burkina Faso: 17.59% men, 23.91% women, and 58.50% children. This number continues to rise due to ongoing armed attacks, making Burkina Faso one of the fastest-growing displacement crises in the world [ 2 ]. At the same time, 3.3 million non-displaced people are also affected, and exposed to increased violence, particularly sexual and gender-based violence, with women and girls being the main victims. The protection of children is also a major concern, with cases of injury or death linked to improvised explosive devices and armed violence. In June 2024, humanitarian access was still limited in 39 areas, isolating 1.1 million people who relied on secure convoys and humanitarian flights for supplies. Despite these growing challenges, humanitarian aid remains largely underfunded, with a funding rate of only 40.4% as of 31 October 2024 [ 2 ]. The security situation is characterized by extremist threats, irregular checkpoints, the diversion of humanitarian aid, targeted killings of civilians, kidnappings, ambushes, the planting of improvised explosive devices, clashes between armed groups and the Defence and Security Forces (FDS)/Volontaires de Défense pour la Patrie (VDP), and the destruction of crossing points and state symbols [ 3 ]. In these conditions, the humanitarian space is shrinking and basic social services are in serious disarray [ 4 ]. Persistent insecurity, particularly in the border areas with Mali and Niger, exposes women and girls to increased risks of gender-based violence (GBV) and harmful practices. Armed attacks and mass displacements heighten vulnerability, creating conditions that exacerbate gender-based violence (GBV) and restrict access to sexual and reproductive health (SRH) services, particularly for rural and displaced populations [ 4 ]. During periods of turmoil, certain groups—especially women and children—are disproportionately affected by violence and forced displacement. Research indicates that conflict leads to a significant rise in GBV, with women and girls being at heightened risk of conflict-related sexual assault. In modern warfare, they are often deliberately targeted as strategic assets [ 3 , 4 ]. These trends underscore the deepening vulnerabilities and further marginalization of already disadvantaged groups. Therefore, GBV should be treated as part of a broader context. This phenomenon embodies entrenched inequalities and power disparities between genders, with harmful social standards and cultural traditions perpetuating the exclusion and domination of women [ 5 ]. The patterns of violence not only mirror deeply ingrained gender inequalities but also help sustain cycles of trauma that perpetuate inequality even after ending conflicts. The ongoing effects of trauma underscore the intricacies of GBV, as it encompasses not only initial assaults but also long-term, profound impacts on both societal and psychological levels. The effects of GBV have significant and far-reaching consequences on public health. The World Bank has pointed out that the health impact of GBV surpasses that of malaria and road accidents, placing considerable strain on already overwhelmed healthcare systems [ 6 ]. Confronted with long-term physical and mental health difficulties, survivors also suffer from social isolation and economic dependence, worsening their already heightened susceptibility [ 7 ]. The World Health Organization (WHO) emphasizes that tackling GBV is crucial for attaining global development objectives, such as eliminating poverty. Unless targeted interventions are implemented, the cycle of inequality and instability will persist, hindering social and economic advancement worldwide [ 6 ]. One of the most distressing manifestations of GBV is the widespread occurrence of child marriage. Estimates indicate that more than 12 million girls are married before the age of 18, severely limiting their access to education and opportunities for self-improvement [ 8 ]. Early marriage perpetuates cycles of poverty and disempowerment, ultimately restricting girls’ socioeconomic prospects for generations [ 9 ]. In Burkina Faso, data from the GBV sub-cluster reveal a concerning rise in reported GBV incidents. In 2021, 3,585 cases were documented, increasing to 6,065 in 2022. Among these, rape accounted for 7%, sexual assaults 2%, physical assaults 22%, forced marriages 11%, denial of resources and service opportunities 15%, and psycho-emotional violence 43% [ 2 ]. However, these figures are likely underestimated due to the limited presence of GBV response actors and the inadequate availability of support services. The widespread effects of GBV are often overlooked in public discourse due to deeply ingrained cultural prejudices and restrictive social norms [ 3 ]. These barriers significantly hinder the development of open and comprehensive responses to GBV. This research examines the perspectives and responses of affected communities, with a particular focus on how cultural expectations and social norms shape these reactions. By analyzing how GBV is perceived and addressed across different groups, this study aims to inform the development of more effective, culturally sensitive interventions to reduce and prevent GBV. METHODS This study complies with the Consolidated Criteria for Reporting Qualitative Research (COREQ) guidelines, ensuring rigorous and transparent reporting of all aspects of the qualitative research methodology, including study design, data collection, analysis, and participant engagement [ 10 ]. Study Design This study employed a qualitative research design centered on focus group discussions (FGDs). An interview guide facilitated data collection, and interpretative phenomenological analysis (IPA) was used to analyze the data [ 11 ]. IPA enables an in-depth exploration of personal experiences and the meanings individuals attribute to life events, emphasizing participant and researcher interpretations [ 12 , 13 ]. Study Setting The study was conducted in Kaya, the capital of the Central Region of Burkina Faso. Kaya hosts a significant population of over 400,000 internally displaced persons (IDPs), with more than 30% residing within the city [ 14 ]. This setting provided a unique context through which to examine the lived experiences of displaced populations. Study Population and Sampling The target population consisted of Kaya IDPs stratified into five key demographic groups: women, girls, men, boys, and community leaders. This stratification accounts for gender, age, and social diversity, ensuring comprehensive representation across demographic segments. Participants were selected using a stratified random sampling method to reflect the diverse characteristics of the source population [ 15 ]. However, participants were selected at random. The inclusion criteria required participants to be IDPs residing in Kaya, with voluntary and informed consent provided. FGDs were conducted in all IDP reception zones proportional to the population distribution in each zone to achieve comprehensive geographic representation. Data Collection Data were collected using KoboCollect, a digital tool that facilitates the automatic recording of group interviews via smartphones [ 16 ]. The interview guide was developed and structured to capture relevant insights and was adapted for local context and linguistic accessibility. The interview guide was pretested during a pilot phase and subsequently adapted for the study. It comprised five sections: (a) characteristics of the FGD participants (Can you please tell us your age and occupation?), (b) representational dimension (How do you perceive gender-based violence (GBV) in your community?), (c) organizational dimension (What organizations or groups in your community address GBV issues?), (d) experiential dimension (Can you share any experiences or stories you have heard about GBV in your community?), and (e) intersubjective dimension (How do community members support each other in dealing with GBV?). FGDs were conducted between February 4 and March 8, 2022, in Kaya by six trained interviewers paired into three teams. The interviewers, who were experienced in previous surveys on gender-based violence and sexual and reproductive health, underwent training on the use of the research guide. They were recruited from the database of investigators in the GBV sub-cluster. The training was primarily practical, allowing participants to familiarize themselves with the KoboCollect tool and, most importantly, to gain a common understanding of the questionnaire in the local Moré language, which is spoken by the IDPs. Initially designed in French, the interview guide was translated into the local language, Moré, to improve comprehension and participant engagement. Interviews, lasting approximately one hour each, ensured active and meaningful participation. Data Analysis The audio recordings of the FGDs were transcribed verbatim and then analyzed using the NVivo 12 software [ 17 ]. A multidisciplinary team (KK, TI, NP, and BS) performed iterative coding. At the same time, observational field notes were documented in Microsoft Word and subjected to content analysis using a rigorous methodology to extract embedded meanings [ 9 ]. Thematic analysis was performed on the transcripts using the approach proposed by Braun and Clarke (2006), highlighting patterns, themes, and contrasts within the data. Inductive thematic analysis involves several key steps. First, we immerse ourselves in the data by reading and re-reading it to understand its content and context. Next, we systematically code the data by labelling segments with relevant codes, condensing it into manageable chunks. We then identify themes by grouping similar codes, capturing significant patterns related to the research question. These themes are reviewed for accuracy and coherence and refined as needed. We define and name each theme, providing clear descriptions of their essence and relation to the research question. Finally, we produce a report presenting the themes and their analysis, supported by evidence from the data, offering a comprehensive understanding of the research findings [ 18 ]. This dual analytical approach integrated content analysis to ensure a nuanced interpretation of the participants' experiences and thematic analysis for systematic theme identification [ 19 ]. Ethical Considerations The study was reviewed and approved by the Health Research Ethics Committee (Protocol No. 2022-01-012, dated January 17, 2022). Before participation, the study objectives were explained to all participants, and detailed consent was obtained, including consent to audio recordings. The consent process was conducted in Moré to ensure the participants' complete understanding. Confidentiality and voluntary participation were emphasized throughout the study. For minors, parental consent was secured via the site management committees, ensuring ethical compliance and respect for the young participants' rights. RESULTS Study Participants The study engaged 352 participants through focus group interviews, with a breakdown by demographic groups, as detailed in Table 1 . One could not be conducted among the intended seven focus groups with community leaders due to the absence of recognized leaders at the site. Despite this, the overall study completion rate was an impressive 98.30%. Table 1 Participant Summary for Focus Group Discussions Population Number of Focus Groups Participants Adolescent Girls 13 81 Adolescent Boys 13 78 Women 13 89 Men 13 61 Community Leaders 6 43 Total 58 352 The findings are organized into two dimensions. The first, the representational dimension, examines cultural representations and social divisions. It explores internally displaced persons (IDPs) perceptions of GBV's root causes, identifies socio-cultural and economic factors contributing to the violence, and highlights specific threats and vulnerabilities within communities. The second, the intersubjective dimension, looks at power and affective relationships between actors in both informal and institutional contexts. It reveals key aspects such as the scope and evolution of GBV cases, beliefs and perceptions related to GBV, and strategies for preventing and mitigating risks. It also examines the organization of psychosocial support, focusing on access to specialized services and assistance for survivors. Finally, it identifies obstacles to seeking help, highlighting socio-cultural, economic, and institutional barriers to accessing protective and supportive services. The representational dimension of GBV The representational dimension of GBV highlights its root causes, emphasizing cultural and structural determinants like gender inequality, economic hardship, and harmful traditional practices. Social constructs are seen as human rights violations that contribute to gender inequality and reinforce power imbalances: “Vulnerability and power are the causes of GBV; the one who has power can force someone else to do what they don’t want to do” – focus group with women. While GBV stems from inequality and discrimination, various factors determine its type and extent. Participants identified behaviors such as ignorance, alcohol consumption, illegal possession of firearms, moral suffering, lack of forgiveness, forced marriage, terrorism, and insecurity as promoters of GBV. Ignorance was frequently mentioned: “I think it’s ignorance, the lack of knowledge of human rights for men and women. If you don’t know your rights, you can be subjected to violence or mistreated because of your ignorance” – focus group with women. Economically, factors like lack of food, economic dependence, and limited access to resources aggravate GBV, with poverty being the most determining factor: “… all of this is due to poverty. For example, a woman may ask her husband for food for the kitchen, and if he can’t give it to her, the woman might take it badly and insults follow. The man, who feels frustrated and humiliated, unfortunately, ends up hitting her” – focus group with adolescents. Institutionally, impunity and the low status of women in traditional society were highlighted: “In a household, for example, a woman may have disagreements with her husband because he wants to marry off their daughter without her consent. If the woman wants to speak out, it causes problems because it’s assumed that she has no say” – focus group with women. Secondly, the study reveals that the main protection risks faced by communities are related to the lack of education for children, inadequate housing, food and water shortages, and a lack of employment opportunities. These risks affect all communities, but women are the primary victims. Indeed, risks related to sexual violence are pervasive, especially during humanitarian crises, where women become more vulnerable to physical, sexual, and psychological violence while carrying out their daily survival tasks. As stated in a focus group with women: "Everyone suffers, but women suffer even more. Last time, women were raped when they went to the bush to gather firewood." The humanitarian crisis has exacerbated certain forms of gender-based violence (GBV), particularly psychological violence, sexual violence, and physical assaults. These forms of violence are inflicted on women and girls during displacement, while searching for water, and firewood, or even when returning to abandoned villages to gather supplies from granaries. Additionally, forced marriages, especially child marriages, are used by vulnerable households as a survival strategy. Intimate partner violence has also become recurring in these households. The analysis further highlights that the majority of Internally Displaced Persons (IDPs) view the sexual division of domestic labor as a process of socialization. Consequently, they do not question the precariousness of the female condition. However, some participants acknowledge that this division contributes to the dropout of girls from school. Social constructs are thus seen as human rights violations that reinforce gender inequalities and perpetuate the power imbalance between men and women. As participants expressed: "Social norms surrounding the sexual division of labor often indirectly perpetuate educational disadvantages for girls." – Fous group with young people. The Intersubjective Dimension (GBV and Power Relations) Trends and Prevalence of GBV Opinions vary on whether gender-based violence (GBV) has changed due to humanitarian crises. Many Internally Displaced Persons (IDPs) believe the crisis hasn't significantly impacted GBV prevalence. One participant noted, "Violence has decreased because, with the lack of financial resources, we can no longer impose on our women and girls not to go out and search for work" – focus group with community leaders. Similarly, some women stated, "Honestly, it’s something that has decreased, there is even none anymore because the old have changed, the young girls have changed, the boys have changed, we women too, with what we see every day, it has decreased" – focus group with women. However, some participants argue the situation has worsened due to insufficient humanitarian aid. One participant explained, "I would say it has increased because the distribution of food creates many conflicts, especially when non-beneficiaries point fingers at the beneficiaries. Also, women accuse men and call them lazy because this responsibility lies with the man" – focus group with men. Another perspective suggests the situation hasn't fundamentally changed: "No, it hasn’t increased, it hasn’t decreased either; it’s the same" – focus group with women. This view was expressed only in one focus group. Cultural Beliefs and Practices The study reveals many preconceived ideas about GBV, even among those responsible for care, who should help eliminate this violence but often contribute to spreading misleading ideas. Some women and girls believe Female Genital Mutilation (FGM) has advantages, such as protection against diseases and easier childbirth. Some consider femininity conditioned by excision: “If you are not excised, you are not a woman. I saw a man who married a woman to go to Côte d'Ivoire. When he found out that the girl hadn’t been excised, he made her return to Burkina Faso to have it done” – focus group with young girls. It is also common to think that women who haven't undergone FGM are more sexually active and unfaithful: “An unexcised girl is frivolous and cannot stay faithful to her husband; she alone can be with ten men” – focus group with community leaders. Some even link children's success to the mother's excision: “It’s a good thing because when you have sexual relations with your wife, you can have children who will take care of the family later” – focus group with young people. However, most participants acknowledge that FGM can lead to serious health problems: “Female genital mutilation has no benefits for women. On the contrary, it causes more problems for women, such as complications during childbirth, the death of young girls, sexual disorders, etc.” – focus group with women. This viewpoint is also shared by men: “Really, it’s not good. If you haven’t seen the pictures, you can’t understand that excision is not good. There’s a difference during childbirth between those who have been excised and those who have not” – focus group with men. Such beliefs perpetuate GBV while reflecting the tension between ingrained cultural practices and modern awareness of their health implications. GBV Risk Prevention and Mitigation The study highlighted significant progress in prevention efforts, emphasizing improvements in communication, awareness campaigns, and the accessibility of reporting mechanisms. Participants noted the involvement of local organizations, such as the Bon Samaritain Association, in these campaigns. Most interviewees confirmed benefiting from activities aimed at preventing and mitigating GBV risks, particularly through enhanced communication and awareness of available services and their timely advantages: "We have greatly benefited from the awareness activities, especially through the Bon Samaritain and ABBA’S association. They raised awareness among people on-site, men, women, children, old and young" – focus group with community leaders. It was also noted that Internally Displaced Persons (IDPs) have significant freedom of expression: "Yes, even those who come to raise awareness tell us that if there are questions, we can ask them, as it even increases their knowledge. Everyone gives their opinion. If someone also wants to ask questions, they can do so. They also say we should share what we've learned with our loved ones" – focus group with men. Furthermore, reporting mechanisms have been established to allow the population to express themselves freely: "We are free to express ourselves. There was a structure that placed suggestion boxes here, and if you can write, you can write whatever you want, and they come to collect it to examine everyone's ideas" – focus group with youth. Support and barriers for survivors of GBV The analysis of the support mechanism for GBV survivors in Kaya revealed several persistent obstacles. The victim's social environment, stereotypes, and fear of social exclusion are major factors. Often, socio-cultural burdens force victims to refrain from seeking help: “... I tell myself that the person sees it as a shame for herself. She sees what happened to her as a shame, which is why, often, people walk around with their problems eating them up without being able to talk about it.” – focus group with adolescent girls. Additionally, the lack of information on the importance of support, the near non-existence of adequate and holistic support structures, and the shortage of trained personnel are significant barriers. The study also reveals that the law on Safe Abortion (ISG) is perceived as criminal, even when the pregnancy results from rape: “Here, if you have an abortion, you will never come back home…” – focus group with women. Furthermore, many interviewees believe that women are responsible for the violence they experience due to their behavior. In several focus groups, participants agreed that a girl could be raped because of her clothing: “It’s normal because, in reality, her clothing reflects her wishes, and we, as men, will fulfill her wish without remorse or regrets.” – focus group with young men. DISCUSSION This study aimed to explore the representational and intersubjective perceptions of gender-based violence (GBV) across various demographic groups, including adolescent girls, boys, women, and men. Through focus group interviews with 352 participants, this study identified several critical dimensions of Gender-Based Violence (GBV), its root causes, and risk factors. GBV was highlighted as deeply rooted in cultural and structural determinants, with gender inequality, power imbalances, and entrenched social constructs forming its primary foundations. Economic hardship, ignorance, behavioral issues like alcohol misuse, and institutional shortcomings (e.g., impunity) were seen as contributors exacerbating GBV but not necessarily its root causes. The fundamental causes of gender-based violence (GBV) lie in societal attitudes and practices of sexual discrimination [ 7 ]. Society often assigns rigid roles and power relations to men and women, with women being subordinate to men [ 8 ]. The main behavior at the root of GBV is the disregard for women's human rights and the systematic domination of men in social relations [ 3 ]. Acceptance of these roles and the lack of social and economic value placed on women and their work reinforce the assumption that men have decision-making power and control over women. This disregard for or ignorance of human rights principles, gender equality, and democracy, as well as peaceful problem-solving methods, perpetuates inequality, which is a source of GBV [ 4 ]. Participants emphasized heightened GBV risks during humanitarian crises, manifesting in physical, sexual, and psychological violence linked to harmful traditional practices like female genital mutilation (FGM), forced marriages, and the sexual division of labor [ 20 – 22 ]. Though harmful practices persist, divergent views on GBV trends emerged, with some reporting reductions due to shifting behaviors or constraints. Preventive efforts, such as awareness campaigns and local interventions, were noted but insufficient against sociocultural barriers to survivor support, including stigmatization and victim-blaming [ 23 ]. In line with previous studies, our findings confirm that patriarchal social systems perpetuate discriminatory norms and values that legitimize unequal power dynamics and reinforce the subordination of women. For instance, discriminatory norms that grant men disproportionate decision-making authority and resource control continue to sustain environments conducive to GBV [ 24 – 26 ]. Recent research also underscores the importance of addressing social attitudes and practices in eradicating GBV [ 27 ]. The study highlights the interplay between risk factors such as economic inequality, alcohol abuse, and neglect of familial responsibilities, which contribute to various forms of GBV, including child abuse, intimate partner violence, and sexual violence [ 28 – 30 ]. Similar observations have been made in crisis settings where GBV risk intensifies. Humanitarian crises exacerbate vulnerability, especially for displaced women and girls, who face heightened risks of sexual violence, forced marriages, and resource-related violence [ 31 – 34 ]. While our participants suggested a perceived decline in GBV prevalence, reported cases, particularly in regions like Centre-Nord, reveal significant increases in documented incidents, mirroring findings in crisis-affected settings globally [ 35 ]. Notably, this study sheds light on sociocultural attitudes that perpetuate victim-blaming and normalize violence, consistent with prior evidence indicating that women's behavior or appearance is often erroneously used to justify GBV [ 36 , 37 ]. Such attitudes align with the broader literature on cultural and institutional barriers that dissuade victims, particularly male victims, from seeking help [ 38 ]. The findings also resonate with critiques of legislative and policy frameworks that inadequately address the gendered realities of GBV, further entrenching systemic inequities [ 39 ]. Implications for Research and Practice The findings underscore the urgent need for comprehensive prevention and intervention strategies to address the root causes of GBV. Community-based initiatives dismantling patriarchal norms and empowering women and girls are critical [ 40 , 41 ]. Programs promoting gender equality and human rights education, along with interventions addressing economic inequities and substance abuse, can mitigate GBV risks. From a policy perspective, strengthening and contextualizing laws to address the nuanced experiences of GBV survivors is crucial [ 42 ]. Policies should integrate gender-responsive approaches and ensure equitable access to legal and social support systems [ 43 , 44 ]. For practitioners, integrating culturally sensitive interventions that challenge harmful societal constructs while respecting local contexts is imperative to fostering meaningful change [ 45 ]. Limitations Despite its contributions, this study is subject to several limitations. Reporting bias may have influenced participant responses, particularly given the sensitive nature of GBV. Social desirability bias could also account for discrepancies between reported perceptions and documented cases. Moreover, the study's qualitative focus precludes broad generalizations across different populations and settings. Future studies should incorporate quantitative methods and expand the demographic and geographical scope to enhance representativeness and comparability. Additionally, the findings are limited in their ability to establish causal relationships, underscoring the need for robust epidemiological studies. Without evidence-based interventions and strong data, engaging all stakeholders in the fight against GBV remains challenging, reinforcing the importance of continued research. CONCLUSION Despite ongoing efforts, gender-based violence (GBV) remains a pervasive and deeply entrenched issue within society, often overlooked and misunderstood, particularly in the context of humanitarian crises. Many internally displaced persons (IDPs) are unaware that GBV constitutes a violation of fundamental human rights, and there is limited acknowledgment of how such crises can exacerbate this pervasive problem. As a result, harmful practices such as female genital mutilation, forced and child marriages, and various forms of physical violence have become normalized in some contexts. While a subset of IDPs recognize the profound detrimental effects of GBV, the prevailing perception is that humanitarian aid remains inadequate to address the scale of the issue. Strengthening communication and raising awareness about available support services is imperative; however, widespread feelings of shame and fear among IDPs continue to hinder their access to essential assistance. Tackling these barriers requires a holistic and sustained commitment to empowering communities and fostering a rights-based approach to eradicate GBV. Declarations Ethics approval and consent to participate The study was reviewed and approved by the Health Research Ethics Committee (Protocol No. 2022-01-012, dated January 17, 2022). Before participation, the study objectives were explained to all participants, and detailed consent was obtained, including consent to audio recordings. The consent process was conducted in Moré to ensure the participants' complete understanding. Confidentiality and voluntary participation were emphasized throughout the study. Consent for publication Not applicable Availability of data and materials The datasets used and/or analysed during the current study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request. Competing interests The authors declare that they have no competing interests. Funding This research did not receive any funding from external sources. Authors' contributions SB and PN contributed to the study's conceptualization, data collection, and analysis. SB, PN, IB, KK, KAK, BAKN, SY and GMK contributed to the design, data coding, and interpretation of results. PN, SB, IB and KK provided expertise in qualitative methodology and assisted in writing and revising the manuscript. SB and PN supported data collection and provided critical feedback on the manuscript. Acknowledgements We would like to acknowledge the study participants and the individuals who assisted with data collection for their invaluable contributions to this research. References International Crisis Group. The Burkina Faso conflict: Key drivers and actors [Internet]. 2023 [cited 2025 Jan 6]. Available from: https://www.crisisgroup.org United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR). Burkina Faso crisis: Operational update [Internet]. 2023 [cited 2025 Jan 6]. 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Stark L, Ager A. A systematic review of prevalence studies of gender-based violence in complex emergencies. Trauma Violence Abuse. 2011;12(3):127–34. UNHCR. Sexual and gender-based violence prevention and response in refugee situations. UNHCR; 2011. IASC. Guidelines for Integrating Gender-Based Violence Interventions in Humanitarian Action. 2015. Asgary R, Emery E, Wong M. Systematic review of prevention of gender-based violence in conflict-affected settings. Int Health. 2013;5(3):156–72. Peterman A, Palermo T, Bredenkamp C. Estimates and Determinants of Sexual Violence in Conflict Zones. BMJ Glob Health. 2019;4(1):e001464. Flood M, Pease B. Factors influencing attitudes to violence against women. Trauma Violence Abuse. 2009;10(2):125–42. Garcia-Moreno C, Jansen HA, Ellsberg M, Heise L, Watts CH. WHO multi-country study on women's health and domestic violence against women. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2005. World Bank. Voice and Agency: Empowering Women and Girls for Shared Prosperity. 2014. CEDAW Committee. General Recommendation No. 19 on violence against women. 1992. Hossain M, Zimmerman C, Kiss L, Abramsky T, Kone D, Bakayoko-Topolska M, et al. Men's and women's views on the acceptability of collecting gender-based violence data from adult men in household surveys: results from a qualitative sub-study of the WHO Multi-Country Study on Women's Health and Domestic Violence Against Women. BMC Public Health. 2015;15:751. Michau L, Horn J, Bank A, Dutt M, Zimmerman C. Prevention of violence against women and girls: lessons from practice. Lancet. 2015;385(9978):1672–84. Casey EA, Lindhorst TP, Storer HL. The situational-cognitive model of adolescent male violence towards females. Psychol Violence. 2021;11(2):112–21. Saile R, Neuner F, Ertl V, Catani C. Prevalence and predictors of partner violence in former child soldiers and their families: a cross-sectional study in Eastern DR Congo. BMC Public Health. 2013;13:326. UNHCR. Framework for Action on Addressing SGBV in Refugee Situations. UNHCR; 2016. Wagman JA, Blanc AK. Encouraging health providers to assess and support gender-based violence survivors in low- and middle-income countries: lessons from Uganda. Glob Health Sci Pract. 2018;6(2):200–8. Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Cite Share Download PDF Status: Published Journal Publication published 22 Dec, 2025 Read the published version in International Journal for Equity in Health → Version 1 posted Editorial decision: Accepted 15 Jul, 2025 Editor assigned by journal 11 Jul, 2025 Reviewers agreed at journal 05 May, 2025 Reviews received at journal 03 May, 2025 Reviewers agreed at journal 01 May, 2025 Reviewers agreed at journal 26 Apr, 2025 Reviewers invited by journal 09 Apr, 2025 Submission checks completed at journal 25 Mar, 2025 First submitted to journal 25 Mar, 2025 You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. As a division of Research Square Company, we’re committed to making research communication faster, fairer, and more useful. We do this by developing innovative software and high quality services for the global research community. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-5771239","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Research Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":440518806,"identity":"d77c4c89-b031-421d-a770-8d6008e3e3ba","order_by":0,"name":"Souleymane BAYOULOU","email":"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAZAAAAAyAQMAAABI0h/eAAAABlBMVEX///8AAABVwtN+AAAACXBIWXMAAA7EAAAOxAGVKw4bAAAA8klEQVRIiWNgGAWjYBACAzBZACYZDzBUAClm5gYitEBIhgMMZ0BaGEnRwtgGtg2/FnP2M4aPeQxsEhv4Dx848HFebTR/O1DLj4ptOLVY9uQYG/MYpCU2SKQlHJy57XjujMOMDYw9Z27jdtiBHDNpHoPDQC1AknfbsdwGoBZmxjY8Ws6/gWrhPwPUMudY7nyCWm7AbGHIAWppqMndQEiL5YxnxYZzDNKM20B+mXHsQO5GoJaD+Pxizp+88cGbChvZfv7DBx98qKnLnXceyPhRgVsLAwMHJFLYILzDYPIAHvVAwP4AmVeHX/EoGAWjYBSMSAAAPWpcQJXdEekAAAAASUVORK5CYII=","orcid":"","institution":"Institut de Formation et de Recherche Interdisciplinaires en Sciences de la Santé et de l'Éducation","correspondingAuthor":true,"prefix":"","firstName":"Souleymane","middleName":"","lastName":"BAYOULOU","suffix":""},{"id":440518807,"identity":"19c9a53e-5e0a-404b-ae59-1ca0824a5282","order_by":1,"name":"Patrice NGANGUE","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Institut de Formation et de Recherche Interdisciplinaires en Sciences de la Santé et de l'Éducation","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Patrice","middleName":"","lastName":"NGANGUE","suffix":""},{"id":440518813,"identity":"a25c9bbe-37e8-4ef1-a788-df2115045f70","order_by":2,"name":"Ibrahiman TOURE","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Université Alassane Ouattara","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Ibrahiman","middleName":"","lastName":"TOURE","suffix":""},{"id":440518814,"identity":"2539da36-3b61-48c7-a541-9ae8b92a5dff","order_by":3,"name":"Kora KOUBATOU","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Institut de Formation et de Recherche Interdisciplinaires en Sciences de la Santé et de l'Éducation","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Kora","middleName":"","lastName":"KOUBATOU","suffix":""},{"id":440518815,"identity":"fc63f0a8-6291-40f0-80cd-c92323f19630","order_by":4,"name":"Koutchango Afrima KPENGLAM","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Institut de Formation et de Recherche Interdisciplinaires en Sciences de la Santé et de l'Éducation","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Koutchango","middleName":"Afrima","lastName":"KPENGLAM","suffix":""},{"id":440518816,"identity":"2617c511-de55-4c0a-9961-20dd9a754e47","order_by":5,"name":"Sandra YOPA","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"University of Yaoundé 1","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Sandra","middleName":"","lastName":"YOPA","suffix":""},{"id":440518817,"identity":"4ac7d978-2a02-471d-a17d-ad4ef90192f6","order_by":6,"name":"Boris Arnaud Kouomogne NTEUNGUE","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"World Health Organization, Cameroon Country Office","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Boris","middleName":"Arnaud Kouomogne","lastName":"NTEUNGUE","suffix":""},{"id":440518818,"identity":"64056a97-8fbd-47f4-a5bf-9e89fe8904b6","order_by":7,"name":"Gbètogo Maxime KIKI","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Université du Québec à Trois-Rivières","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Gbètogo","middleName":"Maxime","lastName":"KIKI","suffix":""}],"badges":[],"createdAt":"2025-01-06 06:38:36","currentVersionCode":1,"declarations":"","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-5771239/v1","doiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-5771239/v1","draftVersion":[],"editorialEvents":[{"content":"https://doi.org/10.1186/s12939-025-02590-4","type":"published","date":"2025-12-22T15:57:51+00:00"}],"editorialNote":"","failedWorkflow":false,"files":[{"id":99172300,"identity":"5328c072-3b26-4716-a63d-d51e10b63de7","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-12-29 16:07:30","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":638070,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-5771239/v1/13792ff6-48cd-476c-805e-29fff11855e1.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Unveiling the Gendered Dimensions of Conflict-Driven Displacement: Analyzing Perceptions and Attitudes Toward Gender-Based Violence among Internally Displaced Persons in Burkina Faso","fulltext":[{"header":"Background","content":"\u003cp\u003eBurkina Faso has been beset by a severe security crisis since 2015, which originated from violent attacks by armed factions. The escalating conflict has triggered a dire humanitarian crisis in the country, with severe consequences affecting its civilian population on a large scale [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR1\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e]. A significant increase in insecurity has caused a record number of people to be forcibly displaced, resulting in over two million individuals seeking refuge within their local areas or in safer sections of the country. On 31 March 2023, there were 2,062,534 internally displaced persons (IDPs) in Burkina Faso: 17.59% men, 23.91% women, and 58.50% children. This number continues to rise due to ongoing armed attacks, making Burkina Faso one of the fastest-growing displacement crises in the world [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAt the same time, 3.3\u0026nbsp;million non-displaced people are also affected, and exposed to increased violence, particularly sexual and gender-based violence, with women and girls being the main victims. The protection of children is also a major concern, with cases of injury or death linked to improvised explosive devices and armed violence. In June 2024, humanitarian access was still limited in 39 areas, isolating 1.1\u0026nbsp;million people who relied on secure convoys and humanitarian flights for supplies. Despite these growing challenges, humanitarian aid remains largely underfunded, with a funding rate of only 40.4% as of 31 October 2024 [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe security situation is characterized by extremist threats, irregular checkpoints, the diversion of humanitarian aid, targeted killings of civilians, kidnappings, ambushes, the planting of improvised explosive devices, clashes between armed groups and the Defence and Security Forces (FDS)/Volontaires de D\u0026eacute;fense pour la Patrie (VDP), and the destruction of crossing points and state symbols [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn these conditions, the humanitarian space is shrinking and basic social services are in serious disarray [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e]. Persistent insecurity, particularly in the border areas with Mali and Niger, exposes women and girls to increased risks of gender-based violence (GBV) and harmful practices.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eArmed attacks and mass displacements heighten vulnerability, creating conditions that exacerbate gender-based violence (GBV) and restrict access to sexual and reproductive health (SRH) services, particularly for rural and displaced populations [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDuring periods of turmoil, certain groups\u0026mdash;especially women and children\u0026mdash;are disproportionately affected by violence and forced displacement. Research indicates that conflict leads to a significant rise in GBV, with women and girls being at heightened risk of conflict-related sexual assault. In modern warfare, they are often deliberately targeted as strategic assets [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e]. These trends underscore the deepening vulnerabilities and further marginalization of already disadvantaged groups.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eTherefore, GBV should be treated as part of a broader context. This phenomenon embodies entrenched inequalities and power disparities between genders, with harmful social standards and cultural traditions perpetuating the exclusion and domination of women [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR5\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e5\u003c/span\u003e]. The patterns of violence not only mirror deeply ingrained gender inequalities but also help sustain cycles of trauma that perpetuate inequality even after ending conflicts. The ongoing effects of trauma underscore the intricacies of GBV, as it encompasses not only initial assaults but also long-term, profound impacts on both societal and psychological levels.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe effects of GBV have significant and far-reaching consequences on public health. The World Bank has pointed out that the health impact of GBV surpasses that of malaria and road accidents, placing considerable strain on already overwhelmed healthcare systems [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e]. Confronted with long-term physical and mental health difficulties, survivors also suffer from social isolation and economic dependence, worsening their already heightened susceptibility [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e]. The World Health Organization (WHO) emphasizes that tackling GBV is crucial for attaining global development objectives, such as eliminating poverty. Unless targeted interventions are implemented, the cycle of inequality and instability will persist, hindering social and economic advancement worldwide [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR6\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e6\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eOne of the most distressing manifestations of GBV is the widespread occurrence of child marriage. Estimates indicate that more than 12\u0026nbsp;million girls are married before the age of 18, severely limiting their access to education and opportunities for self-improvement [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e]. Early marriage perpetuates cycles of poverty and disempowerment, ultimately restricting girls\u0026rsquo; socioeconomic prospects for generations [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn Burkina Faso, data from the GBV sub-cluster reveal a concerning rise in reported GBV incidents. In 2021, 3,585 cases were documented, increasing to 6,065 in 2022. Among these, rape accounted for 7%, sexual assaults 2%, physical assaults 22%, forced marriages 11%, denial of resources and service opportunities 15%, and psycho-emotional violence 43% [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR2\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e2\u003c/span\u003e]. However, these figures are likely underestimated due to the limited presence of GBV response actors and the inadequate availability of support services.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe widespread effects of GBV are often overlooked in public discourse due to deeply ingrained cultural prejudices and restrictive social norms [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e]. These barriers significantly hinder the development of open and comprehensive responses to GBV. This research examines the perspectives and responses of affected communities, with a particular focus on how cultural expectations and social norms shape these reactions. By analyzing how GBV is perceived and addressed across different groups, this study aims to inform the development of more effective, culturally sensitive interventions to reduce and prevent GBV.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"METHODS","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis study complies with the Consolidated Criteria for Reporting Qualitative Research (COREQ) guidelines, ensuring rigorous and transparent reporting of all aspects of the qualitative research methodology, including study design, data collection, analysis, and participant engagement [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR10\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e10\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eStudy Design\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study employed a qualitative research design centered on focus group discussions (FGDs). An interview guide facilitated data collection, and interpretative phenomenological analysis (IPA) was used to analyze the data [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR11\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e11\u003c/span\u003e]. IPA enables an in-depth exploration of personal experiences and the meanings individuals attribute to life events, emphasizing participant and researcher interpretations [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR12\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e12\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR13\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e13\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eStudy Setting\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe study was conducted in Kaya, the capital of the Central Region of Burkina Faso. Kaya hosts a significant population of over 400,000 internally displaced persons (IDPs), with more than 30% residing within the city [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR14\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e14\u003c/span\u003e]. This setting provided a unique context through which to examine the lived experiences of displaced populations.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eStudy Population and Sampling\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe target population consisted of Kaya IDPs stratified into five key demographic groups: women, girls, men, boys, and community leaders. This stratification accounts for gender, age, and social diversity, ensuring comprehensive representation across demographic segments. Participants were selected using a stratified random sampling method to reflect the diverse characteristics of the source population [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR15\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e15\u003c/span\u003e]. However, participants were selected at random. The inclusion criteria required participants to be IDPs residing in Kaya, with voluntary and informed consent provided. FGDs were conducted in all IDP reception zones proportional to the population distribution in each zone to achieve comprehensive geographic representation.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eData Collection\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eData were collected using KoboCollect, a digital tool that facilitates the automatic recording of group interviews via smartphones [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR16\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e16\u003c/span\u003e]. The interview guide was developed and structured to capture relevant insights and was adapted for local context and linguistic accessibility. The interview guide was pretested during a pilot phase and subsequently adapted for the study. It comprised five sections: (a) characteristics of the FGD participants (Can you please tell us your age and occupation?), (b) representational dimension (How do you perceive gender-based violence (GBV) in your community?), (c) organizational dimension (What organizations or groups in your community address GBV issues?), (d) experiential dimension (Can you share any experiences or stories you have heard about GBV in your community?), and (e) intersubjective dimension (How do community members support each other in dealing with GBV?).\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFGDs were conducted between February 4 and March 8, 2022, in Kaya by six trained interviewers paired into three teams. The interviewers, who were experienced in previous surveys on gender-based violence and sexual and reproductive health, underwent training on the use of the research guide. They were recruited from the database of investigators in the GBV sub-cluster. The training was primarily practical, allowing participants to familiarize themselves with the KoboCollect tool and, most importantly, to gain a common understanding of the questionnaire in the local Mor\u0026eacute; language, which is spoken by the IDPs. Initially designed in French, the interview guide was translated into the local language, Mor\u0026eacute;, to improve comprehension and participant engagement. Interviews, lasting approximately one hour each, ensured active and meaningful participation.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec3\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eData Analysis\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe audio recordings of the FGDs were transcribed verbatim and then analyzed using the NVivo 12 software [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR17\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e17\u003c/span\u003e]. A multidisciplinary team (KK, TI, NP, and BS) performed iterative coding. At the same time, observational field notes were documented in Microsoft Word and subjected to content analysis using a rigorous methodology to extract embedded meanings [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR9\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e9\u003c/span\u003e]. Thematic analysis was performed on the transcripts using the approach proposed by Braun and Clarke (2006), highlighting patterns, themes, and contrasts within the data. Inductive thematic analysis involves several key steps. First, we immerse ourselves in the data by reading and re-reading it to understand its content and context. Next, we systematically code the data by labelling segments with relevant codes, condensing it into manageable chunks. We then identify themes by grouping similar codes, capturing significant patterns related to the research question. These themes are reviewed for accuracy and coherence and refined as needed. We define and name each theme, providing clear descriptions of their essence and relation to the research question. Finally, we produce a report presenting the themes and their analysis, supported by evidence from the data, offering a comprehensive understanding of the research findings [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR18\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e18\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis dual analytical approach integrated content analysis to ensure a nuanced interpretation of the participants' experiences and thematic analysis for systematic theme identification [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR19\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e19\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eEthical Considerations\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe study was reviewed and approved by the Health Research Ethics Committee (Protocol No. 2022-01-012, dated January 17, 2022). Before participation, the study objectives were explained to all participants, and detailed consent was obtained, including consent to audio recordings. The consent process was conducted in Mor\u0026eacute; to ensure the participants' complete understanding. Confidentiality and voluntary participation were emphasized throughout the study. For minors, parental consent was secured via the site management committees, ensuring ethical compliance and respect for the young participants' rights.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"RESULTS","content":"\u003cp\u003eStudy Participants\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe study engaged 352 participants through focus group interviews, with a breakdown by demographic groups, as detailed in Table\u0026nbsp;\u003cspan refid=\"Tab1\" class=\"InternalRef\"\u003e1\u003c/span\u003e. One could not be conducted among the intended seven focus groups with community leaders due to the absence of recognized leaders at the site. Despite this, the overall study completion rate was an impressive 98.30%.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"gridtable\"\u003e\u003ctable float=\"Yes\" id=\"Tab1\" border=\"1\"\u003e \u003ccaption language=\"En\"\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionNumber\"\u003eTable 1\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv class=\"CaptionContent\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eParticipant Summary for Focus Group Discussions\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003c/caption\u003e \u003ccolgroup cols=\"3\"\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"left\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c1\" colnum=\"1\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c2\" colnum=\"2\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv align=\"char\" char=\".\" class=\"colspec\" colname=\"c3\" colnum=\"3\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003cthead\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003ePopulation\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eNumber of Focus Groups\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003cth align=\"left\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eParticipants\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/th\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/thead\u003e \u003ctbody\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAdolescent Girls\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e81\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eAdolescent Boys\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e78\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eWomen\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e89\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eMen\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e13\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e61\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eCommunity Leaders\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e6\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e43\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003ctr\u003e \u003ctd align=\"left\" colname=\"c1\"\u003e \u003cp\u003eTotal\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c2\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e58\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003ctd align=\"char\" char=\".\" colname=\"c3\"\u003e \u003cp\u003e352\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/td\u003e \u003c/tr\u003e \u003c/tbody\u003e \u003c/colgroup\u003e \u003c/table\u003e\u003c/div\u003e \u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe findings are organized into two dimensions. The first, the representational dimension, examines cultural representations and social divisions. It explores internally displaced persons (IDPs) perceptions of GBV's root causes, identifies socio-cultural and economic factors contributing to the violence, and highlights specific threats and vulnerabilities within communities.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe second, the intersubjective dimension, looks at power and affective relationships between actors in both informal and institutional contexts. It reveals key aspects such as the scope and evolution of GBV cases, beliefs and perceptions related to GBV, and strategies for preventing and mitigating risks. It also examines the organization of psychosocial support, focusing on access to specialized services and assistance for survivors. Finally, it identifies obstacles to seeking help, highlighting socio-cultural, economic, and institutional barriers to accessing protective and supportive services.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eThe representational dimension of GBV\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe representational dimension of GBV highlights its root causes, emphasizing cultural and structural determinants like gender inequality, economic hardship, and harmful traditional practices.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSocial constructs are seen as human rights violations that contribute to gender inequality and reinforce power imbalances: \u0026ldquo;Vulnerability and power are the causes of GBV; the one who has power can force someone else to do what they don\u0026rsquo;t want to do\u0026rdquo; \u0026ndash; focus group with women.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eWhile GBV stems from inequality and discrimination, various factors determine its type and extent. Participants identified behaviors such as ignorance, alcohol consumption, illegal possession of firearms, moral suffering, lack of forgiveness, forced marriage, terrorism, and insecurity as promoters of GBV. Ignorance was frequently mentioned: \u0026ldquo;I think it\u0026rsquo;s ignorance, the lack of knowledge of human rights for men and women. If you don\u0026rsquo;t know your rights, you can be subjected to violence or mistreated because of your ignorance\u0026rdquo; \u0026ndash; focus group with women.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eEconomically, factors like lack of food, economic dependence, and limited access to resources aggravate GBV, with poverty being the most determining factor: \u0026ldquo;\u0026hellip; all of this is due to poverty. For example, a woman may ask her husband for food for the kitchen, and if he can\u0026rsquo;t give it to her, the woman might take it badly and insults follow. The man, who feels frustrated and humiliated, unfortunately, ends up hitting her\u0026rdquo; \u0026ndash; focus group with adolescents.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eInstitutionally, impunity and the low status of women in traditional society were highlighted: \u0026ldquo;In a household, for example, a woman may have disagreements with her husband because he wants to marry off their daughter without her consent. If the woman wants to speak out, it causes problems because it\u0026rsquo;s assumed that she has no say\u0026rdquo; \u0026ndash; focus group with women.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSecondly, the study reveals that the main protection risks faced by communities are related to the lack of education for children, inadequate housing, food and water shortages, and a lack of employment opportunities. These risks affect all communities, but women are the primary victims.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIndeed, risks related to sexual violence are pervasive, especially during humanitarian crises, where women become more vulnerable to physical, sexual, and psychological violence while carrying out their daily survival tasks. As stated in a focus group with women: \"Everyone suffers, but women suffer even more. Last time, women were raped when they went to the bush to gather firewood.\"\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe humanitarian crisis has exacerbated certain forms of gender-based violence (GBV), particularly psychological violence, sexual violence, and physical assaults. These forms of violence are inflicted on women and girls during displacement, while searching for water, and firewood, or even when returning to abandoned villages to gather supplies from granaries. Additionally, forced marriages, especially child marriages, are used by vulnerable households as a survival strategy. Intimate partner violence has also become recurring in these households.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe analysis further highlights that the majority of Internally Displaced Persons (IDPs) view the sexual division of domestic labor as a process of socialization. Consequently, they do not question the precariousness of the female condition. However, some participants acknowledge that this division contributes to the dropout of girls from school. Social constructs are thus seen as human rights violations that reinforce gender inequalities and perpetuate the power imbalance between men and women. As participants expressed: \"Social norms surrounding the sexual division of labor often indirectly perpetuate educational disadvantages for girls.\" \u0026ndash; Fous group with young people.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eThe Intersubjective Dimension (GBV and Power Relations)\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cdiv id=\"Sec7\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eTrends and Prevalence of GBV\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eOpinions vary on whether gender-based violence (GBV) has changed due to humanitarian crises. Many Internally Displaced Persons (IDPs) believe the crisis hasn't significantly impacted GBV prevalence. One participant noted, \"Violence has decreased because, with the lack of financial resources, we can no longer impose on our women and girls not to go out and search for work\" \u0026ndash; focus group with community leaders. Similarly, some women stated, \"Honestly, it\u0026rsquo;s something that has decreased, there is even none anymore because the old have changed, the young girls have changed, the boys have changed, we women too, with what we see every day, it has decreased\" \u0026ndash; focus group with women.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eHowever, some participants argue the situation has worsened due to insufficient humanitarian aid. One participant explained, \"I would say it has increased because the distribution of food creates many conflicts, especially when non-beneficiaries point fingers at the beneficiaries. Also, women accuse men and call them lazy because this responsibility lies with the man\" \u0026ndash; focus group with men. Another perspective suggests the situation hasn't fundamentally changed: \"No, it hasn\u0026rsquo;t increased, it hasn\u0026rsquo;t decreased either; it\u0026rsquo;s the same\" \u0026ndash; focus group with women. This view was expressed only in one focus group.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e \u003cdiv id=\"Sec8\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e \u003ch2\u003eCultural Beliefs and Practices\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe study reveals many preconceived ideas about GBV, even among those responsible for care, who should help eliminate this violence but often contribute to spreading misleading ideas. Some women and girls believe Female Genital Mutilation (FGM) has advantages, such as protection against diseases and easier childbirth. Some consider femininity conditioned by excision: \u0026ldquo;If you are not excised, you are not a woman. I saw a man who married a woman to go to C\u0026ocirc;te d'Ivoire. When he found out that the girl hadn\u0026rsquo;t been excised, he made her return to Burkina Faso to have it done\u0026rdquo; \u0026ndash; focus group with young girls. It is also common to think that women who haven't undergone FGM are more sexually active and unfaithful: \u0026ldquo;An unexcised girl is frivolous and cannot stay faithful to her husband; she alone can be with ten men\u0026rdquo; \u0026ndash; focus group with community leaders. Some even link children's success to the mother's excision: \u0026ldquo;It\u0026rsquo;s a good thing because when you have sexual relations with your wife, you can have children who will take care of the family later\u0026rdquo; \u0026ndash; focus group with young people.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eHowever, most participants acknowledge that FGM can lead to serious health problems: \u0026ldquo;Female genital mutilation has no benefits for women. On the contrary, it causes more problems for women, such as complications during childbirth, the death of young girls, sexual disorders, etc.\u0026rdquo; \u0026ndash; focus group with women. This viewpoint is also shared by men: \u0026ldquo;Really, it\u0026rsquo;s not good. If you haven\u0026rsquo;t seen the pictures, you can\u0026rsquo;t understand that excision is not good. There\u0026rsquo;s a difference during childbirth between those who have been excised and those who have not\u0026rdquo; \u0026ndash; focus group with men.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eSuch beliefs perpetuate GBV while reflecting the tension between ingrained cultural practices and modern awareness of their health implications.\u003c/p\u003e \u003c/div\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eGBV Risk Prevention and Mitigation\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe study highlighted significant progress in prevention efforts, emphasizing improvements in communication, awareness campaigns, and the accessibility of reporting mechanisms. Participants noted the involvement of local organizations, such as the Bon Samaritain Association, in these campaigns. Most interviewees confirmed benefiting from activities aimed at preventing and mitigating GBV risks, particularly through enhanced communication and awareness of available services and their timely advantages: \"We have greatly benefited from the awareness activities, especially through the Bon Samaritain and ABBA\u0026rsquo;S association. They raised awareness among people on-site, men, women, children, old and young\" \u0026ndash; focus group with community leaders.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIt was also noted that Internally Displaced Persons (IDPs) have significant freedom of expression: \"Yes, even those who come to raise awareness tell us that if there are questions, we can ask them, as it even increases their knowledge. Everyone gives their opinion. If someone also wants to ask questions, they can do so. They also say we should share what we've learned with our loved ones\" \u0026ndash; focus group with men.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFurthermore, reporting mechanisms have been established to allow the population to express themselves freely: \"We are free to express ourselves. There was a structure that placed suggestion boxes here, and if you can write, you can write whatever you want, and they come to collect it to examine everyone's ideas\" \u0026ndash; focus group with youth.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch3\u003eSupport and barriers for survivors of GBV\u003c/h3\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe analysis of the support mechanism for GBV survivors in Kaya revealed several persistent obstacles. The victim's social environment, stereotypes, and fear of social exclusion are major factors. Often, socio-cultural burdens force victims to refrain from seeking help: \u0026ldquo;... I tell myself that the person sees it as a shame for herself. She sees what happened to her as a shame, which is why, often, people walk around with their problems eating them up without being able to talk about it.\u0026rdquo; \u0026ndash; focus group with adolescent girls.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAdditionally, the lack of information on the importance of support, the near non-existence of adequate and holistic support structures, and the shortage of trained personnel are significant barriers. The study also reveals that the law on Safe Abortion (ISG) is perceived as criminal, even when the pregnancy results from rape: \u0026ldquo;Here, if you have an abortion, you will never come back home\u0026hellip;\u0026rdquo; \u0026ndash; focus group with women. Furthermore, many interviewees believe that women are responsible for the violence they experience due to their behavior. In several focus groups, participants agreed that a girl could be raped because of her clothing: \u0026ldquo;It\u0026rsquo;s normal because, in reality, her clothing reflects her wishes, and we, as men, will fulfill her wish without remorse or regrets.\u0026rdquo; \u0026ndash; focus group with young men.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"DISCUSSION","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis study aimed to explore the representational and intersubjective perceptions of gender-based violence (GBV) across various demographic groups, including adolescent girls, boys, women, and men.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThrough focus group interviews with 352 participants, this study identified several critical dimensions of Gender-Based Violence (GBV), its root causes, and risk factors. GBV was highlighted as deeply rooted in cultural and structural determinants, with gender inequality, power imbalances, and entrenched social constructs forming its primary foundations. Economic hardship, ignorance, behavioral issues like alcohol misuse, and institutional shortcomings (e.g., impunity) were seen as contributors exacerbating GBV but not necessarily its root causes.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe fundamental causes of gender-based violence (GBV) lie in societal attitudes and practices of sexual discrimination [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR7\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e7\u003c/span\u003e]. Society often assigns rigid roles and power relations to men and women, with women being subordinate to men [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR8\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e8\u003c/span\u003e]. The main behavior at the root of GBV is the disregard for women's human rights and the systematic domination of men in social relations [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR3\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e3\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAcceptance of these roles and the lack of social and economic value placed on women and their work reinforce the assumption that men have decision-making power and control over women. This disregard for or ignorance of human rights principles, gender equality, and democracy, as well as peaceful problem-solving methods, perpetuates inequality, which is a source of GBV [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR4\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e4\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eParticipants emphasized heightened GBV risks during humanitarian crises, manifesting in physical, sexual, and psychological violence linked to harmful traditional practices like female genital mutilation (FGM), forced marriages, and the sexual division of labor [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR21\" citationid=\"CR20\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e20\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR22\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e22\u003c/span\u003e]. Though harmful practices persist, divergent views on GBV trends emerged, with some reporting reductions due to shifting behaviors or constraints. Preventive efforts, such as awareness campaigns and local interventions, were noted but insufficient against sociocultural barriers to survivor support, including stigmatization and victim-blaming [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR23\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e23\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eIn line with previous studies, our findings confirm that patriarchal social systems perpetuate discriminatory norms and values that legitimize unequal power dynamics and reinforce the subordination of women. For instance, discriminatory norms that grant men disproportionate decision-making authority and resource control continue to sustain environments conducive to GBV [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR25\" citationid=\"CR24\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e24\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR26\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e26\u003c/span\u003e]. Recent research also underscores the importance of addressing social attitudes and practices in eradicating GBV [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR27\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e27\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe study highlights the interplay between risk factors such as economic inequality, alcohol abuse, and neglect of familial responsibilities, which contribute to various forms of GBV, including child abuse, intimate partner violence, and sexual violence [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR29\" citationid=\"CR28\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e28\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR30\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e30\u003c/span\u003e]. Similar observations have been made in crisis settings where GBV risk intensifies. Humanitarian crises exacerbate vulnerability, especially for displaced women and girls, who face heightened risks of sexual violence, forced marriages, and resource-related violence [\u003cspan additionalcitationids=\"CR32 CR33\" citationid=\"CR31\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e31\u003c/span\u003e\u0026ndash;\u003cspan citationid=\"CR34\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e34\u003c/span\u003e]. While our participants suggested a perceived decline in GBV prevalence, reported cases, particularly in regions like Centre-Nord, reveal significant increases in documented incidents, mirroring findings in crisis-affected settings globally [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR35\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e35\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eNotably, this study sheds light on sociocultural attitudes that perpetuate victim-blaming and normalize violence, consistent with prior evidence indicating that women's behavior or appearance is often erroneously used to justify GBV [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR36\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e36\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR37\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e37\u003c/span\u003e]. Such attitudes align with the broader literature on cultural and institutional barriers that dissuade victims, particularly male victims, from seeking help [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR38\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e38\u003c/span\u003e]. The findings also resonate with critiques of legislative and policy frameworks that inadequately address the gendered realities of GBV, further entrenching systemic inequities [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR39\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e39\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eImplications for Research and Practice\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eThe findings underscore the urgent need for comprehensive prevention and intervention strategies to address the root causes of GBV. Community-based initiatives dismantling patriarchal norms and empowering women and girls are critical [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR40\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e40\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR41\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e41\u003c/span\u003e]. Programs promoting gender equality and human rights education, along with interventions addressing economic inequities and substance abuse, can mitigate GBV risks.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eFrom a policy perspective, strengthening and contextualizing laws to address the nuanced experiences of GBV survivors is crucial [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR42\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e42\u003c/span\u003e]. Policies should integrate gender-responsive approaches and ensure equitable access to legal and social support systems [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR43\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e43\u003c/span\u003e, \u003cspan citationid=\"CR44\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e44\u003c/span\u003e]. For practitioners, integrating culturally sensitive interventions that challenge harmful societal constructs while respecting local contexts is imperative to fostering meaningful change [\u003cspan citationid=\"CR45\" class=\"CitationRef\"\u003e45\u003c/span\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eLimitations\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eDespite its contributions, this study is subject to several limitations. Reporting bias may have influenced participant responses, particularly given the sensitive nature of GBV. Social desirability bias could also account for discrepancies between reported perceptions and documented cases. Moreover, the study's qualitative focus precludes broad generalizations across different populations and settings. Future studies should incorporate quantitative methods and expand the demographic and geographical scope to enhance representativeness and comparability.\u003c/p\u003e \u003cp\u003eAdditionally, the findings are limited in their ability to establish causal relationships, underscoring the need for robust epidemiological studies. Without evidence-based interventions and strong data, engaging all stakeholders in the fight against GBV remains challenging, reinforcing the importance of continued research.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"CONCLUSION","content":"\u003cp\u003eDespite ongoing efforts, gender-based violence (GBV) remains a pervasive and deeply entrenched issue within society, often overlooked and misunderstood, particularly in the context of humanitarian crises. Many internally displaced persons (IDPs) are unaware that GBV constitutes a violation of fundamental human rights, and there is limited acknowledgment of how such crises can exacerbate this pervasive problem. As a result, harmful practices such as female genital mutilation, forced and child marriages, and various forms of physical violence have become normalized in some contexts. While a subset of IDPs recognize the profound detrimental effects of GBV, the prevailing perception is that humanitarian aid remains inadequate to address the scale of the issue. Strengthening communication and raising awareness about available support services is imperative; however, widespread feelings of shame and fear among IDPs continue to hinder their access to essential assistance. Tackling these barriers requires a holistic and sustained commitment to empowering communities and fostering a rights-based approach to eradicate GBV.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEthics approval and consent to participate\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe study was reviewed and approved by the Health Research Ethics Committee (Protocol No. 2022-01-012, dated January 17, 2022). Before participation, the study objectives were explained to all participants, and detailed consent was obtained, including consent to audio recordings. The consent process was conducted in Moré to ensure the participants' complete understanding. Confidentiality and voluntary participation were emphasized throughout the study.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConsent for publication\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNot applicable\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAvailability of data and materials\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe datasets used and/or analysed during the current study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eCompeting interests\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe authors declare that they have no competing interests.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFunding\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis research did not receive any funding from external sources.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAuthors' contributions\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSB and PN contributed to the study's conceptualization, data collection, and analysis. SB, PN, IB, KK, KAK, BAKN, SY and GMK contributed to the design, data coding, and interpretation of results. PN, SB, IB and KK provided expertise in qualitative methodology and assisted in writing and revising the manuscript. SB and PN supported data collection and provided critical feedback on the manuscript.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eAcknowledgements\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWe would like to acknowledge the study participants and the individuals who assisted with data collection for their invaluable contributions to this research.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003cspan\u003eInternational Crisis Group. The Burkina Faso conflict: Key drivers and actors [Internet]. 2023 [cited 2025 Jan 6]. 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Glob Health Sci Pract. 2018;6(2):200\u0026ndash;8.\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":true,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"international-journal-for-equity-in-health","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"ijeh","sideBox":"Learn more about [International Journal for Equity in Health](http://equityhealthj.biomedcentral.com)","snPcode":"12939","submissionUrl":"https://submission.nature.com/new-submission/12939/3","title":"International Journal for Equity in Health","twitterHandle":"@equityhealthj","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"BMC/SO AJ","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true},"keywords":"Gender-based violence, Survivors, Internal displacement, Perceptions, Representational and Intersubjective dimensions, Burkina Faso","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-5771239/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-5771239/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003ch2\u003eBackground\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eBurkina Faso has been dealing with a worsening security situation since 2015, resulting in more than two million people being forced to leave their homes. Gender-based violence (GBV) has escalated and is a major issue in situations involving conflict and forced displacement. This research examines the views and opinions of internally displaced individuals on VBG in Burkina Faso, specifically emphasizing how ingrained social structures contribute to this problem.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eMethods\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis study employed a qualitative, descriptive, and exploratory research design. The research was conducted in Kaya city, a region heavily impacted by displacement. Data were collected through 58 focus group discussions, which included 352 participants. The data were thematically analyzed using NVivo 12 and the approach developed by Braun and Clarke, enabling a thorough identification of key patterns and themes.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eResults\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eFindings enabled the identification of several critical dimensions of GBV, its root causes, and risk factors. GBV was highlighted as deeply rooted in cultural and structural determinants, with gender inequality, power imbalances, and entrenched social constructs forming its primary foundations. Economic hardship, ignorance, behavioral issues like alcohol misuse, and institutional shortcomings were seen as contributors exacerbating GBV but not necessarily its root causes. Participants emphasized heightened GBV risks during humanitarian crises, manifesting in physical, sexual, and psychological violence linked to harmful traditional practices like female genital mutilation (FGM), forced marriages, and the sexual division of labor. Though harmful practices persist, divergent views on GBV trends emerged, with some reporting reductions due to shifting behaviors or constraints. Preventive efforts, such as awareness campaigns and local interventions, were noted but insufficient against sociocultural barriers to survivor support, including stigmatization and victim-blaming.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch2\u003eConclusions\u003c/h2\u003e \u003cp\u003eThis research elucidates the deep-rooted sociocultural and structural determinants of GBV, reflecting persisting gender inequities and systemic oppression. The findings underscore the pressing requirement for thorough communication plans that increase understanding of accessible services and foster participation despite the widespread stigma, shame, and fear that prevent individuals from seeking help.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Unveiling the Gendered Dimensions of Conflict-Driven Displacement: Analyzing Perceptions and Attitudes Toward Gender-Based Violence among Internally Displaced Persons in Burkina Faso","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-04-10 18:42:36","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-5771239/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"decision","content":"Accepted","date":"2025-07-15T06:27:46+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2025-07-11T05:07:48+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"77317735389470670253378339438410499850","date":"2025-05-05T08:43:22+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2025-05-03T08:14:08+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"35721732259271025897335966251800565573","date":"2025-05-01T20:05:55+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"94417565766016499950189112589022849078","date":"2025-04-26T13:46:42+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2025-04-09T08:55:36+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"checksComplete","content":"","date":"2025-03-26T03:26:01+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"International Journal for Equity in Health","date":"2025-03-25T13:54:42+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"international-journal-for-equity-in-health","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"ijeh","sideBox":"Learn more about [International Journal for Equity in Health](http://equityhealthj.biomedcentral.com)","snPcode":"12939","submissionUrl":"https://submission.nature.com/new-submission/12939/3","title":"International Journal for Equity in Health","twitterHandle":"@equityhealthj","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"em","reportingPortfolio":"BMC/SO AJ","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":true}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"8c6e16d1-5775-4725-a955-7d88d6053436","owner":[],"postedDate":"April 10th, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"published-in-journal","subjectAreas":[],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2025-12-29T16:01:35+00:00","versionOfRecord":{"articleIdentity":"rs-5771239","link":"https://doi.org/10.1186/s12939-025-02590-4","journal":{"identity":"international-journal-for-equity-in-health","isVorOnly":false,"title":"International Journal for Equity in Health"},"publishedOn":"2025-12-22 15:57:51","publishedOnDateReadable":"December 22nd, 2025"},"versionCreatedAt":"2025-04-10 18:42:36","video":"","vorDoi":"10.1186/s12939-025-02590-4","vorDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1186/s12939-025-02590-4","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-5771239","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-5771239","identity":"rs-5771239","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}