Gender, Institutional Stratification, and Professional Identity: A Mixed-Methods Study of Female Primary School Teachers in Urban China

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This study critically investigates the professional identity formation of these teachers, who are required to navigate the dual pressures of institutional reform and gendered cultural expectations. Grounded in Expectancy-Value Theory, Social Cognitive Theory, and feminist-informed frameworks, the research employs a mixed-methods approach, employing both structured questionnaires administered to 161 teachers in six urban schools in China and in-depth qualitative interviews. Findings reveal that professional identity is generally strong across four dimensions—professional values, role commitment, sense of belonging, and behavioral tendencies. However, identity strength varies significantly by age, teaching experience, job title, position type, and income level. Teachers in mid-career stages, holding senior titles or combined administrative-teaching roles, and higher earnings demonstrate a more coherent and resilient professional identity. The findings underscore the interplay between personal attributes, institutional recognition, and gendered labor norms. This study contributes to the literature on teacher development and educational equity by offering targeted recommendations for policymakers and school leaders to enhance female teachers’ professional identity through differentiated support systems, leadership pathways, and equitable organizational structures. Social science/Development studies Social science/Education Professional Identity Female Teachers Urban Education Gender and Work Institutional Stratification Teacher Development Figures Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 Figure 6 Figure 7 1 Introduction Over the past few decades, China has experienced an unprecedented pace of urbanization. By 2022, the urban population accounted for over 65% of the national total, increasing from under 20% in 1980 (World Bank, 2023). This transformation has profoundly altered not only the spatial and physical structure of cities but also engendered substantial socioeconomic, institutional, and cultural shifts—especially within the public education sector. No longer solely governed by a centralized socialist model, China’s education system now operates within a fragmented and stratified urban landscape, where access to quality schooling is closely tied to spatial planning, residency policies (hukou), and economic capital (Wei et al., 2021). Recent empirical evidence highlights that school quality and teacher resources in megacities such as Beijing and Shanghai significantly exceed those of emerging urban centers, thereby reinforcing educational disparities across urban contexts (Miao, 2024). Teachers in urban public primary schools function in these highly differentiated and constantly evolving contextual circumstances, and are increasingly finding it difficult and challenging, notwithstanding contemporary strategies (Jackson et al., 2021), (Wilson, 2023), evolving digital environments (Antoninis et al, 2023). In this intense professional ecology, professional identity, an awareness and identification with the self in relation to a profession, and how this links to value and work context has become critical for teachers' well-being, pedagogical effectiveness, and sustainability within their careers (Kelchtermans, 2009; Van Lankveld et al., 2017). Gender is an important part of professional identity construction within the primary education system in China that is feminized. Primary education has values and practices inherent to it, reflecting gendered sociocultural expectations concerning empathetic duties, cognizance of emotional labor, being nurturing (OECD, 2023; Hirsch, 2019). Female teachers identify to use expertise to fulfil certain formal aspects of the profession, but ethnographic studies show that they also adopt numerous implicit gendered expectations of their profession relative to being selfless for children, managing emotional responses, and fostering home and family responsibilities (Sun et al., 2022). While developing professional identity women endure challenges within institutional constraints, they also construct perspectives of who they are in relation to what they believe constitutes professional practice that is legitimate (i.e., expectations of meritocracy predictability) (Sachs, 2001; Crenshaw, 2013). Increased attention regarding teacher identity has grown, however systematic, and context specific reviews of female urban primary school teachers in China are few. When teacher identity is the subject of research, there has been little attention paid to the multidimensional, and often intersectional ways identity is constructed (e.g., sensationalism of burnout or self-efficacy). There does not seem to be studies comparing identity formation within city tiers (e.g., comparing first-tier city teachers to emerging or second-tier city teachers), yet there is significant evidence that suggest there could be stark differences between systemic and institutional supports, working and living conditions, and professional career advancement demonstrating critical triads of educational context. This study aims to address these important gaps and operationalizing components of professional identity of female urban primary school teachers throughout multiple dimensions. The co-construction of professional identity is examined relative to demographic identity indicators (e.g., age, formal education), professional attributes (e.g., years of teaching, assigned title), and how institutions (e.g., school type, income assistance). Through the combined theoretical lens of Expectancy-Value Theory (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020) to understand motivational processes, Social Cognitive Theory (Bandura, 2001) to think about the interactions between person and environment, and theories informed by feminism particularly Intersectionality Theory and Critical Race Theory to expose the dynamics of gendered institutional power relations (Crenshaw, 2013). The overall research runs through the following questions: 1. To what extent does the practice of rapid urbanization influence the professional identity of female teachers from public primary schools? 2. How does role conflict, recognition, and sense of belonging shape professional identity of teachers across a city tier (i.e., first tier compared to emerging city) in ways that are context sensitive?3. How do female teachers negotiate institutional demands and personal values in determining teacher professional identity? The study contributes to international discourses of teacher development and teacher professionalism, research on gender and work, and educational inequality. The study will provide theoretical frameworks and practical interventions concerning enhancing the professional identity of female teachers through training, leadership, and contemporary consideration of policies targeting gender inequalities. 2 Literature Review The quality and effectiveness of education systems across the globe are inherently linked to their teachers' capacity and well-being (Hanushek et al., 2019; Indicators, O. E. C. D, 2023). Teachers, especially those working in urban primary schools, work in complex and challenging contexts with diverse students, different expectations for their pedagogy such as the requirement for STEM integrated teaching (Jacksonet al., 2021) or ICT enabled pedagogy (Valtonenet al., 2021), and multiple layers of policy expectations (Antoninis et al.,2023). It is in these dynamic contexts that professional identity emerged as an important concept to study because it influences teacher resilience, commitment, quality of instruction, and career trajectory (Kelchtermans, 2009; VanLankveld et al., 2017). Given that women represent the vast majority of the primary teaching workforce, it is vital to explore how professional identity is created, re-created, and sustained, especially when considering urban environments where the pressures and expectations may be heavier overall. Additionally, issues of burnout and reduced efficacy in teachers (Sun et al., 2022) highlight the need to identify these factors and subsequently support teachers' motivation and their opportunities to develop professionally. There has been little scholarly attention paid to situating the empirical evidence generated with regard to understanding the precursors of professional identity for female primary school teachers in urban contexts, and to that, the following paper will establish the individual, interpersonal and contextual factors leading to female urban primary school teachers' professional identity. Using frameworks from Expectancy-Value Theory (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020), Social Cognitive Theory (Bandura, 2001) and feminist understanding of identity and agency (Beauchamp & Thomas, 2009), the review proposes a conceptual map illustrating how psychological, social and structural factors contribute to female teachers' self-identifying occupational role. The authors will use the findings to inform teacher education, policy and infrastructures to support their professional learning and retention in urban schools. Professional identity is a complex, dynamic, and socially situated experience that explains how teachers position themselves in their profession (Beauchamp & Thomas, 2009). Though the experiences of female primary school teachers in urban contexts is shaped by their personal beliefs and values regarding an education and teaching philosophy, the same experiences will be co-constructed as they engage with institutionally located expectations, social expectations, and gendered cultural scripts of teachers' work (Sachs, 2001). The work of Kelchtermans (2009) related to "self-understanding", includes self-image, self-esteem, perceived task, and future perspective respectively to professional identity as they cover the teacher's subjective experience and their interpretation of the expectations of their professional identity. Professional identity is therefore developmental ("How do I become the teacher I want to become?") and reflexive ("What kind of teacher am I?") (Beijaard et al., 2004). The literature often identifies key dimensions such as professional values, role identity, sense of belonging, pedagogical practice, and behaviour tendencies (Hong, 2010; Zhang et al., 2024). These dimensions are driven by psychological processes (for example, motivation, self-efficacy and emotion regulation), (Jaikla & Piyakun, 2025), and also by external structural and relational contexts which cover the organization itself (e.g. climate, leadership, and policy) (Day & Kington, 2008). There are a few theoretical perspectives that offer meaning to these dimensions. Expectancy-Value Theory (Eccles & Wigfield, 2020) focuses on motivating identified relationship with teachers' career and how perceived task value contributes to identity formation. Social Cognitive Theory (Bandura, 2001) with its model of triadic reciprocal determinism highlights the influence of personal and environmental factors on each of the dimension and the intrapersonal nature of gender influencing both teacher identity and practice; Social Role Theory behaviors and general expectations of workplace role, (Van et al., 2012). Scaffolding the links between role and identity. Intersectionality Theory (Crenshaw, 2013) and gendered frameworks specifically highlights how gender expectations around broader societal functions (task completion, nurturing, balancing family and professional responsibilities) become salient and contribute to women teachers experiences of agency, acknowledgment, and legitimacy of roles when they work as educators in urban schooling initiatives. Teaching has long been heralded as a profession marked by gender imbalances, especially in primary schooling, filled predominantly by women, as seen in many urban contexts. Gendered expectations about societal roles and cultural ideologies contribute to teacher gender imbalances and the feminization of the primary and early childhood profession (Indicators, O.E.C.D, 2023). Culturally, it has been assumed that women teachers "naturally posses" nurturing qualities which shapes our classroom practices and educational language, and financially, teaching career options are seen as favourable by women, especially within urban contexts (Hirsch, 2019). Urban area primary schools in America are typically complex school environments comprised of a variety of school and classroom dynamics (ex. socio-economic status of students, interventions, and changing policies), inviting many different facets of activity from teachers. Gendered expectations from women teachers may also extend to their role as educators since they are often expected to balance both family expectations of caring and professional expectations, both of which are concurrently affect their experiences and career progression, as well their constructed professional identity. Gender literacy is essential for women teachers, so that they understand how gender norms are constructed, deconstructed and remade within their educational practices and teacher-student relationships, since these same designer factors contribute to both their experiences and teaching and associated learning outcomes of their students (Vavrus, 2009) . An overall strong professional identity is correlated to positive outcomes for teachers, which typically promotes job satisfaction, work engagement, career commitment and resilience (Kelchtermans, 2009). There is ample evidence that having a strong sense of professional identity is associated with being a happy a teacher (job and career satisfaction) and work engagement, vital for teachers’ well-being and staying in the profession (Day & Kington, 2008). Amongst female teachers working in urban primary schools, professional identity describes or mediates their experiences of stress and burnout, and in the case of stress, then mediates teachers' perceptions of competence and consequently feelings of effectiveness (Sun et al, 2022). Research has shown more developed professional identity in teachers link positively with their job satisfaction, and work engagement (Schaufeli & Bakker, 2004). Professional engagement is comprised of the features of 'vigor', 'dedication', and 'absorption' and correlates positively with the teacher's professional self, and is foundational to retain veteran teachers in teaching (Bakker & Demerouti, 2008). By developing a strong professional identity teachers experience career commitment which is significant for long-term retention in the teaching profession (Meyer & Allen, 1997). Research reports that teachers who have high career commitment demonstrate more professional resilience when experiencing professional challenges such as student behavioral issues or changes in policy (Aloe et al., 2014). Professional identity plays a role in resilience for female teachers in urban primary schools by mediating the effect of challenges, allowing them to adapt and continue in their career (VanLankveld et al., 2017). Professional identity not only improves teacher well-being but encourages effective teaching which can in turn promote positive outcomes for students. Educators with a clear sense of professional identity are more likely to participate in reflective practice and inductively identify effective teaching strategies which can positively affect educational outcomes for their students (Kunter et al., 2013). Self-efficacy beliefs about capability in educators is impacted by their professional identity, and those beliefs, for example, were found to be positively related to student motivation and student achievement, underscoring the importance of supporting educators to develop a positive and resilient teacher self-concept (Yang, 2021). While collectively reviewing the literature specific to teacher professional identity, a search of the literature using "urban female primary school teachers"," "professional identity", and "teacher development" in the title, abstract or indexed terminology in CNKI produced 1,326 records, dated between 2000 to 2025. Conducting a similar search in Web of Science produced comparable figures for the same dates. These numbers reflect a widely shared interest and concerted investigation of teachers professional identity formation and development, particularly as it relates to gender and urban contexts. It will be important to continue to stay current with the rapidly evolving research literature that intersects on a number of issues, as we are likely to continue to have new findings from fields such as psychology, education and gender studies that will have implications for teacher development and retention. The dimensions of the term "professional identity" for female urban primary school teachers specifically has highlighted the complexity associated with the development of teacher identity, including recognition of the intertwining of personal, interpersonal and contextual factors that contribute to how these educators view their role and responsibilities and therefore their identity and sense of belonging. This work has also elucidated the balance between personal agency and motivation, the construct of school organizational climate, and societal expectations related to gender, to ensure that teacher well-being, professional agency, and instructional effectiveness are considered concurrently. Teacher professional identity is influenced by other constructs in education such as literacy and agency. Furthermore, professional practice and policy can integrate issues of literacy for gender, as sustainability and resilience are important to developing an empowered teaching workforce which is ultimately linked to improving teacher engagement and student outcomes, and developing just and equitable educational practices. 3 Research Methodology 3.1 Research Design The design of this study is mixed-methods and includes predominately quantitative research with qualitative elements. The study seeks to systematically investigate the present condition of professional identity of female primary school teachers in an urban context as well as setbacks to their professional identity. The quantitative aspect consists of the administration of standardized questionnaires to capture data. The qualitative aspect consists of semi-structured interviews to explore the underlying causes for the variations in professional identity. The advantage of mixed design is that we can analyze large samples for quantitative analysis to see overall patterns and the interview data will add layers to explore the implicit reasoning represented in professional identity, thereby creating a more sophisticated conclusion and protecting veracity of findings. 3.2 Research Participants A stratified cluster sampling method was used to select a sample of 161 female teachers from six urban primary schools in Nanjing (including both key and non-key schools). The sampling criteria were: full-time teachers, at least one year of teaching experience, and voluntarily participating in the study. The demographic characteristics of the sample are as follows: The majority of the teachers were aged 31-40 years (44.7%), with the highest proportion holding a bachelor’s degree (64.6%) and the largest group having teaching experience of 5 years or less (37.3%). The predominant professional title was Level 1 Teacher (45.3%), and most teachers earned a monthly income in the range of 5000-6000 RMB (50.9%). 3.3 Research Instruments A self-developed “Professional Identity Questionnaire for Female Primary School Teachers” was utilized, comprising two main sections: (1)Demographic Information: This section included six variables: age, education level, teaching experience, professional title, job position type, and monthly income. (2)Professional Identity Scale: This scale, based on the frameworks by Yang Chunyan (2013) and Sun Li (2010), includes four dimensions: Professional Values (4 items), Role Values (6 items), Professional Belonging (3 items), and Professional Behavior Tendencies (5 items), totaling 18 items. A 5-point Likert scale was employed (1="Strongly Disagree" to 5= "Strongly Agree"), with higher scores indicating a stronger sense of professional identity. A pre-test was conducted with 37 participants to refine the wording of the items. The Cronbach’s alpha coefficient of the final version of the questionnaire was 0.841, with each dimension exceeding 0.70, demonstrating good internal consistency and reliability. In addition to the questionnaire, a semi-structured interview guide was developed, focusing on key dimensions of professional identity, including professional achievement, sources of stress, and career development expectations. Five female teachers with varying ages and teaching experience were selected to participate in in-depth interviews, each lasting between 30 and 45 minutes. All interviews were audio-recorded, transcribed, and analyzed. 3.4 Data Collection and Analysis A total of 180 paper questionnaires were distributed with the assistance of the schools, yielding 161 valid responses, resulting in an 89.4% response rate. A purposive sampling method was employed to select five female teachers, including both teaching staff and teaching-administrative staff, ensuring diversity in terms of age and teaching experience. Descriptive statistics, one-way ANOVA, and post-hoc tests (LSD) were conducted using SPSS 27.0 to examine the effects of demographic variables on professional identity. The interview transcripts were analyzed through thematic coding to identify high-frequency keywords (e.g., "job burnout," "salary pressure"). These qualitative findings were then triangulated with the quantitative results to provide a deeper understanding of the underlying causes of the observed differences. 3.5 Ethical Considerations This study adhered to ethical guidelines based on voluntary participation and anonymity. The purpose of the research was clearly communicated to all participants, and informed consent was obtained for both the questionnaire and interviews. All interview recordings were saved with the participants' consent, and the recordings were deleted after transcription to ensure privacy protection. 4 Findings The findings of this study(Figure 1) indicate that female primary school teachers in urban areas generally exhibit a high level of professional identity toward their teaching profession. Specifically, across the four dimensions of professional values, role values, sense of professional belonging, and professional behavior tendencies, the average scores for these female teachers were all above the neutral level (mean values greater than 4), indicating that they hold positive attitudes regarding the significance, role identification, sense of belonging, and behavioral inclinations associated with their teaching profession. 4.1Age-Related Differences in Professional Identity The findings of this study reveal significant age-related differences in the professional identity of female primary school teachers (Figure 2). Specifically, teachers in the 41-50 and 31-40 age groups demonstrate the highest levels of professional identity, followed by those in the 50+ and 26-30 age categories. In contrast, teachers aged 25 years or younger exhibit the lowest levels of professional identity. Notably, the dimension of role values exhibits particularly pronounced age-related variation, with teachers in the 31-40 age group showing the highest levels of role identification. 4.2 Educational Background Differences in Professional Identity The analysis(Figure 3) reveals that there are no significant differences in professional identity across female primary school teachers with varying educational backgrounds. Whether holding an associate’s degree, a bachelor’s degree, or a master’s degree, teachers exhibit no significant differences in their scores on the four dimensions of professional values, role values, professional belonging, and professional behavior tendencies. 4.3 Teaching Experience-Related Differences in Professional Identity Teaching experience has a significant impact on the professional identity of female primary school teachers(Figure 4). Teachers with 21-25 years of teaching experience exhibit the highest levels of professional identity, followed by those with 11-15 years and 16-20 years of experience. Conversely, teachers with 5 years or less of teaching experience demonstrate the lowest levels of professional identity. The dimension of professional belonging shows the most significant difference, with teachers having longer teaching experience exhibiting a higher sense of professional belonging. 4.4 Teacher Title-Related Differences in Professional Identity Significant differences in professional identity were observed among female primary school teachers with varying teacher titles(Figure 5). Teachers with a Level 1 title exhibited the highest professional identity, followed by those with a Senior Teacher title. In contrast, teachers with Level 2 and Level 3 titles demonstrated comparatively lower levels of professional identity. Significant differences were found across the three dimensions of professional values, role values, and professional behavior tendencies, with teacher title influencing these dimensions notably. 4.5 Job Position-Related Differences in Professional Identity Differences in professional identity were observed among female primary school teachers based on their job positions(Figure 6). Teachers in teaching and administrative roles exhibited the highest levels of professional identity, followed by those in teaching-only positions. In contrast, administrative-only staff showed comparatively lower levels of professional identity. Significant differences were particularly evident in the professional behavior tendencies dimension, with teachers in teaching and administrative roles demonstrating higher levels of work motivation and responsibility. 4.6 Income Level-Related Differences in Professional Identity Income level significantly influences the professional identity of female primary school teachers(Figure 7). Teachers earning RMB 7001 and above exhibit the highest levels of professional identity, followed by those in the RMB 6001-7000 and RMB 5001-6000 income brackets. In contrast, teachers earning RMB 5000 and below demonstrate the lowest levels of professional identity. Significant differences were observed across all four dimensions of professional values, role values, professional belonging, and professional behavior tendencies, with income level showing a pronounced impact. 5 Discussion The findings of this study suggest that female primary school teachers in urban contexts generally have a strong identity to be a professional educator. This seems to be within the context of income streams from a declining registration of female primary teachers; the influence of a social elevation of the teaching profession through these experiences (as they can comprise an education scholarship or a nurturing educational view), as these positions also provide career opportunities and recognition of labor. As social status is elevated due to the growing concern of educational benefits, the combination of the aforementioned factors continues elevating the professional identity of teacher's classroom role. As they develop pedagogical strategies, educational theories, collaborative work arrangements, and school community involvement all create pathways for increased profession identity and educational aspirations. On teaching, the professional work role of females broadly recognized creates a conformed higher social value and social recognition of their occupation role, increasing the possibility of teacher's having robust professional identities. 5.1 Age and Teaching Experience The probable impact of age through years of teaching experience can be further explained through various refinement aspects such as professional and material stability, social relations, and years of work experience. As a teacher's age progressed through years of teaching experience in their profession, we would expect that they would understand if their professional status and material benefits, contributing factors to their identity are perceived as reasonably stable. Also, as you spend longer in the profession, then we would also expect developed teaching professional knowledge through experiences, degree of professional social relations, acknowledgment, identification, and belonging may subsequently contribute to the professional identity they embrace as a teacher. 5.2 Professional Title The apparent influence of fewer years, and having a professional title could be explained as being related to their higher status social economic class, access to professionally funded pedagogical studies, and all other possible accruing aspects of being a member of the profession at different points of a professional career cycle. Higher status of a professional title at work or school as associated with a teacher's role identification as an effective educator, positively positioned in their research achievements, degree to which the teacher is able to perform their contracted work role. Those teachers who have achieved the high professional title will typically have had their effective teaching and research achievements recognized or been at least relative higher than any other teachers and improve the current status and contribute to their professional identification and pride of being an educator. In addition, a level of professional title demonstrates a point on a professional career cycle a teacher may have been before developing a career aspiration or future career horizon. 5.3 Type of Job Position The influence of job position role on professional identity can be explained by the more holistic inclusion of role linked expectations, and convergence for the possibilities of career development opportunities through either profession. The job position role for educational teacher and job position for educational management and administration and efficacy, creates the job position role more focused and converged with a purpose and equitable role of professional belonging. In its equitable context, with job position of education teacher and job position of engaging education management and administration, we would expect both the educational job professionals and career development opportunities and the access to educational resources may likely present opportunities for professional development. 5.4 Monthly income The influence of monthly income on professional identity can be explained by both economic issues and career development. A larger monthly income satisfies the basic living requirements needed by teachers and contributes to an enhanced quality of life producing greater professional identity. Also, monthly income is closely associated with career development as a higher income may relate to greater accomplishments and further advancement in teachers' careers, thus sustaining their professional identity as they will be confident and expect more from themselves in terms of career progression. The professional identity of female primary school teachers of cities is formed of many factors like age, years of experience, professional title, job position type, and monthly income. These factors interrelate and help generate the professional identity of teachers. To improve teachers' professional identity, it is important to consider a range of issues, including improving the material benefits and professional status of teachers, and professional training and development options, along with their working environment or relationships with colleagues. It is also important to keep in mind the differentiated interest of various groups of teachers so that these groups are comprehensively developed and can access further opportunities for professional development. 6 Conclusion This study examines the professional identity of female primary school teachers in the urban context, as well as the differences across various factors. The study shows that female primary school teachers, overall, have a strong professional identity, but that significant differences must be examined based on age, working experience, professional title, and income. Middle-aged teachers, having more working experience, higher-level professional titles, and higher monthly wages, have a higher professional identity than younger teachers, shorter working experienced teachers, lower-level professional titles, and lower monthly income experienced teachers. This underscores the complexity and diversity of the professional identity map for the female primary school teachers. These results are a useful starting point for working on teacher management policies that will concurrently enhance professional identity and enhance teacher career development. As a result, this study provides the following recommendations, at individual, school and government level, to strengthen and improve the professional identity of female primary school teachers, and to promote their overall development and career advancement. 6.1 Individual-Level Recommendations Improving Professional Knowledge and Skills: female teachers should be involved in continuous professional learning in order to remain updated and to have future-proofed development around education. Future professional learning opportunities should include workshops, extra studies, or enrolling in upgrading educational courses, learning with peers in learning groups. This will contribute to improving both their teaching and research skills. Engage in Reflective Practice: female teachers should engage in reflective practice and self-assessment of their assessment practice and research practice regularly. Reflective practices are necessary for ongoing development and improving teaching quality. Establish a Career Plan: female teachers should set clear, practical career planning to clarify their professional direction consistent with their interests, skills, and career aspirations. Career plans provide a pathway for self-development and provide the individual teacher the pathway to assist with their career direction. 6.2 Government Recommendations Increase Policy and Legal Protections for Female Teachers: The government should strengthen policy support for the teaching profession and improve relevant laws as they apply to female teachers' rights and opportunities regarding title evaluation, salary, and career development. Given teachers' potentiality for headship or leadership, this may take the form of legal mandates for gender equality in all aspects of teacher development. Increase Investment in Professional Support and Career Development: The government should increase the amount invested in teacher education by providing funding for diverse professional development and opportunities for meaningful career advancement, including formal training programs and seminars, and even international academic exchanges. These opportunities would develop female teachers’ teaching and research effectiveness, and assist with their career advancement and viability, ultimately enhancing their job satisfaction. Improve Conditions to Mitigate Work Stress: Making the working conditions of female teachers a priority is warranted. The government should concentrate on improving teaching facilities, developing overall working conditions, and decreasing workloads and stress related to professionalism. These improvements would create a more positive working dynamic around teaching and overall well-being which may further support and solidify teachers' professional identities. Improve Public Recognition in Social Spaces and Occupy Professional Honour: Strengthening the public perception of the teaching profession is essential. The government, in collaboration with various social sectors, should work to elevate the status and reputation of the teaching profession. Initiatives to raise awareness and respect for teachers will reinforce female teachers’sense of professional honor and belonging. 6.3 School Recommendations Establish Complete Professional Development Support: Schools should establish comprehensive programs for professional development and learning for teachers. When offering individualized career development support for female teachers (e.g., mentoring), it is important that some of the support is offered with distinction of the learning decisions associated with the completion of one’s teaching education and the timing of these professionally formative decisions to support career goals in teaching. Practicing teacher professional development should outline and facilitate formal training, mentorship and leadership support. Create an Urban Teacher Work Environment: Schools will have to acquire opportunities such as flexible hours and remote learning arrangements to function and adapt in emerging fast-paced environments such as urban education. Providing this flexibility and technological trust will positively impact job acceptance levels and allow busy teachers to balance personal responsibilities with the demands of work. Address Personal Needs of Female Teachers: Schools should proactively support female teachers to meet their personal needs even if they are small things, for example paying for childcare or health care services, and potentially looking to offer additional family services (e.g., wellbeing support). Creating such services for female teachers would mitigate their personal stress and provide less burdens as they attempt to engage with the professional responsibilities associated with the occupation. Provide Recognition for Professional Accomplishments: Award systems should be developed by schools which recognize the work of female teachers in areas such as their teaching efforts and research accomplishments and contributions to community. Recognising the professional effort of teachers develops a sense of accomplishment and recognition associated with professionalism and strengthens inclusion. Although this study provides an in-depth exploration of the professional identity of female primary school teachers in urban areas and offers a series of meaningful conclusions, several areas remain underexplored and warrant further investigation. Future research could examine additional factors, such as the impact of work environment, school culture, and social support on female teachers' professional identity. Longitudinal studies could be employed to track the dynamic changes in female teachers' professional identity over time, providing insights into the evolving nature of their professional sense of self. Additionally, expanding the scope of the study to compare professional identity differences among female teachers in different regions and types of schools could yield valuable insights into contextual variations. Furthermore, integrating qualitative research methods would offer a more comprehensive understanding of the complexity and diversity of female teachers' professional identity. These avenues of future research would provide more robust theoretical support and practical guidance for enhancing teachers' professional identity and promoting their comprehensive development and career growth. Declarations Consent to Participate Declaration All participants were fully informed about the nature and objectives of the research and provided their written informed consent prior to participation. The process of obtaining informed consent took place between June 2024 and September 2024, before the commencement of data collection. Ethics Approval – IRB or Approval Committee Name The study was reviewed and approved by the Institutional Review Board (IRB) of Nanjing Xiaozhuang University (Approval No.: 2025003) on May 15, 2024. The research was conducted in accordance with the ethical standards of the IRB and the principles outlined in the Declaration of Helsinki. Declaration of Conflicting Interests The author(s) declare no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article. Data Sharing Agreement The datasets used and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request. Funding This study was supported by the project “Research on the Path and Strategy of Integrating Artificial Intelligence with Ideological and Political Education in Local Ordinary Normal Colleges” (Grant No. 2024DJKT01). References Aloe, A. M., Amo, L. C., &Shanahan, M. E. (2014). Classroom management self-efficacy and burnout: A multivariate meta-analysis. Educational psychology review , 26 , 101-126. Antoninis, M., Alcott, B., Al Hadheri, S., April, D., Fouad Barakat, B., Barrios Rivera, M., ... &Weill, E. (2023). 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Teachers' professional identity and job burnout: The mediating roles of work engagement and psychological capital. Psychology in the Schools , 61 (1), 123-136. Additional Declarations No competing interests reported. Cite Share Download PDF Status: Under Review Version 1 posted Reviewers agreed at journal 17 May, 2026 Reviewers agreed at journal 15 May, 2026 Reviewers agreed at journal 14 May, 2026 Reviewers agreed at journal 14 May, 2026 Reviews received at journal 05 Dec, 2025 Reviewers agreed at journal 25 Nov, 2025 Reviewers invited by journal 30 Oct, 2025 Editor assigned by journal 18 Sep, 2025 Editor invited by journal 10 Sep, 2025 Submission checks completed at journal 19 Aug, 2025 First submitted to journal 19 Aug, 2025 You are reading this latest preprint version Research Square lets you share your work early, gain feedback from the community, and start making changes to your manuscript prior to peer review in a journal. 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Also discoverable on Platform About Our Team In Review Editorial Policies Advisory Board Help Center Resources Author Services Accessibility API Access RSS feed Manage Cookie Preferences © Research Square 2026 | ISSN 2693-5015 (online) Privacy Policy Terms of Service Do Not Sell My Personal Information {"props":{"pageProps":{"initialData":{"identity":"rs-7029714","acceptedTermsAndConditions":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"archivedVersions":[],"articleType":"Article","associatedPublications":[],"authors":[{"id":542250643,"identity":"1f537a5d-ddc6-4095-a608-a5f442c941ae","order_by":0,"name":"Yang Wei","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Nanjing Xiaozhuang University","correspondingAuthor":false,"prefix":"","firstName":"Yang","middleName":"","lastName":"Wei","suffix":""},{"id":542250644,"identity":"dccd1c96-5efc-4002-aec0-fa37893f8c52","order_by":1,"name":"Zhaolong Chen","email":"","orcid":"","institution":"Nanjing Xiaozhuang 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1","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":67847,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eOverall Status of Professional Identity and Its Dimensions\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"1.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7029714/v1/03a3263ad1469f547a6313b2.png"},{"id":95627909,"identity":"9e5f542f-454b-415d-8b20-771f3e35fc4d","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-11 11:01:08","extension":"png","order_by":2,"title":"Figure 2","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":70256,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eAge Differences in Professional Identity and Its Dimensions Among Female Primary School Teachers in Urban Areas\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"2.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7029714/v1/42816734601b180af82a26c1.png"},{"id":95627908,"identity":"a29a6985-0dbe-40b3-bba3-331236ced46d","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-11 11:01:08","extension":"png","order_by":3,"title":"Figure 3","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":28744,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eEducational Background Differences in Professional Identity and Its Dimensions Among Female Primary School Teachers in Urban Areas\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"3.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7029714/v1/fdc364824a831229e6c45f82.png"},{"id":95627913,"identity":"b0377c8c-837c-4f39-9bcc-730d4603e2d6","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-11 11:01:08","extension":"png","order_by":4,"title":"Figure 4","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":112591,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eTeaching Experience Differences in Professional Identity and Its Dimensions Among Female Primary School Teachers in Urban Areas\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"4.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7029714/v1/6ebbbd11a7da3c59da797a75.png"},{"id":95657927,"identity":"494ca62a-80fd-4f44-b2a6-39eb3e05b0af","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-11 16:22:26","extension":"png","order_by":5,"title":"Figure 5","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":24481,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eTeacher Title Differences in Professional Identity and Its Dimensions Among Female Primary School Teachers in Urban Areas\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"5.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7029714/v1/684e51169c29b8b2ab8af1d1.png"},{"id":95627920,"identity":"3c7483e1-45f7-4d11-9f12-8816de2effd3","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-11 11:01:08","extension":"png","order_by":6,"title":"Figure 6","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":62546,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eJob Position Differences in Professional Identity and Its Dimensions Among Female Primary School Teachers in Urban Areas\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"6.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7029714/v1/8fe9092940d57430c15c748a.png"},{"id":95627927,"identity":"5cc01759-0fb0-469f-9c69-6ea956cf0827","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-11 11:01:08","extension":"png","order_by":7,"title":"Figure 7","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"figure","size":87269,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"\u003cp\u003eIncome Level Differences in Professional Identity and Its Dimensions Among Female Primary School Teachers in Urban Areas\u003c/p\u003e","description":"","filename":"7.png","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7029714/v1/7f6ec15186f2e1c87632bc1c.png"},{"id":95797102,"identity":"52ebfb4b-d4c2-43e6-8809-d7629f3988b6","added_by":"auto","created_at":"2025-11-13 08:00:45","extension":"pdf","order_by":0,"title":"","display":"","copyAsset":false,"role":"manuscript-pdf","size":1110508,"visible":true,"origin":"","legend":"","description":"","filename":"manuscript.pdf","url":"https://assets-eu.researchsquare.com/files/rs-7029714/v1/7245d630-7691-4241-b8f8-322f9736ab7a.pdf"}],"financialInterests":"No competing interests reported.","formattedTitle":"Gender, Institutional Stratification, and Professional Identity: A Mixed-Methods Study of Female Primary School Teachers in Urban China","fulltext":[{"header":"1 Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eOver the past few decades, China has experienced an unprecedented pace of urbanization. By 2022, the urban population accounted for over 65% of the national total, increasing from under 20% in 1980 (World Bank, 2023). This transformation has profoundly altered not only the spatial and physical structure of cities but also engendered substantial socioeconomic, institutional, and cultural shifts\u0026mdash;especially within the public education sector. No longer solely governed by a centralized socialist model, China\u0026rsquo;s education system now operates within a fragmented and stratified urban landscape, where access to quality schooling is closely tied to spatial planning, residency policies (hukou), and economic capital (Wei et al., 2021). Recent empirical evidence highlights that school quality and teacher resources in megacities such as Beijing and Shanghai significantly exceed those of emerging urban centers, thereby reinforcing educational disparities across urban contexts (Miao, 2024).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eTeachers in urban public primary schools function in these highly differentiated and constantly evolving contextual circumstances, and are increasingly finding it difficult and challenging, notwithstanding contemporary strategies (Jackson et al., 2021), (Wilson, 2023), evolving digital environments (Antoninis et al, 2023). In this intense professional ecology, professional identity, an awareness and identification with the self in relation to a profession, and how this links to value and work context has become critical for teachers' well-being, pedagogical effectiveness, and sustainability within their careers (Kelchtermans, 2009; Van Lankveld et al., 2017).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eGender is an important part of professional identity construction within the primary education system in China that is feminized. Primary education has values and practices inherent to it, reflecting gendered sociocultural expectations concerning empathetic duties, cognizance of emotional labor, being nurturing (OECD, 2023; Hirsch, 2019). Female teachers identify to use expertise to fulfil certain formal aspects of the profession, but ethnographic studies show that they also adopt numerous implicit gendered expectations of their profession relative to being selfless for children, managing emotional responses, and fostering home and family responsibilities (Sun et al., 2022). While developing professional identity women endure challenges within institutional constraints, they also construct perspectives of who they are in relation to what they believe constitutes professional practice that is legitimate (i.e., expectations of meritocracy predictability) (Sachs, 2001; Crenshaw, 2013).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIncreased attention regarding teacher identity has grown, however systematic, and context specific reviews of female urban primary school teachers in China are few. When teacher identity is the subject of research, there has been little attention paid to the multidimensional, and often intersectional ways identity is constructed (e.g., sensationalism of burnout or self-efficacy). There does not seem to be studies comparing identity formation within city tiers (e.g., comparing first-tier city teachers to emerging or second-tier city teachers), yet there is significant evidence that suggest there could be stark differences between systemic and institutional supports, working and living conditions, and professional career advancement demonstrating critical triads of educational context.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThis study aims to address these important gaps and operationalizing components of professional identity of female urban primary school teachers throughout multiple dimensions. The co-construction of professional identity is examined relative to demographic identity indicators (e.g., age, formal education), professional attributes (e.g., years of teaching, assigned title), and how institutions (e.g., school type, income assistance). Through the combined theoretical lens of Expectancy-Value Theory (Eccles \u0026amp; Wigfield, 2020) to understand motivational processes, Social Cognitive Theory (Bandura, 2001) to think about the interactions between person and environment, and theories informed by feminism particularly Intersectionality Theory and Critical Race Theory to expose the dynamics of gendered institutional power relations (Crenshaw, 2013).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe overall research runs through the following questions: 1. To what extent does the practice of rapid urbanization influence the professional identity of female teachers from public primary schools? 2. How does role conflict, recognition, and sense of belonging shape professional identity of teachers across a city tier (i.e., first tier compared to emerging city) in ways that are context sensitive?3. How do female teachers negotiate institutional demands and personal values in determining teacher professional identity?\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe study contributes to international discourses of teacher development and teacher professionalism, research on gender and work, and educational inequality. The study will provide theoretical frameworks and practical interventions concerning enhancing the professional identity of female teachers through training, leadership, and contemporary consideration of policies targeting gender inequalities.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"2 Literature Review","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe quality and effectiveness of education systems across the globe are inherently linked to their teachers' capacity and well-being (Hanushek et al., 2019; Indicators, O. E. C. D, 2023). Teachers, especially those working in urban primary schools, work in complex and challenging contexts with diverse students, different expectations for their pedagogy such as the requirement for STEM integrated teaching (Jacksonet al., 2021) or ICT enabled pedagogy (Valtonenet al., 2021), and multiple layers of policy expectations (Antoninis et al.,2023). It is in these dynamic contexts that professional identity emerged as an important concept to study because it influences teacher resilience, commitment, quality of instruction, and career trajectory (Kelchtermans, 2009; VanLankveld et al., 2017).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eGiven that women represent the vast majority of the primary teaching workforce, it is vital to explore how professional identity is created, re-created, and sustained, especially when considering urban environments where the pressures and expectations may be heavier overall. Additionally, issues of burnout and reduced efficacy in teachers (Sun et al., 2022) highlight the need to identify these factors and subsequently support teachers' motivation and their opportunities to develop professionally. There has been little scholarly attention paid to situating the empirical evidence generated with regard to understanding the precursors of professional identity for female primary school teachers in urban contexts, and to that, the following paper will establish the individual, interpersonal and contextual factors leading to female urban primary school teachers' professional identity. Using frameworks from Expectancy-Value Theory (Eccles \u0026amp; Wigfield, 2020), Social Cognitive Theory (Bandura, 2001) and feminist understanding of identity and agency (Beauchamp \u0026amp; Thomas, 2009), the review proposes a conceptual map illustrating how psychological, social and structural factors contribute to female teachers' self-identifying occupational role. The authors will use the findings to inform teacher education, policy and infrastructures to support their professional learning and retention in urban schools.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eProfessional identity is a complex, dynamic, and socially situated experience that explains how teachers position themselves in their profession (Beauchamp \u0026amp; Thomas, 2009). Though the experiences of female primary school teachers in urban contexts is shaped by their personal beliefs and values regarding an education and teaching philosophy, the same experiences will be co-constructed as they engage with institutionally located expectations, social expectations, and gendered cultural scripts of teachers' work (Sachs, 2001). The work of Kelchtermans (2009) related to \"self-understanding\", includes self-image, self-esteem, perceived task, and future perspective respectively to professional identity as they cover the teacher's subjective experience and their interpretation of the expectations of their professional identity. Professional identity is therefore developmental (\"How do I become the teacher I want to become?\") and reflexive (\"What kind of teacher am I?\") (Beijaard et al., 2004).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe literature often identifies key dimensions such as professional values, role identity, sense of belonging, pedagogical practice, and behaviour tendencies (Hong, 2010; Zhang et al., 2024). These dimensions are driven by psychological processes (for example, motivation, self-efficacy and emotion regulation), (Jaikla \u0026amp; Piyakun, 2025), and also by external structural and relational contexts which cover the organization itself (e.g. climate, leadership, and policy) (Day \u0026amp; Kington, 2008). There are a few theoretical perspectives that offer meaning to these dimensions. Expectancy-Value Theory (Eccles \u0026amp; Wigfield, 2020) focuses on motivating identified relationship with teachers' career and how perceived task value contributes to identity formation. Social Cognitive Theory (Bandura, 2001) with its model of triadic reciprocal determinism highlights the influence of personal and environmental factors on each of the dimension and the intrapersonal nature of gender influencing both teacher identity and practice; Social Role Theory behaviors and general expectations of workplace role, (Van et al., 2012). Scaffolding the links between role and identity. Intersectionality Theory (Crenshaw, 2013) and gendered frameworks specifically highlights how gender expectations around broader societal functions (task completion, nurturing, balancing family and professional responsibilities) become salient and contribute to women teachers experiences of agency, acknowledgment, and legitimacy of roles when they work as educators in urban schooling initiatives.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eTeaching has long been heralded as a profession marked by gender imbalances, especially in primary schooling, filled predominantly by women, as seen in many urban contexts. Gendered expectations about societal roles and cultural ideologies contribute to teacher gender imbalances and the feminization of the primary and early childhood profession (Indicators, O.E.C.D, 2023). Culturally, it has been assumed that women teachers \"naturally posses\" nurturing qualities which shapes our classroom practices and educational language, and financially, teaching career options are seen as favourable by women, especially within urban contexts (Hirsch, 2019). Urban area primary schools in America are typically complex school environments comprised of a variety of school and classroom dynamics (ex. socio-economic status of students, interventions, and changing policies), inviting many different facets of activity from teachers. Gendered expectations from women teachers may also extend to their role as educators since they are often expected to balance both family expectations of caring and professional expectations, both of which are concurrently affect their experiences and career progression, as well their constructed professional identity. Gender literacy is essential for women teachers, so that they understand how gender norms are constructed, deconstructed and remade within their educational practices and teacher-student relationships, since these same designer factors contribute to both their experiences and teaching and associated learning outcomes of their students (Vavrus, 2009) .\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAn overall strong professional identity is correlated to positive outcomes for teachers, which typically promotes job satisfaction, work engagement, career commitment and resilience (Kelchtermans, 2009). There is ample evidence that having a strong sense of professional identity is associated with being a happy a teacher (job and career satisfaction) and work engagement, vital for teachers\u0026rsquo; well-being and staying in the profession (Day \u0026amp; Kington, 2008). Amongst female teachers working in urban primary schools, professional identity describes or mediates their experiences of stress and burnout, and in the case of stress, then mediates teachers' perceptions of competence and consequently feelings of effectiveness (Sun et al, 2022).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eResearch has shown more developed professional identity in teachers link positively with their job satisfaction, and work engagement (Schaufeli \u0026amp; Bakker, 2004). Professional engagement is comprised of the features of 'vigor', 'dedication', and 'absorption' and correlates positively with the teacher's professional self, and is foundational to retain veteran teachers in teaching (Bakker \u0026amp; Demerouti, 2008). By developing a strong professional identity teachers experience career commitment which is significant for long-term retention in the teaching profession (Meyer \u0026amp; Allen, 1997). Research reports that teachers who have high career commitment demonstrate more professional resilience when experiencing professional challenges such as student behavioral issues or changes in policy (Aloe et al., 2014). Professional identity plays a role in resilience for female teachers in urban primary schools by mediating the effect of challenges, allowing them to adapt and continue in their career (VanLankveld et al., 2017). Professional identity not only improves teacher well-being but encourages effective teaching which can in turn promote positive outcomes for students. Educators with a clear sense of professional identity are more likely to participate in reflective practice and inductively identify effective teaching strategies which can positively affect educational outcomes for their students (Kunter et al., 2013). Self-efficacy beliefs about capability in educators is impacted by their professional identity, and those beliefs, for example, were found to be positively related to student motivation and student achievement, underscoring the importance of supporting educators to develop a positive and resilient teacher self-concept (Yang, 2021).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eWhile collectively reviewing the literature specific to teacher professional identity, a search of the literature using \"urban female primary school teachers\",\" \"professional identity\", and \"teacher development\" in the title, abstract or indexed terminology in CNKI produced 1,326 records, dated between 2000 to 2025. Conducting a similar search in Web of Science produced comparable figures for the same dates. These numbers reflect a widely shared interest and concerted investigation of teachers professional identity formation and development, particularly as it relates to gender and urban contexts. It will be important to continue to stay current with the rapidly evolving research literature that intersects on a number of issues, as we are likely to continue to have new findings from fields such as psychology, education and gender studies that will have implications for teacher development and retention. The dimensions of the term \"professional identity\" for female urban primary school teachers specifically has highlighted the complexity associated with the development of teacher identity, including recognition of the intertwining of personal, interpersonal and contextual factors that contribute to how these educators view their role and responsibilities and therefore their identity and sense of belonging. This work has also elucidated the balance between personal agency and motivation, the construct of school organizational climate, and societal expectations related to gender, to ensure that teacher well-being, professional agency, and instructional effectiveness are considered concurrently. Teacher professional identity is influenced by other constructs in education such as literacy and agency. Furthermore, professional practice and policy can integrate issues of literacy for gender, as sustainability and resilience are important to developing an empowered teaching workforce which is ultimately linked to improving teacher engagement and student outcomes, and developing just and equitable educational practices.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"3 Research Methodology","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e3.1 Research Design\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe design of this study is mixed-methods and includes predominately quantitative research with qualitative elements. The study seeks to systematically investigate the present condition of professional identity of female primary school teachers in an urban context as well as setbacks to their professional identity. The quantitative aspect consists of the administration of standardized questionnaires to capture data. The qualitative aspect consists of semi-structured interviews to explore the underlying causes for the variations in professional identity. The advantage of mixed design is that we can analyze large samples for quantitative analysis to see overall patterns and the interview data will add layers to explore the implicit reasoning represented in professional identity, thereby creating a more sophisticated conclusion and protecting veracity of findings.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e3.2 Research Participants\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eA stratified cluster sampling method was used to select a sample of 161 female teachers from six urban primary schools in Nanjing (including both key and non-key schools). The sampling criteria were: full-time teachers, at least one year of teaching experience, and voluntarily participating in the study. The demographic characteristics of the sample are as follows: The majority of the teachers were aged 31-40 years (44.7%), with the highest proportion holding a bachelor’s degree (64.6%) and the largest group having teaching experience of 5 years or less (37.3%). The predominant professional title was Level 1 Teacher (45.3%), and most teachers earned a monthly income in the range of 5000-6000 RMB (50.9%).\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e3.3 Research Instruments\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eA self-developed “Professional Identity Questionnaire for Female Primary School Teachers” was utilized, comprising two main sections: (1)Demographic Information: This section included six variables: age, education level, teaching experience, professional title, job position type, and monthly income. (2)Professional Identity Scale: This scale, based on the frameworks by Yang Chunyan (2013) and Sun Li (2010), includes four dimensions: Professional Values (4 items), Role Values (6 items), Professional Belonging (3 items), and Professional Behavior Tendencies (5 items), totaling 18 items. A 5-point Likert scale was employed (1=\"Strongly Disagree\" to 5= \"Strongly Agree\"), with higher scores indicating a stronger sense of professional identity.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eA pre-test was conducted with 37 participants to refine the wording of the items. The Cronbach’s alpha coefficient of the final version of the questionnaire was 0.841, with each dimension exceeding 0.70, demonstrating good internal consistency and reliability. In addition to the questionnaire, a semi-structured interview guide was developed, focusing on key dimensions of professional identity, including professional achievement, sources of stress, and career development expectations. Five female teachers with varying ages and teaching experience were selected to participate in in-depth interviews, each lasting between 30 and 45 minutes. All interviews were audio-recorded, transcribed, and analyzed.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e3.4 Data Collection and Analysis\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eA total of 180 paper questionnaires were distributed with the assistance of the schools, yielding 161 valid responses, resulting in an 89.4% response rate. A purposive sampling method was employed to select five female teachers, including both teaching staff and teaching-administrative staff, ensuring diversity in terms of age and teaching experience. Descriptive statistics, one-way ANOVA, and post-hoc tests (LSD) were conducted using SPSS 27.0 to examine the effects of demographic variables on professional identity. The interview transcripts were analyzed through thematic coding to identify high-frequency keywords (e.g., \"job burnout,\" \"salary pressure\"). These qualitative findings were then triangulated with the quantitative results to provide a deeper understanding of the underlying causes of the observed differences.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e3.5 Ethical Considerations\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis study adhered to ethical guidelines based on voluntary participation and anonymity. The purpose of the research was clearly communicated to all participants, and informed consent was obtained for both the questionnaire and interviews. All interview recordings were saved with the participants' consent, and the recordings were deleted after transcription to ensure privacy protection.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"4 Findings","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe findings of this study(Figure 1) indicate that female primary school teachers in urban areas generally exhibit a high level of professional identity toward their teaching profession. Specifically, across the four dimensions of professional values, role values, sense of professional belonging, and professional behavior tendencies, the average scores for these female teachers were all above the neutral level (mean values greater than 4), indicating that they hold positive attitudes regarding the significance, role identification, sense of belonging, and behavioral inclinations associated with their teaching profession.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e4.1Age-Related Differences in Professional Identity\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe findings of this study reveal significant age-related differences in the professional identity of female primary school teachers (Figure 2). Specifically, teachers in the 41-50 and 31-40 age groups demonstrate the highest levels of professional identity, followed by those in the 50+ and 26-30 age categories. In contrast, teachers aged 25 years or younger exhibit the lowest levels of professional identity. Notably, the dimension of role values exhibits particularly pronounced age-related variation, with teachers in the 31-40 age group showing the highest levels of role identification.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e4.2 Educational Background Differences in Professional Identity\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe analysis(Figure 3) reveals that there are no significant differences in professional identity across female primary school teachers with varying educational backgrounds. Whether holding an associate\u0026rsquo;s degree, a bachelor\u0026rsquo;s degree, or a master\u0026rsquo;s degree, teachers exhibit no significant differences in their scores on the four dimensions of professional values, role values, professional belonging, and professional behavior tendencies.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e4.3 Teaching Experience-Related Differences in Professional Identity\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTeaching experience has a significant impact on the professional identity of female primary school teachers(Figure 4). Teachers with 21-25 years of teaching experience exhibit the highest levels of professional identity, followed by those with 11-15 years and 16-20 years of experience. Conversely, teachers with 5 years or less of teaching experience demonstrate the lowest levels of professional identity. The dimension of professional belonging shows the most significant difference, with teachers having longer teaching experience exhibiting a higher sense of professional belonging.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e4.4 Teacher Title-Related Differences in Professional Identity\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSignificant differences in professional identity were observed among female primary school teachers with varying teacher titles(Figure 5). Teachers with a Level 1 title exhibited the highest professional identity, followed by those with a Senior Teacher title. In contrast, teachers with Level 2 and Level 3 titles demonstrated comparatively lower levels of professional identity. Significant differences were found across the three dimensions of professional values, role values, and professional behavior tendencies, with teacher title influencing these dimensions notably.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e4.5 Job Position-Related Differences in Professional Identity\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDifferences in professional identity were observed among female primary school teachers based on their job positions(Figure 6). Teachers in teaching and administrative roles exhibited the highest levels of professional identity, followed by those in teaching-only positions. In contrast, administrative-only staff showed comparatively lower levels of professional identity. Significant differences were particularly evident in the professional behavior tendencies dimension, with teachers in teaching and administrative roles demonstrating higher levels of work motivation and responsibility.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e4.6 Income Level-Related Differences in Professional Identity\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIncome level significantly influences the professional identity of female primary school teachers(Figure 7). Teachers earning RMB 7001 and above exhibit the highest levels of professional identity, followed by those in the RMB 6001-7000 and RMB 5001-6000 income brackets. In contrast, teachers earning RMB 5000 and below demonstrate the lowest levels of professional identity. Significant differences were observed across all four dimensions of professional values, role values, professional belonging, and professional behavior tendencies, with income level showing a pronounced impact.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"5 Discussion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThe findings of this study suggest that female primary school teachers in urban contexts generally have a strong identity to be a professional educator. This seems to be within the context of income streams from a declining registration of female primary teachers; the influence of a social elevation of the teaching profession through these experiences (as they can comprise an education scholarship or a nurturing educational view), as these positions also provide career opportunities and recognition of labor. As social status is elevated due to the growing concern of educational benefits, the combination of the aforementioned factors continues elevating the professional identity of teacher's classroom role. As they develop pedagogical strategies, educational theories, collaborative work arrangements, and school community involvement all create pathways for increased profession identity and educational aspirations. On teaching, the professional work role of females broadly recognized creates a conformed higher social value and social recognition of their occupation role, increasing the possibility of teacher's having robust professional identities.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec16\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e5.1 Age and Teaching Experience\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe probable impact of age through years of teaching experience can be further explained through various refinement aspects such as professional and material stability, social relations, and years of work experience. As a teacher's age progressed through years of teaching experience in their profession, we would expect that they would understand if their professional status and material benefits, contributing factors to their identity are perceived as reasonably stable. Also, as you spend longer in the profession, then we would also expect developed teaching professional knowledge through experiences, degree of professional social relations, acknowledgment, identification, and belonging may subsequently contribute to the professional identity they embrace as a teacher.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec17\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e5.2 Professional Title\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe apparent influence of fewer years, and having a professional title could be explained as being related to their higher status social economic class, access to professionally funded pedagogical studies, and all other possible accruing aspects of being a member of the profession at different points of a professional career cycle. Higher status of a professional title at work or school as associated with a teacher's role identification as an effective educator, positively positioned in their research achievements, degree to which the teacher is able to perform their contracted work role. Those teachers who have achieved the high professional title will typically have had their effective teaching and research achievements recognized or been at least relative higher than any other teachers and improve the current status and contribute to their professional identification and pride of being an educator. In addition, a level of professional title demonstrates a point on a professional career cycle a teacher may have been before developing a career aspiration or future career horizon.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec18\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e5.3 Type of Job Position\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe influence of job position role on professional identity can be explained by the more holistic inclusion of role linked expectations, and convergence for the possibilities of career development opportunities through either profession. The job position role for educational teacher and job position for educational management and administration and efficacy, creates the job position role more focused and converged with a purpose and equitable role of professional belonging. In its equitable context, with job position of education teacher and job position of engaging education management and administration, we would expect both the educational job professionals and career development opportunities and the access to educational resources may likely present opportunities for professional development.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"Sec19\" class=\"Section2\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003e5.4 Monthly income\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe influence of monthly income on professional identity can be explained by both economic issues and career development. A larger monthly income satisfies the basic living requirements needed by teachers and contributes to an enhanced quality of life producing greater professional identity. Also, monthly income is closely associated with career development as a higher income may relate to greater accomplishments and further advancement in teachers' careers, thus sustaining their professional identity as they will be confident and expect more from themselves in terms of career progression.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe professional identity of female primary school teachers of cities is formed of many factors like age, years of experience, professional title, job position type, and monthly income. These factors interrelate and help generate the professional identity of teachers. To improve teachers' professional identity, it is important to consider a range of issues, including improving the material benefits and professional status of teachers, and professional training and development options, along with their working environment or relationships with colleagues. It is also important to keep in mind the differentiated interest of various groups of teachers so that these groups are comprehensively developed and can access further opportunities for professional development.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"},{"header":"6 Conclusion","content":"\u003cp\u003eThis study examines the professional identity of female primary school teachers in the urban context, as well as the differences across various factors. The study shows that female primary school teachers, overall, have a strong professional identity, but that significant differences must be examined based on age, working experience, professional title, and income. Middle-aged teachers, having more working experience, higher-level professional titles, and higher monthly wages, have a higher professional identity than younger teachers, shorter working experienced teachers, lower-level professional titles, and lower monthly income experienced teachers. This underscores the complexity and diversity of the professional identity map for the female primary school teachers. These results are a useful starting point for working on teacher management policies that will concurrently enhance professional identity and enhance teacher career development. As a result, this study provides the following recommendations, at individual, school and government level, to strengthen and improve the professional identity of female primary school teachers, and to promote their overall development and career advancement.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e6.1 Individual-Level Recommendations\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eImproving Professional Knowledge and Skills: female teachers should be involved in continuous professional learning in order to remain updated and to have future-proofed development around education. Future professional learning opportunities should include workshops, extra studies, or enrolling in upgrading educational courses, learning with peers in learning groups. This will contribute to improving both their teaching and research skills. Engage in Reflective Practice: female teachers should engage in reflective practice and self-assessment of their assessment practice and research practice regularly. Reflective practices are necessary for ongoing development and improving teaching quality. Establish a Career Plan: female teachers should set clear, practical career planning to clarify their professional direction consistent with their interests, skills, and career aspirations. Career plans provide a pathway for self-development and provide the individual teacher the pathway to assist with their career direction.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e6.2 Government Recommendations\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIncrease Policy and Legal Protections for Female Teachers: The government should strengthen policy support for the teaching profession and improve relevant laws as they apply to female teachers' rights and opportunities regarding title evaluation, salary, and career development. Given teachers' potentiality for headship or leadership, this may take the form of legal mandates for gender equality in all aspects of teacher development. Increase Investment in Professional Support and Career Development: The government should increase the amount invested in teacher education by providing funding for diverse professional development and opportunities for meaningful career advancement, including formal training programs and seminars, and even international academic exchanges. These opportunities would develop female teachers’ teaching and research effectiveness, and assist with their career advancement and viability, ultimately enhancing their job satisfaction. Improve Conditions to Mitigate Work Stress: Making the working conditions of female teachers a priority is warranted. The government should concentrate on improving teaching facilities, developing overall working conditions, and decreasing workloads and stress related to professionalism. These improvements would create a more positive working dynamic around teaching and overall well-being which may further support and solidify teachers' professional identities. Improve Public Recognition in Social Spaces and Occupy Professional Honour: Strengthening the public perception of the teaching profession is essential. The government, in collaboration with various social sectors, should work to elevate the status and reputation of the teaching profession. Initiatives to raise awareness and respect for teachers will reinforce female teachers’sense of professional honor and belonging.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e6.3 School Recommendations\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eEstablish Complete Professional Development Support: Schools should establish comprehensive programs for professional development and learning for teachers. When offering individualized career development support for female teachers (e.g., mentoring), it is important that some of the support is offered with distinction of the learning decisions associated with the completion of one’s teaching education and the timing of these professionally formative decisions to support career goals in teaching. Practicing teacher professional development should outline and facilitate formal training, mentorship and leadership support. Create an Urban Teacher Work Environment: Schools will have to acquire opportunities such as flexible hours and remote learning arrangements to function and adapt in emerging fast-paced environments such as urban education. Providing this flexibility and technological trust will positively impact job acceptance levels and allow busy teachers to balance personal responsibilities with the demands of work. Address Personal Needs of Female Teachers: Schools should proactively support female teachers to meet their personal needs even if they are small things, for example paying for childcare or health care services, and potentially looking to offer additional family services (e.g., wellbeing support). Creating such services for female teachers would mitigate their personal stress and provide less burdens as they attempt to engage with the professional responsibilities associated with the occupation. Provide Recognition for Professional Accomplishments: Award systems should be developed by schools which recognize the work of female teachers in areas such as their teaching efforts and research accomplishments and contributions to community. Recognising the professional effort of teachers develops a sense of accomplishment and recognition associated with professionalism and strengthens inclusion.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAlthough this study provides an in-depth exploration of the professional identity of female primary school teachers in urban areas and offers a series of meaningful conclusions, several areas remain underexplored and warrant further investigation. Future research could examine additional factors, such as the impact of work environment, school culture, and social support on female teachers' professional identity. Longitudinal studies could be employed to track the dynamic changes in female teachers' professional identity over time, providing insights into the evolving nature of their professional sense of self. Additionally, expanding the scope of the study to compare professional identity differences among female teachers in different regions and types of schools could yield valuable insights into contextual variations. Furthermore, integrating qualitative research methods would offer a more comprehensive understanding of the complexity and diversity of female teachers' professional identity. These avenues of future research would provide more robust theoretical support and practical guidance for enhancing teachers' professional identity and promoting their comprehensive development and career growth.\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"Declarations","content":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eConsent to Participate Declaration\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAll participants were fully informed about the nature and objectives of the research and provided their written informed consent prior to participation. The process of obtaining informed consent took place between June 2024 and September 2024, before the commencement of data collection.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eEthics Approval – IRB or Approval Committee Name\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe study was reviewed and approved by the Institutional Review Board (IRB) of Nanjing Xiaozhuang University (Approval No.: 2025003) on May 15, 2024. The research was conducted in accordance with the ethical standards of the IRB and the principles outlined in the Declaration of Helsinki.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eDeclaration of Conflicting Interests\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe author(s) declare no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eData Sharing Agreement\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe datasets used and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eFunding\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis study was supported by the project “Research on the Path and Strategy of Integrating Artificial Intelligence with Ideological and Political Education in Local Ordinary Normal Colleges” (Grant No. 2024DJKT01).\u003c/p\u003e"},{"header":"References","content":"\u003col\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eAloe, A. 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Emotional labor: A comprehensive literature review. \u003cem\u003eHuman Systems Management\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e40\u003c/em\u003e(4), 479-501.\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eYang, C. Y. (2013). \u0026nbsp;A study on the professional identity of urban primary school teachers[Master\u0026rsquo;s thesis, Hunan Normal University]. China National Knowledge Infrastructure (CNKI).\u0026nbsp;\u003c/li\u003e\n \u003cli\u003eZhang, Q., Li, W., Gao, J., Sun, B., \u0026amp;Lin, S. (2024). Teachers\u0026apos; professional identity and job burnout: The mediating roles of work engagement and psychological capital. \u003cem\u003ePsychology in the Schools\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003e61\u003c/em\u003e(1), 123-136.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ol\u003e"}],"fulltextSource":"","fullText":"","funders":[],"hasAdminPriorityOnWorkflow":false,"hasManuscriptDocX":true,"hasOptedInToPreprint":true,"hasPassedJournalQc":"","hasAnyPriority":false,"hideJournal":false,"highlight":"","institution":"","isAcceptedByJournal":false,"isAuthorSuppliedPdf":false,"isDeskRejected":"","isHiddenFromSearch":false,"isInQc":false,"isInWorkflow":false,"isPdf":false,"isPdfUpToDate":true,"isWithdrawnOrRetracted":false,"journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"humanities-and-social-sciences-communications","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"palcomms","sideBox":"Learn more about [Humanities \u0026 Social Sciences Communications](http://www.nature.com/palcomms/)","snPcode":"41599","submissionUrl":"https://submission.springernature.com/new-submission/41599/3","title":"Humanities and Social Sciences Communications","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"stoa","reportingPortfolio":"Nature AJ","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":false},"keywords":"Professional Identity, Female Teachers, Urban Education, Gender and Work, Institutional Stratification, Teacher Development","lastPublishedDoi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7029714/v1","lastPublishedDoiUrl":"https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-7029714/v1","license":{"name":"CC BY 4.0","url":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/"},"manuscriptAbstract":"\u003cp\u003eIn the context of China\u0026rsquo;s accelerated urbanization and growing educational stratification, female primary school teachers play a critical role in sustaining quality education in urban public schools. This study critically investigates the professional identity formation of these teachers, who are required to navigate the dual pressures of institutional reform and gendered cultural expectations. Grounded in Expectancy-Value Theory, Social Cognitive Theory, and feminist-informed frameworks, the research employs a mixed-methods approach, employing both structured questionnaires administered to 161 teachers in six urban schools in China and in-depth qualitative interviews. Findings reveal that professional identity is generally strong across four dimensions\u0026mdash;professional values, role commitment, sense of belonging, and behavioral tendencies. However, identity strength varies significantly by age, teaching experience, job title, position type, and income level. Teachers in mid-career stages, holding senior titles or combined administrative-teaching roles, and higher earnings demonstrate a more coherent and resilient professional identity. The findings underscore the interplay between personal attributes, institutional recognition, and gendered labor norms. This study contributes to the literature on teacher development and educational equity by offering targeted recommendations for policymakers and school leaders to enhance female teachers\u0026rsquo; professional identity through differentiated support systems, leadership pathways, and equitable organizational structures.\u003c/p\u003e","manuscriptTitle":"Gender, Institutional Stratification, and Professional Identity: A Mixed-Methods Study of Female Primary School Teachers in Urban China","msid":"","msnumber":"","nonDraftVersions":[{"code":1,"date":"2025-11-11 11:01:03","doi":"10.21203/rs.3.rs-7029714/v1","editorialEvents":[{"type":"communityComments","content":0},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"306019985955164961043160555445733335924","date":"2026-05-17T06:16:33+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"119602418022283444118182881343868327093","date":"2026-05-15T04:08:23+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"70638705866765921243736554857101372965","date":"2026-05-14T07:55:54+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"9875203014080794306668326184938722262","date":"2026-05-14T07:48:30+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvitedReview","content":"","date":"2025-12-05T08:13:14+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"245728129717310225620127835028290498378","date":"2025-11-25T13:30:54+00:00","index":"hide","fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewersInvited","content":"","date":"2025-10-30T18:19:28+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorAssigned","content":"","date":"2025-09-18T07:37:50+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"editorInvited","content":"","date":"2025-09-10T10:32:10+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"checksComplete","content":"","date":"2025-08-19T12:01:21+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""},{"type":"submitted","content":"Humanities and Social Sciences Communications","date":"2025-08-19T11:58:42+00:00","index":"","fulltext":""}],"status":"published","journal":{"display":true,"email":"[email protected]","identity":"humanities-and-social-sciences-communications","isNatureJournal":false,"hasQc":true,"allowDirectSubmit":false,"externalIdentity":"palcomms","sideBox":"Learn more about [Humanities \u0026 Social Sciences Communications](http://www.nature.com/palcomms/)","snPcode":"41599","submissionUrl":"https://submission.springernature.com/new-submission/41599/3","title":"Humanities and Social Sciences Communications","twitterHandle":"","acdcEnabled":true,"dfaEnabled":true,"editorialSystem":"stoa","reportingPortfolio":"Nature AJ","inReviewEnabled":true,"inReviewRevisionsEnabled":false}}],"origin":"","ownerIdentity":"da3ef5f3-a940-462f-84cb-411efd5ee7e9","owner":[],"postedDate":"November 11th, 2025","published":true,"recentEditorialEvents":[{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"306019985955164961043160555445733335924","date":"2026-05-17T06:16:33+00:00","index":226,"fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"119602418022283444118182881343868327093","date":"2026-05-15T04:08:23+00:00","index":225,"fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"70638705866765921243736554857101372965","date":"2026-05-14T07:55:54+00:00","index":223,"fulltext":""},{"type":"reviewerAgreed","content":"9875203014080794306668326184938722262","date":"2026-05-14T07:48:30+00:00","index":222,"fulltext":""}],"rejectedJournal":[],"revision":"","amendment":"","status":"under-review","subjectAreas":[{"id":57683572,"name":"Social science/Development studies"},{"id":57683573,"name":"Social science/Education"}],"tags":[],"updatedAt":"2025-11-11T11:01:03+00:00","versionOfRecord":[],"versionCreatedAt":"2025-11-11 11:01:03","video":"","vorDoi":"","vorDoiUrl":"","workflowStages":[]},"version":"v1","identity":"rs-7029714","journalConfig":"researchsquare"},"__N_SSP":true},"page":"/article/[identity]/[[...version]]","query":{"redirect":"/article/rs-7029714","identity":"rs-7029714","version":["v1"]},"buildId":"8U1c8b4HqxoKbykW_rLl7","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"dynamicIds":[84888],"gssp":true,"scriptLoader":[]}